Total Quality Management (TQM) and Quality Function Deployment (QFD) are the two

Japanese techniques embraced globally by the various industries. can be traced to 1949,
when the Union of Japanese Scientists and Engineers formed a committee of scholars,
engineers, and government officials devoted to improving Japanese productivity, and
enhancing the quality of life. Meanwhile,
1. Discuss the fundamentals, concepts, processes and development of both techniques.
2. Investigate the implementation of both techniques in the manufacturing and
construction industry. Provide examples of project or products.

1.1 TOTAL QUALITY MANAGEMENT (TQM)

1.1.1 FUNDAMENTALS
Large manufactures and also small companies applies total quality as it is the wide
organization effort and extensive to improve the products quality and services.

In

applying the principles of quantity, the large and small organization can get benefit from it.
Total quality mainly focused on decreasing defects and errors through services and
products by the use of measurement, statistics and other tools of problem-solving . Now,
organization started to notice which long-term improvement could not be achieved
without the consideration to the managements quality practices that were used on daily
base. Therefore, managers started to merge the principles of quality into their
management systems, thus it makes the total quality management (TQM) approach
became popular. Rather than the previous engineering-based technical discipline, quality
evolve to a new meaning of organization wide performance excellence.

a) Historical Evolution of TQM

There are four stages that exists in the evolution of Total Quality Management (TQM)
which are first stage - quality inspection, second stage - quality control, third stage quality assurance and fourth stage - Total Quality Management (TQM) ( J. Dahlgaard,
Kristensen and K.Kanji, 2007). In 1910s, the first stage of the evolution which is quality
inspection can be seen in the case of Ford Motor Companys T Model car. The firm
began to engage the inspectors teams as the purpose that will test and contrast their

product with project standard. The poor quality product were found by the inspectors
team is the reason why the inspection were conducted. Besides, it was applied to all
stages like delivery, process of productions, etc.

The second stage of the evolution of TQM is quality control. It is means that the
quality and development were controlled through written specification, standardization,
supervised skills and measurement (J. Dahlgaard, Kristensen and K.Kanji, 2007). In
Second World War era, the quality started to be established by inspections rather than the
workers themselves therefore, the manufacturing systems became complicated. Then
they had developed the statistical quality control (by inspection) which is the post
production attempt that have the roles of separating the good product from the bad
product.

Next, quality assurance which is the third stage of this evolution. It provide enough
confidence that a good or service will satisfy customers wants and it contains all the
earlier stages. It affirm the change from detection activities against prohibition of bad
quality at this stage. While the fourth stage Total Quality Management includes the
implementation and understanding of principles of quality management as well as the
concepts in each aspect of business activities. The growth of Total Quality Management
from 1950 onwards can be deem to the efforts of famous American gurus like Dr Joseph
Juran and Dr Edward Deming.

b) Definition of TQM

E. Mansir and R. Schacht , 1989 define Total Quality Management (TQM) as an

improving personal performance and effectiveness and for focusing all individual efforts
throughout an organization. TQM is an integral management system for accomplishing
the fulfillment of customers that involves all managers and employees which continuously
increase organizations process by using quantitative methods, define by the Federal
Quality Institute.

1.1.2 CONCEPTS

Figure 1.1: TQM Principles

1) Leadership (Management Commitment)

Top management must know the importance of quality. Although CEO is ultimate
responsibility to quality, but it is also everybodys responsibility. Besides, managers
need to lead their organizations transformation to the new culture of continuous
quality improvement (TQM). The leaders focus on structure, policy and system to
sustain continuous quality improvement. The goals of the leaders is to help people,
things to do a better job to achieve better quality. To be a successful leader, the
knowledge of quality is important which means give attention to external and internal
customer, accentuate prevention and improvement rather than maintenance and
empower subordinates. Besides, successful leader must choose supplier based on
quality basis, continuously indicate commitment to quality and create organizational
system that focus on quality efforts.

2) Customer Focus
TQM is based on the theory that quality is regulate by the customers which is both
internal and external customers. Customer focus is crucial in TQM as the TQM objective
is to achieve customer satisfaction. Some measures that commonly being taken by the
organization that aim to foster quality improvement such as training employees,
upgrading computers or software, and improved process management. But, the
customers will measured the final result of the services and products and they also
decide whether the efforts were worth or not. Clearly, a customer focus will help an
organization to do the right things.

