5.

Performance and Efficiency Test of a Refrigeration Plant (Lecture)

1. Vapor Compression Refrigeration
Vapor-compression refrigeration, in which the refrigerant undergoes phase
changes, is one of the many refrigeration cycles and is the most widely used
method for air-conditioning of buildings and automobiles. It is also used in
domestic and commercial refrigerators, large-scale warehouses for chilled or
frozen storage of foods and meats, refrigerated trucks and railroad cars, and a
host of other commercial and industrial services. Oil refineries, petrochemical
and chemical processing plants, and natural gas processing plants are among
the many types of industrial plants that often utilize large vapor-compression
refrigeration systems.
Refrigeration may be defined as lowering the temperature of an enclosed
space by removing heat from that space and transferring it elsewhere. A device
that performs this function may also be called an air conditioner, refrigerator, air
source heat pump, geothermal heat pump or chiller (heat pump).
2. Description of the vapor-compression refrigeration system
The vapor-compression uses a circulating liquid refrigerant as the medium
which absorbs and removes heat from the space to be cooled and subsequently
rejects that heat elsewhere. Figure 1 depicts a typical, single-stage vaporcompression system.

All such systems have four components: a compressor, a condenser, a

thermal expansion valve (also called a throttle valve or metering device), and an
evaporator. Circulating refrigerant enters the compressor in the thermodynamic
state known as a saturated vapor and is compressed to a higher pressure,
resulting in a higher temperature as well. The hot, compressed vapor is then in
the thermodynamic state known as a superheated vapor and it is at a
temperature and pressure at which it can be condensed with either cooling
water or cooling air. That hot vapor is routed through a condenser where it is
1

cooled and condensed into a liquid by flowing through a coil or tubes with cool
water or cool air flowing across the coil or tubes. This is where the circulating
refrigerant rejects heat from the system and the rejected heat is carried away by
either the water or the air (whichever may be the case).
The condensed liquid refrigerant, in the thermodynamic state known as a
saturated liquid, is next routed through an expansion valve where it undergoes
an abrupt reduction in pressure. That pressure reduction results in the adiabatic
flash evaporation of a part of the liquid refrigerant. The auto-refrigeration effect
of the adiabatic flash evaporation lowers the temperature of the liquid and vapor
refrigerant mixture to where it is colder than the temperature of the enclosed
space to be refrigerated.
The cold mixture is then routed through the coil or tubes in the evaporator. A
fan circulates the warm air in the enclosed space across the coil or tubes
carrying the cold refrigerant liquid and vapor mixture. That warm air evaporates
the liquid part of the cold refrigerant mixture. At the same time, the circulating
air is cooled and thus lowers the temperature of the enclosed space to the
desired temperature. The evaporator is where the circulating refrigerant absorbs
and removes heat which is subsequently rejected in the condenser and
transferred elsewhere by the water or air used in the condenser.
To complete the refrigeration cycle, the refrigerant vapor from the evaporator
is again a saturated vapor and is routed back into the compressor.
3. Vapor Compression Cycle
The thermodynamics of the vapor compression cycle can be analyzed on a
temperature versus entropy diagram as depicted in Figure 2.

At point 1 in the diagram, the circulating refrigerant enters the compressor as

a saturated vapor. From point 1 to point 2, the vapor is isentropically compressed
(i.e., compressed at constant entropy) and exits the compressor as a
superheated vapor.
From point 2 to point 3, the vapor travels through part of the condenser
which removes the superheat by cooling the vapor. Between point 3 and point 4,
2

the vapor travels through the remainder of the condenser and is condensed into
a saturated liquid. The condensation process occurs at essentially constant
pressure.
Between points 4 and 5, the saturated liquid refrigerant passes through the
expansion valve and undergoes an abrupt decrease of pressure. That process
results in the adiabatic flash evaporation and auto-refrigeration of a portion of
the liquid (typically, less than half of the liquid flashes). The adiabatic flash
evaporation process is isenthalpic (i.e., occurs at constant enthalpy).
Between points 5 and 1, the cold and partially vaporized refrigerant travels
through the coil or tubes in the evaporator where it is totally vaporized by the
warm air (from the space being refrigerated) that a fan circulates across the coil
or tubes in the evaporator. The evaporator operates at essentially constant
pressure and boils of all available liquid there after adding 4-8 deg Kelvin of
super heat to the refrigerant as a safeguard for the compressor as it cannot
pump liquid. The resulting refrigerant vapor returns to the compressor inlet at
point 1 to complete the thermodynamic cycle.
It should be noted that the above discussion is based on the ideal vaporcompression refrigeration cycle which does not take into account real world
items like frictional pressure drop in the system, slight internal irreversibility
during the compression of the refrigerant vapor, or nonideal gas behavior (if
any).
4. Performance of the standard vapor-compression cycle
The standard vapor-compression cycle is shown on the temperature-entropy
diagram in Figure 3.

The processes constituting the standard vapor-compression cycle are:

1-2 Reversible and adiabatic compression from saturated vapor to the
condenser pressure
2-3 Reversible rejection of heat at constant pressure, causing desuperheating
and condensation of the refrigerant
3

3-4 Irreversible expansion at constant enthalpy from saturated liquid to the

evaporator pressure
4-1 Reversible addition of heat at constant pressure causing evaporation to
saturated vapor
The work of compression in kJ/kg is the change in enthalpy in process 1-2 of
Figure 4a or h1 h2. This relation derives from the steady-flow energy equation
h1 q h2 w

where changes in kinetic and potential energy are negligible.

Because in the adiabatic compression the heat transfer is zero, the work
equals h1 h2. The difference in enthalpy is a negative quantity, indicating that
work is done on the system. Even though the compressor may be of the
reciprocating type, where flow is intermittent rather that steady, process 1-2 still
represents the action of the compressor. At a short distance in the pipe away
4

from the compressor, the flow has smoothed out and approaches steady flow.
Knowledge of the work of compression is important because it may be one of the
largest operating costs of the system.
The heat rejection in kJ/kg is the heat transferred from the refrigerant in
process 2-3, which is h3 h2. This knowledge also comes from the steady-flow
energy equation, in which the kinetic energy, potential energy, and work terms
drop out. The value of h3 h2 is negative, indicating that heat is transferred from
the refrigerant. The value of heat rejection is used in sizing the condenser and
calculating the required flow quantities of the condenser cooling fluid.
The refrigerating effect in kJ/kg is the heat transferred in process 4-1, or h1
h4. Knowledge of the magnitude of the term is necessary because performing
this process is the ultimate purpose of the entire system.
The coefficient of performance of the standard vapor-compression cycle is the
refrigerating effect divided by the work of compression:
h h
Coefficien
t of performanc
e 1 4
h2 h1
(1)
Sometimes the volume flow rate is computed at the compressor inlet or state
point 1. The volume flow rate is a rough indication of the physical size of the
compressor. The greater the magnitude of the term, the greater the
displacement of the compressor in cubic meters per second must be.
The power per kilowatt of refrigeration is the inverse is the inverse of the
coefficient of performance, and an efficient refrigeration system has a low value
of power per kilowatt of refrigeration but a high coefficient of performance.
Example No. 1
A refrigeration system using refrigerant 22 is to have a refrigerating capacity of
80 kw. The cycle is a standard vapor-compression cycle in which the evaporating
temperature is -8 C and the condensing temperature is 42 C.
(a) Determine the volume flow of refrigerant measured in cubic meter per
second at the inlet to the compressor.
(b) Calculate the power required by the compressor.
(c) At the entrance to the evaporator what is the fraction of vapor in the mixture
expressed both on a mass basis and a volume basis?
Given:
Refrigerant 22.
Refrigerating Capacity = 80 kW
Evaporating temperature = -8 C
Condensing temperature = 42 C
Required:
(a) Volume flow of refrigerant measured in cubic meter per second at the inlet to
the compressor.
(b) Power required by the compressor.
(c) Fraction of vapor in the mixture expressed both on a mass basis and a
volume basis at the entrance of the evaporator.
Solution:

