Ctiangecl

Who

Changecl
the world

1^

>:

.^^S*it.-_

^f

1:

''-:

Library

Boston Public Library

Boston. MA 02116

No long
<SAte of this iaj*^

ta* i^W>iW't<VM

*i

C'Ui^raiy

Chart

iMfho

Changed

the Vforld

Barbara Krystal

Ml
World Almanac^ Library

web

Please visit our

www.worldalmanaclibrary.com

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Krystal, Barbara.
1

00

artists

p.

cm.

who changed

the world

(People who changed

Barbara Krystal.

the world)

Includes index.
Brief biographies of 100

Summary:

who

day,

artists,

from ancient Greece

to the present

played significant roles in the development of sculpture, painting, and

photography.

ISBN 0-8368-5469-1
1.

artists

Artists

who changed

history.

^Juvenile literature.

the world.
IV.

Title.

III.

N42.K79

bdg.)

(lib.

Biography

[1.

Artists.]

Krystal, Barbara.

II.

I.

Title:

One hundred

00 anists who shaped world

Series.

2003

709'.2'2dc21

2002033153

[B]

This North American edition

first

published in 2003 by

World Almanac Library

330 West Olive
Milwaukee,

Street, Suite

Wl

This U.S. edition

Books.

First

San Mateo,

100

USA

53212

2003 by World Almanac

published by Bluewood Books,

CA

Library.

A Division

Original edition

1997 by Bluewood

of The Siyeh Group,

Inc., P.O.

Box 689,

94401.

Editor: Richard Michaels

Copy

editor:

Bob Juran

Designer: Eric Ii-ving

World Almanac

Library editor: Betsy Rasmussen

World Almanac

Library art direction and cover design:

Cover images from top

Photo

credits:

to

Tammy

Gruenewald

Andy Warhol, Claude Monet, and Georgia

bottom:

Text page illustrations are by

Tony Chikes and

are

O'Keefie.

1997 Bluewood Books

with the following exceptions: Archive Photos: 93, 99, 102, 105; Archive Photos/ Archive
France: 91; Archive

Photos/Camera

Press: 103;

Archive Photos/Walter Daran: 97; Archive

Bettmann/CORBIS: 16, 26,

Burckhardt Rudolph/CORBIS SYGMA: 104; Julia Margaret
CORBIS: 88, 107; Courtesy of Sarah G. Epstein Family

Photos/Express Newspaper: 96; Archive Photos/Popperfoto: 95;

44, 45, 65, 75, 85, 86, 87, 98;

Cameron/Hulton Archive: 46;

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101;

Darlene Hammond/Getty Images:

cover, top inset;

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Printed in the United States of America

2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 07 06 05 04 03

About

the Audior: Barbara Krystal resides in the San Francisco Bay Area. She earned a B.A. in English from U.C.

Santa Barbara and

is

a freelance writer

and

editor.

INTRODUCTION
PHIDIAS

1.

490 B.c.?^30

B.C.

PRAXITELES

2.

R.\PHAEL
1483-1520

14.

CORREGGIO

390 B.c.?-330?

20
21

1489?-1534

9
15.

B.C.

BENVENUTO

CELLINI

22

1500-1571

3.

CIMABUE

4.

DONATELLO

5.

JAN VAN EYCK

6.

GIOVANNI BELLINI

7.

HUGO VAN DER GOES

8.

BOTTICELLI

9.

LEONARDO DA VINCI

10.

ALBRECHT DURER

11.

MICHELANGELO

12.

MATTHL\S GRUNEWALD

10

1240?-! 302

16.

TINTORETTO

23

1518-1594

11

1386?-1466

17.

GIUSEPPE ARCIMBOLDO

24

1527?-1593

12

I390?-144I

18.

SOFONISBA ANGUISSOLA

25

1535?-1625

13

I430F-1516

19.

EL

GRECO

26

1541-1614

14

I440?-1482

20.

LAVINL\

FONTANA

27

1552-1614

15

1445?-! 5 10

21.

CARAVAGGIO

28

1573-1610

16

1452-1519

22.

