INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENERGY RESEARCH

Int. J. Energy Res., 23, 1029 } 1038 (1999)

ENERGY AND EXERGY ANALYSES OF COLD THERMAL

STORAGE SYSTEMS
MARC A. ROSEN, NORMAN PEDINELLI AND IBRAHIM DINCER*
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Ryerson Polytechnic University, Toronto, Ont., Canada M5B 2K3
Department of Mechanical Engineering, King Fahd University of Petroleum and Minerals, Dhahran 31261, Saudi Arabia

SUMMARY
This study deals with the assessment of the thermodynamic performance of cold thermal storage systems using exergy
and energy analyses. Several cases are considered, including some storages which are homogeneous, and others which
undergo phase changes. In some cases the storages are strati"ed. A full cycle of charging, storing and discharging
is considered for each case. Four cold thermal storage cases are presented in an illustrative example. The results
demonstrate that exergy analysis provides more realistic and accurate assessments of the e$ciency and performance of
cold thermal storage systems than those given by the more conventional energy analysis. In addition, exergy analysis is
conceptually more direct since it treats cold as a valuable commodity. It is concluded that the potential usefulness of
exergy analysis in addressing and solving cold thermal storage problems is substantial. Copyright  1999 John Wiley
& Sons, Ltd.
KEY WORDS: cold thermal storage; energy storage; energy and exergy analyses; energy and exergy e$ciencies;
thermodynamics

1. INTRODUCTION
Thermal energy storage (TES) is perhaps as old as civilization itself. Since recorded time people have
harvested ice and stored it for later use. Large TES systems have been employed in more recent history for
a wide range of applications ranging from solar hot water storage to building air conditioning systems
(Beckman and Gilli, 1984; Jenne, 1992). TES is considered by many to be an advanced energy technology
(Dincer et al., 1997).
One of the fastest growing applications of TES is in facilitating the use of o!-peak electricity to provide
building heating and cooling. In large commercial buildings, there often exists a need for year-round cooling
due to the excess heat released by lighting, occupants and equipment. This need has increased because of
growth in both the size of buildings and the use of air conditioners and computers. Recently, increasing
attention has been paid to the cold thermal storage (CTS) in many countries, particularly in the United
States, Canada and Europe.
Cold thermal storage is an economically viable energy conserving technology that often helps in e$ciency
improvement and energy conservation e!orts. The basic principle behind many cold thermal storage
applications is simple: inexpensive o!-peak electricity is utilized during the night-time to satisfy cooling needs
in the day, when electricity is more expensive. The technique, used mainly in building cooling, involves using
chillers during o!-peak hours to produce a cold medium, which can be stored for use during the day. The
bene"ts to all relevant parties can be considerable, although the extent to which building users bene"t

* Correspondence to: I. Dincer, Department of Mechanical Engineering, King Fahd University of Petroleum and Minerals, Dhahran
31261, Saudi Arabia. Email: idincer@kfupm.edu.sa

CCC 0363}907X/99/121029}10$17.50
Copyright  1999 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Received 1 December 1998

Accepted 8 February 1999

1030

M. A. ROSEN, N. PEDINELLI AND I. DINCER

is dictated primarily by the tari! structure of the electricity supply companies. The general bene"ts that
CTS provides to energy users, energy supply companies, and the environment are summarized below
(Beggs, 1991):
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)

reduced chiller sizes,

more e$cient and e!ective system operation,
less capital and maintenance costs,
energy and "nancial savings, and
reductions in CO and CFC emissions.

