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DyeingandDyestuffs

Slide1

DyeingandDyestuffs

Howimportantiscolortoyouwhenyouarebuyingclothesorothertextileproducts?Thedyeingprocessisthemeansbywhichcolorisaddedto
textilematerials.Dyescanbeappliedinfiber,yarn,andfabricform.Dyeingisgenerallythoughtofastheuniformapplicationofasinglecolorto
thematerialwithanacceptabledegreeoffastness,orpermanence.Anotherwaytoapplycolortofabricisbyprinting,whichcanproduce
multicoloredpatternareasonthefabric.Printingwillbediscussedinaseparatemodule.

Thecompoundsforaddingcolortotextilematerialsareeitherdyesorpigments.Thesetwotypesofcompoundshaveverydifferentproperties
andapplicationprocedures.Dyesimpartcolorbypenetratingintothefibersinternalstructureonamolecularlevel,whereaspigmentsattachto
thefibersoutersurfaceandareheldtherebyanadhesivebinder.

Althoughtextiledyeinghasexistedforthousandsofyears,theprocedures,techniques,andpracticesarecontinuallychangingduetothe
developmentofnewfibers,dyes,andequipment.Ourunderstandingofthecomplexitiesofthedyeingprocesscontinuestoimprove.Thereforeso
thedyeingbusinesscanbedescribedconcurrentlyasbothancientandmodern.Evenwithallofthetechnologicaladvancementintodaystextile
industry,thedyeingprocessrequiresskillaswellassciencetoproduceconsistent,reproducibleresults.Infact,dyeingisprobablythemost
difficultprocesstocontrolintheproductionofatextileproduct.

Withinthismodule,variousclassesofdyesandthespecificfibersonwhichtheycanbeusedwillbediscussed.Thedyeingprocessandimportant
considerationsforproducinggoodqualitydyedproductswillalsobehighlighted.Finallyvarioustypesofdyeingmachinerywillbeexamined.

Copyright 2008-2011 North Carolina State University. All rights reserved.

DyeingandDyestuffs
Slide2

HistoricalReview
Definition:Theapplicationofcolortothewholebodyofa
textilematerialwithsomedegreeoffastness.

NaturalDyes HistoricalReview
Cochineal
Indigo
Logwood
Madder
Safflower
Saffron
Tyrian purple
Woad

Thefirstsyntheticdyewasdiscoveredaccidentallyin1856byanEnglishchemistnamedWilliamHenryPerkin.Thepurpledyewascalledmauveine
andwasbasedonthechemicalcompoundknownasaniline.Beforethisdiscovery,textilesweredyedfromnaturalsources,withlimitedshade
rangesand,insomecases,verylimitedavailability.Perkinsdiscoverylaunchedthesyntheticdyeindustry,whicheventuallymadepossibleawide
varietyofshadesinhighvolumesatrelativelylowcost.Syntheticdyesprovedtobesuperiortonaturaldyesindepthofcolor,brightness,and
colorfastness.Todayover5,000syntheticdyeshavebeendevelopedandsoldascommercialproducts.Throughtheyears,manyweredeveloped
tobeusedspecificallywithnewsyntheticfibers.

Listedonthisslidearesomenaturaldyesourcesusedtoproducecolorontextiles.Someofthesedyesmaystillbeusedtodayinspecialty
applicationssuchashandicrafts.Thereasonsnaturaldyesarenotusedinhigheramountstodayarenumerous.Theyhavepoorcolorpower,
meaningthatalargeamountofdyeisneededtoproducedeepshades.Theyhavepoorcolorfastnesstolaunderingandsunlightandcanbevery
difficulttoobtain,especiallyinareasonablypureform.Asanexample,carrotsexhibitabrightorangecolorduetotheirnaturaldye,carotene.It
takesapproximatelytwotonsofprocessedcarrotstoyieldtwoouncesofthisdye.Fewpeoplewouldconcludethatthisisawiseuseofcarrots
today.

CochinealproducesabrightredcolorandwasprobablyusedtodyetheBritishRedcoatsduringtheRevolutionaryWar.Itisextractedfromthe
femaleofaninsectthatisnativetoSouthAmericaandMexico.Ittakesapproximately70,000insectstoproduceonepoundofdye.Comparethis
tothefactthatamoderntextiledyeruseshundredsofpoundsofdyeperweek.Today,cochinealisusedcommerciallyasanaturalfoodcoloring.

Indigoisaplantsourceofabluedyethatisgenerallyassociatedwiththecolorofdenimjeans.Thewoadplantisalsoasourceofindigodyes,but
thesedyesareusuallyslightlydarkerincolorthanthosefromtheindigoplantduetothepresenceofimpurities.Today,mostindigodyesare
syntheticallyproduced.

Underproperconditions,fermentedwoodfromthelogwoodtreecanproduceablackcolor.Therootsofthemadderplantproduceareddye.
Flowersfromsafflower,athistlelikeplant,produceredandyellowdyes.Saffronisayellowcolorobtainedfromthecrocusflower.

Historically,wethinkofpurpleasthecolorofroyalty,whichsuggestsadyethatwasverypreciousandvaluable.Infact,Tyrianpurple,abrilliantly
coloredpurpledye,wasnamedfortheMediterraneanportofTyre,anancientPhoeniciancity.Thedyewasfirstproducedinthiscityandwas
obtainedfromthesecretionsofaseasnail.Ittookapproximately12,000snailstoproduceonegramofdye!

Copyright 2008-2011 North Carolina State University. All rights reserved.

DyeingandDyestuffs
Slide3

MaterialsDyed
Fibers
Stockdyeing
Dopedyeing

Yarns
Skeindyeing
Packagedyeing
Beamdyeing

Fabrics
Piecedyeing
Printing

Roller
Application
Resist
Discharge
Flatscreen
RotaryScreen
Tiedyeing

Garments Garmentdyeing

Textilescanbedyedinfiber,yarn,fabric,orgarmentform.Fabricdyeing,sometimescalledpiecedyeing,isthemostfrequentwaytoapplycolor,
butfiberlimitationsanddesignorenduserequirementssometimesdictatethatthematerialbedyedinfiber,yarn,orgarmentform.

Copyright 2008-2011 North Carolina State University. All rights reserved.

DyeingandDyestuffs
Slide4

MaterialsDyed Fibers

Colorcanbeaddedtofibersintwoways:1)stockdyeingand2)dopedyeing,alsocalledsolutiondyeing.Stockdyeingreferstodyeinginfiber
form.Thefibersamplegoesthroughthedyeingprocessjustasafabricwould.Specialequipmentfixturessuchasperforatedbasketsarenecessary
toholdthefiberbundleandtoallowpenetrationofthedyebath.Itmayalsobenecessarytoscourorbleachthefiberpriortodyeing.Indopeor
solutiondyeing,coloredpigmentsareputintothepolymermeltorsolutionpriortoextrusionofthefiber.Thepigmentparticlesarethus
containedwithinthefibersphysicalstructure.Solutiondyeingisrestrictedtocertainsyntheticfibersandisparticularlyimportantfor
polypropylenefibers,whichcannotbedyedusingconventionalmeans.Solutiondyedfibersgenerallyhaveexcellentfastnessproperties.However,
theapplicationofcolorearlyinthetextileprocessingchainincreasesthecostofthewasteateachsubsequentprocessingstepandlimitsflexibility
inchangingthecoloroftheendproducttomeetfashionexpectations.

Anexampleofusingfiberdyeingtoproduceadesigneffectisaheatherstyle,inwhichtwoormorefibertypesaredyeddifferentcolorsandthen
blendedtogetherintoayarnandsubsequentfabric.Insomecases,onefibercomponentisleftundyedaltogether.Manygraycolored
sweatshirtsareheatherstylesproducedbytheblendingofblackandwhiteornaturalcoloredfibercomponents.

Copyright 2008-2011 North Carolina State University. All rights reserved.

DyeingandDyestuffs
Slide5

DopeorSolutionDyeing

Indopeorsolutiondyeing,coloredpigmentsarepartofthepolymermeltorsolutionpriortotheextrusionofthefiber.Thepigmentparticlesare
thuscontainedwithinthefibersphysicalstructure.Inthisvideopigmentparticlesaremixedwithpolymerpelletspriortomeltingforextrusion.
Dopedyeingresultsinthedirectextrusionofcoloredfilaments.Dopedyeingisrestrictedtocertainsyntheticfibersandisparticularlyimportantfor
polypropylenefibers,whichcannotbedyedbyconventionalmeans.Initially,thepolypropylenepelletsweresubjectedtoagreenpigment.This
wasreplacedbytheredpigmentseenearlier.Noticethechangeincolorofthefilamentbeingextruded.Thechangefromgreenpigmenttothe
redpigmentcanbeseeneasilyonthetakeuppackage.

Copyright 2008-2011 North Carolina State University. All rights reserved.

