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Slide1
DyeingandDyestuffs
Howimportantiscolortoyouwhenyouarebuyingclothesorothertextileproducts?Thedyeingprocessisthemeansbywhichcolorisaddedto
textilematerials.Dyescanbeappliedinfiber,yarn,andfabricform.Dyeingisgenerallythoughtofastheuniformapplicationofasinglecolorto
thematerialwithanacceptabledegreeoffastness,orpermanence.Anotherwaytoapplycolortofabricisbyprinting,whichcanproduce
multicoloredpatternareasonthefabric.Printingwillbediscussedinaseparatemodule.
Thecompoundsforaddingcolortotextilematerialsareeitherdyesorpigments.Thesetwotypesofcompoundshaveverydifferentproperties
andapplicationprocedures.Dyesimpartcolorbypenetratingintothefibersinternalstructureonamolecularlevel,whereaspigmentsattachto
thefibersoutersurfaceandareheldtherebyanadhesivebinder.
Althoughtextiledyeinghasexistedforthousandsofyears,theprocedures,techniques,andpracticesarecontinuallychangingduetothe
developmentofnewfibers,dyes,andequipment.Ourunderstandingofthecomplexitiesofthedyeingprocesscontinuestoimprove.Thereforeso
thedyeingbusinesscanbedescribedconcurrentlyasbothancientandmodern.Evenwithallofthetechnologicaladvancementintodaystextile
industry,thedyeingprocessrequiresskillaswellassciencetoproduceconsistent,reproducibleresults.Infact,dyeingisprobablythemost
difficultprocesstocontrolintheproductionofatextileproduct.
Withinthismodule,variousclassesofdyesandthespecificfibersonwhichtheycanbeusedwillbediscussed.Thedyeingprocessandimportant
considerationsforproducinggoodqualitydyedproductswillalsobehighlighted.Finallyvarioustypesofdyeingmachinerywillbeexamined.
DyeingandDyestuffs
Slide2
HistoricalReview
Definition:Theapplicationofcolortothewholebodyofa
textilematerialwithsomedegreeoffastness.
NaturalDyes HistoricalReview
Cochineal
Indigo
Logwood
Madder
Safflower
Saffron
Tyrian purple
Woad
Thefirstsyntheticdyewasdiscoveredaccidentallyin1856byanEnglishchemistnamedWilliamHenryPerkin.Thepurpledyewascalledmauveine
andwasbasedonthechemicalcompoundknownasaniline.Beforethisdiscovery,textilesweredyedfromnaturalsources,withlimitedshade
rangesand,insomecases,verylimitedavailability.Perkinsdiscoverylaunchedthesyntheticdyeindustry,whicheventuallymadepossibleawide
varietyofshadesinhighvolumesatrelativelylowcost.Syntheticdyesprovedtobesuperiortonaturaldyesindepthofcolor,brightness,and
colorfastness.Todayover5,000syntheticdyeshavebeendevelopedandsoldascommercialproducts.Throughtheyears,manyweredeveloped
tobeusedspecificallywithnewsyntheticfibers.
Listedonthisslidearesomenaturaldyesourcesusedtoproducecolorontextiles.Someofthesedyesmaystillbeusedtodayinspecialty
applicationssuchashandicrafts.Thereasonsnaturaldyesarenotusedinhigheramountstodayarenumerous.Theyhavepoorcolorpower,
meaningthatalargeamountofdyeisneededtoproducedeepshades.Theyhavepoorcolorfastnesstolaunderingandsunlightandcanbevery
difficulttoobtain,especiallyinareasonablypureform.Asanexample,carrotsexhibitabrightorangecolorduetotheirnaturaldye,carotene.It
takesapproximatelytwotonsofprocessedcarrotstoyieldtwoouncesofthisdye.Fewpeoplewouldconcludethatthisisawiseuseofcarrots
today.
CochinealproducesabrightredcolorandwasprobablyusedtodyetheBritishRedcoatsduringtheRevolutionaryWar.Itisextractedfromthe
femaleofaninsectthatisnativetoSouthAmericaandMexico.Ittakesapproximately70,000insectstoproduceonepoundofdye.Comparethis
tothefactthatamoderntextiledyeruseshundredsofpoundsofdyeperweek.Today,cochinealisusedcommerciallyasanaturalfoodcoloring.
Indigoisaplantsourceofabluedyethatisgenerallyassociatedwiththecolorofdenimjeans.Thewoadplantisalsoasourceofindigodyes,but
thesedyesareusuallyslightlydarkerincolorthanthosefromtheindigoplantduetothepresenceofimpurities.Today,mostindigodyesare
syntheticallyproduced.
Underproperconditions,fermentedwoodfromthelogwoodtreecanproduceablackcolor.Therootsofthemadderplantproduceareddye.
Flowersfromsafflower,athistlelikeplant,produceredandyellowdyes.Saffronisayellowcolorobtainedfromthecrocusflower.
Historically,wethinkofpurpleasthecolorofroyalty,whichsuggestsadyethatwasverypreciousandvaluable.Infact,Tyrianpurple,abrilliantly
coloredpurpledye,wasnamedfortheMediterraneanportofTyre,anancientPhoeniciancity.Thedyewasfirstproducedinthiscityandwas
obtainedfromthesecretionsofaseasnail.Ittookapproximately12,000snailstoproduceonegramofdye!
DyeingandDyestuffs
Slide3
MaterialsDyed
Fibers
Stockdyeing
Dopedyeing
Yarns
Skeindyeing
Packagedyeing
Beamdyeing
Fabrics
Piecedyeing
Printing
Roller
Application
Resist
Discharge
Flatscreen
RotaryScreen
Tiedyeing
Garments Garmentdyeing
Textilescanbedyedinfiber,yarn,fabric,orgarmentform.Fabricdyeing,sometimescalledpiecedyeing,isthemostfrequentwaytoapplycolor,
butfiberlimitationsanddesignorenduserequirementssometimesdictatethatthematerialbedyedinfiber,yarn,orgarmentform.
DyeingandDyestuffs
Slide4
MaterialsDyed Fibers
Colorcanbeaddedtofibersintwoways:1)stockdyeingand2)dopedyeing,alsocalledsolutiondyeing.Stockdyeingreferstodyeinginfiber
form.Thefibersamplegoesthroughthedyeingprocessjustasafabricwould.Specialequipmentfixturessuchasperforatedbasketsarenecessary
toholdthefiberbundleandtoallowpenetrationofthedyebath.Itmayalsobenecessarytoscourorbleachthefiberpriortodyeing.Indopeor
solutiondyeing,coloredpigmentsareputintothepolymermeltorsolutionpriortoextrusionofthefiber.Thepigmentparticlesarethus
containedwithinthefibersphysicalstructure.Solutiondyeingisrestrictedtocertainsyntheticfibersandisparticularlyimportantfor
polypropylenefibers,whichcannotbedyedusingconventionalmeans.Solutiondyedfibersgenerallyhaveexcellentfastnessproperties.However,
theapplicationofcolorearlyinthetextileprocessingchainincreasesthecostofthewasteateachsubsequentprocessingstepandlimitsflexibility
inchangingthecoloroftheendproducttomeetfashionexpectations.
Anexampleofusingfiberdyeingtoproduceadesigneffectisaheatherstyle,inwhichtwoormorefibertypesaredyeddifferentcolorsandthen
blendedtogetherintoayarnandsubsequentfabric.Insomecases,onefibercomponentisleftundyedaltogether.Manygraycolored
sweatshirtsareheatherstylesproducedbytheblendingofblackandwhiteornaturalcoloredfibercomponents.
DyeingandDyestuffs
Slide5
DopeorSolutionDyeing
Indopeorsolutiondyeing,coloredpigmentsarepartofthepolymermeltorsolutionpriortotheextrusionofthefiber.Thepigmentparticlesare
thuscontainedwithinthefibersphysicalstructure.Inthisvideopigmentparticlesaremixedwithpolymerpelletspriortomeltingforextrusion.
Dopedyeingresultsinthedirectextrusionofcoloredfilaments.Dopedyeingisrestrictedtocertainsyntheticfibersandisparticularlyimportantfor
polypropylenefibers,whichcannotbedyedbyconventionalmeans.Initially,thepolypropylenepelletsweresubjectedtoagreenpigment.This
wasreplacedbytheredpigmentseenearlier.Noticethechangeincolorofthefilamentbeingextruded.Thechangefromgreenpigmenttothe
redpigmentcanbeseeneasilyonthetakeuppackage.