To be economically justi"able the annual costs needed to cover the capital and operating expenses for
a CTS (and related systems) should be less than the costs for primary generating equipment supplying the
same service loads and periods (Dincer, 1999). A CTS can lead to lower initial and operating costs for
associated chillers when cooling loads are intermittent and of short duration. Secondary system capital costs
may also be lower when CTS is utilized. For instance, the electrical service entrance size can sometimes be
reduced because the energy demand is lower. In a comparative economic analysis, the initial equipment and
installation costs are obtained (preferably from manufacturers), and the cost savings are evaluated using the
life cycle cost method or other suitable methods to determine which system is the &best'.
In most situations, CTS permits the mismatch between the supply and demand of cooling to be favourably
altered (Dincer and Dost, 1996), thereby contributing in part to meeting society's desire for more e$cient,
environmentally benign energy use. CTS is a key component of many successful thermal systems.
E$ciency and performance evaluations of CTS systems involve a variety of factors. The conventional form
of analysis is based on energy. However, energy analysis itself is insu$cient for complete CTS evaluation
because it does not account for all of the relevant factors, such as the temperatures at which heat is supplied
to and delivered from the CTS, the temperature of the surroundings, and the length of time over which the
heat or cooling capacity is stored. This inadequacy of energy analysis prompted the authors to use exergy
analysis, a technique based on the second law of thermodynamics, in CTS assessments.
Exergy is de"ned as the maximum theoretical work obtainable from a system or from a #ow of matter or
energy as it is brought to a state of thermodynamic equilibrium with a reference environment. Physically,
exergy acknowledges that the opportunity to do work exists whenever two systems at di!erent states
are brought together, and provides a measure of the potential work available if one system is the
environment.
Exergy can be viewed as a quantitative measure of the &quality' or &usefulness' of an amount of energy.
Unlike energy, exergy is not subject to a law of conservation. For a steady state system, the sum of all exergy
exiting, some of which is in products and some of which is in wastes, is always less than that entering. In the
case of TES systems, which do not in general operate at steady state, the exergy entering is stored, or exits, or
is destroyed due to irreversibilities. Exergy analysis and its implications in TES and other applications are
discussed in further detail elsewhere (Bejan, 1982; Bjurstrom and Carlsson, 1985; Krane, 1987; Hahne et al.,
1989; Rosen and Hooper, 1990; Rosen, 1992; Gunnewiek et al., 1993; Moran and Shapiro, 1995; Rosen and
Dincer, 1997).
In the present study, energy and exergy analyses are performed for several cases of CTS systems, including
storages that undergo sensible and/or latent heat changes. The work is intended to demonstrate the
usefulness of exergy analysis in thermodynamic assessments of such systems, and to provide insights into
their performances and e$ciencies.

2. ENERGY AND EXERGY ANALYSES

Recently, exergy analysis has been recognized as a useful tool for performance evaluations and design for
TES systems, including CTS. Usually, exergy analysis is complementary to energy analysis, and provides
Copyright  1999 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Int. J. Energy Res., 23, 1029}1038 (1999)

1031

COLD THERMAL STORAGE SYSTEMS

Figure 1. Three processes of TES cycle

valuable insights into the performance of a system or process. Energy and exergy balances and expressions
for energy and exergy e$ciencies are presented in the following subsections for an overall CTS process and
its subprocesses (i.e., charging, storing and discharging).
2.1. Energy analysis
Consider a cold storage consisting of a tank holding a "xed quantity of storage #uid and a heat transfer
coil in the tank through which a heat transfer #uid is circulated. An energy balance for an entire cycle of
a cold capacity TES can be written in terms of &cold' as follows:
Cold
!
input

Cold
Cold
# Cold "
recovered
loss
accumulation

Here, &cold input' is the heat removed from the storage #uid by the heat transfer #uid during charging; &cold
recovered' is the heat removed from the heat transfer #uid by the storage #uid; &cold loss' is the heat gain from
the environment to the storage #uid during charging, storing and discharging; and &cold accumulation' is the
decrease in internal energy of the storage #uid during the entire cycle. For the simpli"ed CTS system
illustrated in Figure 1, the overall energy balance becomes
(H !H )![(H !H )#Q ]"!*E
(1)





where H , H , H and H are the enthalpies of the #ows at points a, b, c and d in Figure 1; Q is the total heat




gain during the charging, storing and discharging processes; and *E is the di!erence between the "nal and
initial storage-#uid internal energies. The terms in square brackets in equation (1) represent the net &cold
output' from the CTS, and *E"0 if the CTS undergoes a complete cycle (i.e., the initial and "nal
storage-#uid states are identical).
The energy transfer associated with the charging #uid can be expressed as
H !H "m C ( ! )
(2)




where m is the mass #ow of heat-transfer #uid at point a (and at point b), and C is the speci"c heat of the
heat transfer #uid, which is assumed constant. A similar expression can be written for (H !H ). The energy



content of a storage which is homogeneous (i.e. either entirely in the solid phase or entirely in the liquid
phase) is
E"m(u!u )
(3)

Copyright  1999 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Int. J. Energy Res., 23, 1029}1038 (1999)

