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Road Materials and Pavement Design


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Prevention of Cracks in Pavements


Louis Francken

Belgian Road Research Centre , Boulevard de la Woluwe 42, B-1200, Brussels


Published online: 19 Sep 2011.

To cite this article: Louis Francken (2005) Prevention of Cracks in Pavements, Road Materials and Pavement Design, 6:3,
407-425, DOI: 10.1080/14680629.2005.9690014
To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/14680629.2005.9690014

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Prevention of Cracks in Pavements


Achievements and Open Questions

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Louis Francken
Belgian Road Research Centre
Boulevard de la Woluwe 42
B-1200 Brussels

ABSTRACT.

RILEM Technical Committees have been active since more than 15 years on the
prevention of Reflective Cracking in Pavements. Papers published over that period in the
proceedings of four RILEM international conferences devoted to this topic constitute an
unmatched source of information for highway engineers. Extensive research, laboratory
work, full scale trials and road condition surveys over the long term have been reported and
in 1997 the information collected, joined to the practical experience gained by the RILEM
committee members, was used to set up a state of the art report intended to be a reference for
road engineers and practitioners. The purpose of this paper is to summarize some
achievements of the RILEM TC 157 PRC committee and to recall recommendations presented
in the RILEM state of the art report. Another purpose of the paper is to open some questions
that the author considers to be main future challenges for road construction and
maintenance.
KEYWORDS:

Cracking, Rehabilitation, Maintenance, Strengthening, Geosynthetics, Overlays.

Road Materials and Pavement Design. Volume 6 No. 3/2005, pages 407 to 425

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1. Introduction

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The mode of distress, traditionally referred to as reflective cracking is a major


concern to highway agencies. This important issue has led the RILEM Technical
Committee 97GCR to organise a first Conference in Liege in 1989 (Rigo et al., 1989).
This subject was considered so important that a series of four other conferences
organised by the RILEM committee 157PRC Systems to Prevent Reflective Cracking
in Pavements followed after that: Liege in 1993 (Rigo et al., 1993), Maastricht in 1996
(Francken et al., 1996), Ottawa in spring 2000 (Abd el Halim et al., 2000) and the last
one in 2004 in Limoges (Petit et al., 2004).
The main purpose of the three first Reflective Cracking Conferences was to gather
information needed to finalise a state of the art report intended for highway engineers,
contractors and authorities involved in road construction and maintenance. This task
was the result of very intensive committee work completed by many research and
development activities in which all the members were very deeply involved. The
RILEM Technical Committee has succeeded in this way to prepare a document which
was the first handbook of this kind in a field which is in urgent need of information and
practical recommendations (Vanelstraete et al., 1997). This State of the Art Report,
which is one of the main RILEM achievements, summarizes the existing knowledge on
systems to prevent reflective cracking.
It covers the full topic in a logical way divided in the following seven chapters:
1. Cracking in pavements;
2. Assessment and evaluation of the crack potential;
3. Construction measures to prevent crack initiation or to reduce the crack severity;
4. Anti-reflective cracking overlay systems;
5. Experimental characterisation of interlayer products and overlay systems;
6. Modelling and design of overlay systems;
7. Implementation on the construction site;
A brief summary of the different chapters is given in what follows.
2. Cracking in pavements: nature and origin of the cracks
Depending on their nature, the conditions under which they were constructed, and
the in-service conditions of loading and stress, the various pavements and road
structures may be subject to various forms of cracking. Figure 1 is one example of some
of the most common crack types. Any cracks appearing at the surface always have a
detrimental effect on the pavements. By the variable shape they may take, these cracks
are also indicative of the type of damage that is occurring within the pavement.
There are many cases where the identification of the type of cracking, completed by
additional information on the pavement structure can help to understand the causes of

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the deterioration and find solutions to improve the situation. It is indeed vitally
important to correctly diagnose the nature and causes of cracks in a structure to be
treated, as it is the diagnosis which will direct the choice to proper solutions. The
RILEM state-of-the-art-report (Vanelstraete et al., 1997) gives a thorough description
of the different crack types appearing in the three major pavement structures: rigid,
semi-rigid or flexible structures. As shown on the examples given in Figures 2 and 3, a
clear terminology as been proposed to support visual inspections.