DyeingandDyestuffs
Slide6
MaterialsDyed Yarns
Yarndyeingisalsochosenfordesignpurposes.Forexample,toachievestripesinashirtcomposedof100%cotton,theonlytwooptionsareeither
toprintthefabricortousedyedyarnsinthefabricconstruction.Yarndyeingtypicallyproducesmuchhighercolorqualitythanprintingandis
preferredbyconsumersforhigherqualityproducts.
Yarnscanbedyedinskeinformorbywindingtheyarnontoapackagecalledadyetube.Skeindyeingisusedforbulkyyarnslikewooloracrylic
thatshouldnotbewoundundertensiononapackage.Theskeins,orloopsofyarn,hanglooselyduringthedyeingprocessasthedyebath
cascadesoverandthroughtheyarns.
Mostyarnsaredyedonapackagemachine.Thepackagesarewoundonperforateddyetubesthatareplacedonperforatedspindlesinthe
machine.Yarntensioncontrolduringthepackagewindingprocessandconsistencyofthepackagedensityarekeyvariablesthatmustbe
accuratelycontrolledtoobtainreproducible,highqualitydyeingresults.
Themachineisdesignedtoallowflowofthedyebaththroughtheyarnpackageinbothdirections,thatis,fromtheinsideofthepackagetothe
outsideofthepackageorfromtheoutsidetotheinside.Thisresultsincompletepenetrationofthefibersintheyarn.Thefeaturesofthepackage
dyeingmachinewillbediscussedlaterinthismodule.
Warpyarnscanalsobedyedwhilewoundonawarpbeaminaprocesssimilartopackagedyeing.
DyeingandDyestuffs
Slide7
MaterialsDyed Fabrics
Fibers
Stockdyeing
Dopedyeing
Yarns
Skeindyeing
Packagedyeing
Beamdyeing
Fabrics
Piecedyeing
Printing
Roller
Application
Resist
Discharge
Flatscreen
RotaryScreen
Tiedyeing
Garments Garmentdyeing
Beamdyeingmorecommonlyreferstofabricdyeing.Thefabriciswoundinopenwidthonalargeperforatedbeam,thedyeliquorflowsfrom
insidethebeamtotheoutsideofthefabriclayers,andthentheflowdirectionisreversed.Beamdyeingisadvantageousforfabricsthatwouldbe
easilycreased,wrinkled,orstretchedbyothertypesofdyeingequipment.Fabricdyeingisthemostwidelyuseddyeingtechniquefortextile
products,givingthemostconsistentcolorqualityandthehighestproductionoutputofanymethod.
Singleormulticoloredpatternscanbeappliedtofabricsintheprintingprocess.Thevarioustypesofprintingmethodsincludeengravedroller,
flatscreen,androtaryscreen.Thesewillbediscussedinaseparatemodule.
Tiedyeingisaspecialtechniqueusedongarments,particularlytshirts.Thegarmentisboundortiedinknots,dippedinadyebath,untiedand
retiedwithadifferentknotpattern,anddippedintodifferentcolordyebaths.Theprocesscanberepeateduntilthedesiredpatternisproduced.
Thistechniqueisasmuchartasitistextiledyeing.
DyeingandDyestuffs
Slide8
MaterialsDyed Garments
Fibers
Stockdyeing
Dopedyeing
Yarns
Skeindyeing
Packagedyeing
Beamdyeing
Fabrics
Piecedyeing
Printing
Roller
Application
Resist
Discharge
Flatscreen
RotaryScreen
Tiedyeing
Garments Garmentdyeing
Garmentdyeinghasgainedpopularityinrecentyearsforawidevarietyofproducts.Traditionally,garmentdyeinghasbeenusedforsweaters,
hose,andsocks.Today,productssuchascasualslacks,golfshirts,andshortsaredyedingarmentform.Garmentwetprocessingofjeansand
othercasualwearallowstheuseoftremendouscreativitytodevelopalltypesofnewproductsandhasbecomeaworldwidefashionbusiness.
Dyeingingarmentformdelayscolorselectionuntiltheendproductandhastheadvantageofafasterresponsetimetochangesinthecoloror
fashionmarket.However,colorqualityandreproducibilityarenotasgoodinthismethodaswithfabricdyeing,andadditionaltechnical
considerationsexist.Thesewingthreadmustbeofthesamefibercontentasthegarment,oritwilldyedifferentlyornotdyeatall.Buttons,
buckles,sequins,orzippersonthegarmentmustbeabletowithstandthedyeingprocesswithoutdamage.Seams,folds,pleats,andcuffsofthe
garmentmustdyetothesamecolorlevelasthebody.Themachineryusedforgarmentdyeingissimilartothattraditionallyusedincommercial
laundryfacilities.Comparedtootherdyeingequipment,garmentmachineshavelowproductionoutputs,andifagarmentisdefective,the
manufacturerlosestheentirevalueofthegarmentratherthanasmallyardageoffabric.
DyeingandDyestuffs
Slide9
DyeingObjectives
Shade
FastnessProperties
Cost
Inorderofimportance,theprimaryobjectivesofthedyeingprocessare:1)tomatchthedesiredshade,2)toachievetherequiredcolorfastness
properties,and3)tomeetthefirsttwoobjectivesinthemostcostsavingmannerpossible,thusmaximizingprofit.Thesinglelargestcauseof
secondsinthetextileindustryisoffshade,orfailingtomatchtheshadestandardwithinacceptablelimitsagreeduponbetweenthesupplierand
customer.TheColorModuleoftheTextileFundamentalsseriesdiscussedthemanyfactorsaffectingthevisualperceptionofashadeandits
evaluationcomparedtoastandard.
Colorfastnessofadyeonatextileproducthasmanyconsiderations.Adyedmaterialmayneedtopossessfastnesstolaundering,light,crockingor
rubbing,heat,bleach,solvents,andperspiration,tonamejustafew.TheAmericanAssociationofTextileChemistsandColorists(AATCC)publishes
nofewerthan28testmethodstodeterminethefastnesspropertiesoftextiles.Thenecessaryfastnesspropertiesforamaterialdependonitsend
use.Forexample,fastnesstolightwouldbeofprimaryimportanceforafabricusedasautomobileupholsterybutnotforfabricusedtomake
underwear.Lightfastnessofadyeisprimarilyaffectedbythespecificdyesmolecularstructure,whereasothertypesoffastnesscanbeaffectedby
thedyeclassused,themechanismbywhichthedyeisheldinthefiber,andtheuseofproperdyeapplicationtechniques,inadditiontothedyes
molecularstructure.
DyeingandDyestuffs
Slide10
TheColorModulelistedthreecomponentsnecessarytohavecolor:alightsource,anobserver,andanobject,includingitssurroundings.Variation
inanyoneofthesecomponentswillchangetheobservedcolor.Forproperevaluationandjudgmentoftextileshades,allofthesefactorsmustbe
considered.Astandardlightsource,normallyD65,whichisanartificialdaylight,shouldbeusedinalightboxthatispaintedastandardgray
backgroundcolor.Theobservershouldwearneutralcoloredclothingandshouldallowhisorhereyestoadjusttothesurroundingsbeforejudging
color.Topreventeyefatigue,theobservershouldresthiseyesoccasionallyandrefrainfromstaringatthefabric.Anobserverwhoistiredorwho
hashadadifficultdaymayhavedifficultyinshadeassessment.Thesurfacecharacteroftextilefabricspresentsanadditionalchallengetovisual
shadeevaluation.Fabricswithdirectionaleffects,suchaspilefabricsorcorduroy,shouldbeevaluatedandcomparedtoastandardwiththe
sufacedirectionorientedconsistently.
Colorinstrumentscanbeusedtohelpwiththeprocessofshadeevaluation.However,theultimatedecisionofacolormatchistheagreement
betweensupplierandcustomer.Allpeopledirectlyinvolvedinshadematchingshouldhavecolornormalvisionandbeproperlytrained.They
shouldalsobewellversedinthedocumentedandacceptedpracticesforconsistentshadeevaluation,bothinstrumentallyandvisually.
DyeingandDyestuffs
Slide11
Adyedtextilematerialshouldexhibitashadethatisconsistentfromdyelottodyelot.Withinadyelot,thecolorshouldbeuniformlydistributed
overthefabric,withnostreaksorshadevariation.Thedyeshouldalsobecompletelypenetratedthroughouteachindividualfiberinthematerial.
Failuretoaccomplishcompletepenetrationresultsinringdyeing,inwhichcrosssectionsofindividualfibersshowdyenearthesurfaceofthe
fiberbutnotintheinterior,asillustratedonthisslide.
Ringdyedfibersmayeventuallyshowwhiteareasduringwearasthedyedouterfibersurfacesareabradedaway.