Use Refrigerant 22 Table from Refrigeration and Air Conditioning by Stoecker and
Jones
At 1, -8 C
h1 = hg1 = 402.341 kJ/kg
hf1 = 190.718 kJ/kg
vg1 = 61.0958 L/kg
vf1 = 0.76253 L/kg
s1 = 1.76394 kJ/kg.K
At 2, 42 C condensing temperature, constant entropy
h2 = 438.790 kJ/kg
At 3, 42 C
h3 = 252.352 kJ/kg
h4 = h3 = 252.352 kJ/kg
(a) Volume flow of refrigerant = wvg
w(h1 - h4) = 80 kw
w(402.341 - 252.352) = 80
w = 0.5334 kg/s
Volume flow of refrigerant
= (0.5334 kg/s)(61.0958 L/kg)
= 32.59 L/s
= 0.03259 m3/s - - - Ans.
(b) Power required by compressor
= w(h2 - h1)
= (0.5334)(438.790 - 402.341)
= 19.442 kw - - - Ans.
6

(c) Let xm = fraction of vapor by mass basis and

xv = fraction of vapor by volume basis.
Mass Basis:
h4 hf 1 252.352 190.718
xm

0.292
hg1 hf 1 402.341 190.718
(answer)
Volume Basis:

1 xm vf 1 xmvg1

Total volume =
Total volume = (1 - 0.292)(0.76253) + 0.292(61.0958) = 18.38 L/s
xv

xmvg1

Totalvolume

61.0958

0.292
0.971
18.38
(answer)

4.1Heat Exchangers
Some refrigeration systems use a liquid-to-suction heat exchanger, which
subcools the liquid from the condenser with suction vapor coming from the
evaporator. The arrangement is shown in Figure 5a and the corresponding
pressure-enthalpy diagram in Figure 5b.

Saturated liquid at point 3 coming from the condenser is cooled to point 4

by means of vapor at point 6 being heated to point 1. From a heat balance, h3
h4 = h1 h6. The refrigerating effect is either h6 h5 or h1 h3. Figure 6
shows a cutaway view of a liquid-to-suction heat-exchanger.

Compared with the standard vapor-compression cycle, the system using

the heat exchanger may seem to have obvious advantages because of the
increased refrigerating effect. Both the capacity and the coefficient of
performance may seem to be improved. This is not necessarily true, however.
Even though the refrigerating effect is increased, the compression is pushed
farther out into the superheat region, where the work of compression in kJ/kg
is greater than it is close to the saturated-vapor line. From the standpoint of
capacity, point 1 has a higher specific volume than point 6, so that a
compressor which is able to pump a certain volume delivers less mass flow if
the intake is at point 1. The potential improvements in performance are thus
counterbalanced, and the heat exchanger probably has negligible
thermodynamic advantages.
The heat exchanger is definitely justified, however, in situations where the
vapor entering the compressor must be superheated to ensure that no liquid
enters the compressor. Another practical reason for using the heat exchanger

is to subcool the liquid from the condenser to prevent bubbles of vapor from
impeding the flow of refrigerant through the expansion valve.
Example No. 2
A refrigerant 22 vapor compression system includes a liquid-to-suction heat
exchanger in the system. The heat exchanger warms saturated vapor coming
from the evaporator from -10 to 5 C with liquid which comes from the
condenser at 30 C. The compressions are isentropic in both cases listed
below.
(a) Calculate the coefficient of performance of the system without the heat
exchanger but with the condensing temperature at 30 C and an
evaporating temperature of -10 C.
(b) Calculate the coefficient of performance of the system with the heat
exchanger?
(c) If the compressor is capable of pumping 12.0 L/s measured at the
compressor suction, what is the refrigeration capacity of the system
without the heat exchanger?
(d) With the same compressor capacity as in (c), what is the refrigerating
capacity of the system with the heat exchanger?
Given:
Refrigerant 22
Liquid-to-suction heat exchanger
Evaporator from -10 to 5 C
Condenser at 30 C
Required:
(a) Coefficient of performance of the system without the heat exchanger but
with the condensing temperature at 30 C and an evaporating temperature
of -10 C.
(b) Coefficient of performance of the system with the heat exchanger?
(c) Refrigeration capacity of the system without the heat exchanger?
(d) Refrigerating capacity of the system with the heat exchanger?
Solution:

(a) Without heat exchanger

At 1,6, -10 C, Table A-6. (Stoecker and Jones)
h1 = h6 = 401.555 kJ/kg
s1 = s6 = 1.76713 kJ/kg.K
At 2, 30 C, constant entropy, Table A-7
h2 = 431.787 kJ/kg
At 3,4 , 30 C, Table A-6.
h3 = h4 = 236.664 kJ/kg
At 5, h5 = h4 = 236.664 kJ/kg

h6 h5 401.555 236.664

5.46
h2 h1 431.787 401.555

coefficient of performance

(answer)

(b) With heat exchanger

At 6, -10 C , Table A-6 (Stoecker and Jones)
h6 = 401.555 kJ/kg
At 1, -10 C evaporator temperature, 5 C, Table A-7
h1 = 411.845 kJ/kg
At 2, 30 C, constant entropy, Table A-7
h2 = 444.407 kJ/kg
At 3, 30 C, table A-6
h3 = 236.664 kJ/kg.
h3
h4
h4
h5

h4 = h1 h6
= h3 + h6 h1
= 236.664 + 401.555 411.845 = 226.374 kJ/kg
= h4 = 226.374 kJ/kg

h6 h5 401.555 226.374

5.38
h2 h1 444.407 411.845

coefficient of performance

(answer)

(c) Refrigerating capacity without heat exchanger

10

At 1, v = 65.3399 L/kg
Refrigerating Capacity

12.0 L s
12.0 L s
h6 h5
401.555 236.664
65
.
3399
L
kg
65
.
3399
L
kg

= 30.3 kW

(answer)

(d) Refrigerating capacity with heat exchanger

At 1, v = 70.2751 L/kg
Refrigerating Capacity

12.0L s
12.0 L s
h1 h5
401.555 226.374
70
.
2751
L
kg
70
.
2751
L
kg

= 29.9 kW

(answer)

4.2Actual vapor-compression cycle

The actual vapor-compression cycle suffers from inefficiencies compared
with the standard cycle. There are also other changes from the standard
cycle, which may be intentional or unavoidable. Some comparisons can be
drawn by superimposing the actual cycle on the pressure-enthalpy diagram
of the standard cycle, as in Figure 7.

