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S0263-8223(15)00913-7
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.compstruct.2015.09.053
COST 6898
To appear in:
Composite Structures
Please cite this article as: Baumgart, C., Ehinger, D., Weigelt, C., Krger, L., Aneziris, C.G., Comparative study of
TRIP/TWIP assisted high density composite honeycomb structures under compressive load, Composite
Structures (2015), doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.compstruct.2015.09.053
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Introduction
Metastable high-alloyed austenitic steels are known to exhibit different deformation
mechanisms. In addition to dislocation glide, the steels can respond to mechanical
deformation by a phase transformation from austenite to -martensite and -martensite,
respectively denoting the TRansformation Induced Plasticity (TRIP)-effect. Besides
deformation twinning is possible which is established as TWinning Induced Plasticity
(TWIP)-effect [13]. Both effects imply a great increment of strength without a reduction
of ductility and are therefore of high interest in research for safety and crash related
applications [4,5].
The fundamental reason of the TRIP-effect is the difference between the Gibbs free
energy of austenite and martensite. Below transition temperature T0 martensite
becomes the stable phase whereas the first percentage of athermal martensite forms by
exceeding the nucleation threshold at martensite start temperature MS. Through the
presence of an external load a magnitude of mechanical work is added to the chemical
driving force for martensite formation effecting a shift of martensite start to increased
temperatures between Ms and To. Principally, the lowest amount of mechanical work is
required for -nucleation followed by the to transition. The direct occurrence of martensite is possible but less frequently observed. Equal to an essential minimum of
mechanical work for triggering the TRIP-effect exists a maximum input which limits the
temperature of deformation induced martensite occurrence to Md. Also for the TWIPeffect a critical stress has to be applied. However, in contrast to the TRIP-effect it is less
temperature-dependent [6]. The driving force of both martensite and twin formation is
strongly affected by the chemical composition. Austenite stabilization elements are for
example Ni, C, N as well as Mn while Cr, Mo and Si constrain the austenitic area [79].
The elements and their weighting referring to austenite formation inhibiting and
promoting character are summarized in the chrome- and nickel-equivalent. Both
equations according to Wei et al. [10] are given in Eq. 1 and Eq. 2. With the aid of the
nickel-equivalent Jahn et al. [11] determined an equation for the estimation of martensite
start temperature of CrMnNi-steels (Eq. 3) and thus a parameter for qualitative
description of the austenite stability.
Creq = %Cr + %Mo + 1,5%Si + 0,5%W + 0,9%Nb + 4%Al + 4%Ti + 1,5%V
[1]
+ 0,9%Ta
Nieq = %Ni + 30%C + 18%N + 0,5%Mn + 0,3%Co + 0,2%Cu - 0,2%Al
2
[2]
[3]
[4]
Furthermore, the addition of stiffer and stronger components such as ceramics often
provide a further opportunity to enhance the strength of steel. The load transfer from the
matrix to the reinforcement and the different deformability of both components results in
an increase of strength being dependent on volume fraction, shape and orientation of
the added phase. Indirect strengthening effects of strain hardening arise through the
differences of thermal expansion coefficient during manufacturing process. Guo et al.
[17] were one of the first research groups who combined a steel occupying the TRIP
effect with metastable zirconia. Under dynamic loading and for certain volume fractions
of zirconia an obvious increase of flow stress was achieved. The concept of imbedding
partially stabilized ceramic particles within a transformable matrix can imply
microstructure effects which additionally contribute to strengthening. Firstly, the added
particles often own an edged and spattered shape. This leads to the formation of stress
concentrations under external load resulting in an assisted TRIP-effect occurrence.
Secondly, the induced strain hardening of the steel matrix triggers the martensitic
transformation of cubic or tetragonal zirconia into monoclinic modification by exceeding
the threshold stress. Hence, a further amount of strain is added due to the related
volume expansion of approximately 4% and thus an additional martensite fraction built
[18,19].
