Relation of Acoustic Wave Propagation to Rock Mechanics

Introduction
Sound Velocities in any material are a function of elastic properties and density. The elastic
properties of engineering materials like metals are fairly well defined, and reasonably easy
to study. Rocks however are more complex. Their elastic properties vary with pressure,
and even then, the variations are not easily predictable because of hysteresis and plastic
deformation.
Understanding the fundamental differences between engineering materials and rocks is
essential to the understanding of acoustic measurements, and to their interpretation.
In the first part of this chapter after a brief recap of solid physics principles relevant to our
problem, we will study the mechanical behavior of rocks, how it affects their elastic
properties and the implications for acoustic measurements.

ROCK MECHANICS
The Geostatic Context:
To introduce the different variables of interest in our problem, and get a feeling for them we
will consider in a very simplified way the mechanical constraints that are applied to an
elementary cube of rock in its Geostatic context. We will use the petrophysicistphatasmogram on Figure 1 to represent this cube and the various effects that are applied on
it.
Description of the physical quantities relevant to the problem
Stresses
The general definition of stress is the force "F" per unit area "A" when the area "A" tends to
zero.
lim
= A0

F
A

It should be noted that stresses are vector quantities that are oriented, while pressures are
scalars and omnidirectionnal.
The complete state of stress at a point is represented as a second rank tensor

ij

xx
= yx

zx

xy xz
yy
zy

yz

zz

The stress tensor is symmetrical so only six numbers are required to specify the stress at
any point in a rock. The diagonal elements of ij are normal stresses and the off diagonal
elements are shear stresses (Figure 2). Figure 2 shows the meaning of the different stress
components.
Principal Stresses
There exists a rotation of the stress coordinates for which the off diagonal terms cancel out.
In this case the remaining diagonal terms are called principal stresses.

1
= 0
0

0
2
0

0
0

A cube in this orientation has only normal stresses acting on the cube faces and no shear
stresses. The use of principal stresses simplifies the representation of the state of stress.
For example, in the simplified scheme showed on figure 1, the vertical and horizontal axis
yield a preferential set of coordinates for which the stresses reduce most of the time to
Principal Stresses. We will now study the major components of these stresses:
Overburden Stress
The vertical force that is applied on the top of our elementary cube of rock is equal to the
weight of the vertical rock column above it, and for that reason is called the Overburden.
Remark that in case of deviated wells, the height of this column is the true vertical depth.
The overburden weight per unit area is the Overburden Stress V. We can simply evaluate
this stress if we know the density B of the material in the solid column above the cube:
z

V = g
B (z) dz
o
Where g is the Gravity.
A convenient parameter to use is the Overburden Gradient or Geostatic Gradient G
obtained by dividing the overburden stress by the vertical depth.
V = G . z
The value of this geostatic gradient G is, in most practical cases, close to 1 psi/ft.

Horizontal Stresses
The principal stresses in the horizontal plane are not as easy to obtain. Various effects can
cause horizontal stresses among which the most important ones are Elastic and Plastic
deformation of the rock under vertical load, Tectonic Stresses induced by geotectonic
forces linked to the deformation of the earth crust, and also stresses that are stored in the
rock and result of event that took place in the past history of the rock. Some of these effects
result in horizontal stresses that are the same in all directions (Isotropic). Others are
directional and yield anisotropic horizontal stress fields. Therefore the the horizontal
principal stresses are not usually equal and we will define: h the minimum horizontal
stress and H the maximum one.
A common simplification is to assume that horizontal stress fields are isotropic, however
one has to realize that this is rarely the case.
Pore Pressure
Up to now we have considered the stresses that apply to the outside of our elementary cube
of rock. We will now consider the mechanical phenomenons that take place within the rock
itself. In porous rocks the pore fluid pressure affects bulk behavior of the rock. If we
consider the simple case as in figure 1 where there is a continuous path for the fluid our
cube of rock to the surface, we can very simply calculate the pore fluid pressure as the
hydrostatic head knowing the fluid density f:
z
Ph =
g
f (z) dz
o
With the additional assumption that the fluid density is constant we can simplify as:
Ph = f . g . z = h . z
Where h, the Hydrostatic Pressure Gradient, is usually close to 0.45 psi/ft.
When the pore fluid is not at the hydrostatic pressure we cannot calculate it any longer as a
function of depth. An additional pressure measurement is needed in this case.
If the pore pressure is larger than the hydrostatic head at that depth, we talk about Over
Pressured Zone, conversely if the pore pressure is less than the hydrostatic pressure
(depleted reservoirs), we talk about Underpressured Zones.
A convenient parameter to use is the Pore Pressure gradient:
Pp = p . z