3) Employee Improvement / Involvement

Compare to a traditional organization, employees in TQM environment tend to have
different responsibilities and roles. TQM emphasize on a work environment that make the
employees feel free to examine and discuss their ideas. The employees were given
training, responsibilities and authority to control and measure the quality of the products
or services that were produced by them. They are the cross-trained team that work
together to determine the issues of quality and to perform various kind of tasks. Besides,
the employees in TQM work environment, have larger understanding of the process of
total production, plus they also have greater understanding of the maintenance and
operation of their equipment. Therefore, with the greater roles and responsibilities of the
employees, it will generate a continuous improvement organization of the building.

4) Continuous Improvement
Continuous improvement brings an organization to be creative in finding the ways to
become more effective and competitive at meeting stakeholder belief. The basic of all
TQM systems is to improve the quality of products and services that were provided by an
organization. The results of quality improvement will lead to greater productivity and most
importantly the chances of an organization to remain vital is higher. The Japanese believe
that the most lasting and best changes come through progressive and continuous
improvement. The Japanese called continuous improvement as kaizen that need the
organization continuously strive to be better in problem solving and learning. As far we
worry, the perfection will never be achieved, but by continuously evaluate our
performance as well as take action it will bring to greater improvement.

5) Supplier Quality
The attention on quality at the source stretches out to the processes from suppliers
as well, since the quality of the final product is just a par with the quality of its individual
parts and elements, paying little respect whether they originate from inward and outer
sources. To make sure that quality at the source extends to supplier network, it is
important to share your quality with the suppliers, include the suppliers in product design
and acquire a formal supplier certification program.

6) Integrated approach

Generally, TQM is an integrated management system. The mission and vision of the
organization should be appraised by all the employees. Besides, the decisions of
improvement are not just formed by the top management, but all the stakeholders are
given the opportunities to express themselves during the phases of decision making.
Although an organization have different functional specialties that are commonly
organized into vertically structured departments, it is the horizontal processes that
interrelated these functions which are TQMs focus.
1.1.3 PROCESS AND DEVELOPMENT

1. Organizing
The objectives of quality and strategies have to be set up through the scale of
organizational forward with congruent goals for improvement. The process of
improvement should mixed with other organizational improvement and business action A
multi-disciplinary of TQM and appropriate infrastructure shall be developed to support the
process of improvement. Must take into account that the infrastructure must be integrated
into existing structure. Also, the major problems of quality must be recognise and engage
by senior management group.

2. Systems
The system of quality management must fully documented, provide feedback,
provide direction and audited with effective basis. In the improvement process, regularly
control and affirmation activity must be distinct. . A system should be developed which all
the staff can boost those dispute which avoid them to turn in an error- free performance.
In development of TQM, the tools, techniques and systems were used at distinct stages
in various organizations. The timing of the introduction of precise tool, technique and
system is important to its achievement.

3. Measurement and Feedback

It is important that all processes should work towards satisfaction of the customers. A
system and procedures should be developed to evaluate conformance. The internal and
external customer will complain. But it is crucial to make sure that all customer
disagreements are taken up and resolve and as the result there is appropriate feedback.

Besides, encourage also the next person or process attitude. For all internal department,
customer satisfaction measures must be established as well as the quality indicators.

4. Changing the culture

The important one are develop, improve and assess all aspects of customer and
supplier relationships on regular basis. Besides, education should continue and broad in
order to cherish changes in behaviour and attitudes in improving the skills base of an
organization. That kind of change should be embedded in the culture of organization.

1.2 QUALITY FUNCTION DEPLOYMENT (QFD)

1.2.1 FUNDAMENTALS

a) Historical evolution of QFD

QFD was established in Japan by Professors Shigeru Mizuno and Yoji Akao in 1966.
During that era, the statistical quality control that was brought in after the World War II,
had developed in the Japanese manufacturing industry. Besides, the activities of quality
were organized by the expert gurus like Dr. Kaoru Ishikawa, Dr. Juran, Dr. Feigenbaum.
They underscore the crucial of making quality control as a part of business management,
and finally it started to known as TQM and TQC.

Professor Mizuno and Akao have a purpose to enroot a method of quality assurance
that would design fulfilment of customers into a product before it was being assembled.
Other than that, Value engineering principles was introduced by Katsuyoshi Ishihara that
were used to describe how the product and their elements work. He has emerge this to
describe business functions necessary to encourage the design processs quality itself.
This fresh concepts were blend together and hereafter QFD became the comprehensive
design system for business and product processes.