The essential differences between the actual and the standard cycle
appear in the pressure drops in the condenser and evaporator, in the
subcooling of the liquid leaving the condenser, and in the superheating of the
vapor leaving the evaporator. The standard cycle assumes no drop in
pressure in the condenser and evaporator. Because of friction, however, the
11

pressure of the refrigerant drops in the actual cycle. The result of these drops
in pressure is that the compression process between 1 and 2 requires more
work than in the standard cycle. Subcooling of the liquid in the condenser is a
normal occurrence and serves the desirable function of ensuring that 100
percent liquid will enter the expansion device. Superheating of the vapor
usually occurs in the evaporator and is recommended as a precaution against
droplets of liquid being carried ever into the compressor. The final difference
in the actual cycle is that the compression is no longer isentropic and there
are inefficiencies due to friction and other losses.
5. Compressor
5.1Types of Compressors
The most common compressors used in chillers are reciprocating, rotary
screw, centrifugal, and scroll compressors. Each application prefers one or
another due to size, noise, efficiency and pressure issues. Compressors are
often described as being either open, hermetic, or semi-hermetic, to describe
how the compressor and/or motor is situated in relation to the refrigerant
being compressed. Variations of motor/compressor types can lead to the
following configurations:
Hermetic motor, hermetic compressor
Hermetic motor, semi-hermetic compressor
Open motor (belt driven or close coupled), hermetic compressor
Open motor (belt driven or close coupled), semihermetic compressor
Typically in hermetic, and most semi-hermetic compressors (sometimes
known as accessible hermetic compressors), the compressor and motor
driving the compressor are integrated, and operate within the refrigerant
system. The motor is hermetic and is designed to operate, and be cooled by,
the refrigerant being compressed. The obvious disadvantage of hermetic
motor compressors is that the motor drive cannot be maintained in situ, and
the entire compressor must be removed if a motor fails. A further
disadvantage is that burnt out windings can contaminate whole refrigeration
systems requiring the system to be entirely pumped down and the refrigerant
replaced.
An open compressor has a motor drive which is outside of the refrigeration
system, and provides drive to the compressor by means of an input shaft with
suitable gland seals. Open compressor motors are typically air-cooled and can
be fairly easily exchanged or repaired without degassing of the refrigeration
system. The disadvantage of this type of compressor is a failure of the shaft
seals, leading to loss of refrigerant.
Open motor compressors are generally easier to cool (using ambient air)
and therefore tend to be simpler in design and more reliable, especially in
high pressure applications where compressed gas temperatures can be very
high. However the use of liquid injection for additional cooling can generally
overcome this issue in most hermetic motor compressors.
5.2Reciprocating compressors

12

Reciprocating
compressors
are
piston-style,
positive
displacement
compressors.
5.2.1 Performance
Two of the most important performance characteristics of a
compressor are its refrigerating capacity and its power requirement.
These two characteristics of a compressor operating at constant speed
are controlled largely by the suction and discharge pressures.
5.2.2 Volumetric efficiency
Volumetric efficiencies are the bases for predicting performance of
reciprocating compressors. Two types of volumetric efficiencies will be
considered, actual and clearance. The actual volumetric efficiency va
is defined by
volumeflowrateentering
compressor
,m3 s
va
displaceme
nt rateof compressor
,m3 s
(2)
where the displacement rate is the volume swept through by the
pistons in their suction.
Clearance volumetric efficiency depends on the reexpansion of gas
trapped in the clearance volume, as in Figure 8.

13

The maximum volume in the cylinder, which occurs when the piston
is at one end of its stroke, is V3. The minimum volume, or clearance
volume, is Vc, which occurs at other end of the piston stroke. The
discharge pressure is pd.
In the first instance, assume that the suction pressure is p1. Gas
trapped in the clearance volume must first expand to volume V1 before
the pressure in the cylinder is low enough for the suction valves to
open and draw in more gas. The volume of gas drawn into the cylinder
will be (V3 V1), and the clearance volumetric efficiency vc for this
case is (V3 V1)(100)/(V3 Vc). When the suction pressure is p2, the
intake portion of the stroke is reduced to V3 V2. In the extreme case
where the suction pressure has dropped to p3, the piston uses its entire
stroke to reexpand the gas in the clearance volume and the clearance
volumetric efficiency is 0 percent.
The clearance volumetric efficiency can be expressed in another
way, illustrated in Figure 8 using p1 as the suction pressure. The
percent clearance m, which is constant for a given compressor, is
defined as
Vc
m
100
V3 Vc
(3)
Adding Vc Vc to the numerator of the expression for hvc gives
V V V V
V V
vc 3 c c 1 100 100 c 1 100
V3 Vc
V3 Vc
(4)
and

14

vc 100

V1 Vc
Vc V1

100 100
1 100
V3 Vc
V3 Vc Vc

Therefore

vc 100 m 1 1
Vc

(5)
If an isentropic expansion is assumed between Vc and V1.
V1 vsuc

Vc vdis
(6)
where vsuc = specific volume of vapor entering compressor
vdis = specific volume of vapor after isentropic compression to pd
Values of the specific volumes are available from the pressure-enthalpy
diagram of the refrigerant or from tables of properties of superheated
vapor.
Substituting Equation (6) into Equation (5) gives
v

vc 100 m suc 1
vdis
(7)
5.2.3 Performance of the ideal compressor
Figure 9 shows the effect of evaporating temperature on clearance
volumetric efficiency.

15

The mass rate of flow controls the capacity and power requirement
more directly than the volume rate of flow. The mass rate of flow, w
kg/s, through a compressor is proportional to the displacement rate in
liters per second and the volumetric efficiency and inversely
proportional to the specific volume of gas entering the compressor. In
equation form
100
w displaceme
nt rate vc
vsuc
(8)
Example No. 3
An ammonia compressor has a 5 percent clearance volume and a
displacement rate of 80 L/s and pumps against a condensing
temperature of 40 C. For the two different evaporating temperatures of
-10 and 10 C, compute the refrigerant flow rate assuming that the
clearance volumetric efficiency applies.
Given:
Ammonia compressor
5 % clearance volume
Displacement rate = 80 L/s
Condensing temperature = 40 C
Evaporating temperatures are -10 C and 10 C.
Required:
Refrigerant flow rate
Solution:
16

Equation (8)

w displaceme
nt rate

vc 100
vsuc

(a) At -10 C, Table A-3. (Stoecker and Jones)

s1 = 5.7550 kJ/kg
vsuc = 417.477 L/kg
At 40 C, constant entropy, Fig. A-1
vdis = 112.5 L/kg
m=5%
Equation (5) and Equation (6).
v

vc 100 m suc 1
vdis

417.477
vc 100 5
1 86.445%
112.5

w displaceme
nt rate
w 80L s

vc 100
vsuc

86.445100
0.166kg s
417.477

at -10 C (answer)

(b) At 10 C, Table A-3. (Stoecker and Jones)

s1 = 5.4924 kJ/kg
vsuc = 205.22 L/kg
At 40 C, constant entropy, Fig. A-1
vdis = 95 L/kg
m=5%
Equation (5) and Equation (6).
v

vc 100 m suc 1
vdis

205.22
vc 100 5
1 94.199%
95

w displaceme
nt rate
w 80L s

vc 100
vsuc

94.199100
0.367kg s
205.22

17

at 10 C (answer)

5.2.4 Power requirement

The power required by the ideal compressor is the product of the
mass rate of flow and the increase in enthalpy during the isentropic
compression,
P whi
(9)
where
P = power, kW
w = mass rate of flow, kg/s
hi = isentropic work of compression, kJ/kg
Figure 10 shows the variation in hi as the evaporating temperature
changes.

The value of hi is large at low evaporating temperatures and drops

to zero when the suction pressure equals the discharge pressure (when
the evaporating temperature equals the condensing pressure). The
curve of the power requirement in Figure 10 therefore shows a zero
value at two points, where the evaporating temperature equals the
condensing temperature and where the mass rate of flow is zero.
Between the two extremes the power requirement reaches a peak.
5.2.5 Refrigerating capacity.
The refrigerating capacity q is
q w h1 h4 kW
(10)
18

where h1 and h4 are enthalpies in kJ/kg of the refrigerant leaving and

entering the evaporator, respectively. The refrigerating effect; h1 h4,
increases slightly with an increase in suction pressure, as Figure 11
shows, provided that the enthalpy entering the expansion valve
remains constant. The increase is due to the slightly higher enthalpy of
saturated vapor at higher evaporating temperatures.