Inpractice,oneofthebestthingsawetprocessorcandotoproducegoodqualitydyeingistodoagoodjobinpreparation,inparticular,scouring
andbleaching,ofthefabric.
Differentfabricconstructionspresentdifferenttypesofproblemsforthedyerandfinisher.Duringallwetprocessesfrompreparationthrough
dyeingandfinishing,knitsmustbehandledtominimizetensiononthefabricatallsteps.Thestretchynatureofknittedfabricscausesfiberstress
onthemolecularlevelunderappliedtension.Thestressesbuildasthefabricisstretched,andtheyarereleasedbymolecularrearrangementwhen
thetensionisremoved.Thestressreliefresultsinfabricshrinkageintheendproduct,especiallyafterthefirstlaunderingcyclebytheconsumer!
Endproductshrinkagecanbeminimizedbypreventingtensiononthefabricduringwetprocessingand,ineffect,allowingthefabrictorelaxand
shrinkduringtheprocessingsteps.
Wovenfabricsaremorestablethanknittedfabrics,thereforetensionduringwetprocessingisnormallynotaproblemwiththem.Insometightly
wovenfabrics,however,thecontactpointsoftheinterlacedwarpandfillingyarnscanhinderpenetrationbythedyesolution,resultinginuneven
dyeing.
DyeingandDyestuffs
Slide12
TypesofDyeing
DyeingandDyestuffs
Slide13
ExhaustionDyeing
Thetwoclassificationsofdyeingprocesses,basedontheamountoffabricbeingdyed,are:exhaustion,whichissometimescalledbatchdyeing,
andcontinuousdyeing.Batchdyeingistheprocessfordyeingafiniteamountoffabric,yarn,orfiber,whereasthecontinuousdyeingprocess
subjectsacontinuouslymovingwidthoffabrictoaconcentrateddyesolutioninaprocesscalledpadding.Inbatch,orexhaustion,dyeing,afixed
amountoffabricisplacedintoabathcontainingaspecificweightofdye.Asdyeingproceeds,thedyegraduallymoves,orexhausts,fromthebath
tothefabric.Thedyeingprocessrequirestimeandagitationtocausemovementofthedyemoleculestothefibersurfaceandtoallowfor
penetrationintothefiber.Theprocessalsorequiresagradualincreaseintemperaturetoopenupthefiberstructuresothatitcanacceptthedye
moleculesandtoshortenthetotaltimeofdyeing.Ifthetemperaturerisestooquickly,thedyewillnotbedistributeduniformlyandunevendyeing
couldresult.Theendpointofthedyeingprocess,alsoknownasequilibrium,occurswhennomoredyeleavesthebathtomoveintothefabric.By
theendofthedyeingprocess,almostallofthedyeshouldbeinthefabricwithverylittleremaininginthebath.Ifallthedyeisinthefabric,itis
called100%exhaustion,butthisrarelyoccurs.Fractionalexhaustionisdefinedastheratiooftheamountofdyeinthefabrictotheinitialamount
ofdyeinthebath.Thefractionalexhaustionattheendofdyeingvarieswiththeclassofdyeandindividualdyesused.Sometypesofdyesmay
haveonly70%exhaustion,whereasothersmayresultin95%exhaustion.
Theinitialamountofdyeinthebathisdeterminedbythedesireddepthofshadeonthefinishedfabric.Thedepthofshadeissometimesreferred
toasthepercentdyeowfwhichisdefinedasthepercentageofdyebasedontheinitialweightofthefiberorfabric.Forexample,todye100
poundsoffabrictoa1%depthofshadewouldrequireonepoundofdyeintheinitialbath.Depthofshadevaluesoflessthan1%willgenerally
resultinlightorpastelshades;heavyshadescouldrequire4%to5%depthofshadevalues.Inpractice,theselectionofdyesandtheformulation
fortheshadearedeterminedbyperformingtriallaboratorydyeings,calledlabdips,andthenmakingcorrectionsandrepeatingthelabdip
procedureuntiltheproperformulationisobtainedtomatchthestandard.
Anothertermrelatedtothebatchdyeingprocessisliquorratio,definedastheratioofbathweighttofabricweight.Fora10:1liquorratio,100
poundsoffabricwouldrequire1,000poundsofdyebath.Forwater,thiswouldequatetoabout120gallons.Liquorratioistypicallydetermined
bythedyeingmachineryused.Ingeneral,ahighervalueforliquorratiopromotesamoreleveldyeingbutwouldraiseutility,energy,andwaste
treatmentcosts.
Exhaustiondyeingrequirestimeforcompletion.Successfuldyeingcompaniesknowthatgoodprocessingisacompromisebetweenthetime
requiredforthoroughdyepenetrationandtheneedforefficiency.Atypicaldyeingcyclefor100%cottonfabricisapproximatelyeighthourswhile
foracotton/polyesterblend,thecycletimeforthesamebasicshadeisapproximatelytwelvehours.Thespecifictimerequiredforanytextile
batchdyeingdependsonsuchfactorsasdepthofshade,fibercontent,dyeselection,fabricconstruction,andtypeofdyeingequipment.
DyeingandDyestuffs
Slide14
ContinuousDyeing
Incontrasttothebatchprocess,continuousdyeingisnotbasedontheweightofafixedamountoffabric.Continuousdyeingisbestutilizedfor
dyeinglargequantitiesoffabric,usuallywoven,thesameshadelotafterlot.Itdoesnotlenditselftodyeingsmallamountsoffabricortodyeinga
varietyofshades.Incontinuousdyeing,fabricispassedthroughaconcentrateddyesolutioninopenwidthform,followedbysqueezingoutexcess
solutionbetweentwopadderrolls.Thepressureonthepadderrollsisadjustedtogivethedesiredwetpickupofthedyesolutionandshouldbe
consistentacrossthewidthofthefabric.Forexample,a100%wetpickupwouldresultinthefabric,immediatelyafterpaddingandbeforedrying,
weighingtwiceitsoriginaldryweight.Thus,thedepthofshadeinthedyedfabricdependsontheconcentrationofthedyesolutionandthe
percentwetpickup.Theconcentrationofdyeinthepaddersolutionshouldremainessentiallyconstantthroughouttheprocess.
Followingthepadderstep,thefabricmustbepredriedandthenpassedthroughasteameroradryheatsteptopromotepenetrationandfixation
ofthedyemoleculesinthefiber.Unevendryingofthefabricafterpaddingcanresultinmigrationofunfixeddye,leadingtostreaks,blotches,
rings,andgeneralnonuniformity.Afterfixation,thefabriciswashedanddried.Thetimeforthefixationprocessistypicallyfromonetofive
minutes.Inacontinuousoperationrunningat90yardsperminute,asingleyardoffabricpassesfromthepaddertotheendoftheprocess,which
includes,afterwashanddrying,inapproximatelytenminutes.Forbothbatchandcontinuousprocesses,properwashingandrinsingafterdyeingis
criticaltogivegoodfastnesspropertiesinthefinishedgoods.
DyeingandDyestuffs
Slide15
Padder Video
Thevideoillustratessomeoftheconceptsfromthepreviousslide.Continuousdyeingoperationsareusedforflatfabricssuchassheetingorfor
highpilefabricslikeresidentialcarpet.Overall,theprocessyieldshigherproductionefficiencythanbatchdyeingwhileusinglesswaterandenergy
peryardofdyedfabric.However,continuousrangesarecostlytopurchaseandrequirealargeamountoffloorspaceforproperinstallation,
resultinginhighfixedoperatingcosts.Tobecosteffective,largedyelotsarerequired.Recently,continuousrangeshavelostpopularitytobeused
intheapparelmarketduetothewidecolordemandsofthemodernconsumer.
DyeingandDyestuffs
Slide16
DyeingConsiderations
DyeingandDyestuffs
Slide17
Thinkaboutthefactorsthatpromotelevelnessanduniformityofdyeing.Theseincludegoodpreparationofthesubstratepriortodyeingto
promoteuniformabsorptionofthebathandchemicals,goodagitationofthebathandfabricduringdyeing,ahigherliquorratio,andgradual
increaseoftemperaturetoopenthefiberstructuretoreceivethedyemolecules.Possiblecausesofnonleveldyeingarelistedinthisslide.Inthe
dyeingprocess,adequateagitationrequiresmovingthebaththroughthefabric,thefabricthroughthebath,orboth.Mostdyeingequipmentis
designedtoprovidegoodagitationandaproperliquorratio.Ahigherliquorratiopromotesleveldyeingbyallowingthedyemoleculestobemore
evenlydistributedinthebathorthesolutionbeforediffusingormovingtothefibersurfacesandbycontinuallyexposingfabricsurfacestofresh
solution.Ahigherbathratioalsopromoteslubricationofthefabricandminimizesabrasionandstreakscausedbythefabricrubbingagainstitself
duringdyeing.