Effective Stress
The stresses on our elementary cube are not entirely applied to the solid frame. Some of it
is supported by the pore fluid. The stresses applied to the solid frame are called the
Effective Stresses e and are given by the relation due to Biot:
eij = ij - ij Pp
or
eij

xx- Pp
=
yx

zx

xy
yy-Pp
zy

xz

yz

zz-Pp

Where is a coefficient less or equal to 1. In highly porous rocks it is usually close to 1.

In the case of figure 1 were we deal with principal stresses, the stress along the vertical axis
would write:
ev = v - Pp
It is interesting to note that if the overburden is kept constant, and the pore pressure is
increased as overpressured zones, the effective stress on the solid frame is decreased, so
that in overpressured zoned we expect the rock to be less compacted.
Confining Stress
Confining stress and effective confining stress are two useful quantities when one wants to
compare lab core measurement under pressure to in situ measurements. In the lab core
samples are normally placed in a pressure vessel, hence equal pressure is applied in all
direction. Confining stress in the earth is defined as the mean stress:
1
c = 3 ( v + H + h )
Similarly, the effective confining stress is defined as
1
ec = 3 ( ev + eH + eh )
Borehole Effect on Stress Fields
Up to know we have considered the stress distribution in an undisturbed formation, a
condition that is often refered to as the far field stresses. However when a borehole is

drilled through this formation, the stresses are locally changed. We will now study the
effect that takes place.
The removal of material in the borehole creates an imbalance in the effective stress field,
especially on a radial direction of the borehole, the radial effective stress at the borehole
wall is essentially nil when the mud pressure is equal to the pore pressure. At the same time
the effective stress along a axis tangent to the borehole wall is significantly increased. The
elastic theory predicts that the radial and tangential stresses are linked to the far field
stresses by the relation :
e + er = 3 H - eh
In this case the vertical stress V is unaffected by the presence of the borehole.
A diagram of the stress variation close to the borehole when the two horizontal stresses are
equal is shown on figure 3. This scheme assumes that the rock behaves in a linear elastic
fashion. This approximation is qualitatively correct for hard rocks like massive carbonates,
well cemented low porosity sandstones and dewatered lithified shales.
However for a soft rock, the increasing tangential stress near the borehole might reach the
mechanical strength of the rock and a local failure might occur, causing a decrease in both
tangential and vertical
stresses. In shaly sections the presence of the drilling mud can cause clay alteration and
swelling. This effect decreases the strength of the rock and can cause stress reduction close
to the borehole.
In the two last cases an irreversible deformation occurs close to the borehole and the rock is
altered.

AXIAL STRESS STRAIN RELATION

Strain
Strain is defined as the spatial gradient of displacement ui. It is the change in length divided
by the original length.
kl =

uk
xl

where k and l are either x, y, or z.