Recently, QFD carry on to encourage strong interest all over the world, generate new
applications, researchers and practitioners every year. This day countries like Japan,
Sweden, U.S, Australia, Brazil, China, Turkey and Germany have held nation and
international QFD Symposium.

b) Definition of Quality Function Deployment

The fundamental concept of this method is QFD is a structure that aiming to planning
and translate the voice of customer into the quality characteristics processes, products,
and services concerning to reach customer satisfaction (Bernal, Donberger, Suvelza, and
Byrnes, 2009). The customers voice is secured in a different ways like interviews or
direct discussion, focus groups, surveys, observation, etc. In Japanese, the word
deployment indicate to a broadening and extension of activities while Quality Function
Deployment is defined as the responsibilities to produce quality item that must be appoint
to all segments of corporation. The system can be implied if we define each of the terms
in QFD :
Quality - Meeting customer requirements
Function - What to do - Focus on the attention
Deployment - When to do it and who will do it

Other than that, according to Akao (1990), QFD is a way to persuade the quality of
design while the product is still at the stage of design. It shows that QFD can be seen as a
process where the customers voice is valued in the whole process of services and
production. There are two components involved in QFD which are deployed into the
design process: quality and function. The quality deployment carry the customers voice
into design process while the function deployment components links various
organizational functions and units into design to manufacturing transition by the design
teams ((Lockamy & Khurana, 1995)

1.2.2CONCEPT

There are four phases of QFD methodology that exist over the course of the product
development process. Throughout each phase, there are one or more matrices are
arranged to translate customer requirements from the initial planning stages to production
control. Each matrix, represents a specific aspect of requirements of the products. The
four phase of QFD approach are presented as follows:

Figure 1.2: Four-phase of QFD approach

Phase 1: Product Planning

The preparation of the product planning matrix also called the house of quality will
begin once the customers need were identified. Most of the organizations only connect
this phase of QFD process. Phase 1 that involved of warranty data, competitive
opportunities, requirements or needs of customers, measurements of product, and
competing product measures of the organization to meet each customer requirement. It is
crucial to get a good data from the customer in this phase in obtaining a successful QFD
process.

Phase 2: Assembly/ Part Deployment

This phase is led by the department of engineering.

A more complete specification

will be prepared once product planning phase were completed. During this phase,
product concept are created and part specifications are documented. The product
specification and product requirements serve as a basis to develop product concepts.

Parts were conclude to be the most critical in order to meet customer needs and it then
deployed into Phase 3 which is the Process Planning.
Phase 3: Process Planning
Next phase is Process planning that led by manufacturing engineering. During
process planning, manufacturing processes were flow charted and target values were
documented.
Phase 4: Process Control
The final phase is Process Control. In this phase, the performance indicators and
production planning were developed to monitor the process of production, schedules of
maintenance and skills training for operators. The decisions also were made because of
the processes act as the most risk and controls were put in place to avoid failures.

1.2.3 PROCESS AND DEVELOPMENT

Quality Function Deployment is a system that identify the important of customer

requirements that come from the marketing department. The customer requirements or
needs are scored based on their importance. Then the scores were translated into
precise product characteristics. Next the assessments were made of how the products
contracts with their major competitors to identify the characteristics. Lastly, to identify the
problems, specific goals were set. In implementing the QFD process, it involves putting
together a House of Quality like the one shown below.

Figure 1.3: Relationship matrix

Customer requirements
The first thing we have to do is to survey our customer needs and wants since the

goal is to produce product follow the requirements of the customers. The purpose of the
survey is to find out precisely what they look in a product. Figure 1.3 above shown a
backpack for students and to identify specifically what features students would like in a
backpack. The example of the survey like marketing department will be sending some of
representatives to talk to the students at campus, interviews by telephone and do focus
group.

Competitive Evaluation
In Figure 1.3, there are two competitors which are A and B. The assessment scale is

from 1 to 5 which is if the higher the rating is the better the result. The crucial thing here is
to decide which customer requirements should we go after.

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Product Characteristics
On top of the relationship matrix, it is the specific product characteristics. These are

the technical measures. In the example, it involves the number of zippers and
compartments, the backpacks weight, backpacks strength, cost of materials and the dye
colour grade.