Therateofdyeingincreaseswithtemperature.Raisingthetemperatureduringdyeingisnecessarytoopentheinternalmolecularstructureofthe
fibertoallowpenetrationofthedye.However,ifthetemperatureisraisedtooquickly,thedyemolecules,intheirhastetobeabsorbedand,in
somecases,chemicallyattachedtothefiber,willnothavetimetodistributethemselvesuniformlyinthefiberbeforetheattachmentoccurs,
resultinginanonleveldyeing.
The"Fibers"learningmodulediscussedtheinternalstructureofthepolymermoleculesinafiber.Fiberscontainbothcrystalline,tightlypacked
molecularregionsandamorphous,openregions.Dyemoleculescanpenetrateonlytheamorphousregions.Whenafabriciscomposedoffibers
withvariableratiosofcrystallinetoamorphousregions,unevendyeuptakecanresult,causingaproblemknownaschemicalbarr.Thetermbarr
generallyreferstostreakinessinaknittedfabric,andchemicalbarrrefersspecificallytostreakscausedbyunevendyeuptake.Mechanicalbarr
hasothercausesnotrelatedtothedyeingprocess,includingvaryingyarncountortwistwithinafabricorpoorlycontrolledtensionduringthe
knittingprocess.Mechanicalbarrisatypicalprobleminfabricscontainingspandex.
DyeingandDyestuffs
Slide18
Inchoosingdyes,themostimportantconsiderationisthefactthatdyeclassesarefiberspecific.Inotherwords,cottoncannotbedyedwiththe
sameclassofdyesusedonpolyester,andpolyestercannotbedyedwiththesameclassofdyesusedoncotton.Sometypicaldyeclassnamesare
direct,reactive,acid,anddisperse.Thisisnotanexhaustivelist,andwellgivemoreinformationlateronthevariousdyeclassesandthefiberson
whichtheyshouldbeused.
Thefactorslistedinthisslideapplytoallclassesofdyes.Recallthattheprimaryobjectivesofdyeing,inorderofimportance,weretomatchthe
shade,toachievetherequisitefastnessproperties,andtoachievethefirsttwoobjectivesinthemosteconomicalway.Thesefactorsare
augmentedtoinclude:choosingdyeswithgoodleveldyeingproperties,determiningwhetherthedyehasthecapabilityofcoveringmechanical
barrthatmayalreadyexistinthefabricpriortodyeing,andensuringthatthedyedoesnotposeatoxicitythreattodyehouseworkersorthe
environment.
Withinaspecificdyeclass,forexampledirectordisperse,manyindividualdyesexist.Eachdyestuffhasagenericname,forexample,DisperseBlue
60,thatspecifiesadyeofaparticularchemicalstructure.Thatparticulardyemaybemadebymorethanonemanufacturer,eachofwhichhasa
specifictradenameforitsproduct.Informationonthetradenamesandsuppliersofallthedifferentdyeclassesandspecificdyescanbeobtained
fromtheonlineBuyersGuideoftheAmericanAssociationofTextileChemistsandColorists(www.aatcc.org).Othersourcesofinformation
aboutdyestuffswouldbetheonlineColourIndexInternational,jointlypublishedbytheSocietyofDyersandColouristsandAATCC(www.colour
index.org).Inaddition,shadecardsprovideinformationforspecificdyes.Thesearepublishedanddistributedbythedyemanufacturers.The
shadecardsprovideusefulinformationonapplicationproceduresandfastnessandlevelingpropertiesofthespecificdye.Shadecardsalsocontain
dyedswatchesthatdemonstratetheexpectedappearanceofthedyesondifferentfabricsatvariousdepthsofshade.
DyeingandDyestuffs
Slide19
ThisdiagramiscalledafishbonediagramandisalsoknownasacauseandeffectorIshikawadiagram,namedafterthemanwhodevisedit.These
diagramsallowanyoutcometobeseparatedintomainprocesscategoriesbranchingoffamainbackbone.Eachprocessisfurtherdividedintosub
processes.Inthisway,keysourcesthatcontributetotheoutcomecanbeidentifiedandtargetedforimprovementwhenproblemsoccur.Fora
typicalmanufacturingprocess,themainprocesscategoriesarereferredtoastheFourMsofMaterials,Machines,Manpower,andMethods.
Theshadereproductionfishbonediagramindicatesthemanypossiblecausesofproblemsthatadyehousemanagerdealswithdaily.Dyeingisa
complex,difficulttocontrolindustrialoperationinwhichaprocessthatoccursonamolecularlevelmustbecarriedoutinhighvolumemachinery
withlargeamountsoffabric,dyes,chemicals,andwater.ThefourcategoriesthatareequivalenttotheFourMsdiscussedabovearelabeled
Materials,Equipment,HumanFactors,andProcesses.TherearealsotwoadditionalmaincategoriesforControlsandLogistics.Mostefficiently
rundyeingoperationshaveseparatedepartmentsdealingwithlogisticssuchasproductionschedules,proceduredevelopment,utilitiesoperation,
andmaintenance.Fromeachmaincategoryinthediagram,additionalfactorsformbranches.Thesebranchescouldbefurthersubdividedif
necessary.
DyeingandDyestuffs
Slide20
DyesonFibers
* Indicatesthatfibermodificationsisrequired
Thischartsummarizesdyeclassesandthefibersonwhichtheycanbeused.Thedyeclassesarelistedacrossthetopofthechart.Forall
classifications,dyesaregenerallyrelativelylargeorganicchemicalstructurescontainingfunctionalgroupscalledchromophoresthatimpartcolor.
Thedyemoleculemayalsocontainchemicalgroupsthatcauseittobewatersolubleortohaveattractiontocertainfibers.Oftheeightdyeclasses
listed,fiveareusedtodyecottonandothercellulosicfibers,includingrayon,flax,jute,ramie,andlyocell.Thedyesusedoncottonandother
cellulosicsaredirects,naphthols,reactives,sulfurs,andvats.Fordyeingcellulosics,reactivedyesarethemostwidelyusedclass.Eachclassofdyes
canvaryinfastnessproperties,applicationmethods,andcost.Forexample,reactivedyesaregenerallyconsideredasaclasswhichhasbetter
washfastnesspropertiesthandirectdyes,buttheyarealsomoreexpensive.However,thefastnesspropertiesandcostdependonthespecific
dyestuff,therefore,generalstatementscomparingtwodyeclassesmaynotapplytoalldyestuffswithineachclass.
Dispersedyescanbeusedonalmostallsyntheticfibers,particularlypolyester.Aciddyesareusedprimarilyonnylon,wool,andsilk,butcanalso
beusedonacrylicfibersandcertainmodifiedrayons.Basicdyesareusedonacrylicfibersandonaspecialtypeofpolyesterknownascationic
dyeablepolyester.Noticethatnoneofthedyeclassesapplytotheolefinfibersofpolypropyleneandpolyethylene.Theonlymethodstoapply
colortothesefibersarebysolutiondyeingwhichincorporatespigmentinthepolymermeltbeforeextrusion,orbyusingapigment/bindersystem
toadherethepigmentstotheouterfibersurfaces.
Dyesareattractedtoandheldwithinthefiberbyvariousmechanisms.Theretentionmechanismsareveryimportantsinceoneoftheprimary
objectivesoftheprocessistoimpartahighdegreeoffastnesstothedyedfabric.Therearefourimportantmechanismsthatapplytomostofthe
dyefibercombinationsshowninthechart.
Thefirstismechanicalentrapmentwherethedyemoleculesarephysicallytrappedinsidethefiber.Thismechanismappliestovatsandsulfurson
cellulose.Thesedyesareinsolubleinwaterbutaremadesolubleduringthedyeingprocesssotheycandiffuseintothefiber.Oncetheyareinside
thefiber,theyarereturnedtotheiroriginal,insolubleformandarethustrappedinsidethefiber,givingexcellentwashfastness.Oxidation
reductionchemicalreactionscausethedyemoleculetochangefromtheinsolubletosolubleformandbackagain.Anotherwaytomechanically
trapadyemoleculeinsideafiberwouldbetocausethereactionoftwosmallermoleculesinsidethefibertocreatealargedyemolecule,which
occurswithnaphtholdyeing.Thesizeofthenewlycreatedmoleculeeffectivelytrapsitwithinthefiber.
Asecondmethodisionicbonding,inwhichthedyemoleculehastheoppositechargetothefiberduringthedyeingprocess.Theoppositecharges
attractandcausetheformationofastrongionicbondbetweenthedyeandthefiber.Thismechanismappliestoaciddyesonnylonandbasicdyes
onacrylic.