Figure 1. Cracks reflecting through an asphaltic overlay from joints


in the underlying concrete slabs

Figure 2. Various aspects of cracks

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Figure 3. Various crack patterns


3. Assessment and evaluation of the crack potential
Although the phenomenon of initiation and propagation of cracks in a pavement
structure is known since the existence of asphalt roads its fundamental knowledge is
still often misunderstood and the way it has to be considered in rehabilitation of roads
has been neglected until the very recent period where more attention was devoted to the
cost effectiveness of road maintenance. The most current factors responsible for crack
initiation are among others thermal effects, fatigue induced by traffic loads and
shrinkage. Besides these classical causes of reflective cracks some other causes have to
be mentioned and addressed such as the effect of highway geometry, construction
procedures, cracks caused by expansive subgrade clay and frost heave in the northern
countries. Once they have been initiated, cracks propagate through the structure at a rate
which is defined by a propagation law (Paris law) in which the driving force K is the
stress intensity factor which depends on the loading conditions, material characteristics
and the geometry of the structure. The understanding of this initiation-propagation
process is a basis for interpretation and the design of any system or procedure intending
to improve the situation. The observation of the cracks and the assessment of their
activity is a major step in the pavement rehabilitation procedure.
The methods to be used in this evaluation range from the simple visual survey to
sophisticated investigation tools such as wave propagation or measurement of structural
movements under falling (Figure 4) or running loads (Figure 5). They can be completed
by sampling and drilling cores out of the road sections. These destructive or non
destructive methods have all been taken into account in the recommendations issued by
the RILEM Committee.

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Figure 4. Falling weight test to assess load transfer efficiency of joints and cracks.
(a) Geophone configuration and location of loading plate. (b) Loaded and unloaded
slab deflections

Figure 5. Schematic representation of a device to measure crack activity

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4. Construction measures to prevent crack initiation or to reduce the crack


severity

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4.1. Cement treated base layers


The treatment of the cracking process is often considered as a rehabilitation
technique intended for pavements reaching the end of their service life. However, the
prevention or retardation of the cracks can be achieved at an early stage of a new
construction. Such techniques have been developed for the case where crack initiation
results from shrinkage cracks in cement stabilised base courses. Methods exist either to
retard this phenomenon or to limit its severity by reducing the crack activity under
thermal or traffic loads.
For the case of cement stabilised materials it has been emphasised that one must
take into account the factors influencing the shrinkage effects in the choice of the
component materials and aggregates, the design of the road structure and in the
realisation on site.
New products for cement stabilised bases having a lower cracking potential are now
proposed such as emulsified cement and slow setting binders. Their feasibility has been
demonstrated on a laboratory scale. The results on the site are however variable in that
the expected intermediate behaviour is not always achieved and obtained.
Pre-cracking of cement treated layers is another preventive measure for which
different methods have proven their efficiency. They are cheap and can be implemented
without many constraints.
4.2. Rehabilitation of concrete slabs
Many concrete roads build in the fifties or even before were made of slabs. The
construction joints had in most cases no load transfer, this resulted in the long term in
differential setting of the slabs with loss of subgrade material by a phenomenon called
pumping (Figure 6-1). Although these roads have fulfilled their task over the
expected design life, their serviceability is often very poor; hence the restoration of an
acceptable surface evenness is the main reason of maintenance and rehabilitation
works. We know by experience that the past method of placing an asphaltic overlay
(Figure 6-2a) is not durable and is not the most cost effective solution. A method which
has been tried many times to improve the overlay efficiency consists in breaking the
slabs in small pieces and stabilizing them in place by means of heavy rollers. This
method called crack and seat has the advantage to suppress most of the thermal
cracking movements while reducing the severity of the joints. Crack and seat of
concrete roads is not always needed, and better investigation methods and criteria are
needed to improve decision making. The technique requires fine full depth cracks to be
induced to enable the expansion contraction of the slabs to be distributed while load
transfer remains possible through aggregate interlock. Evidence of the long term benefit

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of this technique has been provided. Crack and seat entails a certain loss of bearing
capacity, this solution must therefore be decided on the basis of a careful analysis
completed by a proper structural design of the overlay thickness.