PETER PAUL RUBENS

29

1577-1640

17

1471-1528

23.

ARTEMISL\ GENTILESCHI

30

1593-1652?

18

1475-1564
1475?-1528

13

24.

SIR

ANTHONY VAN DYCK

31

1599-1641

19
25.

DIEGO VELAZQUEZ

32

1599-1660

3.

6.

11.

16.

21.

7.

12.

17.

22.

8.

13.

18.

23.

4.

9.

14.

19.

24.

5.

10.

15.

20.

25.

>1 1>~>
1600

AD

TABLE OP CONTENTS
26.

REMBRANDT

33

39.

1606-1669
27.

ELISABETTA SlRANl

34

40.

JEAN-ANTOINE WATTEAU

35

41.

WILLIAM HOGARTH

36

42.

CANALETTO

37

43.

SIR JOSHUA

REYNOLDS

38

44.

THOMAS GAINSBOROUGH

39

45.

1727-1788
33.

FRANCISCO DE GOYA

^0

46.

ELISABETH VIGEE LEBRUN

41

47.

WILLL\M BLAKE

^2

48.

WASHINGTON ALLSTON

43

49.

CAMILLE PISSARRO

5/

EDOUARD MANET

52

JAMES WHISTLER

53

EDGAR DEGAS

54

PAUL CEZANNE

55

AUGUSTE RODIN

5<^

1840-1917

JOHN JAMES AUDUBON

44

50.

I785-I851
38.

50

1839-1906

1779-1843
37.

DANTE ROSSETTI

1834-1917

1757-1827
36.

49

1834-1903

1755-1842
35.

GUSTAVE MOREAU

1832-1883

1746-1828
34.

4S

1830-1903

1723-1792
32.

MATHEW BRADY

1828-1882

1697-1768
31.

47

1826-1898

1697-1764
30.

ROSABONHEUR

1823?-1896

1684-1721
29.

-^(J

1822-1899

1638-1665
28.

JULL\ CAMERON
1815-1879

CLAUDE MONET

57

1840-1926

HONORE DAUMIER

45

51.

1808-1879

BERTHE MORISOT

58

1841-1895

43.
44.

26.

27.

28.

31.

30.

32.

YY

1#

1601

29.

34.
33.

35.

36.

37.

38.

39.

40.

45.

48

41.

46.

49

42.

47.

50

YYYYYYVVYY

11 >

isao

52.

AUGUSTE RENOIR

59

65.

53.

HENRI ROUSSEAU

60

66.

MARYCASSATT

61

67.

PAUL GAUGUIN

62

68.

VINCENT VAN GOGH

63

69.

GEORGES SEURAT

64

70.

GRANDMA MOSES

65

71.

FREDERIC REMINGTON

6^6^

72.

PAUL SIGNAC

67

73.

EDVARD MUNCH

68

74.

HENRI DE TOULOUSE-LAUTREC

65

75.

CAMILLE CLAUDEL

70

76.

77

PABLO PICASSO

78

UMBERTO BOCCIONI

79

GEORGE BELLOWS

SO

GEORGES BRAQUE

81

EDWARD HOPPER

82

IMOGEN CUNNINGHAM

83

1883-1976

1864-1943
64.

PAULKLEE

1882-1967

1864-1901
63.

76"

1882-1963

1863-1944
62.

GEORGES ROUAULT

1882-1925

1863-1935
61.

75

1882-1916

1861-1909
60.

HENRI MATISSE

1881-1973

1860-1961
59.

7^

1879-1940

1859-1891
58.

GUTZON BORGLUM

1871-1958

1853-1890
57,

73

1869-1954

1848-1903
56

WASSILY KANDINSKY

1867-1941

1844-1926
55

72

1866-1944

1844-1910
54.

ROBERT HENRI
1865-1929

1841-1919

ALFRED STIEGLITZ

71

77.

MAXBECKMANN

84

1884-1950

1864-1946

62.
51.

53.

52.

54.

55.

56.

57.

58.

59.

60.

63.

61.

64.

73.
66.

65.

67.

74.
68.

69.

YYYrYYYYYyyyY

>1 1

i8ai

70.