Incovalentbonding,athirdmechanism,thedyemoleculechemicallyreactswiththefibertoformacovalentbond,whichoccurswithreactivedyes
oncellulose.
DyeingandDyestuffs
Finally,inpreferentialabsorption,thedyemoleculehasattractionforthefiberbecauseofchemicalsimilaritiesbetweenthetwo.Dispersedyeson
polyesterfollowthismechanism.Dispersedyesareinsolubleinwater;polyesterfibersarehydrophobicandhavelittleattractionforwateraswell.
Asthepolyesterfiberstructureisopenedbyhightemperatureduringdyeing,thedispersedyemoleculesentertheinternalstructureofthefiber,
andtheyareretainedbytheattractiveforcesbetweendyeandfiber.Thedispersedyeisessentiallydissolvedinthepolyesterfiber.
DyeingandDyestuffs
Slide21
Asmentionedearlier,allcellulosicfibers,includingcotton,rayon,andothers,canbedyedwiththesameclassesofdyes.Dyeclassesusedfor
cellulosicfibersaredirects,reactives,vats,sulfurs,andnaphthols.Commercially,themostimportantofthesecategoriesaredirects,reactives,and
vats.Illustratedherearethemechanismsfortheapplicationandretentionofthesethreeclassesofdyestocellulose.Eachofthesethreedye
classesutilizesadifferentmechanismofdyeretention.
Thecellulosepolymercontainschemicalfunctionalgroupscalledhydroxylgroups,symbolizedbyOH,whichcontainoneoxygenandone
hydrogenmolecule.Thesehydroxylgroupsarechemicallyverysimilartowaterandaretheprimaryreasonforthehighlevelofaffinityofcellulosic
fiberstowater.ThefibersintheillustrationsherearethusrepresentedbyCellOH,whichcouldbecotton,rayon,oranyotherfibercomposedof
cellulose.
DyeingandDyestuffs
Slide22
Directdyesarewatersolubleandarerelativelyeasytoapplytocellulosicfibers.Theyarepreferentiallyabsorbedbythefiberandareattracted
andheldtothefiberbysecondarymolecularforcesknownashydrogenbondingand/orVanderWaalsforces.Directdyesdissolvedinwater
becomenegativelycharged,asdocellulosefibers.Inordertoovercomethenaturalrepulsionoftwonegativelychargedcomponents,saltmustbe
addedtothedyebathformulationinconcentrationsrangingfrom5%to25%.Thesaltcanbeeithersodiumchlorideorsodiumsulfate,alsoknown
asGlauberssalt.Thepositivelychargedsodiumionsneutralizethenegativechargeofthefiberandallowthenegativelychargeddyemoleculeto
approachthefiberandbecomefixedbythesecondarymolecularforces.Atypicaldirectdyebathwouldcontaindye,water,salt,andananionic
wettingagent.
Directdyescanhavelimitedwashfastness,whichcanbeimprovedbytheuseofaftertreatmentssuchascationicfixingagentsorformaldehyde.
Aftertreatmentsaregenerallynotnecessaryforlightorpastelshades.Somedirectdyesaredevelopedafterapplicationtothefiberby
treatmentwithacouplingagenttoincreasethesizeofthedyemoleculeinsidethefiber,butthedevelopmentisoftenaccompaniedbyashade
change.
ThethreecategoriesofdirectdyesareknownasA,B,andC.ClassAdyesexhibitgoodlevelingpropertiesinthepresenceoflargeamountsofsalt,
whereasClassCdyesexhaustwellevenwithnosaltaddedbuthavepoorlevelingproperties.ThelevelingofClassCdyesisaccomplishedby
carefullycontrollingthetemperatureriseduringdyeing.
DyeingandDyestuffs
Slide23
Reactivedyes,astheirnameimplies,reactwiththefibertoformacovalentchemicalbond,resultinginexcellentfastnessproperties.Thereaction
betweendyeandfiber,illustratedhere,occursunderalkalineconditionsbetweenapHof9and11.Thegeneralpracticeistoallowthedyeto
exhaustintoandlevelonthefiber,usingsaltandtemperaturecontrol,beforeraisingthepHtoallowthereactiontotakeplace.Aproblemwith
reactivedyesisthecompetingreactionthatoccursbetweendyeandwater,whichhastheeffectofinactivatingthedye.Theinactivateddyeleads
tobathinstability,lowerexhaustionontothefiber,andwasteddye.Unfixeddyemustbethoroughlyremovedbywashingafterdyeingtoimprove
crockfastness.
Reactivedyescanbecategorizedaseithercolddyeingorhotdyeing,anditisbestnottomixthetwotypesinshadeformulations.Colddyeing
typesareappliedataround140degreesF,whereashotdyeingtypesrequiretemperaturesbetween180and200degrees.Reactivedyesgenerally
allowforverybrightshadeswithgoodwashandlightfastness,buttheycanexhibitpoorfastnesstochlorinebleach.
DyeingandDyestuffs
Slide24
Vatdyeshavethebestoverallfastnessproperties,includingfastnesstochlorinebleach,ofanyofthedyesforcellulose,buttheyaremore
complicatedtoapply.Applicationisatwostepprocess.Thedyemustbesolubilizedinwater,appliedtothefiber,andtheninsolubilized,resulting
inamoleculethatismechanicallytrappedinsidethefiber.
Mostvatdyesinusetodayarebasedonachemicalcalledanthraquinone,butafewvatdyesareindigobased.Allvatdyestructurescontainat
leastonecarbonylgroup,illustratedhereasC=O.Thedyesareinsolubleinthisform.Upontreatmentwithsodiumhydroxideandsodium
hydrosulfite,commonlyreferredtoascausticandhydro,thedyereducestoawatersolubleformknownastheleucoform,whichmaybea
differentcolorthantheoriginaldye.Theleucoformofthedyereadilyexhaustsintothefiber,whereitisthenoxidizedbacktoitsinsolubleform.
Theoxidizingchemicalsaretypicallysodiumperborateorhydrogenperoxide.
DyeingandDyestuffs
Slide25
Becauseoftheirhydrophobicnature,dispersedyesarepreferentiallyabsorbedbysyntheticfibers,whichalsotendtobehydrophobic.Themajor
usefordispersedyesisfordyeingpolyester,buttheycanalsobeusedfordyeingnylon,acetate,triacetate,orothersyntheticfibers.The
illustrationdepictstheuseofdispersedyesonpolyester.Thedyesarenotsolubleinwater,butcanbedispersedintheliquidwiththeaidofa
surfactant.Thedyeandthefiberareattractedtoeachother,causingthedyemoleculestomoveordiffusethroughthedyeliquortothesurfaceof
thefiber.However,penetrationintotheinnerregionsofthefiberisinhibitedbyacrystalline,tightlypackedarrangementofpolymerchains.
Penetrationcanbeallowedandenhancedbyoneoftwoways:1)theuseofacarrier,or2)dyeingunderpressuretoachievetemperaturesof265
to275degreesFahrenheit.Acarrierisanorganicchemical,forexample,orthophenylphenolortrichlorobenzene,thatisabsorbedbythefiber,
causingswellingandincreasedmolecularmotion,thusopeningthefibersinternalstructureandallowingforpenetrationofthedyemolecules.
Thesesameeffectscanbeaccomplishedbydyeingattemperatureswellabovetheboilingpointofwater,therefore,inmostcasestoday,pressure
dyeinghasreplacedtheuseofcarriersasthepreferredmethodfordyeingpolyester.Astheillustrationshows,thedyeingtimesforpressure
dyeingtendtobeshorterthanthoseforcarrierdyeing.Inaddition,problemswithresidualcarrierodorandchemicaldisposalcanbeavoided.
Aftersufficienttimehaselapsedtoallowcompletepenetrationofeachfiberbythedyemolecules,thebathiscooled,andtheswollenfiberreturns
toitsoriginalsize.Thebathshouldbecooledgraduallytopreventfibercracking,andthedyedmaterialshouldbegivenathoroughafterwashto
removedunfixedsurfacedyethatwouldresultinpoorwashandcrockfastnessproperties.Thedyedfiberwillinessencebeasolidsolutionof
dispersedyemoleculesinthefiber.Ifthedyeingprocessisproperlyexecuted,adispersedyedpolyesterfabricshouldexhibitexcellent
washfastness.
Dispersedyescanbeclassifiedaslow,medium,orhighenergyasanindicationoftheirmolecularweight,orsize.Lowenergydyeshavethelowest
molecularweight.Ingeneral,asmolecularweightincreases,thepenetrationandlevelingabilityofthedyedecreasesbutthefastnessproperties
improve.Forbestresults,allthedyesinashadeformulationshouldbeofasimilarenergyclass.