1032

M. A. ROSEN, N. PEDINELLI AND I. DINCER

which, for sensible heat interactions only, can be written as

E"mC(! )
(4)

where C is the speci"c heat of the storage #uid (assumed constant), m is the storage #uid mass, u and are
the speci"c internal energy and temperature of the storage #uid, is the environment temperature and u


is u evaluated at the environmental conditions.
For a mixture of solid and liquid, the energy content of the solid and liquid portions can be evaluated
separately and summed as follows:
E"m[(1!F)(u !u )#F(u !u )]
(5)




where u and u are the speci"c internal energies of the solid and liquid portions of the storage #uid,


respectively, and F is the melted fraction (i.e., the fraction of the storage #uid mass in the liquid phase).
For a storage #uid which is linearly strati"ed (in the vertical direction), the energy content can be shown to
be equal to the energy content of the same storage if it was fully mixed at the mean temperature (Rosen and
Hooper, 1991a, b). Then, equation (4) becomes
E"mC

#

!

2

(6)

where and are the storage #uid temperatures at the top and bottom of the linearly strati"ed storage


tank, respectively.
The change in CTS energy content from the initial (i) to the "nal state (f ) of a process can be expressed as
*E"E !E "m(u !u )




(7)

2.2. Exergy analysis

An exergy balance for a CTS undergoing a complete cycle of charging, storing and discharging can be
written as follows:
Exergy
!
input

Exergy
Exergy
Exergy # Exergy
!
"
consumption accumulation
recovered
loss

or, following Figure 1,

(e !e )!W(e !e )!e X!I"*$
(8)




/
where e , e , e and e are the exergy #ows at points a, b, c and d in Figure 1; I is the exergy consumption due



to irreversibilities; and *$ is the di!erence between the "nal and initial storage-#uid non-#ow exergies. The
quantity in the square brackets represents the net exergy output from the CTS, and *$"0 if the CTS has
identical initial and "nal storage-#uid states.
The exergy content of a #ow of heat transfer #uid at state k (where k"a, b, c, or d in Figure 1) can be
expressed as
e "(H !H )! (S !S )
(9)



 

where e , H and S are the #ow exergy, enthalpy and entropy at state k, and H and S are the enthalpy and
 



entropy evaluated at environmental conditions.
The exergy transfer associated with the charging of the storage by the heat-transfer #uid can be expressed
as
e !e "m C[( ! )! ln( / )]
(10)







A similar expression can be written for (e !e ).


Copyright  1999 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Int. J. Energy Res., 23, 1029}1038 (1999)

1033

COLD THERMAL STORAGE SYSTEMS

The exergy loss associated with heat in"ltration Q during storage is



e " 1!  Q

/

(11)

where is the temperature at which the heat crosses the system boundary. The term e is negative when

/
( , as is the case here for CTSs. This observation indicates that the heat transfer and the accompanying


exergy transfer are oppositely directed. That is, the losses associated with heat transfer Q are not due to heat

in"ltration into the storage when expressed in energy terms, but due to a cold loss out of the storage when
expressed in exergy terms.
The exergy content of a homogeneous storage is
$"m[(u!u )! (s!s )]




(12)

where s is the speci"c entropy of the storage #uid and s is s evaluated at the environmental conditions. If only

sensible heat interactions occur, equation (12) can be written as
$"mC[(! )! ln(/ )]




(13)

For a mixture of solid and liquid, the exergy content can be written as
$"m[(1!F)[(u !u )! (s !s )]#F[(u !u )! (s !s )]]


 



 


(14)

where s and s are the speci"c entropies of the solid and liquid portions of the storage #uid, respectively.


The exergy content of a storage which is linearly strati"ed (in the vertical direction) is (Rosen and Hooper,
1991a, b)
$"E!mC


(ln !1)! (ln !1)





!ln

!



(15)

The change in TES exergy content can expressed as

*$"$ !$ "m[(u !u )! (s !s )]




 

(16)

2.3. Energy and exergy ezciencies

At least in two categories e$ciency is commonly used: "rst-law e$ciency (i.e. energy e$ciency) and
second-law e$ciency (i.e. exergy e$ciency). The energy e$ciency for a process often re#ects the ratio of
product energy output to total energy input. However, the exergy e$ciency incorporates the notion of
increasing thermodynamic unavailability, as re#ected by entropy generation, in a process. Process irreversibilities destroy some of the input exergy. (For further details on exergy e$ciencies, see Rosen and Dincer,
1997; Dincer et al., 1997.)
For a general TES undergoing a cyclic operation the overall energy e$ciency, g, can be de"ned as
Product energy recovered
g"
Energy input
For a CTS system the word &energy' can be replaced with the word &cold' for understanding. Then,
following Figure 1, the overall energy e$ciency can be expressed as
(H !H )

g" 
(H !H )


