Smartphone addiction among university students in the

light of some variables

[http://ezproxy.usm.my:2061/science/article/pii/S0747563216302126]

The above article is a review towards the addiction of smartphone usage among a university
in terms of certain variables.

Introduction
The usage of mobile phone had spiked up high and the user feels more and more attached
towards their mobile device to the point they develop and addiction which can be also said to
be a psychological obsession and such obsession may lead to the user to be more isolated
and also affect them in terms of economically and psychologically.

Effect of smartphone usage towards psychological and physical health

Smartphone addiction is common with individuals feeling an urgent need to keep in touch
with others at all times. This underscores the need to raise awareness of the negative effects
of smartphone overuse on sleep, health, concentration and comprehension as well as
provide information on the consequences of smartphone overuse that may lead to
withdrawal, depression, and destroy social relationships (Hiscock, 2004, James and
Drennan, 2005 and Richard, 2001).
Smartphone overuse and the psychological symptoms associated with it constitute a form of
behavioral addiction known as smartphone addiction (Phillips & Bianchi, 2005). With regard
to addiction, Torrecillas (2007) asserts that chemical addiction and smartphone addiction
differ in that the latter does not have direct physical effects but rather principally manifests in
psychological effects. Smartphone addicts tend to neglect work and study, separate
themselves from friends and family, and remain attached to the smartphone while over
depending on it to communicate with others. Torrecillas also found that 40% of adolescents
and adults use smartphones for more than 4 h a day to make calls and send and receive
SMSs. Those individuals felt disturbed and upset when they could not reply to all calls and
SMSs directed to them. Finally, the researchers asserted that smartphone addicts tend to be
completely upset when deprived of their smartphones for some time regardless of the
reason for this deprivation, and that switching off the smartphone results in worry,
depression, anger and an inability to sleep.
Yu-Kang, Chun-Tuan, You, & Zhao-Hong (2014). The results suggest that compulsive usage
of smartphone and technostress are positively related to psychological traits including locus
of control, social interaction anxiety, materialism and the need for touch.

Theories explaining the reason behind smartphone addiction

There are several theories that explain technology and smartphone addiction. Behaviorism
viewed it as a learned behavior that is subject to the stimulus-response-reinforcement
principle. Thus, like any other learned behavior, smartphone addiction can be modified. The

psychodynamic theory conceived of smartphone addiction as a response to avoid

frustrations and to achieve pleasure and forgetfulness. The socio-cultural trend considers
smartphone addiction a result of a society's culture. The cognitive theory attributes
smartphone addiction to distorted ideas and schemata. Finally, there is an integrative view
that smartphone addiction results from a combination of personal, cultural, social,
environmental and emotional factors (Davis, 2001 and Duran, 2003).

Limitations
There are many limitations which can influence the result of this research. Participants of the
current study were from king Saud university in Saudi Arabia which limits the generalizability
of the results on other societies outside the middle east region. Based on the findings of the
present study, we offer a recommendations to develop counseling programs and symposia
where experts can raise the awareness of university students, especially single and
undergraduate programs students of how to use smartphones and avoid the negative effects
resulting from addiction. Future researches will be needed to explore smartphone addiction
at other populations such as school students and employees at companies and institutions.
We also encourage the investigation of the relationship between smartphone addiction and
psychological variables like psychological isolation, anxiety, depression, social skills,
personality patterns, academic achievement and traffic accidents. It would also be
advantageous to conduct an experimental study that aims to develop a remedial program to
help smartphone addicts overcome addiction as well as conduct research to predict factors
affecting smartphone addiction among university and school students. Finally, it would be
worthwhile investigating the factor structure of the smartphone addiction questionnaire used
in the present study.

Time perspective in Internet and Facebook addiction

[http://ezproxy.usm.my:2061/science/article/pii/S0747563216300978?np=y]

The above article highlights the compulsive uses of websites where the time that user
spent on certain websites as a predictor of an addictive behaviour.

Introduction
The compulsive usage of internet may lead to a serious addiction that can only be
determined by time.

Theories explaining the reason behind Internet and Facebook Addiction

TP Theory
The concept of time perspective has been examined in connection with many aspects of
human activity and applied to a wide range of issues for instance, to academic
achievement (e.g., de Voider & Lens, 1982), delayed gratification (e.g., Wu & He, 2012),
career decision-making (e.g., Walker & Tracey, 2012), health behavior (e.g., Crockett,
Weinman, Hankins, & Marteau, 2009), or HIV risk (e.g., Rothspan & Read, 1996). There is a
vast body of research that investigated the role of TP in several types of addiction. The TP
theory has been widely used to explain addictive behaviors. Researchers have found a
significant role of TP in gambling (e.g., Sharif-Razi, Kaya, Mihajlovic, Deamond, &
Nussbaum, 2012). The study by MacKillop, Anderson, Castelda, Mattson, and Donovick
(2006) revealed that symptoms of pathological gambling correlated positively with present
time orientation and negatively with the Future subscale. What is more, shorter time horizons
were found in pathological gamblers (Hodgins & Engel, 2002). Those who were more
present-oriented reported higher use of alcohol, drugs, and tobacco (Keough, Zimbardo, &
Boyd, 1999), as well as higher cannabis use (Apostolidis, Fieulaine, Simonin, & Rolland,
2006). Future orientation was negatively related to substance use, and the pattern was the
opposite in the case of present orientations (Wills, Sandy, & Yaeger, 2001). Tests revealed
that coping and negative affectivity were mediators in the relationship between TP and
substance use. Present orientation correlated with negative self-esteem, lack of control,
maladaptive coping, and negative affectivity, whereas Future orientation correlated
negatively with anger coping and positively with perceived control, behavioral coping, selfesteem, and positive affectivity (Wills et al., 2001).