Figure 11 also shows the refrigeration capacity calculated with

Equation (10). The capacity is zero at the point where the mass rate of
flow is zero. The refrigerating capacity is doubled, for example, by
increasing the evaporating temperature from 0 to 20 C.
5.2.6 Coefficient of performance and volume flow rate per kw of refrigeration
The coefficient of performance can be derived from the
refrigerating capacity of Figure 11 and the power from Figure 10. The
result, displayed in Figure 12, shows a progressive increase as the
evaporating temperature increases.

19

The volume flow rate per unit refrigeration capacity is an indication

of the physical size or speed of the compressor necessary to develop 1
kW of refrigeration. A large volume flow must be pumped for a given
capacity at low evaporating temperature because of the high specific
volume.
5.2.7 Effect of condensing temperature
The response of a reciprocating compressor to changes in
condensing temperature can be analyzed similarly to the evaporating
temperature. Figure 13 shows the clearance volumetric efficiency as
calculated from Equation (7) for a compressor with an evaporating
temperature of -20 C.

20

As the condensing temperature increases, the volumetric efficiency

drops off. Because the specific volume of the refrigerant at the
compressor suction remains constant, only the volumetric efficiency
affects the mass rate of flow, which shows a corresponding decrease as
the condensing temperature increases.
Figure 14 shows such a progressive decrease.

21

The refrigerating capacity is the product of the refrigerating effect

and the mass rate of flow, both of which decrease with increasing
condensing temperature. The result is that the refrigerating capacity
drops rather rapidly on an increase in condensing temperature.
The remaining important characteristic is the power, shown in
Figure 15.

The compressor power is the product of the work of compression in

kJ/kg and the mass flow rate. The work of compression in kJ/kg
increases and the mass rate of flow decreases as the condensing
temperature increases, so that the power increases to a peak and then
begins to drop off, a trend similar to the power as a function of the
evaporating temperature shown in Figure 10.
5.2.8 Actual volumetric efficiency
The prediction of volumetric efficiency on the basis of reexpansion
of vapor in the clearance volume is a good start toward predicting the
actual volumetric efficiency. Other factors that influence the volumetric
efficiency are the pressure drop across the suction and discharge
valves, leakage past the rings of the piston, and leakage back through
the discharge and suction valves. Also cylinder heating of suction gas
reduces the volumetric efficiency, since immediately upon entering the
cylinder the gas is warmed and expanded. The specific volume of the
gas inside the cylinder is consequently higher than when entering the
compressor, which is the position on which the volumetric efficiency is
based. All the above-mentioned factors result in a lower actual
volumetric efficiency than that predicted by the reexpansion of
22

clearance gas alone. Figure 16 shows the actual volumetric efficiency

compared with the clearance volumetric efficiency.

The abscissa in Figure 16 is the discharge-to-suction pressure ratio,

a convenient parameter on which to base the volumetric performance
of the compressor. The curve for the actual volumetric efficiency as a
function of the pressure ratio applies to a wide variety of evaporating
and condensing temperatures. When this curve is available, along with
the knowledge of the displacement rate of the compressor, the
refrigerating capacity of the compressor can be calculated over a wide
variety of conditions.
5.2.9 Compression efficiency
The compression efficiency c in percent is
isentropic
workof compressio
n,kJ kg
c
100
actualworkof compressio
n,kJ kg
(11)
where the work of compression are referred to the same suction and
discharge pressures. The compression efficiencies for open-type
reciprocating compressors are usually in the range of 65 to 70 percent.
Some of the processes that reduce the compression efficiency from its
ideal value of 100 percent are friction of rubbing surfaces and pressure
drop through valves.
Example No. 4
The catalog for a refrigerant 22, four-cylinder, hermetic compressor
operating at 29 r/s. a condensing temperature of 40 C and an
evaporating temperature of -4 C shows a refrigeration capacity of 115
kw. At this operating points the motor (whose efficiency is 90 percent)
draws 34.5 kW. The bore of the cylinders is 87 mm and the piston
23

stroke is 70 mm. The performance data are based on 8 C of subcooling

of the liquid leaving the condenser. Compute (a) the actual volumetric
efficiency and (b) the compression efficiency.
Given:
Refrigerant 2
Four cylinder, hermetic compressor at 29 r/s
Condensing temperature = 40 C
Evaporating temperature = -4C
Refrigeration capacity = 115 kw = q
Motor efficiency = 90 % = m
Motor = 34.5 kw = Pm
Bore = 87 mm = 0.087 m = D
Piston Stroke = 70 mm = 0.070 m = L
8 C of subcooling
Required:
(a) the actual volumetric efficiency
(b) the compression efficiency
Solution:

Reference. Refrigeration and Air Conditioning by Stoecker and Jones

Table A-6, -4 C evaporating temperature.
h1 = 403.876 kJ/kg
vsuc = 53.5682 L/kg
s1 = 1.75775 kJ/kg.K
At 2, table A-7, constant entropy, 40 condensing temperature
h2 = 435.391 kJ/kg
vdis = 17.314 L/kg
At 3, 40 C condensing temperature, Table A-6, 8 C Subcooling
t = 40 -8 = 32 C
h3 = 239.23 kJ/kg
h4 = h3 = 239.23 kJ/kg
(a) For actual volumetric efficiency
24

Displacement rate = (4 cyl)(29 r/s)[(/4)(D2) m3/cyl.r](L)

Displacement rate = (4 cyl)(29 r/s)[(/4)(0.087)2 m3/cyl.r](0.070)
= 0.04827 m3/kg = 48.27 L/kg
Actual rate of refrigerant flow , w = q/(h1 h4)
= 115 kw / (403.876 - 239.23 kJ/kg) = 0.6985 kg/s
Actual volumetric flow rate at the compressor suction
= w x vsuc
= (0.6985 kg/s)(53.5682 L/kg)
= 37.42 L/s
volumeflowrateentering
compressor
,m3 s
va
displaceme
nt rateof compressor
,m3 s
37.42L s
100 77.5%
48.27L s
(answer)
(b) For compression efficiency.
Actual work of compression
= mPm/w
= 0.9 (34.5 kW) / (0.6985 kg/s) = 44.45 kJ/kg
isentropic
workof compressio
n,kJ kg
c
100
actualworkof compressio
n,kJ kg

va

h2 h1
100
actualworkof compressio
n,kJ kg

435
.391 403
.876
100 70.9
44.45

(answer)

5.2.10Compressor discharge temperatures

If the discharge temperature of the refrigerant from the compressor
becomes too high, it may result in breakdown of the oil, causing
excessive wear or reduced life of the valves, particularly the discharge
valves. In general the higher the pressure ratio, the higher the
discharge temperature, but the properties of the refrigerant are also
crucial. Figure 17 shows the discharge temperatures for four
refrigerants following isentropic compression from saturated vapor at 0
C to various condensing temperatures. Refrigerants 12 and 502 have
low discharge temperatures while refrigerant 22 experiences higher
temperatures. Since the highest temperature of the four refrigerants
shown is ammonia, ammonia compressors are equipped with watercooled heads.

25

5.3Rotary screw compressors

Rotary screw compressors are also positive displacement compressors. Two

meshing screw-rotors rotate in opposite directions, trapping refrigerant vapor,
and reducing the volume of the refrigerant along the rotors to the discharge
point.