DyeingandDyestuffs
Slide6

MaterialsDyed Yarns

Yarndyeingisalsochosenfordesignpurposes.Forexample,toachievestripesinashirtcomposedof100%cotton,theonlytwooptionsareeither
toprintthefabricortousedyedyarnsinthefabricconstruction.Yarndyeingtypicallyproducesmuchhighercolorqualitythanprintingandis
preferredbyconsumersforhigherqualityproducts.

Yarnscanbedyedinskeinformorbywindingtheyarnontoapackagecalledadyetube.Skeindyeingisusedforbulkyyarnslikewooloracrylic
thatshouldnotbewoundundertensiononapackage.Theskeins,orloopsofyarn,hanglooselyduringthedyeingprocessasthedyebath
cascadesoverandthroughtheyarns.

Mostyarnsaredyedonapackagemachine.Thepackagesarewoundonperforateddyetubesthatareplacedonperforatedspindlesinthe
machine.Yarntensioncontrolduringthepackagewindingprocessandconsistencyofthepackagedensityarekeyvariablesthatmustbe
accuratelycontrolledtoobtainreproducible,highqualitydyeingresults.

Themachineisdesignedtoallowflowofthedyebaththroughtheyarnpackageinbothdirections,thatis,fromtheinsideofthepackagetothe
outsideofthepackageorfromtheoutsidetotheinside.Thisresultsincompletepenetrationofthefibersintheyarn.Thefeaturesofthepackage
dyeingmachinewillbediscussedlaterinthismodule.

Warpyarnscanalsobedyedwhilewoundonawarpbeaminaprocesssimilartopackagedyeing.

Copyright 2008-2011 North Carolina State University. All rights reserved.

DyeingandDyestuffs
Slide7

MaterialsDyed Fabrics
Fibers
Stockdyeing
Dopedyeing

Yarns
Skeindyeing
Packagedyeing
Beamdyeing

Fabrics
Piecedyeing
Printing

Roller
Application
Resist
Discharge
Flatscreen
RotaryScreen
Tiedyeing

Garments Garmentdyeing

Beamdyeingmorecommonlyreferstofabricdyeing.Thefabriciswoundinopenwidthonalargeperforatedbeam,thedyeliquorflowsfrom
insidethebeamtotheoutsideofthefabriclayers,andthentheflowdirectionisreversed.Beamdyeingisadvantageousforfabricsthatwouldbe
easilycreased,wrinkled,orstretchedbyothertypesofdyeingequipment.Fabricdyeingisthemostwidelyuseddyeingtechniquefortextile
products,givingthemostconsistentcolorqualityandthehighestproductionoutputofanymethod.
Singleormulticoloredpatternscanbeappliedtofabricsintheprintingprocess.Thevarioustypesofprintingmethodsincludeengravedroller,
flatscreen,androtaryscreen.Thesewillbediscussedinaseparatemodule.
Tiedyeingisaspecialtechniqueusedongarments,particularlytshirts.Thegarmentisboundortiedinknots,dippedinadyebath,untiedand
retiedwithadifferentknotpattern,anddippedintodifferentcolordyebaths.Theprocesscanberepeateduntilthedesiredpatternisproduced.
Thistechniqueisasmuchartasitistextiledyeing.

Copyright 2008-2011 North Carolina State University. All rights reserved.

DyeingandDyestuffs
Slide8

MaterialsDyed Garments
Fibers
Stockdyeing
Dopedyeing

Yarns
Skeindyeing
Packagedyeing
Beamdyeing

Fabrics
Piecedyeing
Printing

Roller
Application
Resist
Discharge
Flatscreen
RotaryScreen
Tiedyeing

Garments Garmentdyeing

Garmentdyeinghasgainedpopularityinrecentyearsforawidevarietyofproducts.Traditionally,garmentdyeinghasbeenusedforsweaters,
hose,andsocks.Today,productssuchascasualslacks,golfshirts,andshortsaredyedingarmentform.Garmentwetprocessingofjeansand
othercasualwearallowstheuseoftremendouscreativitytodevelopalltypesofnewproductsandhasbecomeaworldwidefashionbusiness.
Dyeingingarmentformdelayscolorselectionuntiltheendproductandhastheadvantageofafasterresponsetimetochangesinthecoloror
fashionmarket.However,colorqualityandreproducibilityarenotasgoodinthismethodaswithfabricdyeing,andadditionaltechnical
considerationsexist.Thesewingthreadmustbeofthesamefibercontentasthegarment,oritwilldyedifferentlyornotdyeatall.Buttons,
buckles,sequins,orzippersonthegarmentmustbeabletowithstandthedyeingprocesswithoutdamage.Seams,folds,pleats,andcuffsofthe
garmentmustdyetothesamecolorlevelasthebody.Themachineryusedforgarmentdyeingissimilartothattraditionallyusedincommercial
laundryfacilities.Comparedtootherdyeingequipment,garmentmachineshavelowproductionoutputs,andifagarmentisdefective,the
manufacturerlosestheentirevalueofthegarmentratherthanasmallyardageoffabric.

Copyright 2008-2011 North Carolina State University. All rights reserved.

DyeingandDyestuffs
Slide9

DyeingObjectives
Shade
FastnessProperties
Cost

Inorderofimportance,theprimaryobjectivesofthedyeingprocessare:1)tomatchthedesiredshade,2)toachievetherequiredcolorfastness
properties,and3)tomeetthefirsttwoobjectivesinthemostcostsavingmannerpossible,thusmaximizingprofit.Thesinglelargestcauseof
secondsinthetextileindustryisoffshade,orfailingtomatchtheshadestandardwithinacceptablelimitsagreeduponbetweenthesupplierand
customer.TheColorModuleoftheTextileFundamentalsseriesdiscussedthemanyfactorsaffectingthevisualperceptionofashadeandits
evaluationcomparedtoastandard.

Colorfastnessofadyeonatextileproducthasmanyconsiderations.Adyedmaterialmayneedtopossessfastnesstolaundering,light,crockingor
rubbing,heat,bleach,solvents,andperspiration,tonamejustafew.TheAmericanAssociationofTextileChemistsandColorists(AATCC)publishes
nofewerthan28testmethodstodeterminethefastnesspropertiesoftextiles.Thenecessaryfastnesspropertiesforamaterialdependonitsend
use.Forexample,fastnesstolightwouldbeofprimaryimportanceforafabricusedasautomobileupholsterybutnotforfabricusedtomake
underwear.Lightfastnessofadyeisprimarilyaffectedbythespecificdyesmolecularstructure,whereasothertypesoffastnesscanbeaffectedby
thedyeclassused,themechanismbywhichthedyeisheldinthefiber,andtheuseofproperdyeapplicationtechniques,inadditiontothedyes
molecularstructure.

Copyright 2008-2011 North Carolina State University. All rights reserved.

DyeingandDyestuffs
Slide10

TheColorModulelistedthreecomponentsnecessarytohavecolor:alightsource,anobserver,andanobject,includingitssurroundings.Variation
inanyoneofthesecomponentswillchangetheobservedcolor.Forproperevaluationandjudgmentoftextileshades,allofthesefactorsmustbe
considered.Astandardlightsource,normallyD65,whichisanartificialdaylight,shouldbeusedinalightboxthatispaintedastandardgray
backgroundcolor.Theobservershouldwearneutralcoloredclothingandshouldallowhisorhereyestoadjusttothesurroundingsbeforejudging
color.Topreventeyefatigue,theobservershouldresthiseyesoccasionallyandrefrainfromstaringatthefabric.Anobserverwhoistiredorwho
hashadadifficultdaymayhavedifficultyinshadeassessment.Thesurfacecharacteroftextilefabricspresentsanadditionalchallengetovisual
shadeevaluation.Fabricswithdirectionaleffects,suchaspilefabricsorcorduroy,shouldbeevaluatedandcomparedtoastandardwiththe
sufacedirectionorientedconsistently.

Colorinstrumentscanbeusedtohelpwiththeprocessofshadeevaluation.However,theultimatedecisionofacolormatchistheagreement
betweensupplierandcustomer.Allpeopledirectlyinvolvedinshadematchingshouldhavecolornormalvisionandbeproperlytrained.They
shouldalsobewellversedinthedocumentedandacceptedpracticesforconsistentshadeevaluation,bothinstrumentallyandvisually.

Copyright 2008-2011 North Carolina State University. All rights reserved.

DyeingandDyestuffs
Slide11

Adyedtextilematerialshouldexhibitashadethatisconsistentfromdyelottodyelot.Withinadyelot,thecolorshouldbeuniformlydistributed
overthefabric,withnostreaksorshadevariation.Thedyeshouldalsobecompletelypenetratedthroughouteachindividualfiberinthematerial.
Failuretoaccomplishcompletepenetrationresultsinringdyeing,inwhichcrosssectionsofindividualfibersshowdyenearthesurfaceofthe
fiberbutnotintheinterior,asillustratedonthisslide.

Ringdyedfibersmayeventuallyshowwhiteareasduringwearasthedyedouterfibersurfacesareabradedaway.

Inpractice,oneofthebestthingsawetprocessorcandotoproducegoodqualitydyeingistodoagoodjobinpreparation,inparticular,scouring
andbleaching,ofthefabric.