Limitations and Future Research

The present study has some limitations that should be taken into account. The first
and main one is the use of self-reported data, which can be less reliable and more
biased. In future studies, additional indices or different methods for measuring
addictions should be applied. Another possible limitation of the present study is the
fact that only one type of Internet addiction was considered. It would be beneficial to
broaden the scope of research to include online gaming or online gambling
addiction. Also, some of the subscales of the time perspective measure had low
reliability. However this result may stem from the fact that we used a short version of
the ZTPI. Other short versions of this scale have similar reliabilities (for review
see Orosz, Dombi, Tth-Kirly, & Roland-Lvy, 2015). Researchers using shorter
versions of different measures should be aware of certain methodological concerns,
such as reduced criterion validity (see Cred, Harms, Niehorster, & Gaye-Valentine,
2012). It should be pointed out that the use of the short version in the present study
reflects a general tendency in a number of psychological domains, not only in
research on time perspective in different cultural contexts (Wang et al.,
2015a and Zhang et al., 2013) but also in personality research (e.g., Gosling,
Rentfrow, & Swann, 2003) or organizational psychology (Nagy, 2002). It is even
more vital in Internet research because of the reduction of the time needed for
questionnaire completion. We decided also to use a short version of the scale
instead of the longer version also because in previous studies some criticism had
been raised against the latter regarding low loadings and low CFA model fit (Sircova
et al., 2014).
In the next study, the cross-cultural direction should be considered. An answer to the
question of whether people who have a problem with excessive Internet use have
the same attitude to time in different cultures could be interesting. Consistency
between our Polish study and the Italian study by Chittaro and Vianello
(2013) indicates that this direction should be continued. What is more, as the
previous studies confirmed the associations between Internet addictions and
different personality traits (Amichai-Hamburger & Hayat, 2013), it would be valuable
to introduce TP as a possible mediator or moderator of this relationship in future
studies.

Gender differences in the relationship between internet

addiction and depression: A cross-lagged study in Chinese
adolescents
[http://ezproxy.usm.my:2061/science/article/pii/S0747563216303193]

This article highlights the difference in gender may contribute to different level of
internet addiction and depression.

Introduction
The misuse of internet solely consist of the user losing control over the internet which is also
known as impulse control disorder. The symptoms include uncontrolled impulsive use, usage
more than intended, intolerance of withdrawal, and impairment in decision-making ability and
can lead to isolation, loneliness, compulsive behaviours, depression and also psychiatric
disorder.

Relationship between internet addiction and depression

Reports have frequently linked depression with Internet addiction among adolescents (Yen et al.,
2007 and Yen et al., 2008). However, remaining unclear is whether Internet addiction is the cause of
depression or whether depression precedes the development of Internet addiction. Two models may
help explain the relationship between Internet addiction and depression.
Kraut et al. (1998) proposed the social displacement hypothesis, claiming that indulgence in social
communication through the Internet reduces the time spent in social interactions with friends and
family, and which may result in maladjustment problems. Displacement implies that individuals use of
the Internet may usurp face-to-face communication (Caplan et al., 2009, Kraut et al., 1998, MorahanMartin and Schumacher, 2003, Nie and Erbring, 2002 and Williams et al., 2006). Smyth
(2007)reported that online game players exhibited a greater decrease in the time spent socializing
with offline friends after 1 month of play compared with players of arcade or offline video games. Over
time, this displacement may have potential deleterious effects on adolescents ability to maintain
social relationships in the real world and subsequently lead to a decrease in the size and quality of
individuals offline social circles (Cole and Griffiths, 2007, Hussain and Griffiths, 2009, Lo et al.,
2005, Morahan-Martin and Schumacher, 2003 and Shen and Williams, 2010). Adolescents who spend
excessive time on the Internet spend less time maintaining social resources (Nie and Hillygus,
2001 and Williams, 2007) and have poorer relationships with their friends and family (Sanders, Field,
Diego, & Kaplan, 2000). Because more online social activities or more communication with
anonymous individuals (such as visiting chat rooms) leads to an increase in alienation and conflict
and a decrease in intimacy in relationships with parents, peers, and romantic partners (Blais et al.,
2008 and Borca et al., 2015). Social relationships that are established through interactions are a
major source of feelings of security and belonging (Chen, 2012). A lack of offline social interaction
may lead to the emergence of negative emotions, especially among adolescents. According to the
social displacement hypothesis, the displacement of offline social interaction by online social
communication may lead to depression. Some studies have found that Internet addiction can predict
the occurrence of later depression (Amorosi et al., 2012, Dalbudak et al., 2013 and Park et al., 2013).
Therefore, Internet addiction may result in depression.

