Computer Network

Sameh Napoleon

Ola Aref

1.1 Outline :

History and advantages

Computer networks structure
Classes of computer networks
Network topologies
Data flow through networks

1.2 History :

In 1970s mainframes designed to serve a company on time

share basis.
In 1980s PCs become available.
The difficulties of sharing data among PCs motivated
interconnecting them in a network.
Nowadays PCs are interconnected easily and different
preferalscan also be attached to networks via wireless or
wired

1.3 Advantages :

Interoperability (ability to mix different machines eg.

Windows, Linux, Unix, Macs, etc)
Sharing resources (egprinters, HDs, CPUs, etc)
Increase reliability via backup copies for important data on
different machines
Economical

1.4 Computer network structure :

Peer-to-Peer

Server based

1.5 Classes of computer networks :

geographic extent
Purpose
implementation technology

1.5.1 LAN :

LAN is owned by a single organization. This localized control

increases flexibility in decision.
Usually, high quality, high-speed communication links are
used.
Consequently, the error rate is much lower than other
networks. The transmission speed is high as 1-50 Mbps for
twisted pair or coaxial, while for optical fiber it is hundreds
of Mbps.
Typical example networks are Ethernet, Cambridge ring,
Novell, etc.

1.5.2 MAN :

It spans distances between 10 100 km.

Its coverage area is a city, a town or a small country as
shown in Fig. 1.9.
It is sometimes called a long-haul network.

It is developed to support data, voice and video using the

LAN technology.
Its transmission speed is on the average of 1 Mbps.
The most common media of MAN are coaxial cables or
optical fiber.
Usually, it is used to connect many LANs.
A typical example network is Fiber Distributed Data Interface
(FDDI).

1.5.3 WAN :

Transmission rates are less than 1 Mbps (typically 56 kps) or

less.
The transmission quality is poorer than LANs as WAN uses
transmission facilities of the telephone network which is
originally designed for carrying voice traffic nor than data.
Consequently, the error rate is high.
The transmission delay is greater than LANs due to the large
coverage area.
Routing algorithms are important due to the complicated
geometry of the network.
Flow control is necessary due to the different transmission
speeds of the different communication media and nodes
along the path between the source and the destination
Also, recovery from transmission errors is required, and
hence error control is inevitable.
Typical example networks are: air-line seat reservations,
ARPANet, Internet, etc.

1.6 Network Topologies :

physical
Logical
Choosing of a certain topology is according to cost,
flexibility, and reliability

1.6.1 Star :

# Advantages:
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Cable layouts are easy to modify.

Defective communication
lines are easily identified.
There is no possibility of data
collision.
Workstations can be added to
network easily

# Disadvantages:

1- It uses a large amount of cable.

2- It is unsuitable for peer-to-peer
communications.
3- Central node dependency

1.6.2 Bus :

# Advantages:

1- It uses the least amount of cable length and simplest wiring

layout.
2- It has the lowest priced technology.
3- It is easy to extend, so additional nodes can be connected at
any point along the length. Sometimes repeater is used.
4- The failure of any station does not affect the operation of
others.

# Disadvantages:

1- Fault diagnosis and

isolation are
difficult.
2- Nodes must be intelligent as each node is directly connected
to central bus. This increases the cost of the nodes.
3- It does not support adequately large number of heavy users.
4- It is difficult to implement priority.

1.6.3 Ring :

# Advantages :

1- It uses short cable length.

2- It is suitable for optical
fiber.
3- It is easy to implement
priority schemes.

# Disadvantages :

1- Node failure causes

network failure.
2- It is difficult to diagnose
faults.
3- It is not possible to shut
down a small section of the ring while keeping the majority of it
working normally, All or nothing of the ring.

1.6.4 Hybrid :

2.1 Introduction :

The protocol is a set of rules governing the exchange of data

between two entities.

Consider a file transfer between two computers. Tasks to be

performed are :
* The source system must either activate the direct data
communication path or inform the communication network of
the identity of the desired destination system.
* The source system must ascertain that the destination
system is prepared to receive data.
* The file transfer application on the source system must
ascertain that the file management program on the destination
system is prepared to accept and store the file for this
particular user.
* If the file formats used on the two systems are incompatible,
one or the other system must perform a format translation
function.

2.2 Three-Layer Model :

1- Network access layer.
2- Transport layer.
3- Application layer.

2.3 The Seven-Layers of the OSI Reference Model

:

It breaks network communication into smaller, simpler parts

that are easier to develop.
It facilitates standardization of network components to
allow multiple-vender development and support.
It allows different types of network hardware and software
to communicate with each other.
It prevents changes in one layer from affecting the other
layers, so that they can develop more quickly.

It breaks network communication into smaller parts to make

learning it easier to understand.

# The principles that were applied to arrive at the seven

layers are:

A layer should be created where a different level of

abstraction is needed.
Each layer should perform a well-defined family of functions
distinct from other layers.
The layer boundaries should be chosen to minimize flow
across the interfaces.
The number of layers should be large enough that distinct
functions need not be thrown together in the same layer out
of necessity and small enough that the architecture does not
because unwieldy.
Advantages of standards-making process
Disadvantages of standardization
Peer-to-Peer Processes
Interfaces between Layers
Organization of the Layers

2.3.1 Physical layer :

# The physical layer
responsibilities :

Determines physical
characteristics of
interfaces and media
Representation of
bits
Data rate adjustment.
Synchronization of
bits.
Line configuration.
Physical topology.
Transmission mode.