Copyright  1999 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

(17)
Int. J. Energy Res., 23, 1029}1038 (1999)

1034

M. A. ROSEN, N. PEDINELLI AND I. DINCER

Energy e$ciencies for the charging, storing and discharging subprocesses can be written, respectively, as
*E
!&
(18)
g "
!& (H !H )


*E #Q

g " !&
(19)
12
*E
!&
(H !H )

g " 
(20)
"'1
*E
"'1
where *E and *E are the changes in CTS energy contents during charging and discharging, respectively.
!&
"'1
Similarly the overall exergy e$ciency, t, can be de"ned as
Product exergy recovered (e !e )

" 
t"
(e !e )
Exergy input


Exergy e$ciencies for charging, storing and discharging, respectively, can be written as

where *N and *N
!&
12

(21)

*$
!&
t "
(22)
!& e !e


*$ #*$
12
(23)
t " !&
12
*$
!&
e !e


t "
(24)
"'1 *$ #*$
!&
12
are the changes in CTS exergy contents during charging and storing, respectively.

3. ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLES
3.1. Cases considered and specixed data
Four di!erent CTS cases are considered. In each case, the CTS has identical initial and "nal states, so that
the CTS operates in a cyclic manner, continuously charging, storing and discharging. The main characteristics of the cold storage cases are as follows:
(A)
(B)
(C)
(D)

Sensible heat storage, with a fully mixed storage #uid.

Sensible heat storage, with a linearly strati"ed storage #uid.
Latent heat storage, with a fully mixed storage #uid.
Combined latent and sensible heat storage, with a fully mixed storage #uid.

The following assumptions are made for each of the cases:

(1) Storage boundaries are nonadiabatic.
(2) Heat gain from the environment during charging and discharging is negligibly small relative to heat
gain during the storing period.
(3) The external surface of the storage tank wall is at a temperature 23C greater than the mean
storage-#uid temperature.
(4) The mass #ow rate of the heat transfer #uid is controlled so as to produce constant inlet and outlet
temperatures.
(5) Work interactions, and changes in kinetic and potential energy terms, are negligibly small.
Copyright  1999 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Int. J. Energy Res., 23, 1029}1038 (1999)

1035

COLD THERMAL STORAGE SYSTEMS

Table 1. Speci"ed temperature data for the cases studied

Temperature
(3C)

!&

12

"'1

Cases
I

II

III

IV

4
11
10.5
5
6

15
11
19/2
17/!7
18/!6

!1
10
0 (t)
0 (s)
0 (t and s)

!1
10
8
!8
0 (t and s)

When two values are given, the storage #uid is vertically linearly strati"ed and
the "rst and second values are the temperatures at the top and bottom of the
storage #uid, respectively.

Speci"ed data for the four cases are presented in Table 1 and relate to the diagram in Figure 1. In Table 1,
and are the charging and discharging outlet temperatures of the heat transfer #uid, respectively. The



subscripts CH, ST, and DIS indicate the temperature of the storage #uid at the beginning of charging, storing
or discharging, respectively. Also t indicates the liquid state and s indicates the solid state for the storage #uid
at the phase change temperature.
In addition, for all cases, the inlet temperatures are "xed for the charging-#uid #ow at "!103C and
for the discharging-#uid #ow at "203C.

For cases involving latent heat changes (i.e. solidi"cation), F"10%. The speci"c heat, C, is
4)18 kJ kg\3C\ for both the storage and heat-transfer #uids. The phase change temperature of the storage
#uid is 03C. The con"guration of the storage tank is cylindrical with an internal diameter of 2 m and an
internal height of 5 m. Environmental conditions are 203C and 1 atm.
3.2. Results and discussion
The results for the four cases are listed in Table 2 and include overall and subprocess e$ciencies, input and
recovered cold quantities, and energy and exergy losses. The overall and subprocess energy e$ciencies are
identical for Cases I and II, and for Cases III and IV. In all the cases the energy e$ciency values are high.
The di!erent and lower exergy e$ciencies for all cases indicate that energy analysis does not account for the
quality of the &cold' energy, as related to temperature, and considers only the quantity of &cold' energy
recovered.
The input and recovered quantities in Table 2 indicate the quantity of &cold' energy and exergy input to
and recovered from the storage. The energy values are much greater than the exergy values because, although
the energy quantities involved are large, the energy is transferred at temperatures only slightly below the
reference-environment temperature, and therefore is of limited usefulness.
The cold losses during storage, on an energy basis, are entirely due to cold losses across the storage
boundary (i.e. heat in"ltration). The exergy-based cold losses during storage are due to both cold losses and
internal exergy losses (i.e. exergy consumptions due to irreversibilities within the storage). For the present
cases, in which the exterior surface of the storage tank is assumed to be 23C warmer than the mean
storage-#uid temperature, the exergy losses include both external and internal components. If the heat
transfer temperature at the storage tank external surface were about the environment temperature, the
external exergy losses would be zero and the total exergy losses would be entirely due to internal
consumptions. If heat transfer occurred at the storage-#uid temperature, on the other hand, the exergy losses
would be due entirely to external losses. In all cases the total exergy losses, which are the sum of the internal
and external exergy losses, remain "xed.
Copyright  1999 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Int. J. Energy Res., 23, 1029}1038 (1999)