DyeingandDyestuffs
Slide26
Polyester DispersedDyeAnimation
Thetextilepolyesterfiberisimmersedinthewaterbaseddyebath.Dispersedyeisaddedtothedyebath.Thedispersedyeissuspendedinthe
waterinfineparticleform.Asthedyebathisheated,thedyeparticlesmovetowardthesurfaceofthefiberbecauseoftheoilynatureofboththe
dyeandthefiber.Asthetemperatureofthedyebathisraisedto265degreesFahrenheitthefiberswells.Theswollenfiberslowlyabsorbsthe
dispersedyeparticles.Thedyeparticlesbreakintomoleculesanddiffuseevenlythroughouttheswollenfiber.Aftertheproperamountofdyeing
time,thefiberiscooledandrinsed.Thiscoolinganddeswellsthefiberandthewaterinsolubledispersedyeistrappedinside.Thefiberisrinsed
prafterwashedtoremoveanyunfixeddyeparticleswhichremainonthefibersurface.
DyeingandDyestuffs
Slide27
Mostlowenergyandsomemediumenergydispersedyescanexhibitapropertycalledsublimation,inwhichtheygofromasoliddirectlytoagasat
sufficientlyhightemperatures.Thesublimation,orThermosol,processisonewaytoapplydispersedyestopolyesterattemperaturesof
approximately400degreesFahrenheit.TheThermosolprocessisacontinuousprocessthatutilizesapadderandatenterframe.Thedyeis
appliedtothepolyesterbypaddingofanaqueousdyedispersion,followedbydryingtogiveauniformlydryfabric.Atthispoint,thedyeparticles
formanevenlydistributedthincrustatthefibersurface.Thefabrictemperatureisthenraisedto400degreestoallowforopeningandswellingof
theinternalfiberstructureaswellassublimationofthedye.Undertheseconditions,completedyepenetrationofthefibercanbeaccomplished
rapidlyinamatterofafewminutes.TheThermosolprocesslendsitselfwelltodyeingcontinuousyardagesof100%polyesterorpolyester/cotton
blendfabrics.
DyeingandDyestuffs
Slide28
Theconcentrateddyebathispaddedontothefiberandsubsequentlydriedtoathindispersedyecrustsurroundingthefiber.Usingadryheatoven,
thetemperatureofthesurroundingairisraisedto400degreesFahrenheit.Atthattemperature,thefiberswells,whilethedyesublimesfromsolid
particlesdirectlytoagaseousdyevapor.Thedyevaporisrapidlyabsorbedanddiffusedrapidlythroughoutthefiber.Thefiberiscooledand
rinsedtoremoveunfixeddyefromthefibersurface.
DyeingandDyestuffs
Slide29
Aciddyesformaverystrongionicbondwiththefiberandareprimarilyusedtodyenylon,wool,andsilk.Allofthesefiberscontainchemical
functionalgroupsknownasamines(NH2)thatbecomepositivelychargedunderacidicconditionsinadyebath.Underthesesameconditions,
aciddyesarenegativelycharged,sothereisastrongattractionbetweentheoppositechargesofdyeandfiber.Aciddyes,sometimescalled
anionicdyes,cangenerallybeappliedatorbelowtheboilingpointofwater,thuspressurizeddyeingequipmentisnotnecessary.
Certainaciddyesarecalledpremetallizedaciddyesbecausetheycontainchromeorcobalttoimprovelightandwashfastnesspropertiesby
formingamordantcomplexwiththefiberandthedye.Themetalsareincorporatedintothedyestructurebythedyestuffmanufacturerandas
suchdonotgenerallyposetoxicityproblems.
Aciddyesaredividedintothreeclassesknownasleveling,milling,andneutraldyeing,alsocalledsupermilling.Levelingaciddyeshavethelowest
molecularweightandneutraldyesthehighest.Basedonthedyemoleculesizeinformation,canyoupredictwhichclasswillhavethebestgeneral
washfastnessandlevelingability?Neutraldyeshavethebestwashfastnessandthelowestlevelingability.Asthenameimplies,neutraldyesare
appliedfromapHof6to7,whilelevelingaciddyesareappliedatapHofapproximately3.Thesethreedyeclasseshavedifferentratesof
exhaustionandmigration,soashadeformulationshouldcontainalldyesfromthesameclasstopromoteleveldyeing.Withnyloninparticular,
levelingcanbeimprovedbytheuseofanauxiliarychemicalcalledaretardertoslowthedyeingrate.Retarderscouldbecompoundssuchas
anionicsurfactantsthatcompetewiththenegativelychargeddyemoleculesforpositivelychargedsitesonthefiberatlowtemperaturesinthe
initialstagesofdyeing.Conversely,cationic(positivelycharged)surfactantswouldbindthemselvestothedyemolecule.Asthetemperatureis
raisedduringthedyeingprocess,theretardersaregraduallyreleasedandreplacedbydyemolecules.Retarderscanbeespeciallycriticaltoobtain
leveldyeingsforpastelshades.
DyeingandDyestuffs
Slide30
Basic,orcationic,dyesbecomepositivelychargedunderacidicconditions.Theveryfirstsyntheticdye,Perkinsmauveine,wasabasicdye.Basic
dyescanproduceextremelybright,evenfluorescent,shades.Thisclassofdyescanbeusedonfibersthatarenegativelychargedbyforminga
strongionicbondbetweendyeandfiber.Theyareusedprimarilytodyeacrylicfibersbutcanalsobeusedtodyeatypeofmodifiedpolyester
knownascationicdyeablepolyester.
Acrylicfibersarecomposedofapolymercalledpoly(acrylonitrile).Thepurepolymerchainscanpacktightlytogetherandwouldbevirtuallynon
dyeable,socopolymersareincorporatedintothefibertoopenupthemolecularstructureandtoprovidefunctionalgroupstoreactwiththedye.
Thesefunctionalgroupsaresulfonicacidgroupsthatarenegativelycharged,showninthediagramasSO3.
Acrylicfibersmustbedyedattemperaturesabove180degreesFahrenheit,whichistheapproximateglasstransitiontemperatureforthepolymer.
Belowthistemperature,thepolymerchainsshowverylittlemotion,andlittletonodyeingcanoccur.Therateofdyeingincreasessharplyabove
180;sotopreventunleveldyeing,thetemperaturemustbeincreasedgraduallyoncethisthresholdhasbeenreached.Inmanycases,cationic
retardersareusedtocompetewiththedyeforsitesonthefibertopromotelevelness.Itisalsoimportanttocoolthebathslowlyafterdyeingto
preventcrackmarksinthefabric.
Basicdyeshavebeencategorizedbytheirexhaustionrateinto5classesbasedontheircompatibilityfactor,K.AKvalueof1representsdyeswith
thefastestexhaustionand5theslowest.Inshadeformulations,allthedyesshouldpossessKvaluesthatdonotvaryfromeachotherbymore
than1.Forexample,ashadeformulationforgreencontainingayellowdyeofK=1andabluedyeofK=4wouldtendtoresultinthedyedfabric
beingtooyellowbecausetheyellowdyemoleculeswouldexhaustfirstandwouldtakeuptheavailablesitesinthefiberbeforethebluedyecould
occupythem.Attheveryleast,theshadewouldnotbuildevenlyduringthedyeprocess.
DyeingandDyestuffs
Slide31
Thischartsummarizestherelativecost,easeofapplication,andfastnesspropertiesofdifferentdyeclasses;however,recallthatpropertiesfor
individualdyestuffscanvaryconsiderably.Thedyemanufacturershouldbeconsultedforspecificinformationoneachdye.
Inconsideringtherelationshipbetweenapplicationofthedyeanditsfastnessproperties,astatementoftenquotedis,easyon,easyoff.Lookat
thetwocolumnsinthetablelabeledEaseofApplicationandWashfastness,andnoticethatdyesthatareeasytoapplyoftenhavepoorwash
fastness.Conversely,dyesthataredifficulttoapplytendtobeassociatedwithgoodwashfastness.Twofactorsthataffecteaseofapplicationare
thedyemoleculessizeandsolubility.Thesizeofthedyemoleculecanbedescribedbyitsmolecularweight.Alowmolecularweight,orsmall,dye
canmoreeasilypenetrateintoafiber,butitcanalsomoreeasilydiffuseoutofthefiberwhenthematerialiswashed.Onthepositiveside,the
mobilityofasmallerdyemoleculecanalsoresultinbetterlevelingabilityduringthedyeingprocess.