26

5.4Centrifugal compressors

Centrifugal compressors are dynamic compressors. These compressors raise

the pressure of the refrigerant by imparting velocity or dynamic energy, using
a rotating impeller, and converting it to pressure energy.
5.4.1 Tip speed to develop pressure
A rough estimate of the tip speed of the impeller can be made by
using several fundamental relationships for turbomachinery. The
torque the impeller ideally imparts to the gas is
T w V2t r2 V1t r1
(12)
where T = torque in N.m
w = mass rate of flow, kg/s
V2t = tangential velocity of refrigerant leaving impeller, m/s
r2 = radius of exit of impeller, m
V1t = tangential velocity of refrigerant entering impeller, m/s
27

r1 = radius of inlet of impeller, m

If the refrigerant enters the impeller in an essentially radial direction,
the tangential component of the velocity V1t =0, and so
T wV2t r2
(13)
The power required at the shaft is the product of the torque and the
rotative speed
P T wV2t r2
(14)
where P = power, W
= rotative speed, rad/s
At least at very low refrigerant flow rates the tip speed of the impeller
and the tangential velocity of the refrigerant are nearly identical;
therefore
r2 V2t

P wV2t2
and

(15)

Another expression for ideal power is the product of the mass rate of
flow and the isentropic work of compression,
P whi 1000
kJ kg
(16)
Equating the two expression for power, Equation (15) and (16), yields
V22t 1000
hi
(17)
Although, Equation (17) is based on some idealizations, it can provide
an order-of-magnitude estimate of the tip speed and can also show
important comparisons.
Example No. 5
A two-stage centrifugal compressor operating at 60 r/s is to compress
refrigerant 11 from an evaporating temperature of 4 C to a condensing
temperature of 35 C. If both wheels are to be of the same diameter,
what is this diameter?
Given:
Two stage
60 r/s, Refrigerant 11,
Evaporating temperature = 4 C
Condensing temperature = 35 C
Required:
Diameter
Solution:
At 4 C evaporating temperature, Table A-4. (Stoecker and Jones)
h1 = 390.93 kJ/kg
s1 = 1.68888 kJ/kg.K
28

At 35 C condensing temperature, Fig. A-2, constant entropy,

h2 = 410 kJ/kg
= 60 r/s = 120 rad/s
Equation 11-16,
V22t 1000
hi

h2 h1
V22t 1000

410 390.93
V2t2 1000

V2t 97.65m s

per stage
r2 V2t
D2
120 97.65
2
D2 0.518m

(answer)
5.5Scroll compressors

29

Scroll compressors are also positive displacement compressors. The

refrigerant is compressed when one spiral orbits around a second stationary
spiral, creating smaller and smaller pockets and higher pressures. By the time
the refrigerant is discharged, it is fully pressurized.

5.6Controls
In simple commercial refrigeration systems the compressor is normally
controlled by a simple pressure switch, with the expansion performed by a
capillary tube or simple thermostatic expansion valve. In more complex
systems, including multiple compressor installations, the use
of electronic controls is typical, with adjustable set points to control the
pressure at which compressors cut in and cut out, and temperature control by
the use of electronic expansion valves.
In addition to the operational controls, separate high pressure and low
pressure switches are normally utilized to provide secondary protection to the
compressors and other components of the system from operating outside of
safe parameters.
In more advanced electronic control systems the use of floating head
pressure, and proactive suction pressure, control routines allow the
compressor operation to be adjusted to accurately meet differing cooling
demands whilst reducing energy consumption.
6. Condensers and Evaporators
The most widely used types of condensers and evaporators are shell-and-tube
heat exchangers (Figure 18) and finned-coil heat exchangers (Figure 19).
30

6.1 Overall heat-transfer coefficient

The overall heat-transfer coefficient for an evaporator or condenser is the
proportionality constant, which, when multiplied by the heat-transfer area
and the mean temperature difference between the fluids, yields the rate of
heat transfer. If heat flows across a tube, as in Figure 20, between refrigerant
on the outside and water on the inside, for example, under steady state
conditions the rate of heat transfer q in watts is the same from the refrigerant
to the outside surface of the tube, from the outside to inside surface of the
tube, and from the inside surface of the tube to the water.

31

The expressions for q in each of these transfers are, respectively,

q hoAo to tos
(18)
k
q Am tos tis
x
(19)
q hi Ai tis ti
(20)
where q = rate of heat transfer, W
ho = heat-transfer coefficient on outside of tube, W/m 2.K
Ao = outside area of tube, m2
to = refrigerant temperature, C
tos = temperature of outside surface of tube, C
k = conductivity of tube metal, W/m.K
x = thickness of tube, m
tis = temperature of inside surface of tube, C
Am = mean circumferential area of tube, m2
hi = heat-transfer coefficient on inside of tube, W/m 2.K
Ai = inside area of tube, m2
ti = water temperature, C
To express the overall heat-transfer coefficient the area on which the
coefficient is based must be specified. Two acceptable expressions for the
overall heat-transfer coefficient are
q UoAo to ti
(21)
q Ui Ai to ti
and
(22)
where Uo = overall heat-transfer coefficient based on outside area, W/m 2.K
Ui = overall heat-transfer coefficient based on inside area, W/m 2.K
From Equations (21) and (22) it is clear that UoAo = UiAi. The U value is always
associated with an area. Knowledge of Uo or Ui facilitates computation of the
rate of heat transfer q.
To compute the U value from knowledge of the individual heat-transfer
coefficients, first divide Equation (18) by hoAo, Equation (19) by kAm/x, and
Equation (20) by hiAi, leaving only the temperature differences on the right
sides of the equations. Next add the three equations, giving
32

q
qx
q

to tos tos tis tis ti

hoAo kAm hi Ai
q
qx
q

to ti
hoAo kAm hi Ai
(23)
Alternate expressions for to ti are available from Equation (21) and (22)
q
q
to ti

UoAo Ui Ai
(24)
Equating Equations (23) and (24) and canceling q provides an expression for
computing the U values
1
1
1
x
1

UoAo Ui Ai hoAo kAm hi Ai

(25)
6.2Liquid in tubes; heat transfer and pressure drop
The expression for the heat-transfer coefficient for fluids flowing inside
tubes is of the form
Nu CRen Prm
where n and m are exponents. The constant C and exponents in the equation
are
0.8
0.4
VD cp
hD

0.023
k
k
(26)
where h = convection coefficient, W/m2.K
D = ID of tube, m
k = thermal conductivity of fluid, W/m.K
V = mean velocity of fluid, m/s
= density of fluid, kg/m3
= viscosity of fluid, Pa.s
cp = specific heat of fluid, J/kg.K
Equation (26) is applicable to turbulent flow, which typically prevails with the
velocities and properties experienced in most commercial evaporators and
condensers.
Example No. 6
A refrigerant 22 condenser has four water passes and a total of 60 copper
tubes that are 14 mm ID and have 2 mm wall thickness. The conductivity of
copper is 390 W/m.K. The outside of the tubes is finned so that the ratio of
outside to inside area is 1.7. The cooling-water flow through the condenser
tubes is 3.8 L/s.
(a) Calculate the water-side coefficient if the water us at an average
temperature of 30 C, at which temperature k = 0.614 W/m.K, = 996
kg/m3, and = 0.000803 Pa.s.
33

(b) Using a mean condensing coefficient of 1420 W/m 2.K, calculate the overall
heat-transfer coefficient based on the condensing area.
Given:
Refrigerant 22 condenser
4 passes, total of 60 copper tubes
14 mm ID, 2 mm wall thickness
Conductivity of copper is 390 W/m.K
Ratio of outside to inside area = 1.7
Cooling water through condenser tubes = 3.8 L/s
Water at 30 C:
k = 0.614 W/m.K, = 996 kg/m3, and = 0.000803 Pa.s.
Mean condensing coefficient = 1420 W/m2.K
Required:
(a) Water side coefficient, hi.
(b) Overall heat-transfer coefficient based on the condensing area, Uo.
Solution:
(a) Water-side coefficient:
0.8
0.4
VD cp
hD

0.023
k
k
D = 14 mm = 0.014 m
k = 0.614 W/m.K
= 996 kg/m3
= 0.000803 Pa.s
cp = 4190 J/kg.K
V