Bryant and Zillmann put forward the mood enhancement hypothesis, which posits that individuals use
the media based on their moods (Bryant and Zillmann, 1984 and Zillmann, 1991). To relieve stress,
individuals with negative emotion are more likely to take part in leisure activities than others, including
watching TV, surfing the Internet, and playing online games. Some studies have shown that levels of
stress and depression can significantly decrease after entertainment (Bessire, Kiesler, Kraut, &
Boneva, 2004). However, other studies have shown that activities that are aimed at killing time
increase rather than decrease negative emotion (Weiser, 2001). Individuals with negative emotion
might partake in recreation through media. According to the mood enhancement hypothesis, Internet
users will selectively expose themselves to Internet content depending on their mood. To eliminate a
negative mood, individuals with depression tend to seek entertainment and leisure activities, such as
games and music on the Internet. Whang et al. (2003) found that serious Internet users access the
Internet when they are depressed or stressed by work. Based on meta-analyses, the results implied
that time spent online was not an adequate indicator of outcomes, and the links between online time
and negative outcomes were weak (Ferguson, Coulson, & Barnett, 2011). The motivation for using the
Internet and behavioral patterns have a greater effect on the consequences of Internet usage,
compared with the actual time spent online. Przybylski and colleagues found that the level of basic
psychological need satisfaction could moderate links between playing video games and positive
emotion (Przybylski, Weinstein, Ryan, & Rigby, 2009). Some studies also indicated that depression
increases the risk of Internet addiction (Park et al., 2013). Thus, depression may lead to
overindulgence in the Internet.
The existing studies are inconsistent regarding the relationship between Internet addiction and
depression. Different models point to different interpretations of this relationship. Most previous
studies have used cross-sectional designs and thus are unable to reveal causal relationships between
them. To gain more insights into this issue, longitudinal studies are more desirable.

Gender Differences in Internet Addiction and Depression

Gender differences have been frequently reported in the patterns of addictive behaviors and
its motivations, including Internet addiction. According to previous studies, males are more
likely to overindulge in the Internet than females (e.g., Li et al., 2014 and Scherer, 1997).
Based on the results of a nationally representative sample study in China, the percentage of
males with Internet addiction was significantly higher than females: 14.8% among males and
7.0% among females (Li et al., 2014). Many reports cite gender differences in the
motivations for using the Internet. Males tend to experience more addictive behaviors when
playing games related to power and controlling or exploring sexual fantasies online, whereas
females are more likely to communicate with both closed and anonymous friends online with
the aim of sharing their feelings and emotions (Young, 1998a).
Additionally, associations between Internet addiction and related factors have been found to
vary by gender. Some studies reported that the negative effects of Internet addiction are
more severe in females than in males (Ko et al., 2014). Yen, Yen, Chen, Tang, and Ko
(2009) reported that the association between Internet addiction and attention deficit was
more significant in females than in males. Ko, Yen, Chen, Chen, and Yen (2005) found that
Internet addiction was associated with lower self-esteem in males but not in females. Li,
Zhang, Li, Zhen, and Wang (2010) reported that males scored lower in protective factors of
problematic Internet use but higher in risk factors compared with females. These results
indicate that the association between Internet addiction and related factors might be different
between males and females.

Gender differences in depression have been frequently reported as well. Much evidence
indicates that the gender difference in depression emerges around early adolescence
(e.g., Avenevoli et al., 2015 and Costello et al., 2011). According to previous studies, the
higher prevalence of depression and vulnerability to depression in females are generally
explained as an interaction between biological changes and psychosocial factors that are
associated with adolescence (Lewis et al., 2015). Based on a few molecular genetic studies,
the interaction between negative events and the degenerate serotonin transporter-linked
polymorphic region (5-HTTLPR) of the SLC6A4 gene that encodes the serotonin transporter
was associated with depression in girls but not in boys (e.g.,Hammen et al.,
2010 and Priess-Groben and Hyde, 2013). During the pubertal transition, the quality of the
social environment and stress have a more powerful influence in females than in males
(Lewis et al., 2015). These results suggest that gender differences should be considered in
research on depression.
Based on these results, gender differences in the relationship between Internet addiction
and depression are quite plausible. Ko et al. (2014) found that females might be more
vulnerable to the negative effects of Internet addiction on depression compared with males.
However, previous studies have failed to examine whether the causal relationship between
Internet addiction and depression depends on gender. Further studies are necessary to
address this issue.

Effects of social and technology overload on psychological

well-being in young South Korean adults: The mediatory role
of social network service addiction
[http://ezproxy.usm.my:2061/science/article/pii/S0747563216301996?np=y]

The effects of a virtual reality treatment program for online

gaming addiction
[http://ezproxy.usm.my:2061/science/article/pii/S0169260716000079?np=y]