DyeingandDyestuffs
Slide32
PigmentColorationAdvantages
Economicalbecauseoflimitednumberofprocessingsteps.
Blendscanbedyedaunionshadewithoneoperation
applicabletoallfibers.
Extensivecolorrangeandhighlightfastness.
Satisfactorywashfastness
Thepossibilityofcombiningdyeingandfinishingexists.
Mustselectproductssothatfinishandbinderreactunder
sameconditionsofpHand/ortemperature
Pigmentsareanalternativemethodtodyeingforapplyingcolortotextilematerials.Pigmentsareinorganiccoloredcompoundsthatcanbe
adhered,orglued,totheouterfibersurfaceusingabinder.Assuch,pigmentscanbeappliedtoanyfiber,regardlessofitschemicalnature.
Pigmentsare,therefore,notfiberspecific,apropertythatmakesthemappealingfordyeingafabricofblendedfibers,suchaspolyester/cotton.
Thepigmentandbinderareusuallyappliedtothefabricinapaddingoperation,followedbydryingandthenheatingtoasufficientlyhigh
temperaturetocurethebinder.Pigmentscanalsobeusedinheattransferprintingorinprintpasteformulation.
Otheradvantagesofpigmentcolorationcanbeseeninthisslide.
DyeingandDyestuffs
Slide33
PigmentColorDisadvantages
Heavyshadescrockbadly.
Lightshadesmaywetcrock.
Influenceonhand:
Thelargeamountofbindermaystiffenfabric.
Mostnoticeableonverythinfabrics.
Mayhavestickingorbuilduponpadrolls.
Migration Unevencolorationmayoccurifdryingis
variableorpickupishigh.
Therearealsosomedisadvantageswhenusingpigments.Becausethepigmentisessentiallygluedtothesurfaceofthefiber,poorfastnessto
crockingorrubbingcanresult.Crockfastnesscanbeimprovedbyproperafterwashing.Thebinderusedtoadherethepigmenttothefibercan
alsostiffenthefabric.Asoftenercouldbeaddedtofabricfinishingtocounteractthestiffnessofthebinder.
DyeingandDyestuffs
Slide34
DyeingofBlends
Crossdyeing
Yarndyedfabrics
Uniondyeing
Differentfibertypes
Differentbrandnamefibers
Reservedyeing
Onebathdyeings
Multiplebathdyeings
Toneontonedyeing
Multileveldyeing
Staining
Textilefabricsoryarnsoftencontainmorethanonefibertype.Thedyeingofblendscanpresentachallengetothedyer,especiallywhenthegoal
istoachieveauniformshadeonafabriccomposedofmorethanonefibertype,aneffectcalleduniondyeing.Forexample,inapolyester/cotton
blendtobedyedaunionshade,thedyermusthaveseparatedyeformulationsforthepolyesterandcottoncomponents,andbothshade
formulationsmustmatchthestandard.Dependingonthedyeclassesusedandthecompatibilityofthedyestuffsandapplicationprocedures,the
dyeformulationforeachfibermaybeappliedinonecombinedsteporinseparatesteps.Aftertheinitialdyeapplication,itmaybenecessaryto
makeshadecorrectionsononeorbothofthefibers.Toallowthedyertoevaluatetheshadeofeachfibertype,riders,orsmallfabricswatches
of100%cottonand100%polyester,canbeattachedtotheoriginalblendedfabricduringthedyeingprocess.Anotheroptionforviewing
individualfibercolorsistodissolveoneofthefibercomponentsafterdyeing,referredtoasleachingorburningout,andthenviewtheshadeofthe
remainingfiber.
Otherdyeingproceduresforblendedfabricsoryarnscanproduceinterestingdesigneffects.Incrossdyeing,eachfibercomponentisdyeda
differentshade.Anexampleofyarndyedfabricsisplaids,inwhichyarnscomposedofdifferentfibersaredyedbeforebeingwovenintofabric.
Reservedyeingindicatesthatatleastoneofthefibercomponentsinablendwillbeleftundyed.Toneontonedyeingoccurswhenthefiber
blendcontainstwofibertypesthataredyedwiththesameclassofdyes,butthefibersdyetodifferentdepthsofshade.Acotton/rayonblendis
anexampleoftoneontonedyeing.Bothfibersaremadeofcellulose,andbothcanbedyedwithdirect,reactive,orvatdyes,amongothers.
Basedonyourknowledgeoftheinternalmolecularstructureofcottonandrayon,canyoupredictwhichofthesetwofiberswoulddyetoadarker
shadewhendyedunderthesameconditions?Becauseofitsmoreopen,amorphousstructure,rayonwoulddyedarkerthancotton.Infact,it
wouldbeimpossibletoobtainaunionshadeinacotton/rayonblend.
Multileveldyeingappliestosyntheticfibersinmultifilamentyarns.Thistechniquehasprimarilybeenusedfornyloncarpetyarnmadeupof
differentfilamenttypesknownaslight,medium,anddeepdyeing.Thedifferenttypeswereproducedwithvaryingnumbersofavailabledye
sites.Inthe1970s,shagcarpetwasproducedwiththistechnique.
Finally,stainingofoneofthefibercomponentsbythedyesintendedfortheotherfibercanoccur,butthestainingeffectwouldhavelittleorno
fastness.
DyeingandDyestuffs
Slide35
PurposeofDyeingMachinery
BatchDyeing
Movethedyeliquorthroughthegoods
Movethegoodsthroughthedyeliquor
ContinuousDyeing
Applyaconcentratedsolutionofdyeevenlyand
uniformlytothegoodswiththorough
penetration
Thefollowingdiagramsandvideoswilldemonstrateafewofthemorefrequentlyuseddyeingmachinetypes.
Asdiscussedearlier,thedyeingprocesscanbedividedintotwocategories:batchorcontinuous.Thebatchprocessisusedfordyeingafixed
amountoffabricoryarn.Mostofthemachinesdiscussedinthesectionaredesignedforbatchdyeingoffabric,sometimescalledpiecedyeing.
Packagedyeingmachinesforyarnwillalsobereviewed.Allbatchdyeingmachinesaredesignedtoprovidedyepenetrationthroughagitationby
movingthematerialthroughthedyebath,thedyebaththroughthematerial,orboth.Welldesignedbatchmachineswillpromoteleveldyeing,
consistentanduniformtemperaturecontrol,andminimumabrasionandstressonthefabric.Continuousdyeing,usedtoproducelargedyelotsof
thesameshade,utilizesapaddertoapplyaconcentrateddyesolutiontothefabric.
Somefactorstoconsiderinchoosingtheproperdyeingmachinerywouldbe:
Shouldthefabricbeprocessedinopenwidthorinropeform?Dyeinginropeformcansometimessetwrinklesorcreasesinthefabric.
Willthedyeprocedurerequirehightemperaturesabovetheboilingpointofwaterthatwillnecessitatetheuseofamachinethatcanoperate
underpressure?Dispersedyesonpolyestercanrequirethesehightemperatures.
Shouldtensiononthefabric,forexampleknittedfabrics,beminimizedduringdyeing?
Shouldabrasionofthefabricbeminimizedduringdyeing?
DyeingMacShouldfabricordyebathexposuretotheatmospherebeminimizedduringdyeing?
DyeingandDyestuffs
Slide36
JetDyeingmachinesareimportant,frequentlyusedmachinesforpiecedyeing.Theycanoperateunderpressure,andcanbeutilizedforpolyester
containingfabrics,bothwovenandknitted.Thedefiningcharacteristicofajetdyeingmachineisthatthefabricispropelledbypressurizedjets,
calledVenturitubes,ofthedyebathliquid.Thereforeagitationisobtainedbymovingboththebaththroughthegoodsandthegoodsthroughthe
bath.Toinitiatedyeing,thefabricisfedintotheportofthemachine,loopedaroundtheinterior,andthenjoinedendtoendtomakea
continuousloopinropeform,whichcirculatescontinuouslyduringdyeing.Foldsoftheexcessfabricwillformatthebottomofthelooptoallow
dwelltimeinthedyebath.Atypicalamountoffabricinoneportmaybe200to350pounds.Inproduction,severalportswillbealignedsideby
sidesothatmorethanoneloopoffabriccanbedyedatthesametime.Acommondyebathwillcirculatethroughalltheports.Inthediagram
shown,theloopoffabricrotatesintheclockwisedirection.
Apotentialproblemwiththeuseofjetdyeingequipmentisfoamingofthedyebath,whichcanbeminimizedbyusingantifoamchemicalsand
wettingagentsasdyeingauxiliaries.