Figure 6. Rehabilitation methods to repair a cracked pavement


5. Anti-reflective cracking overlay systems
We have learned since the first RC Conference in 1989 (Rigo et al., 1989), from
many positive or negative experiences that overlays behaving better than the traditional
asphalt overlays are not simply the result of the interposition of a miraculous product. A
successful result is rather a combination of different factors such as:
common sense in the evaluation;
care in preparation work;
choice of the right interlayer;
skill in handling and laying the product;
mechanical performance of the asphalt layer to be placed on top;
compatibility between the different layers and component material of the
pavement.
One of the major achievements of the RILEM committee was to introduce the
concept of overlay system and to clearly define the function of the different components
within that system.
5.1. Definition of an overlay system
The general term of overlay system was proposed in order to describe the
combination of a bituminous overlay, an interface system and a levelling course, placed

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on an underlying road structure. One or more of the components may be absent


depending on the quality of the old road structure, the loading conditions and on the
type of rehabilitation system which is chosen. In an overlay system such as the one
schematically shown on Figure 7, an appropriate interface system may be inserted
between the old structure and the new overlay. The interface system consists of an
interlayer product (stress absorbing membrane, non woven, reinforcement grid, etc...)
with an associated appropriate fixing method and placement procedure guaranteeing
adherence with the under layer. Successful solutions need a good expertise of each case
and positive results can only be obtained if the right product is placed in the right way at
the right place in the system and on the field.
Elements to be taken in consideration in the design of an overlay system are given
below.
5.2. Improving the asphalt layer
The most important component of an overlay system remains the bituminous layer
itself. Its thickness and performance will definitely influence the final service life of the
system even if it is placed on a functional interlayer product.
5.2.1. Higher overlay thicknesses have three positive effects
1) increasing the fatigue life by reducing the strains at the bottom of the layer,
2) reducing the stress intensity factor K of the Paris crack propagation law,
3) increasing the distance to cover by the crack before it appears at the surface.
This straightforward solution is of course not very innovative and is moreover not
possible when the pavement level constraints impose a maximum layer thickness.

Figure 7. Overlay system components

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5.2.2. Improvements in crack resistance


This can be obtained from the asphalt layer by modifying its composition or its
components. The use of some types of fibres and/or polymer modified binders has
proven very efficient by different authors. Sand asphalt interlayers can also be
considered as good crack retarding materials if they are improved by fibres or polymer
modified binders.

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5.3. Interlayer products


Super products do not exist and in most cases improvements are the result of the
combination and positive interaction of different functional layers in an overlay
system.
A great variety of products covering a wide range of stiffness and functions is now
available on the market, of which some are shown in Figures 8a to 8d.

Figure 8a. Woven interlayer

Figure 8b. Polypropylen Geogrid

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Figure 8c. Steel grid

Figure 8d. 3D honeycomb metallic grid


There is a need of a clear definition of where and how to use each product
optimally. The role of an interlayer system in the road structure depends mainly on its
components.
It may be:
To take up the large localised stresses in the vicinity of cracks and, hence, reduce
the stresses in the bituminous overlay above the crack tip. The product in that case acts
as a reinforcement product. This is the case for grids and steel reinforcing nettings;
To provide a flexible layer able to deform horizontally without breaking in order
to allow the large movements taking place in the vicinity of cracks. This is the case for