Like stress, strain is a second rank tensor.

kl

xx
= yx

zx

xy xz
yy
zy

yz

zz

The diagonal components are normal strains and the off diagonal terms are shear strains.
The meaning of the different strain components is shown in Figure 5.
Ideal materials
All materials deform when stressed. The theory of elasticity is relates the strain in a solid to
the applied stresses. The theory is valid for elastic materials, that is stress is uniquely
related to strain subjected to small deformations or so called infinitesimal strains. This
theory has wide application in engineering. Largely because engineering materials such as
metals conform well to the restrictions of the theory. To a first approximation, rocks
respond in linear elastic manor to the stress exerted by our sonic transducers. In contrast
rocks are not linear elastic materials if subjected to large
stresses.
The relationship between stress and strain for linear elastic materials is expressed by
Hooke's law
ij = Cijkl . kl
where the Cijkl are the 36 elastic moduli.
The major assumptions made in the derivation of Hooke's Law are:
Infinitesimal strain, i.e.. is less than 10-6
Elasticity, stress is uniquely related to strain, i.e.. no hysteresis.
No energy is dissipated in the material.
The application of Hooke's law to rocks often includes the assumption that the materials are
elastically isotropic. An isotropic material is one in which the magnitude of a material
property is independent of the direction in which the property is measured. The isotropic
assumption is often invoked even when the materials are known to be anisotropic because
determining anisotropic moduli is extremely complicated even in the laboratory. It is
important to realize that this assumption is implicitly made when we only deal with two
elastic constants.
Elastic Moduli
The number of moduli required to describe a deformation depends upon the degree of
elastic symmetry. The higher the symmetry the fewer the moduli that are required. Hooke's
law for isotropic materials (the highest elastic symmetry) requires only two moduli called
the 'Lame' constants and . Hooke's law for isotropic materials is
xx = ( + 2 ) xx

yy = ( + 2 ) yy
zz = ( + 2 ) zz
xy = xy
yz = yz
zx = zx
where is the volumetric strain defined as:
= xx + yy + zz
In practical applications Hooke's law is often written in terms of E, K, G, Young's
modulus E, the bulk modulus K, the shear modulus G, and Poisson's
ratio instead of the Lame' constants. Young's modulus is the ratio of axial stress to axial
strain resulting from a uniaxial test:
E =

xx
xx

and
E =

(3 + 2 )
+

The bulk modulus, also known as the modulus of incompressibility, is the ratio of
hydrostatic stress (or pressure) to volumetric strain:
1 + yy + zz
K = 3 xx
xx + yy + zz
or
K =

and
2
K = +3

The shear modulus is the ratio of shear stress to shear strain, for example:
G =

xz
xz

and
G =
Poisson's ratio is the ratio of lateral strain to longitudinal strain. It is only a relationship
between the components of normal strain for example

= xx
yy
It is important to realize that the assumption of isotropy is implicit in all elastic relationships
using just E, K, G and or their functional equivalents.
Real Rocks
Rocks are quite different from the simple linear elastic materials. The distinguishing
characteristics of rocks include
Hysteresis, the state of stress does not uniquely define the state of strain. In other words,
the loading and unloading paths in rocks are not the same. The magnitude of the hysteresis
is dependent upon the magnitude of stress change and the number of stress cylces.
Nonlinearity, the stress strain response in rocks is nonlinear. This is particularly true at low
effective confining stress.
Anisotropy; rocks are intrinsically anisotropic. Their elastic moduli are anisotropic and
change with effective stress.
If the changes in stress and strain are sufficiently small the hysteresis and nonlinearity
effects can be ignored. However the effects of anisotropy are prevalent in older well
lithified formations.
The complications described above are known from geological analyses laboratory work
and regional geophysics. Unfortunately these effects are not quantifiable from current
logging data but can be inferred from characteristics of certain tool responses.
The following diagrams illustrate the contrast between simple elastic moduli and rock
moduli and also where the theory of linear elasticity is valid for rocks.
Rock moduli are typically measured in the laboratory. In the laboratory rocks loaded in
compression while strain is monitored. The moduli are then determined from the stress
strain behavior of the rock. Moduli determined in this fashion are often called static moduli.
Figure 4 shows the deformation of a rock and metal loaded in compression. This graph
shows that strain is only proportional to the applied stress in certain parts of the loading

curve. Compressive testing is shown instead of the common tensile tests used for metals
because rocks are loaded in compression deep in the earth and because we are contrasting
rocks and metals.
K is the slope of curve in Figure 4. In Figure 4a K is a constant but in Figure 4b it is not.
This is one of the important differences between rocks and metals. That is, E, K, G and
are not constants. They change with the environment: stress level, age of the rock, etc.
There are several important consequences of these different stress strain responces. First
consider the bulk modulus of the metal. K is defined as
K =