The Relationship Matrix

In the relationship matrix above, it shows the strength of the relationship between

customer requirements and product characteristics. For example, the zippers and weight
of the backpack are negatively related. It means that if the desirability of one variable
increase, the desirability of the others will decrease. This kind of information is so crucial
in order to coordinate the product design.

The Trade-off Matrix

The relationship matrix is starting to look like a house, so that is why it is called

House of quality. The complete house of quality is shown in the Figure1221 below.
Trade-off Matrix is done to put the roof on the house in our building process. It means
that it is shown as how each product characteristics is related to the others and it allow us
to see the trade-off that we need to do.

Setting Targets
The final step in build the complete house of quality is to assess competitors

products relative to the specific product characteristics. Besides, the target for our own
product also will be set. The output of quality function deployment is at the bottom row of
the house. Clearly, house of quality is proved to be very useful which can help in the
communication between operations, marketing, and design engineering.

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Figure 1.4: House of Quality

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1.3 Implementation of Total Quality Management and Quality Function Deployment

1.3.1 Implementation of Total Quality Management

Total Quality Management implementation in the manufacturing company is

discussed by Al-Saket (2003) by describing the action taken by ABC steel
manufacturing company.

In implementing Total Quality Management, leadership is one of the component

of TQM which top management must realize the significance of the quality and the
ultimate responsibility is in CEOs hand. High level of management involvement is
displayed in the ABC steel manufacturing company by commitment of company
executive committee in fulfil their business management system requirements and
effectiveness is ensures with meeting attended by managing director (Al-Saket, 2003).
In ensure the establishment, implementation and maintenance of business
management system, the managing director in the steel manufacturing company
appoints and authorize quality assurance manager.

Quality objectives and strategies must be established and integrated in the all
organizational level with improvement goals. Thus, ABC steel manufacturing company
planning their control approach by identify objectives consistent to their business
policies and making sure their approach fulfil the eight management principles
(Al-Saket, 2003).

Teamwork undeniably important in implementing total quality control and must

be practiced at all levels. Employees involved in every stages of the improvement
process, instead of only involved in aspects which directly affect their role. According to
Al Saket (2003), meetings had been regularly conducted by ABC steel manufacturing
company in communicating important information to all personnel in all level. The
information including customer requirements, system performance and company
performance has been regularly updated in the meetings.
Apart from that, system and techniques required in implementing total quality
concept must be well established in the company as the quality management system
must be well documented to be able to provide effective direction and feedback.
Suitability of particular technique, tools or equipment used at a different stages is crucial
in ensuring the success.

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Controls, documentation and equipment to aid as tools in process control

approach are identified at the planning stages in ABC steel manufacturing company
(Al-Saket, 2003). Hard copies and electronic information documents related to the
Business Management System in ABC steel manufacturing company is controlled in
order to specify the system control requirements. ABC steel manufacturing company
also generate records for the examination of effectiveness and conformity of the
Business Management System to quality requirements.

Detection and elimination of potential causes of non-conformances is being

done through corrective and preventive action system set up by ABC steel
manufacturing

company

(Al-Saket,

2003).

For

instance,

some

types

of

non-conformances are product non-conformities and deficiency within a process (ABC

Steel, 2002 and Al-Saket, 2003).
In ABC steels process control approach, internal audits are conducted
periodically by utilizing a checklist with all Business Management Systems activities.
Effectiveness and efficiency of the system will be examined through the internal audits
procedure and findings for the audit for a department will be followed up by the
particular departments manager. The findings also will be reviewed in management
review meeting.
Al-Saket (2003) proposed few improvement recommendations in ABC Steels
process control approach. According to him, if there is no measurements and
information gathered during manufacturing, ABC Steels top management review for
non-conformance reports does not help in solving problems. Thus, ABC Steel should
have measuring with manufacturing process as their first step then followed up with
recording of measurement, then the records will be analyzed and finally, corrective
actions and feedback is acted based on the analysis. ABC Steel can develop factual
based decision for corrective action from measurement and information analysis.

ABC Steel also may improve their process control approach by integrating the
following problem solving steps methodology

Problem identification

Understand the problems characteristic

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Search for the root causes

Eliminate the causes

Validate the effectiveness of the action

Make elimination of causes permanent.