3.8 103 m3 s
Q

A 60tubes

0.014m 2
4
pass

V 1.6457
ms

0.014 996
h 0.014
1.6457
0.023
0.614
0.000803

0.8

h 7,313W m2 K
(answer)
(b) Overall heat-transfer coefficient

1
1
x
1

UoAo hoAo kAm hi Ai

34

0.000803

4190

0.614

0.4

1 1 xAo Ao

Uo ho kAm hi Ai
ho = 1420 W/m2.K
k = 390 W/m.K
Ao / Ai = 1.7
A
1
1
Am Ao Ai Ao o
2
2
1.7
Ao / Am = 1.25926
x = 2 mm = 0.002 m
hi = 7,313 W/m2.K

0.002 1.2596 1.7

1
1

Uo 1420
390
7,313
Uo 1060
W m2 K
(answer)
As the fluid flows inside the tubes through a condenser or evaporator, a
pressure drop occurs both in the straight tubes and in the U-bends or heads
of the heat exchanger. Some drop in pressure is also attributable to entrance
and exit losses. The expression for pressure drop of fluid flowing in straight
tubes is
L V2
p f

D 2
(27)
Where p = pressure drop, Pa
f = friction factor, dimensionless
L = length of tube, m
Since the pressure drop in the straight tubes in an evaporator or
condenser may represent only 50 to 80 percent of the total pressure drop,
experimental or catalog data on the pressure drop as a function of flow rate
are desirable. If the pressure drop at one flow is known, it is possible to
predict the pressure drop at other flow rates. The expression available to
straight tubes, Equation (27), indicates that the pressure drop is proportional
to the square of the velocity and thus the square of the flow rate.
The other contributors to pressure drop resulting from changes in flow
area and direction are also almost exactly proportional to the square of the
flow rate, so if the pressure drop and flow rate p1 and w1 are known, the
pressure drop p2 at a different flow rate w2 can be predicted:
w
p2 p1 2
w1

(28)
6.3Liquid in shell: heat transfer and pressure drop.
35

In shell-and-tube evaporators, where refrigerant boils inside tubes, the

liquid being cooled flows in the shell across bundles of tubes, as shown
schematically in Figure 21.

The liquid is directed by baffles so that it flows across the tube bundle
many times and does not short-circuit from the inlet to the outlet. The
analytical prediction of the heat-transfer coefficient of liquid flowing normal to
a tube is complicated in itself, and the complex flow pattern over a bundle of
tubes makes the prediction even more difficult. In order to proceed with the
business of designing heat exchangers, engineers resort to correlations that
relate tubes and baffles. Such an equation by Emerson can be modified to the
form

hD
termscontrolled
bygeometry
Re0.6 Pr0.3
k
w

0.14

(29)
where = viscosity of fluid at bulk temperature, Pa.s
w = viscosity of fluid at tube-wal temperature, Pa.s
The Reynolds number in this equation is GD/, where G is the mass velocity
or mass rate of flow divided by a characteristic flow area.
One important realization emerges from a Equation (29), for a given
evaporator or condenser when water flows in the shell outside the tubes
Water sideheat transfercoefficien
t const flowrate 0.6
(30)
The convection coefficient varies as the 0.6 power of the flow rate compared
with the 0.8 power for flow inside tubes.
The pressure drop of liquid flowing through the shell across tube bundles is
also difficult to predict analytically, but when an experimental point is
available for one flow rate, predictions of the pressure drop at other flow
rates can be made quite accurately. Figure 22 shows the water pressure drop
taken from catalog data of a water-chilling evaporator. The application
exponent in the pressure-drop-flow-rate relationship here is 1.9.
36

Example No. 7
A shell-and-tube condenser has a U value of 800 W/m 2.K based on the waterside are and a water pressure drop of 50 kPa. Under this operating condition
40 percent of the heat-transfer resistance is on the water side. If the waterflow rate is doubled, what will the new U value and the new pressure drop be?
Given:
U1 = 800 W.m2.K
p1 = 50 kPa
40% of heat transfer resistance is on the water side
Water-flow rate doubled
Required:
New U value = U2
Solution:
U1 = 800 W/m2.K
h1 = Water-side coefficient
1
1

0.40
h1
U1
h1

1
1
0.40

800

2,000

Water sideheat transfercoefficien

t const flowrate 0.6
for evaporator
replace 0.6 by 0.8 for condenser.
Water sideheat transfercoefficien
t const flowrate 0.8
37

For w2 / w1 = 2

h2 w2

h1 w1

0.8

h2 2000
2 0.8 3482
.2W m2 K
Remaining resistance = (0.60)( 1 / 800 ) = 0.00075
New U-Value:
1 1
1
0.00075

0.00075
U2 h2
3482
.2

U2 964W m2 K
(answer)
New Pressure Drop:

w
p2 p1 2
w1

w2
2
w1
p2 50 2 2 200kPa
(answer)
6.4Extended surface; fins.
The bar fin, shown in Figure 23 is a rudimentary fin whose performance
can be predicted analytically and will be used to illustrate some important
characteristics.

38

The fins are of length L and thickness 2y m. The conductivity of the metal
is k W/m.K, and the air-side coefficient is hf W/m2.K. To solve for the
temperature distribution through the fin, a heat balance can be written about
an element of thickness dx m. The heat balance states that the rate of heat
flow entering the element at position 1 from the end of the fin plus that
transferred to the element from the air equals the rate of heat transferred out
of the element at position 2 toward the base. For one-half a fin width and a
fin depth of Z m, the heat balance in symbols is
dt
dt
kyZ
Zdxh

f ta t kyZ
dx 1
dx 2
(31)
where ta = temperature of air
t = temperature of fin
Canceling Z and factoring gives
dt
dt
ky

dxhf ta t
dx 2 dx 1
(32)
For the differential length dx the change in the temperature gradient is
d dt
d2t
dt
dt

dx 2 dx
dx
dx 2 dx 1 dx dx
(33)
Substituting into Equation (32), we get
d2t hf ta t

ky
dx2
(34)
By solving the second-order differential equation (34) the temperature
distribution throughout the fin can be shown to be
t tb coshM L x

ta tb
coshML
(35)
39

where tb = temperature of base of fin, C

hf
M
ky
When a finned coil cools air, points in the fin farther away from the base are
higher in temperature than points close to the base. The net result of the
higher temperature of most of the fin is that less heat is transferred than if
the entire fin were at temperature tb. The ratio of the actual rate of heat
transfer to that which would be transferred if the fin were at temperature tb is
called the fin effectiveness.
actualq
Fineffectiven
ess
q if finwereat basetemperatur
e
(36)
Sharper and Brown found that the fin effectiveness for the bar film at Figure
23 can be represented by
tanhML

ML
The bar fin is not a common shape but the dominant type of finned surface is
the rectangular plate mounted on cylindrical tubes. The net result is a
rectangular or square fin mounted on a circular base, one section of which is
shown in Figure 24a.

The fin effectiveness of the rectangular plate fin is often calculated by using
properties of the corresponding annular fin (Figure 24b), for which a graph of
the fin effectiveness is available, as in Figure 25. The corresponding annular
fin has the same area and thickness as the plate fin it represents.

40

Example No. 8
Compute the fin effectiveness of an aluminum rectangular plate fin of a
finned air-cooling evaporator if the fins are 0.18 mm thick and mounted on a
16-mm-OD tubes. The tube spacing is 40 mm in the direction of air flow and
45 mm vertically. The air-side coefficient is 55 W/m2.K.
Given:
0.18 mm thick, 16-mm OD tubes
Tube spacing 40 mm in the direction of air flow
45 mm vertically
Air-side coefficient = 55 W/m2.K = hf
Required:
Fin effectiveness
Solution:
hf = 55 W/m2.K
Alumimum Fins, k = 202 W/m.K
2y = 0.00018 mm
y = 0.00009 mm
hf
55
M

55m1
202 0.00009

ky
Equivalent external radius.