In contrast to previous investigations on high density honeycomb composite structures
based on 18Cr10Ni-matrices [2022], this paper concerns the deformation behavior of
two TRIP/TWIP assisted steels with an increased manganese content and a probably
enhanced TRIP effect due to the lower nickel content. The influence of the different
microstructure mechanisms on the characteristic deformation stages of the cellular
The disparate strength levels of the 16-7-6 and 16-7-9 honeycombs are caused by the
different effective deformation mechanisms as indicated by the calculated stacking fault
energies. SEM/EBSD-images of 16-7-6 demonstrate the formation of a higher density of
deformation bands providing nucleation sides for the -martensite at their intersection
points (Fig. 4 a.). With increased plastic strain the bands become wider and thus the
amount of oval lancet-shaped martensite grows. In the microstructure of 16-7-9 matrices
(Fig. 4 b.) stacking fault arrangements indicating twins and -martensite are contained
but no -martensite nuclei which was also confirmed by EBSD measurements. The
determination of ferromagnetic content on samples cut out of center regions of the
honeycombs verifies the observations. In case of 16-7-6 an average value of 46%
attributed to ferromagnetic -martensite was measured at 50% technical strain whereas
the 16-7-9-based honeycomb sections revealed only 2% (particularly delta-ferrite).
However, in comparison to other honeycombs with similar high density [29] examined in
out-of-plane compression mode both tested matrices exceed the collapse as well as the
plateau strength of the reference material. Consequently, 16-7-6- and 16-7-9-structures
possess a higher specific energy absorption capability.
The addition of Mg-PSZ results in a continuous enhancement of proof stress and plastic
compression stress (Fig. 3) as well as an increase of specific energy absorption
capability (SEAM, Fig. 5) for both steel matrices in the pre-buckling stage up to certain
deformation degrees. Nevertheless, the composite structures with the highest volume
fraction of Mg-PSZ exhibit the lowest crush resistance (maximum stress) and a reduced
strain hardening in the second phase of pre-buckling. In Fig. 6 the normalized work
) calculated by the derivation of the true stress strain curve is plotted.
hardening rate (/
It is evident that the 16-7-6 based cell wall materials exhibit a higher work hardening rate
as compared to the 16-7-9 variants. Moreover, especially in the case of the 16-7-6
matrix materials, the initial work hardening rate at the onset of the plastic pre-buckling
stage rises with increasing Mg-PSZ volume fraction. However, the work hardening rate
of the composite structures achieves a less pronounced maximum and becomes zero at
significantly lower plastic failure strains. Similar results were obtained for the 16-7-9
batches, whereby their strain hardening goes up to higher deformation degrees because
of the higher ductility (viz. fracture strain) of the TWIP steel. At lower strain levels, the
particle reinforcement causes an enhancement of specific energy absorption. But the
arising damage in the second phase of pre-buckling results in a reduced energy
absorption capability at Co, except for the 16-7-6 honeycombs containing 5 vol.-% MgPSZ (Fig. 5). Besides the decrease in work hardening rate becomes more pronounced
after structural collapse and the oscillation of stress at the plateau stage is of higher
frequency in the composite matrices.
The increased flow stress level and the enhanced initial work hardening rates of the
composite structures are a result of the distinctive resistance to dislocation glide offered
by the Mg-PSZ particles. Because of the large particle size the ceramic embeddings can
not be considered as classical obstacles but provide interfaces which cannot easily be
overcome by dislocations. The free rotation of austenitic steel grains is impeded [19].
Additionally, the different thermal expansion behaviors of the single components lead to
the generation of residual stress fields, local distortions and thus to accumulation of
dislocations along the steel/ceramic interface (see Fig. 4c).
The microstructural damage in the composite honeycombs appeared in the form of
interfacial debonding/cracking and particle fracture. The brittle interfacial layer
(described in chapter a) is uncapable to resist, absorb or even transfer the applied load
originating from the matrix. Besides cracks in the layer and particles propagating parallel
to loading direction as well as total fracture of Mg-PSZ particles are induced. Therefore,
in the case of 16-7-6 based materials, an extensive martensitic phase transformation of
the matrix is prevented which explains also the absence of sigmoidal shape in the
stress-strain curve and extreme points in the work hardening rate. Furthermore, the
described microstructure evolution strongly affects the macroscopic failure. While the
non-reinforced samples show continuous plastic hinges running diagonal from the
outside corners into the middle of the honeycombs (Fig. 7 a, b), the composite structures
especially of the 16-7-6 matrices exhibit multiple fractured inner cell walls and some
cracks in the outer skin (Fig. 7 c, d).