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impregnated nonwovens, for SAMI's and for sand asphalt. This function is also often
described as controlled debonding. It is obvious that total debonding has to be
avoided in all cases; otherwise fatigue cracking may appear already very shortly after
rehabilitation;
To provide a waterproofing function and keep the road structure waterproof even
after reappearance of the crack at the road surface. This is often the case for nonwovens
and SAMIs.
Table 1 reviews the roles or functions that can be assigned to different types of
interlayer system. The efficiency of each system with regard to a given function was
evaluated by the RILEM members on the basis of many full scale experiences
completed by modelling.
Table 1. Role of different interlayer systems (Vanelstraete et al., 1997)
Interlayer functions
Reinforcement
Sand Asphalt

SAMI
Impregnated
Non wovens
Grid

Steel Netting
3D-grids
Grid-nonwoven

X/XX
XX
XX
X/XX

Resist High strains


Controlled debonding

Waterproofing

X
XX
XX

X
XX
XX

X(***)

X (*)
X(**)

XX

XX

Note: X: efficient; XX: highly efficient; (*): reinforcement function depends on product and
on temperature condition; (**): only in case of grids and steel nettings embedded in slurry
seal or surface dressing; (***): only in case of grids and steel nettings embedded in slurry seal
with elastomeric binder.

5.3.1. Reinforcing products


A given product will act as a reinforcement product if its overall stiffness modulus
is higher than that of the bituminous overlay. This depends on the type of interlayer
product and on the temperature in the actual road structure. As shown on Figure 9, the
bituminous overlay material is highly temperature susceptible. Therefore, a given
product can be reinforcing in medium and high temperature ranges, but not under
winter conditions. Moreover, it is obvious that the overall stiffness modulus of the
overlay decreases during the cracking process. This can imply that the reinforcing effect
of a given product becomes only apparent during the crack propagation phase and not
yet in the initiation phase.

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Stiffness Modulus E* (MPa)

418

30000

Bitum en

25000

Asphalt

20000

Steel Grid
Geogrid

15000

Nonwoven

10000
5000
0

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-10

10

20

30

40

50

Temperature (C)

Figure 9. Stiffness moduli of asphalt and different types of interlayers


Reinforcing products (grids) will be efficient if:
1) They are placed in such a way that they can take over the stresses of the asphalt
overlay by bonding and granular interlock,
2) They are placed stretched and without wrinkles or folds on a flat surface,
3) They are allowed to debond in a controlled way from stiff bottom layers
otherwise they will break,
4) A minimum overlay thickness is required to allow a correct laying and
compaction of the overlay and longer service lives.
Interlayer products are unable in any case to prevent the movements of cracks or
joints pre-existing in the base layer whatever the bonding system.
5.3.2. Soft interlayers
Soft interlayers are generally efficient against mode 1 crack opening. But their
performance is mainly determined by the amount and quality of the binder they are
containing. Long term monitoring of several project has concluded to an increase of
service life of two or three years but there is still some controversy about their cost
effectiveness.
5.4. Fixing methods
Different methods exist to fix interlayer products on existing lower layers.
Possibilities of such systems depend on the type of product and on the function it
is expected to fulfil. Table 2 shows some products with their recommended fixing
method (Vanelstraete et al., 1997).

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Table 2. Combinations of different types of interlayer products with their fixing


method/layer (Vanelstraete et al., 1997)
Interlayer Fixing Method
Tack coat Binder
layer
Sand
Asphalt