Differentfabricconstructionspresentdifferenttypesofproblemsforthedyerandfinisher.Duringallwetprocessesfrompreparationthrough
dyeingandfinishing,knitsmustbehandledtominimizetensiononthefabricatallsteps.Thestretchynatureofknittedfabricscausesfiberstress
onthemolecularlevelunderappliedtension.Thestressesbuildasthefabricisstretched,andtheyarereleasedbymolecularrearrangementwhen
thetensionisremoved.Thestressreliefresultsinfabricshrinkageintheendproduct,especiallyafterthefirstlaunderingcyclebytheconsumer!
Endproductshrinkagecanbeminimizedbypreventingtensiononthefabricduringwetprocessingand,ineffect,allowingthefabrictorelaxand
shrinkduringtheprocessingsteps.

Wovenfabricsaremorestablethanknittedfabrics,thereforetensionduringwetprocessingisnormallynotaproblemwiththem.Insometightly
wovenfabrics,however,thecontactpointsoftheinterlacedwarpandfillingyarnscanhinderpenetrationbythedyesolution,resultinginuneven
dyeing.

Copyright 2008-2011 North Carolina State University. All rights reserved.

DyeingandDyestuffs
Slide12

TypesofDyeing

Copyright 2008-2011 North Carolina State University. All rights reserved.

DyeingandDyestuffs
Slide13

ExhaustionDyeing

Thetwoclassificationsofdyeingprocesses,basedontheamountoffabricbeingdyed,are:exhaustion,whichissometimescalledbatchdyeing,
andcontinuousdyeing.Batchdyeingistheprocessfordyeingafiniteamountoffabric,yarn,orfiber,whereasthecontinuousdyeingprocess
subjectsacontinuouslymovingwidthoffabrictoaconcentrateddyesolutioninaprocesscalledpadding.Inbatch,orexhaustion,dyeing,afixed
amountoffabricisplacedintoabathcontainingaspecificweightofdye.Asdyeingproceeds,thedyegraduallymoves,orexhausts,fromthebath
tothefabric.Thedyeingprocessrequirestimeandagitationtocausemovementofthedyemoleculestothefibersurfaceandtoallowfor
penetrationintothefiber.Theprocessalsorequiresagradualincreaseintemperaturetoopenupthefiberstructuresothatitcanacceptthedye
moleculesandtoshortenthetotaltimeofdyeing.Ifthetemperaturerisestooquickly,thedyewillnotbedistributeduniformlyandunevendyeing
couldresult.Theendpointofthedyeingprocess,alsoknownasequilibrium,occurswhennomoredyeleavesthebathtomoveintothefabric.By
theendofthedyeingprocess,almostallofthedyeshouldbeinthefabricwithverylittleremaininginthebath.Ifallthedyeisinthefabric,itis
called100%exhaustion,butthisrarelyoccurs.Fractionalexhaustionisdefinedastheratiooftheamountofdyeinthefabrictotheinitialamount
ofdyeinthebath.Thefractionalexhaustionattheendofdyeingvarieswiththeclassofdyeandindividualdyesused.Sometypesofdyesmay
haveonly70%exhaustion,whereasothersmayresultin95%exhaustion.

Theinitialamountofdyeinthebathisdeterminedbythedesireddepthofshadeonthefinishedfabric.Thedepthofshadeissometimesreferred
toasthepercentdyeowfwhichisdefinedasthepercentageofdyebasedontheinitialweightofthefiberorfabric.Forexample,todye100
poundsoffabrictoa1%depthofshadewouldrequireonepoundofdyeintheinitialbath.Depthofshadevaluesoflessthan1%willgenerally
resultinlightorpastelshades;heavyshadescouldrequire4%to5%depthofshadevalues.Inpractice,theselectionofdyesandtheformulation
fortheshadearedeterminedbyperformingtriallaboratorydyeings,calledlabdips,andthenmakingcorrectionsandrepeatingthelabdip
procedureuntiltheproperformulationisobtainedtomatchthestandard.

Anothertermrelatedtothebatchdyeingprocessisliquorratio,definedastheratioofbathweighttofabricweight.Fora10:1liquorratio,100
poundsoffabricwouldrequire1,000poundsofdyebath.Forwater,thiswouldequatetoabout120gallons.Liquorratioistypicallydetermined
bythedyeingmachineryused.Ingeneral,ahighervalueforliquorratiopromotesamoreleveldyeingbutwouldraiseutility,energy,andwaste
treatmentcosts.

Exhaustiondyeingrequirestimeforcompletion.Successfuldyeingcompaniesknowthatgoodprocessingisacompromisebetweenthetime
requiredforthoroughdyepenetrationandtheneedforefficiency.Atypicaldyeingcyclefor100%cottonfabricisapproximatelyeighthourswhile
foracotton/polyesterblend,thecycletimeforthesamebasicshadeisapproximatelytwelvehours.Thespecifictimerequiredforanytextile
batchdyeingdependsonsuchfactorsasdepthofshade,fibercontent,dyeselection,fabricconstruction,andtypeofdyeingequipment.

Copyright 2008-2011 North Carolina State University. All rights reserved.

DyeingandDyestuffs
Slide14

ContinuousDyeing

Incontrasttothebatchprocess,continuousdyeingisnotbasedontheweightofafixedamountoffabric.Continuousdyeingisbestutilizedfor
dyeinglargequantitiesoffabric,usuallywoven,thesameshadelotafterlot.Itdoesnotlenditselftodyeingsmallamountsoffabricortodyeinga
varietyofshades.Incontinuousdyeing,fabricispassedthroughaconcentrateddyesolutioninopenwidthform,followedbysqueezingoutexcess
solutionbetweentwopadderrolls.Thepressureonthepadderrollsisadjustedtogivethedesiredwetpickupofthedyesolutionandshouldbe
consistentacrossthewidthofthefabric.Forexample,a100%wetpickupwouldresultinthefabric,immediatelyafterpaddingandbeforedrying,
weighingtwiceitsoriginaldryweight.Thus,thedepthofshadeinthedyedfabricdependsontheconcentrationofthedyesolutionandthe
percentwetpickup.Theconcentrationofdyeinthepaddersolutionshouldremainessentiallyconstantthroughouttheprocess.

Followingthepadderstep,thefabricmustbepredriedandthenpassedthroughasteameroradryheatsteptopromotepenetrationandfixation
ofthedyemoleculesinthefiber.Unevendryingofthefabricafterpaddingcanresultinmigrationofunfixeddye,leadingtostreaks,blotches,
rings,andgeneralnonuniformity.Afterfixation,thefabriciswashedanddried.Thetimeforthefixationprocessistypicallyfromonetofive
minutes.Inacontinuousoperationrunningat90yardsperminute,asingleyardoffabricpassesfromthepaddertotheendoftheprocess,which
includes,afterwashanddrying,inapproximatelytenminutes.Forbothbatchandcontinuousprocesses,properwashingandrinsingafterdyeingis
criticaltogivegoodfastnesspropertiesinthefinishedgoods.

Copyright 2008-2011 North Carolina State University. All rights reserved.

DyeingandDyestuffs
Slide15

Padder Video

Thevideoillustratessomeoftheconceptsfromthepreviousslide.Continuousdyeingoperationsareusedforflatfabricssuchassheetingorfor
highpilefabricslikeresidentialcarpet.Overall,theprocessyieldshigherproductionefficiencythanbatchdyeingwhileusinglesswaterandenergy
peryardofdyedfabric.However,continuousrangesarecostlytopurchaseandrequirealargeamountoffloorspaceforproperinstallation,
resultinginhighfixedoperatingcosts.Tobecosteffective,largedyelotsarerequired.Recently,continuousrangeshavelostpopularitytobeused
intheapparelmarketduetothewidecolordemandsofthemodernconsumer.

Copyright 2008-2011 North Carolina State University. All rights reserved.

DyeingandDyestuffs
Slide16

DyeingConsiderations

Copyright 2008-2011 North Carolina State University. All rights reserved.

DyeingandDyestuffs
Slide17

Thinkaboutthefactorsthatpromotelevelnessanduniformityofdyeing.Theseincludegoodpreparationofthesubstratepriortodyeingto
promoteuniformabsorptionofthebathandchemicals,goodagitationofthebathandfabricduringdyeing,ahigherliquorratio,andgradual
increaseoftemperaturetoopenthefiberstructuretoreceivethedyemolecules.Possiblecausesofnonleveldyeingarelistedinthisslide.Inthe
dyeingprocess,adequateagitationrequiresmovingthebaththroughthefabric,thefabricthroughthebath,orboth.Mostdyeingequipmentis
designedtoprovidegoodagitationandaproperliquorratio.Ahigherliquorratiopromotesleveldyeingbyallowingthedyemoleculestobemore
evenlydistributedinthebathorthesolutionbeforediffusingormovingtothefibersurfacesandbycontinuallyexposingfabricsurfacestofresh
solution.Ahigherbathratioalsopromoteslubricationofthefabricandminimizesabrasionandstreakscausedbythefabricrubbingagainstitself
duringdyeing.