71.

72.

75.

YYYY

>

1882

TABLE OP CONTENTS
78.

DIEGO RIVERA

85

SALVADOR DALI

91.

79.

MARCEL DUCHAMP

86

92.

WILLEM DE KOONING

MARC CHAGALL

87

1906-1965

GEORGL\ O'KEEFFE

88

FRIDAKAHLO

94.

MAN

RAY

89

95.

1890-1976
83.

HENRI CARTIER-BRESSON
b.

NAUM GABO

90

96.

JOAN MIRO

91

97.

JACKSON POLLOCK

STUART DAVIS

92

98.

ROBERT CAPA

NORMAN ROCKWELL

93

99.

LEONARD BASKIN
b.

RENEMAGRITTE

ALEXANDER CALDER

5^5

TRIVL\ QUIZ

HENRY MOORE

96

ISABEL BISHOP
1902-1988

77.

78.

109

97

79.

76.

108

SUGGESTED PROJECTS
INDEX 110

1898-1986
90.

707

1930P-1987

1898-1976
89.

106

1922

lOO.ANDY WARHOL

94

1898-1967
88.

105

1913-1954

1894-1978
87.

104

1912-1956

1894-1964
86.

703

1909-1992

1893-1983
85.

102

1908

FRANCIS BACON

1890-1977
84.

101

1907-1954

1887-1986
82.

/W

DAVID SMITH

93.

1887-1985
81.

99

1904-1997

1887-1968
80.

98

1904-1989

1886-1957

87.

80.

82.

81.

83.

84.

85.

88.

86.

89.

91.
90.

92.

93.

94.

95.

96.

97.

98.

YTYtTtTyyyYYvty

>1 1^

99.

100.

yy

1928

ALPHABETICAL
BLE OP CONTENTS
Allston,

Washington

p.43

(36)

25

p.

98

O'KeefFe, Georgia (81)

p.

45

Phidias

(9) ....p.

16

Picasso, Pablo

p.

92

Pissarro,

.p.

99

Pollock, Jackson

Degas, Edgar (47)

p.

54

Praxiteles

Donatello

p.

11

Rapheal (13)

p.

86

Ray,

p.

17

Rembrandt

p.

26

Remington, Frederic (59)

p.

27

Renoir, Auguste (52)

p.

90

Reynolds, Sir Joshua (31)

Vinci, Leonardo

Davis, Stuart

(85)

de Kooning, Willem (92)

Arcimboldo, Giuseppe

p.24

(17)

Audubon, John James

p.44

(37)

p.

Daumier, Honore (38)

Da

Anguissola, Sofonisba
(18)

DaH, Salvador (91)

(4)

Duchamp, Marcel

(79)

Bacon, Francis (96)

p.

103

DuRer, Albrechc (10)

Baskin, Leonard (99)

p.

106

El

Max

Greco (19)

(77)

p.

84

Fontana, Lavinia (20)

(6)

p.

13

Gabo,

Bellows, George (73)

p.

80

Gainsborough, Thomas

Bishop, Isabel

p.

97

p.

42

Gauguin, Paul (55)

...p.

79

Gentileschi, Artemisia

Bonheur, Rosa (40)

p.

47

Borglum, Gutzon (67)

p.

74

Goya, Francisco de

p.

15

Griinewald, Matthias (12)

p.

48

Henri,

p.

81

Hogarth, William (29)

Calder, Alexander (88)

p.

95

Hopper, Edward (75)

Cameron,

p.

46

Kahlo, Frida (94)

p.

37

Kandinsky, Wassily (66)

Beckmann,

BelUni, Giovanni

(90)

Blake, William

Boccioni,

Bottiicelli

Brady,

(35)

Umberto

(72)

(8)

Mathew

(41)

Braque, Georges (74)

(39)

Julia

Canaleno (30)
Capa, Robert (98)
Caravaggio (21)

p.

105

p.

28

Cartier-Bresson, Henri
(95)

p.

102

Cassatt,

Mary

Cellini,

Benvenuto (15). ...p. 22

(54)

p.