41

2
2

16
16
re 2
40 45

2
2

re = 23.94 mm = 0.02394 m
ri = 8 mm = 0.008 m
(re - ri)M = (0.02394 - 0.008)(55) - 0.88
re/ri = 23.94 mm / 8 mm = 3
From Fig. 25:
Fin Effectiveness = 0.68 - - - Ans.
The air-side area of a finned condenser or evaporator is composed of two
portions, the prime area and the extended area. The prime area Ap is that of
the tube between the fins, and the extended area Ae is that of the fin. Since
the prime area is at the base temperature, it has a fin effectiveness of 1.0. It
is to the extended surface that the fin effectiveness less than 1.0 applies.
Equation for the overall heat-transfer coefficient can be revised to read
1
1
1
x
1

UoAo Ui Ai hf Ap Ae kAm hi Ai
6.5Gas flowing over finned tubes; heat transfer and pressure drop
A precise prediction of the air-side heat-transfer coefficient when the air
flows over finned tubes is complicated because the values is a function of
geometric factors, e.g., the fin spacing, the spacing and diameter of the
tubes, and the number of rows of tubes deep. Usually the coefficient varies
approximately as the square root of the face velocity of the air. A rough
estimate of the air-side coefficient hf can be computed from the equation
derived from illustrative data in the ARI standard.
hf 38V0.5
(37)
where V is the face velocity in meters per second.
The drop in pressure of the air flowing through a finned coil is also
dependent upon the geometry of the coil. Figure 26 shows the pressure drop
of a commercial cooling coil when the finned surfaces are dry.

42

As expected, the pressure drop is higher for coils with a larger number of
fins per meter of tube length. The ordinate is the pressure drop per number of
rows of tubes deep, so the values would be multiplied by 6 for a six-row coil,
for example.
For the coil series whose pressure drops are shown in Figure 26 the
pressure drop for a given coil varies as the face velocity to the 1.56 power.
That exponent is fairly typical of commercial plate-fin coils.
6.6Required condensing capacity
The required rate of heat transfer in the condenser is predominantly a
function of the refrigerating capacity and the temperatures of evaporation
and condensation. The condenser must reject both the energy absorbed by
the evaporator and the heat of compression added by the compressor. A term
often used to relate the rate of heat flow at the condenser to that of the
evaporator is the heat-rejection ratio
rateof heatrejected
at condenser
,kW
Heat rejection
ratio
rateof heatabsorbed
at evaporator
,kW
(38)

43

A graph of typical values of heat-rejection ratios is shown in Figure 27.

When the motor driving the compressor is hermetically sealed, some of

the heat associated with inefficiencies of the electric motor is added to the
refrigerant stream and must ultimately be removed at the condenser. The
heat-rejection ratios of the hermetically sealed compressors are usually
slightly higher than those of the open-type compressor.
6.7Condensing coefficient
The basic equation for calculating the local coefficient of heat transfer of
vapor condensing on a vertical plate (Figure 28) was developed by Nusselt by
pure physical analysis.

44

The equation for the local condensing coefficient is

2
3
hcvx g hfgx

k 4kt

14

(39)

Where hcv = local condensing coefficient on vertical plate, W/m 2.K

x = vertical distance measured from top of plate, m
g = acceleration due to gravity = 9.81 m/s2
= density of condensate, kg/m3
hfg = latent heat of vaporization, J/kg
= viscosity of condensate, Pa.s
t = temperature difference between vapor and the plate, K
The mean condensing coefficient over the total height of the plate L is
L

hcv

h dx 0.943 g h

cv

3 14

fgk

tL

W m2 K

(40)
The equation for the mean condensing coefficient for vapor condensing on
the outside of horizontal tubes is

g 2hfgk3

hct 0.725
tND

14

W m2 K

(41)
where N = number of tubes in vertical row
D = OD of tube, m
Example No. 9
Calculate the mean condensing heat-transfer coefficient when refrigerant 12
condenses on the outside of the horizontal tubes in a shell-and-tube
condenser. The outside diameter of the tubes is 19 mm, and in the vertical
45

rows of tubes there are respectively, two, three, four, three, and two tubes.
The refrigerant is condensing at a temperature of 52 C and the temperature
of the tubes is 44 C.
Given:
Refrigerant 12.
OD = 19 mm
Vertical rows of tubes = 2, 3, 4, 3, and 2 tubes
Condensing temperature = 52 C
Temperature of tubes = 44 C
Required:
Mean condensing heat-transfer coefficient hcond
Solution:
Condensing Coefficient:

g 2hfgk3

hcond 0.725
tND

14

Table A-5 at 52 C. (Refrigeration and Air Conditioning - Stoecker and Jones)

hfg = 370.997 - 251.004 kJ/kg = 119.993 kJ/kg
hfg = 119,993 J/kg
= 1 / (0.83179 L/kg) = 1202 kg/m3
Table 15-5, Liquid Refrigerant 12. (Refrigeration and Air Conditioning Stoecker and Jones)
= 0.000179 PA.s
k = 0.05932 W/m.K
N = (2 + 3 + 4 + 3 +2) / 5 = 2.8
t = 52 C - 44 C = 8 K
g = 9.81 m/s2
D = 19 mm = 0.019 m
9.81 1202
2 119,993 0.05931
3
hcond 0.725
0.000174
8 2.8 0.019

14

hcond 1065
W m2 K
(answer)
6.8Fouling factor
After a water-cooled condenser has been in service for some time its U
value usually degrades somewhat because of the increased resistance to
heat transfer on the water side due to fouling by the impurities in the water
from the cooling tower. The new condenser must therefore have a higher U
value in anticipation of the reduction that will occur in service. The higher
capacity with new equipment is provided by specifying a fouling factor 1/hff
m2.K/W. This term expands for the U value into
A
A
1 1 xAo

o o
Uo ho kAm hff Ai hi Ai
(42)
46

Several different agencies have established standards for the fouling

factor to be used. One trade association specifies 0.000176 m 2.K/W, which
means that the condenser should leave the factory with a 1/Uo value of
0.000176 Ao/Ai less than the minimum required to meet the quoted capacity
of the condenser.

6.9Desuperheating
Even when the refrigerant condenses at a constant pressure, its
temperature is constant only in the condensing portion. Because the vapor
coming from the compressor is usually superheated, the distribution of
temperature will be as shown in Figure 29.

Because of the distortion in the temperature profile caused by the

desuperheating process, the temperature difference between the refrigerant
and the cooling fluid is no longer correctly represented by the LMTD
t t tc to
LMTD c i
t t
ln c i
tc to
(43)
It is common practice to use Equation (43) anyway with the following
justification. Although the temperature difference between the refrigerant
and cooling fluid is higher in the desuperheating section than calculated from
Equation (43), the convection coefficient in this section is normally lower than
the condensing coefficient. The two errors compensate somewhat for each
other, and the application of Equation (43) along with the condensing
coefficient over the entire condenser area usually provides reasonably
accurate results.
6.10

Evaporators
In most refrigerating evaporators the refrigerant boils in the tubes and
cools the fluid that passes over the outside of the tubes. Evaporators that boil
refrigerant in the tubes are often called direct-expansion evaporators, and
Figure 30 shows an air-cooling evaporator and Figure 31 a liquid cooler.

47

6.11

Boiling in the shell

It is difficult to predict the boiling coefficient accurately because of the
complexities of the mechanisms. Furthermore, the coefficients follow some
different rules when the boiling takes place in the shell outside the tubes, in
contrast to boiling inside the tubes. Some trends that usually occur will be
presented.
The classic prediction for the heat-transfer coefficient for pool boiling of
water at atmospheric pressure is shown in Figure 32.