Therateofdyeingincreaseswithtemperature.Raisingthetemperatureduringdyeingisnecessarytoopentheinternalmolecularstructureofthe
fibertoallowpenetrationofthedye.However,ifthetemperatureisraisedtooquickly,thedyemolecules,intheirhastetobeabsorbedand,in
somecases,chemicallyattachedtothefiber,willnothavetimetodistributethemselvesuniformlyinthefiberbeforetheattachmentoccurs,
resultinginanonleveldyeing.

The"Fibers"learningmodulediscussedtheinternalstructureofthepolymermoleculesinafiber.Fiberscontainbothcrystalline,tightlypacked
molecularregionsandamorphous,openregions.Dyemoleculescanpenetrateonlytheamorphousregions.Whenafabriciscomposedoffibers
withvariableratiosofcrystallinetoamorphousregions,unevendyeuptakecanresult,causingaproblemknownaschemicalbarr.Thetermbarr
generallyreferstostreakinessinaknittedfabric,andchemicalbarrrefersspecificallytostreakscausedbyunevendyeuptake.Mechanicalbarr
hasothercausesnotrelatedtothedyeingprocess,includingvaryingyarncountortwistwithinafabricorpoorlycontrolledtensionduringthe
knittingprocess.Mechanicalbarrisatypicalprobleminfabricscontainingspandex.

Copyright 2008-2011 North Carolina State University. All rights reserved.

DyeingandDyestuffs
Slide18

Inchoosingdyes,themostimportantconsiderationisthefactthatdyeclassesarefiberspecific.Inotherwords,cottoncannotbedyedwiththe
sameclassofdyesusedonpolyester,andpolyestercannotbedyedwiththesameclassofdyesusedoncotton.Sometypicaldyeclassnamesare
direct,reactive,acid,anddisperse.Thisisnotanexhaustivelist,andwellgivemoreinformationlateronthevariousdyeclassesandthefiberson
whichtheyshouldbeused.

Thefactorslistedinthisslideapplytoallclassesofdyes.Recallthattheprimaryobjectivesofdyeing,inorderofimportance,weretomatchthe
shade,toachievetherequisitefastnessproperties,andtoachievethefirsttwoobjectivesinthemosteconomicalway.Thesefactorsare
augmentedtoinclude:choosingdyeswithgoodleveldyeingproperties,determiningwhetherthedyehasthecapabilityofcoveringmechanical
barrthatmayalreadyexistinthefabricpriortodyeing,andensuringthatthedyedoesnotposeatoxicitythreattodyehouseworkersorthe
environment.

Withinaspecificdyeclass,forexampledirectordisperse,manyindividualdyesexist.Eachdyestuffhasagenericname,forexample,DisperseBlue
60,thatspecifiesadyeofaparticularchemicalstructure.Thatparticulardyemaybemadebymorethanonemanufacturer,eachofwhichhasa
specifictradenameforitsproduct.Informationonthetradenamesandsuppliersofallthedifferentdyeclassesandspecificdyescanbeobtained
fromtheonlineBuyersGuideoftheAmericanAssociationofTextileChemistsandColorists(www.aatcc.org).Othersourcesofinformation
aboutdyestuffswouldbetheonlineColourIndexInternational,jointlypublishedbytheSocietyofDyersandColouristsandAATCC(www.colour
index.org).Inaddition,shadecardsprovideinformationforspecificdyes.Thesearepublishedanddistributedbythedyemanufacturers.The
shadecardsprovideusefulinformationonapplicationproceduresandfastnessandlevelingpropertiesofthespecificdye.Shadecardsalsocontain
dyedswatchesthatdemonstratetheexpectedappearanceofthedyesondifferentfabricsatvariousdepthsofshade.

Copyright 2008-2011 North Carolina State University. All rights reserved.

DyeingandDyestuffs
Slide19

ThisdiagramiscalledafishbonediagramandisalsoknownasacauseandeffectorIshikawadiagram,namedafterthemanwhodevisedit.These
diagramsallowanyoutcometobeseparatedintomainprocesscategoriesbranchingoffamainbackbone.Eachprocessisfurtherdividedintosub
processes.Inthisway,keysourcesthatcontributetotheoutcomecanbeidentifiedandtargetedforimprovementwhenproblemsoccur.Fora
typicalmanufacturingprocess,themainprocesscategoriesarereferredtoastheFourMsofMaterials,Machines,Manpower,andMethods.

Theshadereproductionfishbonediagramindicatesthemanypossiblecausesofproblemsthatadyehousemanagerdealswithdaily.Dyeingisa
complex,difficulttocontrolindustrialoperationinwhichaprocessthatoccursonamolecularlevelmustbecarriedoutinhighvolumemachinery
withlargeamountsoffabric,dyes,chemicals,andwater.ThefourcategoriesthatareequivalenttotheFourMsdiscussedabovearelabeled
Materials,Equipment,HumanFactors,andProcesses.TherearealsotwoadditionalmaincategoriesforControlsandLogistics.Mostefficiently
rundyeingoperationshaveseparatedepartmentsdealingwithlogisticssuchasproductionschedules,proceduredevelopment,utilitiesoperation,
andmaintenance.Fromeachmaincategoryinthediagram,additionalfactorsformbranches.Thesebranchescouldbefurthersubdividedif
necessary.

Copyright 2008-2011 North Carolina State University. All rights reserved.

DyeingandDyestuffs
Slide20

DyesonFibers

* Indicatesthatfibermodificationsisrequired

Thischartsummarizesdyeclassesandthefibersonwhichtheycanbeused.Thedyeclassesarelistedacrossthetopofthechart.Forall
classifications,dyesaregenerallyrelativelylargeorganicchemicalstructurescontainingfunctionalgroupscalledchromophoresthatimpartcolor.
Thedyemoleculemayalsocontainchemicalgroupsthatcauseittobewatersolubleortohaveattractiontocertainfibers.Oftheeightdyeclasses
listed,fiveareusedtodyecottonandothercellulosicfibers,includingrayon,flax,jute,ramie,andlyocell.Thedyesusedoncottonandother
cellulosicsaredirects,naphthols,reactives,sulfurs,andvats.Fordyeingcellulosics,reactivedyesarethemostwidelyusedclass.Eachclassofdyes
canvaryinfastnessproperties,applicationmethods,andcost.Forexample,reactivedyesaregenerallyconsideredasaclasswhichhasbetter
washfastnesspropertiesthandirectdyes,buttheyarealsomoreexpensive.However,thefastnesspropertiesandcostdependonthespecific
dyestuff,therefore,generalstatementscomparingtwodyeclassesmaynotapplytoalldyestuffswithineachclass.

Dispersedyescanbeusedonalmostallsyntheticfibers,particularlypolyester.Aciddyesareusedprimarilyonnylon,wool,andsilk,butcanalso
beusedonacrylicfibersandcertainmodifiedrayons.Basicdyesareusedonacrylicfibersandonaspecialtypeofpolyesterknownascationic
dyeablepolyester.Noticethatnoneofthedyeclassesapplytotheolefinfibersofpolypropyleneandpolyethylene.Theonlymethodstoapply
colortothesefibersarebysolutiondyeingwhichincorporatespigmentinthepolymermeltbeforeextrusion,orbyusingapigment/bindersystem
toadherethepigmentstotheouterfibersurfaces.

Dyesareattractedtoandheldwithinthefiberbyvariousmechanisms.Theretentionmechanismsareveryimportantsinceoneoftheprimary
objectivesoftheprocessistoimpartahighdegreeoffastnesstothedyedfabric.Therearefourimportantmechanismsthatapplytomostofthe
dyefibercombinationsshowninthechart.

Thefirstismechanicalentrapmentwherethedyemoleculesarephysicallytrappedinsidethefiber.Thismechanismappliestovatsandsulfurson
cellulose.Thesedyesareinsolubleinwaterbutaremadesolubleduringthedyeingprocesssotheycandiffuseintothefiber.Oncetheyareinside
thefiber,theyarereturnedtotheiroriginal,insolubleformandarethustrappedinsidethefiber,givingexcellentwashfastness.Oxidation
reductionchemicalreactionscausethedyemoleculetochangefromtheinsolubletosolubleformandbackagain.Anotherwaytomechanically
trapadyemoleculeinsideafiberwouldbetocausethereactionoftwosmallermoleculesinsidethefibertocreatealargedyemolecule,which
occurswithnaphtholdyeing.Thesizeofthenewlycreatedmoleculeeffectivelytrapsitwithinthefiber.

Asecondmethodisionicbonding,inwhichthedyemoleculehastheoppositechargetothefiberduringthedyeingprocess.Theoppositecharges
attractandcausetheformationofastrongionicbondbetweenthedyeandthefiber.Thismechanismappliestoaciddyesonnylonandbasicdyes
onacrylic.

Incovalentbonding,athirdmechanism,thedyemoleculechemicallyreactswiththefibertoformacovalentbond,whichoccurswithreactivedyes
oncellulose.

Copyright 2008-2011 North Carolina State University. All rights reserved.