61

Naum

(83)

Rivera,

(32)

(71)

(97)'

(26)

66

Norman

(86). ...p.

93

p.

39

Rockwell,

p-

62

Rodin, Auguste (49)

Dante

(43)

p.

56

p.

50

76

p.

30

Rouault, Georges (69)

p.

(33). ...p.

40

Rousseau, Henri (53)

p.

60

....p.

29

p.

64

(65)

p.

19

Rubens, Peter Paul (22)

p.

72

Seurat, Georges

p.

36

Signac, Paul

p.

82

Sirani, Elisabetta

p.

101

(57)

(60)
(27)

Smith, David (93)

...p.

73

Stieglitz,

p.

67

p.

34

p.

71

p.

23

p.

77

Tintoretto

p.

41

Toulouse-Lautrec, Henri de

Magritte, Rene

p.

94

Manet, Edouard (45)

p.

52

Van Der Goes, Hugo

Matisse, Henri

(68)

p.

75

Van Dyck,

Michaelangelo (11)

p.

18

(24)

(70)

(87)

(16)

91

VanEyck,Jan

Van Gogh, Vincent

p.

87

Moore, Henry (89)

p.

96

Velazquez, Diego

Andy

12

63

(25)

70

Moreau, Gustave (42)

p.

49

Warhol,

21

Morisot, Berthe (51)

p.

55

Waneau, Jean-Antoine

p.

65

p.

83

p.

68

(58)

(100)

(28)

Whistler, James

(46)

31

p.

p.

(61)

14

(56). ..p.

(5)

p.

Grandma

(7) ..p.

p.

57

Munch, Edvard

69

Anthony

p.

Moses,

p.

(62)

Sir

100

p.

Alfred (64)

p.

(76)

33

85

Monet, Claude (50)

Cunningham, Imogen

p.
.p.

p.

Miro, Joan (84)

(63)

89

Diego (78)

10

Correggio (14)

p.

59

55

Claudel, Camille

20

38

p.

(80)

p.

Lebrun, Elisabeth (34)

Klee, Paul

104

p.

p.

Marc

51

p.

Cimabue
Chagall,

78

p.

(2)

Cezanne, Paul (48)

(3)

p.

p.

(82)

-p.

Rossetti,

(23)

Roben

p.

Camille (44)

Man

88

p.

(1)

p.
p.

32

107

p.

35

p.

53

PHIDIAS
(490?-430

The

classical

B.C.)

period was characterized by an

human

mining

known

ee-us), a

Greek sculptor of the

was known

for

style

his

human

reproducing ideal beauty of the

Born

affairs

in

(495^29

Phidias's

ideals.

own

contribution

the

to

Athena, which was over 40 feet (12 m) in

allowed

him

artists,

who

all

beginning with

height.

made

Phidias

public works,

which

were regarded

as

and on horseback

foot

impression of

along her

movement

The

Greek

and form. He

is

is

and sandals were

The

to increase the

vandals. Detailed descriptions of the statue by

ancient

influence

authors

have preserved

its

classical

beauty.

monuments of

In studying sculptures in the

Greece,

classical style.

term referring to the

art that

shield, pedestal, helmet,

gold on the statue was detachable to ward off

during the era and was the guiding force

classical style

hand

right

fig-

exerted a large artistic

principles of

Her extended

left side.

decorated with scenes from Greek legends.

in sculpture.

behind the development of the

a standing figure; in her

is

a lance, while a shield rests

holds the ancient Greek goddess of victory.

merchants.

new ways of combining

The Athena

hand she holds

left

not usually allotted to

privileges

Phidias invented

ture

and probably

the Athenian state, commissioned

superintendent of

The

to discuss govern-

also supervised

Parthenon was the gold-and-ivory statue of

heroes for Athens. Pericles later

Phidias

He

the temple of Athena and the epitome of Greek

form.

the creation of a bronze group of national

on

affairs.

head of

the

B.C.),

Phidias's entire artistic career,

ures

Propylaea (pro-pi-LEE-a), where

designed the construction of the Parthenon,

in

was fortu-

in Attica, Greece, Phidias

Pericles

nate.

ment

classical period,

of perfection

as the

Greek council members met

(FID-

Phidias

destiny.

of the entrance to the Acropolis,

struction

awareness of the role of the individual in deter-

we can

see

it

is

almost certain that

Phidias completed the famous gold-and-ivory

emphasize struc-

statue of Zeus at

credited with the con-

the Parthenon.

ed on a

dais,

Olympia

The

afi:er

he worked on

god

statue depicts the

holding a scepter in his

while his right hand

rests

on the

left:

seat-

hand,

relief figure,

the "Nike."