1.3.2 Implementation of Quality Function Deployment in Construction Industry

Implementation of Quality Function Deployment in construction works can

be grouped into three categories which is implementation of Quality Function
Deployment before the design stage, implementation of Quality Function Deployment
during design stage and implementation of Quality Function Deployment after the
design stage (Dikmen et al, 2005).

Implementation of QDF before design stage

Implementation of Quality Function Deployment (QFD) before design
stage is used in assessment of corporate service quality performance of
design and build contractors. Dikmen et al (2005) mentioning Arditi and Lees
(2003) research discussing utilization of QFD in measuring design and build
construction companies corporate service quality by owners who want a
complete information on quality performance of the potential construction
companies on their bidding list. Project owners also used QFD as mechanism
to rank for the design and built construction companies selection process.
Besides that, QFD also could be implemented during civil engineering capital
project planning (Dikmen et al, 2005)

Implementation of QDF during the design stage

During the design stages in construction works, Quality Function
Deployment (QFD) can widely applied in all area. According to Dikmen et al
(2005), applicability of Quality Function Deployment (QFD) methodology in
design of a hypothetical renovation project is proven to be effective (Mallon
and Mulligan, 1993) while, QFD can be utilized in finalizing the industrial
buildings structural design (Huovila et al, 2001) and can be applied to
determine the characteristics of internal layout design of a building complex
(Serpell and Wagner, 1997).

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Implementation of QFD after design stage

Benefits from implementing Quality Function Deployment (QFD) after design
stage or after construction stage can still be exploited. Quality Function Deployment
used after the construction stage is in decision making aid during marketing (Dikmen et
al, 2005). QFD also can be used in comparing competitors and to acquired information
on expectations of customers to be used in the upcoming projects. Level of customer
satisfaction can be increased by applying knowledge acquired from the current project
in upcoming projects, for example in repetitive project such as housing sector.

A construction company involved in a housing sector construction implement

QDF to formulate strategies to sell the units after the construction phase over. QDF
adopted by the construction company is for marketing strategy establishment by
identify target customers expectations and comparing strength and weakness of their
housing complex to alternative housing projects. The company also facilitate
decision-making in upcoming projects using QDF exercise and formulate a systematic
procedure to help decision making process in all construction stages, thus giving a
competitive advantages through quality differentiation (Dikmen et al, 2005).

Section I: Customer needs and requirements (voice of customer, VOC)

Section II: Technical measures
Section III: Planning matrix
Section IV: Relationship matrix
Section V: Correlation matrix
Section VI: Weights, benchmarks and targets

Figure 1.5: Basic House of Quality matrix (Dikmen et al, 2005 and Hauser, 1988)

The construction company involved in high-rise housing project implementing

Quality Function Deployment (QFD) by constructing the House of Quality (HOQ) matrix.

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First, the company identify the target customer expectations from the project by
conducting surveys, face to face interview with potential customers and complaints to
establish a database. The company also form an interdisciplinary research team consist
of engineers and the academicians for providing expert opinions through brainstorming
and utilisation of QFD tools (Dikmen et al, 2005)

Next step is by identification of technical measures corresponding to

recognized customer needs. The selected solutions must be reflected in technical
measures to fulfil customers need. Technical measures are identified through
brainstorming session and listed in the HOQ matrix.

Relationships between customers requirement and needs and technical

measures have to be identified and filled in Section 4 of HOQ matrix. Understanding the
contribution of technical measures in satisfaction of customer is crucial in this step.
Next, the team compared their company performance on fulfil each customers
requirement with performance of rivals.
Improvement necessary for customers need is identified and the company set
up goals to fulfil those requirement. Best alternative for each customers expectation
after being compared against the rivals will accounted in goals establishment. The team
will calculate improvement ratios for each customer need by dividing the goal to the
current performance. This calculation will help to emphasize specific unfulfilled
customer needs in development team.

Technical measures interaction have been examined and assigned in the roof
of HOQ matric. Each customer needs revised weight is multiplied with relationship
score on the same row and same row is added in finding the weights of the technical
measures. Then, after each technical measures is calculated, analyzation of the
weights will be done to identify the most important ones. Rank order of measures
needing improvement will be available through the identification process and this will
aid in fulfilment of the customers expectation in final stage of project (Dikmen, 2005).

Performances of rival companies will be evaluated and best performance is

benchmarked as target level in deciding the specific target of technical measures

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Figure 1.6: HOQ matrix for the construction company (Dikmen et al, 2005)

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