DyeingandDyestuffs
Finally,inpreferentialabsorption,thedyemoleculehasattractionforthefiberbecauseofchemicalsimilaritiesbetweenthetwo.Dispersedyeson
polyesterfollowthismechanism.Dispersedyesareinsolubleinwater;polyesterfibersarehydrophobicandhavelittleattractionforwateraswell.
Asthepolyesterfiberstructureisopenedbyhightemperatureduringdyeing,thedispersedyemoleculesentertheinternalstructureofthefiber,
andtheyareretainedbytheattractiveforcesbetweendyeandfiber.Thedispersedyeisessentiallydissolvedinthepolyesterfiber.

Copyright 2008-2011 North Carolina State University. All rights reserved.

DyeingandDyestuffs
Slide21

Asmentionedearlier,allcellulosicfibers,includingcotton,rayon,andothers,canbedyedwiththesameclassesofdyes.Dyeclassesusedfor
cellulosicfibersaredirects,reactives,vats,sulfurs,andnaphthols.Commercially,themostimportantofthesecategoriesaredirects,reactives,and
vats.Illustratedherearethemechanismsfortheapplicationandretentionofthesethreeclassesofdyestocellulose.Eachofthesethreedye
classesutilizesadifferentmechanismofdyeretention.

Thecellulosepolymercontainschemicalfunctionalgroupscalledhydroxylgroups,symbolizedbyOH,whichcontainoneoxygenandone
hydrogenmolecule.Thesehydroxylgroupsarechemicallyverysimilartowaterandaretheprimaryreasonforthehighlevelofaffinityofcellulosic
fiberstowater.ThefibersintheillustrationsherearethusrepresentedbyCellOH,whichcouldbecotton,rayon,oranyotherfibercomposedof
cellulose.

Copyright 2008-2011 North Carolina State University. All rights reserved.

DyeingandDyestuffs
Slide22

Directdyesarewatersolubleandarerelativelyeasytoapplytocellulosicfibers.Theyarepreferentiallyabsorbedbythefiberandareattracted
andheldtothefiberbysecondarymolecularforcesknownashydrogenbondingand/orVanderWaalsforces.Directdyesdissolvedinwater
becomenegativelycharged,asdocellulosefibers.Inordertoovercomethenaturalrepulsionoftwonegativelychargedcomponents,saltmustbe
addedtothedyebathformulationinconcentrationsrangingfrom5%to25%.Thesaltcanbeeithersodiumchlorideorsodiumsulfate,alsoknown
asGlauberssalt.Thepositivelychargedsodiumionsneutralizethenegativechargeofthefiberandallowthenegativelychargeddyemoleculeto
approachthefiberandbecomefixedbythesecondarymolecularforces.Atypicaldirectdyebathwouldcontaindye,water,salt,andananionic
wettingagent.

Directdyescanhavelimitedwashfastness,whichcanbeimprovedbytheuseofaftertreatmentssuchascationicfixingagentsorformaldehyde.
Aftertreatmentsaregenerallynotnecessaryforlightorpastelshades.Somedirectdyesaredevelopedafterapplicationtothefiberby
treatmentwithacouplingagenttoincreasethesizeofthedyemoleculeinsidethefiber,butthedevelopmentisoftenaccompaniedbyashade
change.

ThethreecategoriesofdirectdyesareknownasA,B,andC.ClassAdyesexhibitgoodlevelingpropertiesinthepresenceoflargeamountsofsalt,
whereasClassCdyesexhaustwellevenwithnosaltaddedbuthavepoorlevelingproperties.ThelevelingofClassCdyesisaccomplishedby
carefullycontrollingthetemperatureriseduringdyeing.

Copyright 2008-2011 North Carolina State University. All rights reserved.

DyeingandDyestuffs
Slide23

Reactivedyes,astheirnameimplies,reactwiththefibertoformacovalentchemicalbond,resultinginexcellentfastnessproperties.Thereaction
betweendyeandfiber,illustratedhere,occursunderalkalineconditionsbetweenapHof9and11.Thegeneralpracticeistoallowthedyeto
exhaustintoandlevelonthefiber,usingsaltandtemperaturecontrol,beforeraisingthepHtoallowthereactiontotakeplace.Aproblemwith
reactivedyesisthecompetingreactionthatoccursbetweendyeandwater,whichhastheeffectofinactivatingthedye.Theinactivateddyeleads
tobathinstability,lowerexhaustionontothefiber,andwasteddye.Unfixeddyemustbethoroughlyremovedbywashingafterdyeingtoimprove
crockfastness.

Reactivedyescanbecategorizedaseithercolddyeingorhotdyeing,anditisbestnottomixthetwotypesinshadeformulations.Colddyeing
typesareappliedataround140degreesF,whereashotdyeingtypesrequiretemperaturesbetween180and200degrees.Reactivedyesgenerally
allowforverybrightshadeswithgoodwashandlightfastness,buttheycanexhibitpoorfastnesstochlorinebleach.

Copyright 2008-2011 North Carolina State University. All rights reserved.

DyeingandDyestuffs
Slide24

Vatdyeshavethebestoverallfastnessproperties,includingfastnesstochlorinebleach,ofanyofthedyesforcellulose,buttheyaremore
complicatedtoapply.Applicationisatwostepprocess.Thedyemustbesolubilizedinwater,appliedtothefiber,andtheninsolubilized,resulting
inamoleculethatismechanicallytrappedinsidethefiber.

Mostvatdyesinusetodayarebasedonachemicalcalledanthraquinone,butafewvatdyesareindigobased.Allvatdyestructurescontainat
leastonecarbonylgroup,illustratedhereasC=O.Thedyesareinsolubleinthisform.Upontreatmentwithsodiumhydroxideandsodium
hydrosulfite,commonlyreferredtoascausticandhydro,thedyereducestoawatersolubleformknownastheleucoform,whichmaybea
differentcolorthantheoriginaldye.Theleucoformofthedyereadilyexhaustsintothefiber,whereitisthenoxidizedbacktoitsinsolubleform.
Theoxidizingchemicalsaretypicallysodiumperborateorhydrogenperoxide.

Copyright 2008-2011 North Carolina State University. All rights reserved.

DyeingandDyestuffs
Slide25

Becauseoftheirhydrophobicnature,dispersedyesarepreferentiallyabsorbedbysyntheticfibers,whichalsotendtobehydrophobic.Themajor
usefordispersedyesisfordyeingpolyester,buttheycanalsobeusedfordyeingnylon,acetate,triacetate,orothersyntheticfibers.The
illustrationdepictstheuseofdispersedyesonpolyester.Thedyesarenotsolubleinwater,butcanbedispersedintheliquidwiththeaidofa
surfactant.Thedyeandthefiberareattractedtoeachother,causingthedyemoleculestomoveordiffusethroughthedyeliquortothesurfaceof
thefiber.However,penetrationintotheinnerregionsofthefiberisinhibitedbyacrystalline,tightlypackedarrangementofpolymerchains.
Penetrationcanbeallowedandenhancedbyoneoftwoways:1)theuseofacarrier,or2)dyeingunderpressuretoachievetemperaturesof265
to275degreesFahrenheit.Acarrierisanorganicchemical,forexample,orthophenylphenolortrichlorobenzene,thatisabsorbedbythefiber,
causingswellingandincreasedmolecularmotion,thusopeningthefibersinternalstructureandallowingforpenetrationofthedyemolecules.
Thesesameeffectscanbeaccomplishedbydyeingattemperatureswellabovetheboilingpointofwater,therefore,inmostcasestoday,pressure
dyeinghasreplacedtheuseofcarriersasthepreferredmethodfordyeingpolyester.Astheillustrationshows,thedyeingtimesforpressure
dyeingtendtobeshorterthanthoseforcarrierdyeing.Inaddition,problemswithresidualcarrierodorandchemicaldisposalcanbeavoided.

Aftersufficienttimehaselapsedtoallowcompletepenetrationofeachfiberbythedyemolecules,thebathiscooled,andtheswollenfiberreturns
toitsoriginalsize.Thebathshouldbecooledgraduallytopreventfibercracking,andthedyedmaterialshouldbegivenathoroughafterwashto
removedunfixedsurfacedyethatwouldresultinpoorwashandcrockfastnessproperties.Thedyedfiberwillinessencebeasolidsolutionof
dispersedyemoleculesinthefiber.Ifthedyeingprocessisproperlyexecuted,adispersedyedpolyesterfabricshouldexhibitexcellent
washfastness.

Dispersedyescanbeclassifiedaslow,medium,orhighenergyasanindicationoftheirmolecularweight,orsize.Lowenergydyeshavethelowest
molecularweight.Ingeneral,asmolecularweightincreases,thepenetrationandlevelingabilityofthedyedecreasesbutthefastnessproperties
improve.Forbestresults,allthedyesinashadeformulationshouldbeofasimilarenergyclass.

Copyright 2008-2011 North Carolina State University. All rights reserved.