Slurry
seal

Nailing

X
X

SAMI

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Non
wovens
Grid

X
X

Steel
Netting
3D3D-grids
GridGridnonwoven

Self
adhesive

X
X

X
X

An elastomer bitumen emulsion can be applied as tack coat for geogrids or


sandasfalt.
A layer of plain bitumen preferentially modified for nonwovens has three
objectives:
Adhesion to lower layers;
Impregnate and saturate the product;
Adhesion to top layer to be placed on top;
Slurry seal is recommended for fixing steel grids.
6. Experimental characterisation of overlay system components
Materials testing is mandatory for:
The determination of material properties,
The qualitative ranking of interlayer products,
The evaluation of performance under realistic conditions.
Specific testing procedures and simulation tests have been developed to fulfil this
purpose. As shown below, they widely vary according to the type of product and the
expected functional properties.
6.1. Asphaltic overlay
The basic laws governing crack initiation (fatigue) and propagation (Paris law) are
both empirical relations with at least two material parameters. Numerous testing
methods exist for the determination of these materials characteristics but there is a lack

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of information on the influence of mix composition and their temperature dependence


and loading time sensitivity. Paris law is the only tool we have to predict crack
propagation although we know that the conditions of homogeneity, isotropy and
linearity are not fulfilled. Moreover the testing results of this law are generally
presenting a large scatter.

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6.2. Bonding conditions


Bonding conditions are important in that they influence the load transfer and
strengthening effect of reinforcing materials. This bond strength is also temperature
dependent and widely different types of behaviour can appear. Splitting tests and shear
tests have been proposed as an alternative approach to characterise interlayer bonding
and non elastic material properties (Figure 10).
6.3. Tests for interface products
Some properties of the interlayer products are needed either as identification
parameters, as mechanical characteristics for modelling and structural evaluations or as
requirements in Standard tender specifications. Test methods have recently been
proposed by the RILEM Technical Committee for their experimental determination and
relevant indicative values of the different parameters for nonwovens and grids have also
been proposed.

Figure 10. Shear test to assess interlayer bonding resistance parallel to its plane

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6.4. Simulation tests

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Testing facilities and methods have been improved during these last years. They are
now simulating in a more realistic way the loading conditions of traffic and temperature
shrinkage. Many tests are intended for qualitative ranking of products under well
defined testing conditions. Tests are now also often used to supply the parameters
needed for modelling in Finite element methods. Several tests simulate mode 1 and 2
(Figure 11) crack movements or even their combination (Figure 12) in repeated mode
and express the results in terms of time or number of loadings needed for the crack to
propagate over a given distance.
On the other hand the results of most of the simulation tests are never or seldom
adjusted to full scale results on the same overlay systems. And there are even less cases
where this adjustment is made on the basis of statistic data from several test sites.
7. Modelling and design of overlay systems
One of the main purposes of modelling is the development of overlay design
systems taking the reflective cracking process into account. Finite element modelling is
becoming a powerful tool for the evaluation of overlay systems. Models and software
products specifically developed for the reflection cracks and other forms of distress
exist and are still improving. There are different approaches possible to predict crack
initiation and propagation: the fatigue law to predict crack initiation and Paris law for
crack propagation.

Figure 11. Test device to simulate combinations of crack-modes 1 and 2 (Dumas, 1993)

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Figure 12. Efficiency ranges of interlayer systems under combined effects of thermal
shrinkage and traffic loads

Different trials to model loading conditions in which shear and opening mode are
combined appear promising and innovative. Models allow a better insight of the
behaviour of overlay systems (see Figure 13) and may suggest improvements in the
design. However they depend on:
1) The quality and relevance of the assumptions;
2) The quality and accuracy of the input data.
Validation and long term field verification is still lacking in all the models to allow
the practical implementation of reliable overlay system design methods.
8. Implementation on the construction site
The importance of the placement procedure has been pointed out many times.
Although this seems obvious we have to insist on the fact that the best possible solution
on any point of view (material performance, modelling, testing and even earlier
successful large scale implementations) can turn into a disaster if some of the basic
rules of good practice are not carefully followed on the site (cf. Figure 14). For the
interlayer products these rules must be clearly defined and validated by the producers.
The laying procedure for interlayer systems generally comprises the following
consecutive stages: preparatory works, application of a fixing (Table 2), application of
the interlayer product, placement (if required) of a protective layer (Figure 15) and
application of the bituminous overlay.
9. Open questions
Cracking is one of the major sources of deterioration of the road and therefore it
must be one of the main criteria in the structural design of pavements and decision

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making for maintenance. Efforts have been made to increase the crack resistance of
road structures, and to develop better maintenance and repair methods. We have
pointed out the progress made in this field, however some points are remaining on
which research and development are still required: Faster, more accurate and non
destructive evaluation methods, better design models, significant material
characteristics, relevant testing methods, further field validations, are some of them.