In both these works {Athena and Zeus at

Olympia)

known
TEEN),

employed

Phidias

as

in

chryselephantine

which a core of wood

with ivory to represent

with enamel

ed.

technique

(kris-EL-e-fan-

is

flesh,

is

overlaid

and gold

inlaid

used for the drapery.

The events of Phidias's last years are disputSome accounts say that he was imprisoned

until his death after being accused

by the ene-

mies ok Pericles of embezzling gold that had

been

set aside for the

completion of the statue

of Athena. Another account says that he was

acquitted of the charges of embezzlement but

was condemned
his

Phidias in his study

own

Athena.

portrait

for

on

blasphemy

after putting

the shield of the goddess

PRAXITELES

(3907-330

B.C.)

At a time when sculptors were simply

entre-

preneurs operating shops in the marketplace

like

any other vendor,

emerged

SIT-e-lees)

as

He elevated art above

artist.

(prak-

Praxiteles

an extraordinary'
the simple

notion that a sculptor was just another

businessperson selling wares.
Praxiteles,

the son of the sculptor

was

Kephisodotus,
leader

of the

considered
school

Attic

Concentrating on marble

the

of

art.

he

statues,

set

the precedent for style and content that

others

would soon

follow.

was

Praxiteles

become aware of the

translucent nature of marble, which
enabled him to create more lifelike
one of the

first

to

images.

Renowned
of Greek

for his

humanization

art, Praxiteles

er-known

deities,

used the

such

less-

Aphrodite,

as

the goddess of love, and Hermes, the

messenger to the gods, for his work. His

disillusionment with communit)' values and

concern for

life

came about

constant fighting and wars

city-states.

These

the

of the

Greek

conflicts turned his artistic

Praxiteles

toward the view that mankind's well-

taste

being and happiness in

ry,

as a result

among

prima-

this lifetime are

and the good of all humanity'

is

the highest

ethical goal; thus, his portrayals of divinities

do

Praxitelean curve. His

as a

Roman copy
was the

not possess the superhuman qualities of earlier

Italy,

Greek works.

and one of the

It is

possible that one of his original works

still exists.

Hermes Holding

the Infant Dionysos

was found during the excavation of the Temple

of Hera in Olympia, Greece, in

877, where

the author Pausanias had described seeing

more than 1,700

find

may

years before.

be only a good

insight to Praxiteles

Roman

it

Although the
copy,

and the manner

it

in

lends

which

he expressed himself His signature pieces

all

contained a languid curve to the figure, resembling

the

letter

"S,"

and

so

termed the

most celebrated work,

the marble statue of Aphrodite,

which

in the Vatican

nude

first

earliest

survives

Museum

Greek statues of a female

nude. This demonstrates the change in the

tus

of women and

in

statue of the goddess

an

Praxiteles's role as

convey that change openly

sta-

artist to

in tangible form.

He is especially celebrated for his satyr; the best

known is the Resting Satyr, of which a Roman
copy exists in the Capitol Museum in Rome,
Italy.

sat>'r is

god of the woods with the

head and body of a

horns of a goat.
the

book

It

man and

the legs, ears,

was immortalized

The Marble

Nathaniel Hawthorne.

Faun,

in

by

and

1860

in

author

CIMABUE
(1240?-1302)

from

insuf-

ficiency of the instrument with

which

in material that

he

uses, or

he works, he would instantly abandon

however

that work,

Cimabue was an

who

costly

might be."

it

influential painter

broke away from the formalism of

Byzantine

by

characterized

art,

and

fictitious representations

He

introduced a

lifelike

rigid

of nature.

treatment of

by

traditional religious subjects

replac-

more
manner of painting based on his

ing conventional design with a

vital

observations of real things. His signature

mark

a partly angular, partly

is

curved structure that conveys move-

ment and energy and was

dimension in

art.