1036

M. A. ROSEN, N. PEDINELLI AND I. DINCER

Table 2. Energy and exergy analysis results for the cases studied
E$ciencies (%)

Cases
I

II

III

IV

100
82
100
82
51
78
38
15

100
82
100
82
98
85
24
20

100
90
100
90
76
90
41
28

100
90
100
90
77
85
25
17

Input and recovered quantities of cold (kJ)

Energy
Input
361 127
Recovered
295 467
Exergy
Input
30 851
Recovered
4633

361 127
295 467
23 205
4633

5 237 518
4 713 766
499 820
142 278

6 025 903
5 423 313
575 053
94 709

Cold losses during storage (kJ)

Energy:
External
External
Exergy:
Internal

65 660
2926
492

523 752
36 319
1888

602 590
48 919
5273

Energy

Exergy

Charging
Storing
Discharging
Overall
Charging
Storing
Discharging
Overall

65 660
2926
492

The four cases demonstrate that energy and exergy analyses give di!erent results for CTS systems. Both
energy and exergy analyses account for the quantity of energy transferred in storage processes. Exergy
analyses take into account the loss in quality of &cold' energy, and thus more correctly re#ect the actual value
of the CTS.
In addition, exergy analysis is conceptually more direct when applied to CTS systems because cold is
treated as a useful commodity. With energy analysis, #ows of heat rather than cold are normally considered.
Thus energy analyses become convoluted and confusing as one must deal with heat #ows, while accounting
for the fact that cold is the useful input and product recovered for CTS systems. Exergy analysis inherently
treats any quantity which is out of equilibrium with the environment (be it colder or hotter) as a valuable
commodity, and thus avoids the intuitive con#ict in the expressions associated with CTS energy analysis. The
concept that cold is a valuable commodity is both logical and in line with one's intuition when applied to
CTS systems.

4. CONCLUSIONS
Cold thermal storage plays a signi"cant role in meeting society's desire for e$cient, environmentally benign
energy use in various sectors, and allows the mismatch between supply and demand for cold thermal energy
to be addressed. Exergy analysis provides more meaningful and useful information than energy analysis
about the e$ciency and performance of CTS systems, for a wide range of applications. Furthermore, the
exergy-based information is presented in a more direct and logical manner, as the exergy analysis approach
provides intuitive advantages when CTS systems are being considered.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Support for this work was provided by the Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada,
and by KFUPM in Saudi Arabia, and this is gratefully acknowledged.
Copyright  1999 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Int. J. Energy Res., 23, 1029}1038 (1999)

COLD THERMAL STORAGE SYSTEMS

1037

NOMENCLATURE
C
E
F
H
h
I
m
Q
S
s

"speci"c heat
"energy
"fraction of storage #uid mass in liquid phase
"enthalpy
"speci"c enthalpy
"exergy consumption due to irreversibilities
"mass
"heat
"entropy
"speci"c entropy
"temperature

Greek letters
e
e
/
g
$
t

"#ow exergy
"exergy associated with heat transfer Q
"energy e$ciency
"exergy
"exergy e$ciency

Subscripts
a
b
CH
c
DIS
d
f
i
l
o
ST
s
t
1
2

"inlet #ow during charging

"outlet #ow during charging
"charging
"inlet #ow during discharging
"discharging
"outlet #ow during discharging
""nal
"initial
"loss
"environment
"storing
"solid state
"liquid state
"top
"bottom

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Copyright  1999 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Int. J. Energy Res., 23, 1029}1038 (1999)