DyeingandDyestuffs
Slide26

Polyester DispersedDyeAnimation

Thetextilepolyesterfiberisimmersedinthewaterbaseddyebath.Dispersedyeisaddedtothedyebath.Thedispersedyeissuspendedinthe
waterinfineparticleform.Asthedyebathisheated,thedyeparticlesmovetowardthesurfaceofthefiberbecauseoftheoilynatureofboththe
dyeandthefiber.Asthetemperatureofthedyebathisraisedto265degreesFahrenheitthefiberswells.Theswollenfiberslowlyabsorbsthe
dispersedyeparticles.Thedyeparticlesbreakintomoleculesanddiffuseevenlythroughouttheswollenfiber.Aftertheproperamountofdyeing
time,thefiberiscooledandrinsed.Thiscoolinganddeswellsthefiberandthewaterinsolubledispersedyeistrappedinside.Thefiberisrinsed
prafterwashedtoremoveanyunfixeddyeparticleswhichremainonthefibersurface.

Copyright 2008-2011 North Carolina State University. All rights reserved.

DyeingandDyestuffs
Slide27

Mostlowenergyandsomemediumenergydispersedyescanexhibitapropertycalledsublimation,inwhichtheygofromasoliddirectlytoagasat
sufficientlyhightemperatures.Thesublimation,orThermosol,processisonewaytoapplydispersedyestopolyesterattemperaturesof
approximately400degreesFahrenheit.TheThermosolprocessisacontinuousprocessthatutilizesapadderandatenterframe.Thedyeis
appliedtothepolyesterbypaddingofanaqueousdyedispersion,followedbydryingtogiveauniformlydryfabric.Atthispoint,thedyeparticles
formanevenlydistributedthincrustatthefibersurface.Thefabrictemperatureisthenraisedto400degreestoallowforopeningandswellingof
theinternalfiberstructureaswellassublimationofthedye.Undertheseconditions,completedyepenetrationofthefibercanbeaccomplished
rapidlyinamatterofafewminutes.TheThermosolprocesslendsitselfwelltodyeingcontinuousyardagesof100%polyesterorpolyester/cotton
blendfabrics.

Copyright 2008-2011 North Carolina State University. All rights reserved.

DyeingandDyestuffs
Slide28

Polyester Thermosol DyeAnimation

Theconcentrateddyebathispaddedontothefiberandsubsequentlydriedtoathindispersedyecrustsurroundingthefiber.Usingadryheatoven,
thetemperatureofthesurroundingairisraisedto400degreesFahrenheit.Atthattemperature,thefiberswells,whilethedyesublimesfromsolid
particlesdirectlytoagaseousdyevapor.Thedyevaporisrapidlyabsorbedanddiffusedrapidlythroughoutthefiber.Thefiberiscooledand
rinsedtoremoveunfixeddyefromthefibersurface.

Copyright 2008-2011 North Carolina State University. All rights reserved.

DyeingandDyestuffs
Slide29

Aciddyesformaverystrongionicbondwiththefiberandareprimarilyusedtodyenylon,wool,andsilk.Allofthesefiberscontainchemical
functionalgroupsknownasamines(NH2)thatbecomepositivelychargedunderacidicconditionsinadyebath.Underthesesameconditions,
aciddyesarenegativelycharged,sothereisastrongattractionbetweentheoppositechargesofdyeandfiber.Aciddyes,sometimescalled
anionicdyes,cangenerallybeappliedatorbelowtheboilingpointofwater,thuspressurizeddyeingequipmentisnotnecessary.

Certainaciddyesarecalledpremetallizedaciddyesbecausetheycontainchromeorcobalttoimprovelightandwashfastnesspropertiesby
formingamordantcomplexwiththefiberandthedye.Themetalsareincorporatedintothedyestructurebythedyestuffmanufacturerandas
suchdonotgenerallyposetoxicityproblems.

Aciddyesaredividedintothreeclassesknownasleveling,milling,andneutraldyeing,alsocalledsupermilling.Levelingaciddyeshavethelowest
molecularweightandneutraldyesthehighest.Basedonthedyemoleculesizeinformation,canyoupredictwhichclasswillhavethebestgeneral
washfastnessandlevelingability?Neutraldyeshavethebestwashfastnessandthelowestlevelingability.Asthenameimplies,neutraldyesare
appliedfromapHof6to7,whilelevelingaciddyesareappliedatapHofapproximately3.Thesethreedyeclasseshavedifferentratesof
exhaustionandmigration,soashadeformulationshouldcontainalldyesfromthesameclasstopromoteleveldyeing.Withnyloninparticular,
levelingcanbeimprovedbytheuseofanauxiliarychemicalcalledaretardertoslowthedyeingrate.Retarderscouldbecompoundssuchas
anionicsurfactantsthatcompetewiththenegativelychargeddyemoleculesforpositivelychargedsitesonthefiberatlowtemperaturesinthe
initialstagesofdyeing.Conversely,cationic(positivelycharged)surfactantswouldbindthemselvestothedyemolecule.Asthetemperatureis
raisedduringthedyeingprocess,theretardersaregraduallyreleasedandreplacedbydyemolecules.Retarderscanbeespeciallycriticaltoobtain
leveldyeingsforpastelshades.

Copyright 2008-2011 North Carolina State University. All rights reserved.

DyeingandDyestuffs
Slide30

Basic,orcationic,dyesbecomepositivelychargedunderacidicconditions.Theveryfirstsyntheticdye,Perkinsmauveine,wasabasicdye.Basic
dyescanproduceextremelybright,evenfluorescent,shades.Thisclassofdyescanbeusedonfibersthatarenegativelychargedbyforminga
strongionicbondbetweendyeandfiber.Theyareusedprimarilytodyeacrylicfibersbutcanalsobeusedtodyeatypeofmodifiedpolyester
knownascationicdyeablepolyester.

Acrylicfibersarecomposedofapolymercalledpoly(acrylonitrile).Thepurepolymerchainscanpacktightlytogetherandwouldbevirtuallynon
dyeable,socopolymersareincorporatedintothefibertoopenupthemolecularstructureandtoprovidefunctionalgroupstoreactwiththedye.
Thesefunctionalgroupsaresulfonicacidgroupsthatarenegativelycharged,showninthediagramasSO3.

Acrylicfibersmustbedyedattemperaturesabove180degreesFahrenheit,whichistheapproximateglasstransitiontemperatureforthepolymer.
Belowthistemperature,thepolymerchainsshowverylittlemotion,andlittletonodyeingcanoccur.Therateofdyeingincreasessharplyabove
180;sotopreventunleveldyeing,thetemperaturemustbeincreasedgraduallyoncethisthresholdhasbeenreached.Inmanycases,cationic
retardersareusedtocompetewiththedyeforsitesonthefibertopromotelevelness.Itisalsoimportanttocoolthebathslowlyafterdyeingto
preventcrackmarksinthefabric.

Basicdyeshavebeencategorizedbytheirexhaustionrateinto5classesbasedontheircompatibilityfactor,K.AKvalueof1representsdyeswith
thefastestexhaustionand5theslowest.Inshadeformulations,allthedyesshouldpossessKvaluesthatdonotvaryfromeachotherbymore
than1.Forexample,ashadeformulationforgreencontainingayellowdyeofK=1andabluedyeofK=4wouldtendtoresultinthedyedfabric
beingtooyellowbecausetheyellowdyemoleculeswouldexhaustfirstandwouldtakeuptheavailablesitesinthefiberbeforethebluedyecould
occupythem.Attheveryleast,theshadewouldnotbuildevenlyduringthedyeprocess.

Copyright 2008-2011 North Carolina State University. All rights reserved.

DyeingandDyestuffs
Slide31

Thischartsummarizestherelativecost,easeofapplication,andfastnesspropertiesofdifferentdyeclasses;however,recallthatpropertiesfor
individualdyestuffscanvaryconsiderably.Thedyemanufacturershouldbeconsultedforspecificinformationoneachdye.

Inconsideringtherelationshipbetweenapplicationofthedyeanditsfastnessproperties,astatementoftenquotedis,easyon,easyoff.Lookat
thetwocolumnsinthetablelabeledEaseofApplicationandWashfastness,andnoticethatdyesthatareeasytoapplyoftenhavepoorwash
fastness.Conversely,dyesthataredifficulttoapplytendtobeassociatedwithgoodwashfastness.Twofactorsthataffecteaseofapplicationare
thedyemoleculessizeandsolubility.Thesizeofthedyemoleculecanbedescribedbyitsmolecularweight.Alowmolecularweight,orsmall,dye
canmoreeasilypenetrateintoafiber,butitcanalsomoreeasilydiffuseoutofthefiberwhenthematerialiswashed.Onthepositiveside,the
mobilityofasmallerdyemoleculecanalsoresultinbetterlevelingabilityduringthedyeingprocess.

Copyright 2008-2011 North Carolina State University. All rights reserved.