The aim of utilizing the martensitic phase transformation in the Mg-PSZ particles for an
additional strengthening effect could not be achieved due to the obvious high amount of
the non-transformable monoclinic Mg-PSZ in the initial sintered state (EBSD-map/Fig.
2). Nevertheless, even without the presence of this mechanism the investigated CrMnNihoneycombs provide a comparable or higher performance with respect to the magnitude
of collapse stress and failure strain concerning different honeycombs reported in
literature (Tab. 2). In principal the comparative analysis shows that normalized collapse
stress increases with increasing relative density [28,30] and the honeycombs made out
of steel are superior to those manufactured out of aluminum [22,29,31,32]. Under
consideration of the highest achieved normalized collapse stresses only the squarecelled honeycombs of Heyes et al. [31] possessing a maraging steel matrix exceed the
strength level of the investigated 16-7-6 honeycombs. However, structural failure is
initiated at strains less than 15%, so that 16-7-6 honeycombs with a pronounced prebuckling stage and failure strains of 35% are able to absorb more energy till structural
strain rates. Consequently, a higher amount of obstacles are operant and a higher stress
is required for plastic flow. The decrease of medium and dynamic flow stress before
reaching the structural collapse can be mainly attributed to material softening due to
quasi-adiabatic sample heating during plastic compressive deformation, as already
proven in [33]. In the case of dynamic impact compression at 180 s-1, the contribution of
deformation heat on softening is less pronounced or becomes only significant at higher
strain levels because of shortened test time. In contrast to this, at medium strain rates
the dislocations have enough time to annihilate and to show cross-slip. Furthermore, the
driving force for -martensite formation is reduced. Hence, only 27% ferromagnetic
phase fraction could be measured for the dynamically deformed 16-7-6 sample at
technical strains of 35% whereas 42% are obtained for honeycombs subjected to quasistatic compression.
The difference of flow behavior at 180 s-1 of the 9% nickel containing material relates to
the varying deformation mechanisms. In contrast to the TRIP-effect, the trigger stress for
TWIP-effect occurrence is less temperature sensitive. Furthermore, deformation
twinning can be promoted by high stress concentrations and high local strain rates. Thus
the deformation is supported by twinning and the strength level continues although
quasi-adiabatic heating accompanies the deformation process. In the case of medium
strain rate and higher deformation degrees, the stress-reducing thermally-activated
dislocation glide processes become dominant, as similar to the 16-7-6 material.
The strain rate sensitivity of low density aluminum honeycombs reported in literature
acts differently. Due to the absence of a distinct pre-buckling stage the yield strength is
equivalent to the collapse strength initiating the plateau stage. With increasing strain rate
the collapse stress ( > 10 s-1) as well as the plateau stress increases [34,35].
Deformation heat probably doesnt affect the deformation behavior with regard to
material softening due to low density and thus a fast heat exchange.
By considering the martensite start temperatures (given in Tab. 1), a lower test
temperature can either elevate dislocation hardening, the TRIP effect or initiate a
transition from TWIP- to TRIP-controlled deformation. In this context, a reduction in test
temperature to -60 C cause an increase in compression stress over a wide range of
strain (Fig. 9).
Moreover, the strain hardening slope increases and reflects a sigmoidal shape attributed
to
strain-induced
a'-martensite
formation.