P
v

In metals, this definition for K is valid over a wide range of sample strain. Because the
metal's stress-strain responce is constant K may be determined experimentally from any
change in P starting at any state of strain. This is not so for a rock. The experimentally
determined value of K depends on the state of strain (or stress) . If a small change in P is
applied to the sample different K will be determined depending on the state of strain. See
for example Figure 4c. For rocks
K =

P
v

Another difference in rocks occurs if the magnitude of P is large. In this case K is not
simply the tangent to the curve at a specific stress-strain state but the secant modulus
P
secant modulus =
v
The functional definition of the secant modulus for rocks is similar to the tangent modulus
for metals. It is different in that, for rocks it only represents an approximation to K. The
reason is clear graphically on Figure 4c.
Hysteresis introduces additional uncertainty in the meaning of rock moduli. Because of
hysteresis, the value for bulk modulus depends upon whether the stress rock sample is
increasing or decreasing (loading or unloading). Upon loading, the value of K
progressively increases. The opposite is true upon unloading. None of this behavior is
pronounced in metals.
Moduli derived form acoustic measurements are called dynamic moduli. They differ from
static moduli in the amount of stress that is applied to determine the modulus. The stress
level applied by an acoustic tool is orders of magnitude less than what is typically applied
during laboratory tests. In general dynamic moduli are larger than static moduli measured at
the same effective confining stress. However the agreement between the two measurements
is better at higher effective confining stress.

ACOUSTIC VELOCITIES
Acoustic Waves are small pressure perturbation that propagate through the solids. In an
isotropic, linearly elastic solid they follow the vector equation of motion, the Wave
Equation, that writes:

2
u
t2

= ( + ) (.
u ) + 2
u

x
ux

Where u is the displacement vector: uy , and the grad operator:

y
u
z

z
If the motion is purely longitudinal, only the

ux

term is not nil, and (.

u ) = 2
u .

x
Then the wave equation reduces to the Compressional Wave Equation:

2ux
t2

= (+2)

2ux
x2

since:
2ux
t2

V2p

2ux
x2

we derive the speed at which the compressional wave propagates through the medium:

Vp =

+ 2

Vp =

K + 43 G

or

uy

If the motion is purely rotational, only the

term is not nil, and (.

u ) = 0

x
Then the wave equation reduces to the Shear Wave Equation:

2uy

t2

2uy
x2

since:
2uy
t2

V2s

2uy
x2

we derive the speed at which the shear wave propagates through the medium:

Vs =

Vs =

or

where K and G are the bulk and shear moduli of the isotropic linearly elastic medium, and
is the bulk density.
In general we neglect parasitic effect like anisotropy, or non-elastic behaviour. The
perturbation caused by our sonic tools is so small that it is negligible with respect to the
magnitude of the in situ static stresses. Considering the stress-strain dependance of the
rock, the in situ condition defines a static point. For a small perturbation around this point
as caused by a sonic wave, the variation in the stress strain relation can be assumed linear
and represents the elastic moduli. In the simple case of a rock sample submitted to a
confining pressure, this would be represented by the tangent to the stress-strain curve at the
point of in situ state of stress.
Therefore the sonic velocities are sensitive to the dynamic rather than static moduli. This
remark become most important for those who attempt to use dynamic moduli as input to
mechanical models. Caution is needed when using sonic derived moduli in combination
with laboratory measured values, even at the same state of stress.