DyeingandDyestuffs
Slide32

PigmentColorationAdvantages
Economicalbecauseoflimitednumberofprocessingsteps.
Blendscanbedyedaunionshadewithoneoperation
applicabletoallfibers.
Extensivecolorrangeandhighlightfastness.
Satisfactorywashfastness
Thepossibilityofcombiningdyeingandfinishingexists.
Mustselectproductssothatfinishandbinderreactunder
sameconditionsofpHand/ortemperature

Pigmentsareanalternativemethodtodyeingforapplyingcolortotextilematerials.Pigmentsareinorganiccoloredcompoundsthatcanbe
adhered,orglued,totheouterfibersurfaceusingabinder.Assuch,pigmentscanbeappliedtoanyfiber,regardlessofitschemicalnature.
Pigmentsare,therefore,notfiberspecific,apropertythatmakesthemappealingfordyeingafabricofblendedfibers,suchaspolyester/cotton.
Thepigmentandbinderareusuallyappliedtothefabricinapaddingoperation,followedbydryingandthenheatingtoasufficientlyhigh
temperaturetocurethebinder.Pigmentscanalsobeusedinheattransferprintingorinprintpasteformulation.

Otheradvantagesofpigmentcolorationcanbeseeninthisslide.

Copyright 2008-2011 North Carolina State University. All rights reserved.

DyeingandDyestuffs
Slide33

PigmentColorDisadvantages
Heavyshadescrockbadly.
Lightshadesmaywetcrock.
Influenceonhand:
Thelargeamountofbindermaystiffenfabric.
Mostnoticeableonverythinfabrics.

Mayhavestickingorbuilduponpadrolls.
Migration Unevencolorationmayoccurifdryingis
variableorpickupishigh.

Therearealsosomedisadvantageswhenusingpigments.Becausethepigmentisessentiallygluedtothesurfaceofthefiber,poorfastnessto
crockingorrubbingcanresult.Crockfastnesscanbeimprovedbyproperafterwashing.Thebinderusedtoadherethepigmenttothefibercan
alsostiffenthefabric.Asoftenercouldbeaddedtofabricfinishingtocounteractthestiffnessofthebinder.

Copyright 2008-2011 North Carolina State University. All rights reserved.

DyeingandDyestuffs
Slide34

DyeingofBlends
Crossdyeing
Yarndyedfabrics
Uniondyeing
Differentfibertypes
Differentbrandnamefibers

Reservedyeing
Onebathdyeings
Multiplebathdyeings

Toneontonedyeing
Multileveldyeing
Staining

Textilefabricsoryarnsoftencontainmorethanonefibertype.Thedyeingofblendscanpresentachallengetothedyer,especiallywhenthegoal
istoachieveauniformshadeonafabriccomposedofmorethanonefibertype,aneffectcalleduniondyeing.Forexample,inapolyester/cotton
blendtobedyedaunionshade,thedyermusthaveseparatedyeformulationsforthepolyesterandcottoncomponents,andbothshade
formulationsmustmatchthestandard.Dependingonthedyeclassesusedandthecompatibilityofthedyestuffsandapplicationprocedures,the
dyeformulationforeachfibermaybeappliedinonecombinedsteporinseparatesteps.Aftertheinitialdyeapplication,itmaybenecessaryto
makeshadecorrectionsononeorbothofthefibers.Toallowthedyertoevaluatetheshadeofeachfibertype,riders,orsmallfabricswatches
of100%cottonand100%polyester,canbeattachedtotheoriginalblendedfabricduringthedyeingprocess.Anotheroptionforviewing
individualfibercolorsistodissolveoneofthefibercomponentsafterdyeing,referredtoasleachingorburningout,andthenviewtheshadeofthe
remainingfiber.

Otherdyeingproceduresforblendedfabricsoryarnscanproduceinterestingdesigneffects.Incrossdyeing,eachfibercomponentisdyeda
differentshade.Anexampleofyarndyedfabricsisplaids,inwhichyarnscomposedofdifferentfibersaredyedbeforebeingwovenintofabric.
Reservedyeingindicatesthatatleastoneofthefibercomponentsinablendwillbeleftundyed.Toneontonedyeingoccurswhenthefiber
blendcontainstwofibertypesthataredyedwiththesameclassofdyes,butthefibersdyetodifferentdepthsofshade.Acotton/rayonblendis
anexampleoftoneontonedyeing.Bothfibersaremadeofcellulose,andbothcanbedyedwithdirect,reactive,orvatdyes,amongothers.
Basedonyourknowledgeoftheinternalmolecularstructureofcottonandrayon,canyoupredictwhichofthesetwofiberswoulddyetoadarker
shadewhendyedunderthesameconditions?Becauseofitsmoreopen,amorphousstructure,rayonwoulddyedarkerthancotton.Infact,it
wouldbeimpossibletoobtainaunionshadeinacotton/rayonblend.

Multileveldyeingappliestosyntheticfibersinmultifilamentyarns.Thistechniquehasprimarilybeenusedfornyloncarpetyarnmadeupof
differentfilamenttypesknownaslight,medium,anddeepdyeing.Thedifferenttypeswereproducedwithvaryingnumbersofavailabledye
sites.Inthe1970s,shagcarpetwasproducedwiththistechnique.

Finally,stainingofoneofthefibercomponentsbythedyesintendedfortheotherfibercanoccur,butthestainingeffectwouldhavelittleorno
fastness.

Copyright 2008-2011 North Carolina State University. All rights reserved.

DyeingandDyestuffs
Slide35

PurposeofDyeingMachinery
BatchDyeing
Movethedyeliquorthroughthegoods
Movethegoodsthroughthedyeliquor

ContinuousDyeing
Applyaconcentratedsolutionofdyeevenlyand
uniformlytothegoodswiththorough
penetration

Thefollowingdiagramsandvideoswilldemonstrateafewofthemorefrequentlyuseddyeingmachinetypes.

Asdiscussedearlier,thedyeingprocesscanbedividedintotwocategories:batchorcontinuous.Thebatchprocessisusedfordyeingafixed
amountoffabricoryarn.Mostofthemachinesdiscussedinthesectionaredesignedforbatchdyeingoffabric,sometimescalledpiecedyeing.
Packagedyeingmachinesforyarnwillalsobereviewed.Allbatchdyeingmachinesaredesignedtoprovidedyepenetrationthroughagitationby
movingthematerialthroughthedyebath,thedyebaththroughthematerial,orboth.Welldesignedbatchmachineswillpromoteleveldyeing,
consistentanduniformtemperaturecontrol,andminimumabrasionandstressonthefabric.Continuousdyeing,usedtoproducelargedyelotsof
thesameshade,utilizesapaddertoapplyaconcentrateddyesolutiontothefabric.

Somefactorstoconsiderinchoosingtheproperdyeingmachinerywouldbe:
Shouldthefabricbeprocessedinopenwidthorinropeform?Dyeinginropeformcansometimessetwrinklesorcreasesinthefabric.
Willthedyeprocedurerequirehightemperaturesabovetheboilingpointofwaterthatwillnecessitatetheuseofamachinethatcanoperate
underpressure?Dispersedyesonpolyestercanrequirethesehightemperatures.
Shouldtensiononthefabric,forexampleknittedfabrics,beminimizedduringdyeing?
Shouldabrasionofthefabricbeminimizedduringdyeing?
DyeingMacShouldfabricordyebathexposuretotheatmospherebeminimizedduringdyeing?

Copyright 2008-2011 North Carolina State University. All rights reserved.

DyeingandDyestuffs
Slide36

JetDyeingmachinesareimportant,frequentlyusedmachinesforpiecedyeing.Theycanoperateunderpressure,andcanbeutilizedforpolyester
containingfabrics,bothwovenandknitted.Thedefiningcharacteristicofajetdyeingmachineisthatthefabricispropelledbypressurizedjets,
calledVenturitubes,ofthedyebathliquid.Thereforeagitationisobtainedbymovingboththebaththroughthegoodsandthegoodsthroughthe
bath.Toinitiatedyeing,thefabricisfedintotheportofthemachine,loopedaroundtheinterior,andthenjoinedendtoendtomakea
continuousloopinropeform,whichcirculatescontinuouslyduringdyeing.Foldsoftheexcessfabricwillformatthebottomofthelooptoallow
dwelltimeinthedyebath.Atypicalamountoffabricinoneportmaybe200to350pounds.Inproduction,severalportswillbealignedsideby
sidesothatmorethanoneloopoffabriccanbedyedatthesametime.Acommondyebathwillcirculatethroughalltheports.Inthediagram
shown,theloopoffabricrotatesintheclockwisedirection.

Apotentialproblemwiththeuseofjetdyeingequipmentisfoamingofthedyebath,whichcanbeminimizedbyusingantifoamchemicalsand
wettingagentsasdyeingauxiliaries.

Copyright 2008-2011 North Carolina State University. All rights reserved.

DyeingandDyestuffs
Slide37

DyeJetAnimation

Theanimationshownisofajetdyeingmachine.Theanimationrepresentsoneportcontainingoneloopoffabric;however,inproduction,several
portscanbelinedupsidebysidewiththesamedyesolutioncirculatingthroughallports.Agitation,importantforpromotingleveldyeing,is
achievedbyseveralmeans:mechanicallymovingthefabricloopthroughthemachine,propellingthefabricbymovingjetsofdyesolution,andby
thedyeliquidcascadingdowntheverticalsectionofthefabric.Softflowjetsaredesignedtominimizefabricsurfaceabrasionbythewaterstream.
Thefoldsoffabricsubmergedinthebottomofthevesselprovideexposureanddwelltimeinthedyesolution.