Due
to
temperature
anomaly
of
smaller grain size of the tested specimens in comparison to the samples used to set up
the empirical equation in (Eq. 3).The high quantity of -martensite in the 16-7-6 samples
represents the reason for the lower achieved collapse strains. On the one hand
martensitic phase possesses high strength but on the other hand can lead to a reduced
deformability. The plastic deformation at -60 C accompanied by the martensite
formation initiates also a different macroscopically failure behavior of the honeycomb
structures, as Fig. 10 demonstrates. In the 16-7-9 structures the inner cell walls are
multiple-fragmented (Fig. 10 b) in contrast to the uniformly formed plastic hinges
received at 20 C (Fig. 10 a). Furthermore, the honeycombs of CrMnNi-steel 16-7-6
exhibit a pronounced shear-band formation which run diagonally through the sample
volume and represent a locally concentrated plastic deformation (Fig. 10 c/d). These
results are in accordance with the observed failure mod for honeycomb structures
reported by Mc Farland [37] and Hayes et al. [31] and confirms the assertion of Hayes et
al. that less material ductility, adjusted in this case through the decrease of test
temperature, leads to a change in failure mechanism.
Conclusion and summary
Strain rate and temperature-varied out-of-plane compression tests on high-density
square-celled honeycomb structures made of different CrMnNi-TRIP/TWIP steel
matrices with certain additions of Mg-PSZ particles led to the following results and
findings:
structure failure within the 16-7-9 material is initiated at lower stresses but occurs
at higher strains because of deformation twinning and -formation (TWIP-effect)
the addition of Mg-PSZ increases flow stress and work hardening rate in both
matrices to certain deformation degrees
the formation of a brittle oxidic-layer and the diffusion of magnesium out of MgPSZ is considered to be the reason for high monoclinic zirconia fractions at initial
state and thus the absence of martensitic transformation in the ceramic
increase of strain rate causes an increase of compressive yield strength but also
a decrease in compression stress at elevated strains and especially medium
strain rates due to quasi-adiabatic sample heating
Acknowledgement
The authors thank the German Research Foundation for the financial support of the
Collaborative Research Center TRIP-Matrix-Composites (CRC 799) in which the
presented results were obtained.
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Notation
Steel Mg-PSZ
Chemical composition
C
Cr
Mn
vol.%
16-7-6
16-7-9
Ni
Si
Characteristics
Mo
Creq
Nieq
(wt.%)
SF
MS
[mJ/m]
[C]
0
5
0.04
0.04
15.5
14.7
6.32
6.51
6.13
5.85
0.57
0.59
0.05
0.05
0.02
0.02
16.4
15.6
10.9
10.8
17.8
17.9
-17
-14
10
0.04
15.1
6.11
5.80
0.48
0.03
0.02
15.9
10.4
17.4
-7
0
5
0.04
0.06
16.5
16.7
6.40
6.79
9.36
9.06
0.55
0.54
0.03
0.03
0.02
0.01
17.4
17.5
14.0
14.4
23.5
23.2
-43
-41
10
0.05
15.6
7.00
8.86
0.51
0.03
0.02
16.4
14.1
23.5
-43
Source
Cell type
Aspect
ratio
Material
(H/D)
actual
results
Hayes
[31]
Clark
[32]
Ehinger
[22]
Cot
[28]
Baker
[29]
square
square
triangular
square
square
layers: halfhexagonal/flat
1:1
3:2
1:1
1:1
1:1
3:2
layers: sinewavelike/flat
hexagonal
16Cr7Mn-6Ni
steel
16Cr7Mn-9Ni
steel
Maraging
steel
DRM
18Ni(350)
Maraging
steel
DRM lowMo(HT1)
annealed
Fe-Ni-Co
alloy
hardened
Fe-Ni-Co
alloy
AISI 304
CrNi
304
stainless
steel
304
stainless
steel
5052
aluminum
l=5,08 mm/
Yang
[30]
t=0,0762 mm
hexagonal
2:3
Normalized Collapse
collapse
strain
stress
[MPa] CO [%]
[MPa] CO /
Relative Collapse
density
stress
CO
0,41
523
1271
< 35
0,39
407
1046
< 40
0,25
551
2204
< 15
0,21
375
1786
0,21
105
500
< 10
0,21
179
854
0,34
377
1096
< 40
0,03
0,10
5,3
36
177
363
0,20
226
1131
<1
<5
< 35
no
distinct
peak
0,37
225
608
< 15
0,32
108
338
<5
0,02*
1,64
95
aluminum
<5
0,01*
0,82
59
l=6,35 mm/
t=0,0762 mm
= 2/3t/l [31]
* calculated according to