48

The tests were conducted by immersing a heated wire in a container of

water. In the boiling regime AB the boiling is called nucleate boiling, where
bubbles form on the surface and rise through the pool. The equation of the
curve is approximately
q
Ct 3to4
A
where

q = rate of heat transfer, W

A = heat-transfer area, m2
C = constant
t = difference in temperature between metal surface and boiling fluid,

K
To write the equation in another form divide both sides by t
q
hr Ct2to3
At

where hr is the boiling coefficient, W/(m2.K). The value of hr increases as the

temperature difference increases, which physically are due to the greater
agitation. The disturbance frees the bubbles of vapor from the metal surface
sooner and allows the liquid to come into contact with the metal.
The rate of evaporation can increase to a peak, point B, where so much
vapor cover the metal surface that the liquid can no longer intimately contact
the metal. A further increase in the temperature difference decreases the
rate of heat transfer.
The graph in Figure 32 is useful in predicting the trends for heat transfer
coefficients for boiling outside tube bundles. Hoffmann summarized the work
of several investigators to provide the band shown in Figure 33.

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6.12

Boiling inside tubes

When refrigerant boils inside the tubes, the heat-transfer coefficient
changes progressively as the refrigerant flows through the tube. The
refrigerant enters the evaporator tube with a low fraction of vapor. As the
refrigerant proceeds through the tube, the fraction of vapor increases,
intensify the agitation and increasing the heat-transfer coefficient. When the
refrigerant is nearly all vaporized, the coefficient drops off to the magnitude
applicable to vapor transferring heat by forced convection. Figure 34 shows
local coefficients throughout a tube for three different levels of temperature.

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The heat-transfer coefficient is highest for the high evaporating

temperature, probably because at high evaporating temperatures and
pressures the vapor density is high, permitting a greater fraction of the metal
to be wetted with liquid.
6.13

Pressure drop in tubes

The pressure of the refrigerant drops as it flows through tube-type
evaporators. The effect of pressure drop on system performance is that the
compressor must pump from a lower suction pressure, which increases the
power requirement. On the other hand a high refrigerant velocity can be
achieved if more pressure drop is permitted, and this high velocity improves
the heat-transfer coefficient. Typical pressure drops for air-conditioning
evaporators are 15 to 30 kPa.

7. Expansion Devices
The last of the basic elements in the vapor-compression cycle, after the
compressor, condenser, and evaporator, is the expansion device. The purpose of
the expansion device is twofold: it must reduce the pressure of the liquid
refrigerant, and it must regulate the flow of refrigerant to the evaporator.
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7.1Capillary tubes
The capillary tube serves almost all small refrigerant systems and its
application extends up to refrigerating capacities of the order of 10 kW. A
capillary tube is 1 to 6 m long with an inside diameter generally from 0.5 to
0.2 mm. The name is a misnomer, since the bore is too large to permit
capillary action. Liquid refrigerant enters the capillary tube, and as it flow
through the tube, the pressure drops because of friction and acceleration of
the refrigerant. Some of the liquid flashes into vapor as the refrigerant flows
through the tube.
Numerous combinations of bore and length are available to obtain the
desired restriction. Once the capillary tube has been selected and installed,
however, the tube cannot adjust to variations in discharge pressure, suction
pressure, or load. The compressor and expansion device must arrive at
suction and discharge conditions which allow the compressor to pump from
the evaporator the same flow rate of refrigerant that the expansion device
feeds to the evaporator. A condition of unbalanced flow between these two
components must necessarily be temporary.
7.2Selection of a capillary tube
The designer of a new refrigeration unit employing a capillary tube must
select the bore and length of the tube so that the compressor and tube fix a
balance point at the desired evaporating temperature. Final adjustment of the
length is most often cut and try. A longer tube than desired is first installed
in the system with the probable result that the balance point will occur at too
low an evaporating temperature. The tube is shortened until the desired
balance point is reached.
7.3Graphical method of capillary tube selection
Graphs to facilitate the selection of capillary tubes are based on data by
Hopkins and revised with data by Whitesel. The first graph (Figure 35)
presents the refrigerant flow rate as a function of the entering pressure to the
capillary tube for a tube that is 1.63 mm in diameter and 2.03 m long.

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The various curves in Figure 36 represent performance at a variety of inlet

conditions-magnitudes of subcooling and fraction of vapor.

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The companion graph to Figure 35 is the one in Figure 36, presenting

correction factors to the flow rate of Figure 35 for other lengths and
diameters.
7.4Constant-pressure expansion valve
The constant-pressure expansion valve maintains a constant pressure at
its outlet, the entrance to the evaporator. It senses the evaporator pressure,
and when that pressure drops below the control point, the valve opens wider.
When the evaporator pressure rises above the control point, the valve
partially closes.
7.5Float Valves
The float valve is a type of expansion valve which maintains the liquid at a
constant level in a vessel or an evaporator. A float switch which opens
completely when the liquid level drops below the control point and closes
completely when the level reaches the control point will give the same net
performance as a modulating type of float control.
7.6Superheat-controlled (thermostatic ) expansion valve
The most popular type of expansion device for moderate-sized
refrigeration systems is the superheat-controlled valve, usually called a
thermostatic expansion valve. The name may be misleading because control
is actuated not by the temperature in the evaporator but the magnitude of
superheat of the suction gas leaving the evaporator. The superheat
expansion valve regulates the rate of flow of liquid refrigerant in proportion to
the rate of evaporation in the evaporator. Figure 37 is a photograph of a
thermostatic expansion valve.

7.7Manufacturers ratings to thermostatic expansion valves.

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The catalogs of manufacturers of expansion valves usually show the

refrigerating capacity associated with the flow rate of which the valve is
capable. In order to provide some reserve capacity, most manufacturers show
the refrigerating capacity at perhaps 75 percent of the full flow rate of the
valve. The flow rate through the valve is a function of the pressure difference
across the valve, and the velocity through the fully opened valve can be
computed from the hydraulic formula
ms
Velocity C 2 pressure
difference
(44)
where C is an experimentally determined constant and the pressure
difference is in kPa. Although the refrigerant following the throttling process
in the valve is a mixture of vapor and liquid. Equation (44) applies to liquid
because the vaporization does not occur until after the fluid has passed
through the valve. The liquid is momentarily in a metastable condition.
Example No. 10
The catalog of an expansion valve manufacturer specifies a refrigerating
capacity of 45 kW for a certain valve when the pressure difference across the
valve is 500 kPa. The catalog ratings apply when vapor-free liquid at 37.8 C
enters the expansion valve and the evaporator temperature is 4.4 C. What is
the expected rating of the valve when the pressure difference across it is
1200 kPa?
Given:
Refrigerating capacity = 45 kW
Pressure difference = 500 kPa
At 37.8 C entering expansion valve.
Evaporator temperature is 4.4 C
Required:
Expected rating when pressure difference is 1200 kPa.
Solution:
ms
Velocity C 2 pressure
difference
With all other data as constant except for pressure difference and
refrigerating capacity.
ms
Refrigeratin
g Capacity
2 pressure
difference
Then:
New Refrigerating Capacity
1200kPa
45kW
500kPa
= 69.7 kW (answer)
7.8Electric expansion valve

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The electric expansion valve, shown schematically in Figure 38, uses a

thermistor to sense the presence of liquid in the outlet stream of the
evaporator.

When no liquid is present, the temperature of the thermistor increases,

which drops its resistance and permits a greater current flow through the
heater at the valve. The valve is thereby opened, allowing an increased
refrigerant flow rate. One of the applications of the electric expansion valve is
for heat pumps, where the flow rate of refrigerant is reversed in order to
change from heating to cooling. Since its control is independent of refrigerant
pressures, the electric expansion valve can function with flow through the
valve in either direction.
END

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