Figure 13. Different crack path and propagation schemes obtained by finite element
simulation (Goacolou et al., 1982)
The first four RILEM RC conferences were essentially focused on the problem of
reflective cracking. The aim of the last conference in Limoges was to extend the
attention on a wider range of cracking modes such as fatigue or top-down cracking.
Fatigue cracking is important in that it is the phenomenon that is often responsible
for the initiation phase of cracking. In spite of the vast literature devoted to it, we are
still far from its full understanding and any contribution to this is thus welcome.
The top-down cracking phenomenon, on the other hand has not received the same
attention although we believe that it is also a major source of road deterioration.

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As already stressed in former RILEM meetings other problems that were hardly
dealt with, deserve more attention such as:
Reclaim and recycling of interlayer products;
Effect of ageing corrosion and chemical reactions on these products.

Figure 14. When laying an interlayer product care must be taken to prevent
wrinkles and folds

Figure 15. Some interlayers must be protected by chippings before placing


the asphalt overlay
Another challenge for future research is to pay more attention to the prediction of
the long term performance and the evaluation of risk. This last issue presents a
growing interest since nowadays the policy of road construction is such that
contractors and road engineers are bound to include long term maintenance activities
within the costs of a project.

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Acknowledgements

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The author expresses his thanks to all those who have contributed very
efficiently to the development of ideas and recommendations presented in this paper.
It must be emphasized that this activity was carried out collectively during many
years in the frame of the RILEM Technical committees and working groups. The
author is grateful to all members of those groups for the hard work they have carried
out in an open minded and efficient cooperation. He presents his best wishes for the
success of the up coming RILEM TC-CAP committee Cracking in Asphalt
Pavements who is taking over this effort.
10. Bibliography
Abd el Halim A.O., Taylor D.A., Mohamed El. H.H, Reflective Cracking in Pavements Research in Practice, Proceedings of the 4th RILEM Conference RC00, Ottawa, March
2000 Ed .RILEM Publications SARL, Cachan France.
Dumas P., Vecoven J., Process reducing reflective cracking : Synthesis of laboratory tests,
Proceedings of the 2nd RILEM Conference on Reflective cracking in Pavements, Lige
1993, p. 249-253.
Francken L., Beuving E., Molenaar A.A.A., Reflective Cracking in Pavements. Design and
Performance of Overlay systems, Proceedings of the 3nd RILEM RC Conference RC96,
Maastricht, October 1996, Ed E&FN Spon, London.
Goacolou H., Marchand J.P., Fissuration des couches de roulement, 5th International
Conference on Structural Design of Asphalt Pavements, Delft 1982.
Petit C., Al Qadi I., Cracking in Pavements Mitigation, Risk Assessment and Prevention,
Proceedings of the 5th RILEM Conference.
Rigo J.M., Degeimbre R., Reflective Cracking in Pavements, Assessment and control,
Proceedings of the First RILEM Conference RC89, Lige, March 1989, Ed. CEP-LMC
Universit de Lige.
Rigo J.M., Degeimbre R., Francken L., Reflective cracking in pavements - State of the Art
and Design Recommendations, Proceedings of the 2nd RILEM Conference RC93, Lige,
March 1993, Ed E&FN Spon, London.
Vanelstraete A., Francken L., Prevention of reflective cracking in pavements RILEM,
Report 18, Ed E&FN Spon, London 1997.

Received: 4 October 2004


Accepted: 16 April 2005

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