Copyright 2008-2011 North Carolina State University. All rights reserved.

DyeingandDyestuffs
Slide38

DyeJetVideo

Thisvideoofapilotplantscalejetdyeingmachineshowsasideviewofthecontrolsystemandfrontloadingdoor.Themachineisessentiallyan
enclosedstainlesssteeltube.Theenclosedlifterreelareaislocatedatthetopofthemachine.Alsoenclosedinthebackareaofthemachineis
theVenturitube,whichprovidesajetofdyebathtohelppropelthefabricasitmovesdownthebackside.Aviewingportislocatedonthesideof
thereartube.

Adjacenttothefabriccirculationtubeistheaddtank,wherechemicalsanddyesareaddedwhilethemachineisrunningwiththefrontdoorclosed
butbeforethesystemgoesunderpressure.

Thecolumnenclosedinwhiteinsulatingmaterialistheheatexchangerandfiltermechanismforthecirculatingdyebath.

Thenextviewisthroughtheopenfrontportholeshowingfabricrunninginthemachineandpassingthroughaguidering.

Finally,aviewofthefabricgoingoverthelifterreelatthetopofthemachineisshown.Lookingintothemachinefromthetop,onecanseethe
fabricpassingdownthroughtherectangularVenturitube.

Copyright 2008-2011 North Carolina State University. All rights reserved.

DyeingandDyestuffs
Slide39

DyeJigDiagram

Thedyejigholdsthefabricinopenwidthontworollswiththedyebathinbetween.Duringdyeing,thefabricmovesfromonerolltotheother
andbackagain.Thisbackandforthmotionmayberepeatedseveraltimesduringdyeing.Guiderollersunderneaththefabricboltsareslightly
bowedtocausespreadingofthefabricandminimizecreasing.Becausethematerialoneachendoftherollsisneverexposedtothedyebath,
leaderclothisattachedtothefabricends.Thelengthoftheleaderclothshouldbeatleastthecircumferenceoftherollerplusthedistancefrom
therollertothedyebath.

Asthefabricpassesthroughthedyesolutionfollowedbytakeupontheroll,thedyesolutionistrappedbetweenfabriclayers.Thepressure
betweenthefabriclayerspromotespenetrationofthedyeintothefabric.Dyejigsaregenerallyatmospheric,ornotpressurized,buttheycanbe
coveredtominimizeheatloss.

Becauseoftherelativelyhighamountoftensiononthefabric,adyejigisbestsuitedtowovenordimensionallystablefabrics.

Copyright 2008-2011 North Carolina State University. All rights reserved.

DyeingandDyestuffs
Slide40

DyeJigAnimation

Seeninthisanimationisadyejigwiththefabriconrollersinopenwidthform.Thefabrictravelsfromonerollertoanother,passingthroughthe
dyebathinbetween.Initially,thefabricisexposedtoanaqueoussolutioncontainingonlyawettingagentorsurfactantsincethefabricshouldbe
thoroughlyanduniformlywetoutbeforeaddingthedyes.Asthedyesareadded,thefabricpicksupthedyesolutionasitpassesthroughthe
troughandisthenwoundontheroller.Asstatedpreviously,thepressurebetweenfabriclayersontherollenhancespenetrationofthedyeliquor
intothefabric.Inatypicaldyeingoperation,thefabricmayrequireseveralbackandforthcyclesbetweenthetworollerstoachievethedesired
exhaustion.

Copyright 2008-2011 North Carolina State University. All rights reserved.

DyeingandDyestuffs
Slide41

DyeJigVideo

Thisvideoofadyejiginoperationbeginswithafrontviewofthemachineandcontrolsystem.Thefrontrollisturningandunwindingthefabric.
Inthisvideo,thefabricispassinginitiallythroughwateronly.Later,dyesandauxiliarychemicalsarepouredintothedyeaddtankandare
transferredtothebathinthedyetrough.Thefabricwillrunbackandforthonthetworollersforupto16to32cycles.Onecycleconsistsofthe
fabricononerollerbeingcompletelytransferredtotheotherrollerandthenbacktotheoriginalroller.

Copyright 2008-2011 North Carolina State University. All rights reserved.

DyeingandDyestuffs
Slide42

Aswithajetdyeingmachine,thefabrictobedyedinabeckisjoinedattheendstomakeacontinuousloopinropeform.Unlikethejet,adye
beckisgenerallyanatmosphericmachine,andthefabricispropelledbyarotatingellipticalrollerorreel.Inthediagramshown,thedirectionof
rotationofthefabricloopiscounterclockwise.Theellipticalshapeofthereelminimizescreasemarksandcausesthefabrictofallinfoldsinthe
dyebathtoprovidedwelltime.Inaddition,asthefabricispulledupfromthetank,excessdyesolutioncascadesbackdownthefabrictoincrease
agitation.Althoughatmospheric,thebeckisgenerallyenclosedtomaintaintemperaturecontrol.Inaproductionscalebeck,severalloopsoffabric
canbedyedsidebyside,dependingonthefabricweightcapacityofthemachine.

Copyright 2008-2011 North Carolina State University. All rights reserved.

DyeingandDyestuffs
Slide43

DyeBeckAnimation

Althoughmostdyesbecksareatmosphericandcannotbesealedtoallowpressuredyeing,theyaretypicallyclosedtopreventexcessiveheatand
steamloss,asseeninthisanimation.Removingthesidepanelofthemachine,itisseenthatthefabriclooprotatesaroundandaroundinthesame
directionduringthedyeingprocess.First,thefabricwouldhavebeenloadedintothemachineandthenjoinedtogetherateachendbyaseamto
formacontinuousloop.Inabeck,theloopoffabricisinropeformasitrotates,asopposedtotheopenwidthconfigurationofadyejig.Note
howtherotationoftheellipticalreelcausesthefabrictofallinfoldsinthebathatthebottomofthebeck.Oncethefabrichasbeenthoroughly
wetout,thedyesareaddedtothebath,andtheexhaustionprocessbegins.Dependingonthefibertype,thedyeclass,andthedepthofshade
desired,runtimesinabeckcanrangefrom3to12hours.

Copyright 2008-2011 North Carolina State University. All rights reserved.

DyeingandDyestuffs
Slide44

DyeBeckVideo

Thisvideoshowsthefrontviewofadyebeckandcontrolsystem.Thetakeoffreelabovethemachineisrunning,althoughitnormallywouldneed
torunonlywhenfinishedfabricisremovedfromthemachine.Toloadthemachine,fabricisfedintothefrontopeningandthreadedoverthe
winchreel.Asecondfabricstrandisbeingloadedaswell.Foreachstrand,aseamissewnbetweenthetwoendstomakethecontinuousloopof
fabric.Thefabriciswetoutwithwaterandsurfactantbeforethedyesareadded.

Aportholewindowinthebackofthemachineallowssampleviewingwhilethemachineisrunning.

Dyesareaddeddirectlytothebathinthemachine,butaperforatedstainlesssteelwallallowstheaddeddyetodiffuseuniformlythroughoutthe
dyebathbeforecontactingthefabricthuspreventingstreaksinthefinishedgoods.Thefabriccirculatesuntilmaximumexhaustionisachieved.

Copyright 2008-2011 North Carolina State University. All rights reserved.

DyeingandDyestuffs
Slide45

PackageMachine

Apackagemachineisdesignedtodyeyarnsthathavebeentightlywoundonadyetube,whichisaperforatedcylinderthancanbemadeof
stainlesssteelorplastic.Plasticdyetubesareconsidereddisposableandareconvenienttousewhentheyarnsaretobedyedinonelocationand
thenshippedtoanotherlocationforsubsequentuse.

Theundyedpackagesarestackedonperforatedspindlesinthekier,orlargemetaltank,ofthedyeingmachine.Thedyesolutionisinitiallyadded
toaseparatetankandisthenpumpedtothekierduringdyeing.Thedirectionofflowisreversedseveraltimesduringthedyeingprocesstoallow
forthoroughanduniformpenetrationoftheyarnpackagebythedye.Packagedyeingmachinesarepressurizedandcanbeusedattemperatures
greaterthan100degreesC.

Copyright 2008-2011 North Carolina State University. All rights reserved.

DyeingandDyestuffs
Slide46

PackageDyeVideo

Thevideoshowsapilotplantscalepackagedyeingmachine,withakierontheleftsidethatwillholduptosixpackages.Thedyebathchemicals
areaddedtotheadjacenttank.Alsoseenareseveralemptydyetubesrepresentingthosetypicallyused.Packageswoundwiththeyarntobe
dyedareplacedontheperforatedspindlesinsidethekier.

Copyright 2008-2011 North Carolina State University. All rights reserved.

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