2.3.2 Data link layer :

#The data link layer responsibilities :

Framing i.e. divides the stream of bits received from the

network layer into manageable data units called frames
Physical addressing i.e. adds a header to the frame to define
the physical address of the sender (source address) and/or
receiver (destination address) of the frame
Flow control to prevent overwhelming the receiver.
Error control to detect and retransmit damaged or lost
frames & prevent duplication of frames.
Access control to determine which device has control over
the link at any given time.

# Data link layer addressing :

# Example of
the frame
format at data
link layer :

2.3.3 Network layer :

1- Logical addressing

adds a header to the packet

coming from the upper layer that, among other things, includes
the logical addresses of the sender and receiver.

2- Routing

When independent networks or links are

connected together to create an inter-network (a network of
networks) or a large network, the connecting devices (called
routers or gateways) route the packets to their final destination.

2.3.4 Transport layer :

1- Service-point addressing :

Computer soften run several programs at the same time. For this
reason, source-to-destination delivery means delivery not only from
one computer to the next but also from a specific process (running
program) on one computer to a specific process (running program)
on the other. The transport layer header therefore must include a
type of address called a service-point address (or port address). The
network layer gets each packet to the correct computer; the
transport layer gets the entire message to the correct process on
that computer.

2- Segmentation and reassembly :

A message is divided into transmittable segments, each segment

containing a sequence number. These numbers enable the
transport layer to reassemble the message correctly upon arriving
at the destination and to identify and replace packets that were lost
in the transmission.

3- Connection control :

The transport layer can be either connectionless or connectionoriented. A connectionless transport layer treats each segment as
an independent packet and delivers it to the transport layer at the
destination machine. A connection-oriented transport layer makes a
connection with the transport layer at the destination machine first
before delivering the packets. After all the data are transferred, the
connection is terminated.

4- Flow control :

Like the data link layer, the transport layer is responsible for flow
control. However, flow control at this layer is performed end to end
rather than across a single link.

5- Error control :

Like the data link layer, the transport layer is responsible for error
control. However, error control at this layer is performed end to
end rather than across a single link. The sending transport layer
makes sure that the entire message arrives at the receiving
transport layer without error (damage, loss, or duplication). Error
correction is usually achieved through retransmission.

2.3.5 Session layer :

# The key services provided by the session layer include:

123-

Dialogue Discipline
Grouping
Recovery

1- Dialogue Discipline:
This can be two-way simultaneous (full duplex) or twoway
alternate (half duplex).
2- Grouping :
The flow of data can be marked to define groups of data.
3- Recovery :
The session layer can provide a check pointing mechanism, so that
if a failure of some sort occurs between checkpoints the session
entity can retransmit all since the last check point. The following
figure illustrates the relationship of the session layer to the
transport and presentation layers.

2.3.6 Presentation layer :

# Specific responsibilities of the presentation layer include the

following:
1- Translation
2- Encryption
3- Compression

2.3.7 Application layer :

# Specific services provided by the application layer

include the following:
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Network virtual terminal

File transfer, access, and management (FTAM)
Mail services
Directory services

1- Network virtual terminal :

A network virtual terminal is a software version of a physical terminal

and allows a user to log on to a remote host. To do so. The application
creates a software emulation of a terminal at the remote host. The
user's computer talks to the software terminal, which, in turn, talks to
the host, and vice versa. The remote host believes it is communicating
with one of its own terminals and allows you to log on.

2- File transfer, access, and management (FTAM) :

This application allows a user to access files in a remote computer (to

make changes or read data), to retrieve files from a remote computer;
and to manage or control files in a remote computer.

3- Mail services :

This application provides the basis for e-mail forwarding and storage.

4- Directory services:

This application provides distributed database sources and access for

global information about various objects and services.

2.4 ARQ :

# ARQ Example :
A transmitting node is delivering 20 packets to a receiving node. If the network
caused packet loss of 5 packets, Find the channel utilization efficiency for the
Stop-and-Wait, Selective-repeat mechanisms.
Neglect propagation delay
Window size, W=20 ( This is the only information given about the
scenario)
Packet size is 500 bytes
Time-out is 10 ms
Bit-rate is 1 Mbps
The lost packets have the sequence numbers: 3,4,5,18,19.
The receiving node takes an action after two packets time.
# Solution:
N= Number of packets = 20 (This may be the window size which is necessary for
sequence numbers that is important to keep the packets in order at the
receiving node.
M= Number of lost (retransmitted) packets
P= packet size = 500 bytes= 500 x 8 =4000 bits
A= ACK and NACK packets are 10 bytes = 10 bytes = 10 x 8 =80 bits
R = bit rate = 1 Mbps

= time out period

Frame
1
ACK 1

# Case 1: Stop-and-Wait (ACK, NACK) :

= time required for transmitting

and acknowledging one packet =
=

( +

Utilization efficiency,

Frame
2
NAK 2
Frame
2

time

ACK 2

Location A

Location B

ACK & NAK

Frame 1

# Case 2: Stop & Wait (Time out method) :

= Time required for a successful

packet =

ACK 1

Timeout
period

= Time consumed for transmitting

and detecting a packet loss = +
=

N+

Utilization efficiency,

Frame 2

ACK 2

ACK only

Frame 1

# Case 3: Selective repeat ARQ :

Frame 2

The only repeated packet are the

reported packets in the NACK of
packets. Hence:

= + + =
(

ACK 1
Frame 3
NAK 2

+ )+

The last term, add the time

consumed for ACKing the last
packet
Utilization efficiency,

Frame 2

Frame 2

time

Frame 4
Frame 5