DyeingandDyestuffs
Slide37
DyeJetAnimation
Theanimationshownisofajetdyeingmachine.Theanimationrepresentsoneportcontainingoneloopoffabric;however,inproduction,several
portscanbelinedupsidebysidewiththesamedyesolutioncirculatingthroughallports.Agitation,importantforpromotingleveldyeing,is
achievedbyseveralmeans:mechanicallymovingthefabricloopthroughthemachine,propellingthefabricbymovingjetsofdyesolution,andby
thedyeliquidcascadingdowntheverticalsectionofthefabric.Softflowjetsaredesignedtominimizefabricsurfaceabrasionbythewaterstream.
Thefoldsoffabricsubmergedinthebottomofthevesselprovideexposureanddwelltimeinthedyesolution.
DyeingandDyestuffs
Slide38
DyeJetVideo
Thisvideoofapilotplantscalejetdyeingmachineshowsasideviewofthecontrolsystemandfrontloadingdoor.Themachineisessentiallyan
enclosedstainlesssteeltube.Theenclosedlifterreelareaislocatedatthetopofthemachine.Alsoenclosedinthebackareaofthemachineis
theVenturitube,whichprovidesajetofdyebathtohelppropelthefabricasitmovesdownthebackside.Aviewingportislocatedonthesideof
thereartube.
Adjacenttothefabriccirculationtubeistheaddtank,wherechemicalsanddyesareaddedwhilethemachineisrunningwiththefrontdoorclosed
butbeforethesystemgoesunderpressure.
Thecolumnenclosedinwhiteinsulatingmaterialistheheatexchangerandfiltermechanismforthecirculatingdyebath.
Thenextviewisthroughtheopenfrontportholeshowingfabricrunninginthemachineandpassingthroughaguidering.
Finally,aviewofthefabricgoingoverthelifterreelatthetopofthemachineisshown.Lookingintothemachinefromthetop,onecanseethe
fabricpassingdownthroughtherectangularVenturitube.
DyeingandDyestuffs
Slide39
DyeJigDiagram
Thedyejigholdsthefabricinopenwidthontworollswiththedyebathinbetween.Duringdyeing,thefabricmovesfromonerolltotheother
andbackagain.Thisbackandforthmotionmayberepeatedseveraltimesduringdyeing.Guiderollersunderneaththefabricboltsareslightly
bowedtocausespreadingofthefabricandminimizecreasing.Becausethematerialoneachendoftherollsisneverexposedtothedyebath,
leaderclothisattachedtothefabricends.Thelengthoftheleaderclothshouldbeatleastthecircumferenceoftherollerplusthedistancefrom
therollertothedyebath.
Asthefabricpassesthroughthedyesolutionfollowedbytakeupontheroll,thedyesolutionistrappedbetweenfabriclayers.Thepressure
betweenthefabriclayerspromotespenetrationofthedyeintothefabric.Dyejigsaregenerallyatmospheric,ornotpressurized,buttheycanbe
coveredtominimizeheatloss.
Becauseoftherelativelyhighamountoftensiononthefabric,adyejigisbestsuitedtowovenordimensionallystablefabrics.
DyeingandDyestuffs
Slide40
DyeJigAnimation
Seeninthisanimationisadyejigwiththefabriconrollersinopenwidthform.Thefabrictravelsfromonerollertoanother,passingthroughthe
dyebathinbetween.Initially,thefabricisexposedtoanaqueoussolutioncontainingonlyawettingagentorsurfactantsincethefabricshouldbe
thoroughlyanduniformlywetoutbeforeaddingthedyes.Asthedyesareadded,thefabricpicksupthedyesolutionasitpassesthroughthe
troughandisthenwoundontheroller.Asstatedpreviously,thepressurebetweenfabriclayersontherollenhancespenetrationofthedyeliquor
intothefabric.Inatypicaldyeingoperation,thefabricmayrequireseveralbackandforthcyclesbetweenthetworollerstoachievethedesired
exhaustion.
DyeingandDyestuffs
Slide41
DyeJigVideo
Thisvideoofadyejiginoperationbeginswithafrontviewofthemachineandcontrolsystem.Thefrontrollisturningandunwindingthefabric.
Inthisvideo,thefabricispassinginitiallythroughwateronly.Later,dyesandauxiliarychemicalsarepouredintothedyeaddtankandare
transferredtothebathinthedyetrough.Thefabricwillrunbackandforthonthetworollersforupto16to32cycles.Onecycleconsistsofthe
fabricononerollerbeingcompletelytransferredtotheotherrollerandthenbacktotheoriginalroller.
DyeingandDyestuffs
Slide42
Aswithajetdyeingmachine,thefabrictobedyedinabeckisjoinedattheendstomakeacontinuousloopinropeform.Unlikethejet,adye
beckisgenerallyanatmosphericmachine,andthefabricispropelledbyarotatingellipticalrollerorreel.Inthediagramshown,thedirectionof
rotationofthefabricloopiscounterclockwise.Theellipticalshapeofthereelminimizescreasemarksandcausesthefabrictofallinfoldsinthe
dyebathtoprovidedwelltime.Inaddition,asthefabricispulledupfromthetank,excessdyesolutioncascadesbackdownthefabrictoincrease
agitation.Althoughatmospheric,thebeckisgenerallyenclosedtomaintaintemperaturecontrol.Inaproductionscalebeck,severalloopsoffabric
canbedyedsidebyside,dependingonthefabricweightcapacityofthemachine.
DyeingandDyestuffs
Slide43
DyeBeckAnimation
Althoughmostdyesbecksareatmosphericandcannotbesealedtoallowpressuredyeing,theyaretypicallyclosedtopreventexcessiveheatand
steamloss,asseeninthisanimation.Removingthesidepanelofthemachine,itisseenthatthefabriclooprotatesaroundandaroundinthesame
directionduringthedyeingprocess.First,thefabricwouldhavebeenloadedintothemachineandthenjoinedtogetherateachendbyaseamto
formacontinuousloop.Inabeck,theloopoffabricisinropeformasitrotates,asopposedtotheopenwidthconfigurationofadyejig.Note
howtherotationoftheellipticalreelcausesthefabrictofallinfoldsinthebathatthebottomofthebeck.Oncethefabrichasbeenthoroughly
wetout,thedyesareaddedtothebath,andtheexhaustionprocessbegins.Dependingonthefibertype,thedyeclass,andthedepthofshade
desired,runtimesinabeckcanrangefrom3to12hours.
DyeingandDyestuffs
Slide44
DyeBeckVideo
Thisvideoshowsthefrontviewofadyebeckandcontrolsystem.Thetakeoffreelabovethemachineisrunning,althoughitnormallywouldneed
torunonlywhenfinishedfabricisremovedfromthemachine.Toloadthemachine,fabricisfedintothefrontopeningandthreadedoverthe
winchreel.Asecondfabricstrandisbeingloadedaswell.Foreachstrand,aseamissewnbetweenthetwoendstomakethecontinuousloopof
fabric.Thefabriciswetoutwithwaterandsurfactantbeforethedyesareadded.
Aportholewindowinthebackofthemachineallowssampleviewingwhilethemachineisrunning.
Dyesareaddeddirectlytothebathinthemachine,butaperforatedstainlesssteelwallallowstheaddeddyetodiffuseuniformlythroughoutthe
dyebathbeforecontactingthefabricthuspreventingstreaksinthefinishedgoods.Thefabriccirculatesuntilmaximumexhaustionisachieved.
DyeingandDyestuffs
Slide45
PackageMachine
Apackagemachineisdesignedtodyeyarnsthathavebeentightlywoundonadyetube,whichisaperforatedcylinderthancanbemadeof
stainlesssteelorplastic.Plasticdyetubesareconsidereddisposableandareconvenienttousewhentheyarnsaretobedyedinonelocationand
thenshippedtoanotherlocationforsubsequentuse.
Theundyedpackagesarestackedonperforatedspindlesinthekier,orlargemetaltank,ofthedyeingmachine.Thedyesolutionisinitiallyadded
toaseparatetankandisthenpumpedtothekierduringdyeing.Thedirectionofflowisreversedseveraltimesduringthedyeingprocesstoallow
forthoroughanduniformpenetrationoftheyarnpackagebythedye.Packagedyeingmachinesarepressurizedandcanbeusedattemperatures
greaterthan100degreesC.
DyeingandDyestuffs
Slide46
PackageDyeVideo
Thevideoshowsapilotplantscalepackagedyeingmachine,withakierontheleftsidethatwillholduptosixpackages.Thedyebathchemicals
areaddedtotheadjacenttank.Alsoseenareseveralemptydyetubesrepresentingthosetypicallyused.Packageswoundwiththeyarntobe
dyedareplacedontheperforatedspindlesinsidethekier.