It is

Cimabue earned

the

a precursor of

speculated that
title

of "wall

painter" for his expansion of the style of

monumental

Cimabue
The
Italy

of painting had fallen into decay in

art

during the thirteenth century. Cimabue

(che-ma-BOO-a), a Florence-born

painter, res-

urrected the art by painting from living

els,

which was considered

time.

Documents show
Pepo,

new

thing at the

name was
modern Italian,

that his real

Bencivieni

di

Benvenuto

di Giuseppe.

common

mod-

in

or,

At the time,

it

was

nicknames and use them

to adopt

is

(1285?), which

over 12 feet (7

is

the

a feat for a

small canvas paintings.

His

Madonna Enthroned

most noted work

was certainly

of his older

Marcovaldo.

di

m)

high;

it

time that focused on

Cimabue

is

generally

placed by art historians at the beginning of

modern

art

and

as

the probable teacher of

Giotto (1266-1337), a Florentine painter

using a system of perspective

Byzantine formula of

Rome

art.

who

of space without

achieved a representation

common

Cimabue

is

in the

known

in

1272, and he was per-

meanings; the noun means summit or head,

haps influenced by the

classical current in art

and the verb means

that

throughout one's

lifetime.

"Cima" has two

scale painting

Coppo

contemporary,

The suffix
name would signify
bold and stubborn man. The
to shear or cut.

"bue" means ox. Thus, his

an "ox head," a

name

suited him, as pointed out

by Dante

to have visited

is

was prevalent there

for the hospital

church of

Italy,

Comedy. Dante wrote: "Cimabue, a painter of

our time, is a man so arrogant and proud with-

oi St. John (1301?)

if

that if

any discovered a

fault in his

he perceived one in himself,

happen

to the artist

who

fails

work, or

as will often

from the defects

Cimabue

commission of the painting Crucifix (1260?)

(1265-1321), author of the book The Divine

al,

at the time.

recorded in historical documents for the

and

as a

frescoes have

master

St.

Chiara, Pisa,

workman on

the mosaic

at the Pisa Cathedral.

Many

been attributed to him, although

modern scholars accept only a few as authentic.

The majority of his works are located in the
Church of St. Francesco
10

at Assisi, Italy.

DONATELLO
(13867-1466)

4,

Renowned

sculptures

creating

for

that

exemplified the qualities of the Renaissance

such

period,

and

as

experimentation,

Donate

creativity.

di

Bardi, knov^n as Donatello,

invention,

regarded as the founder of

due

to

on the

in

typical month's wage. Donatello

He

is

modern

sculpture

that his

work was measured

viewer

imagining
to be there.

was outraged
of hours

in terms

spent and destroyed the sculpture.

He
ing

created free-stand-

fountains,

figures,

and animals. He used

clay,

He

of

what seemed

he was entitled to

project, therefore

technique

there, instead

The merchant
a month

price.

was recognized

the eye actually see

what was
the

the

illusion.

Donatello's

made

to

innovation

his

optical

in

objected

argued that Donatello had spent only

Niccolo di Betto

early twenties as a prolific artist.

his

bronze head made for a Florence merchant

who

bronze, or marble.

also varied scale.

Donatello's

career

normally divided

is

into

The

first

comprises

the

His technique was to cut

three periods.

into the clay, using pro-

period

trusions to reflect light or

time between seventeen

shadow

and thirty-nine

effect

produce the

to

of proximity or

age and

dis-

by

tance to the eye.

Born

the son of a wool comber,

began an

influence

the

Gothic sculpture,

in Florence, Italy,

Donatello

the

of mystery. His

eff^ect

work of

famous

an

time was

to

the

Donatello

sculptor Lorenzo Ghiberti

(1378-1455).

He

doors

baptistery

the

in

Florence.

Evangelist (1415),
in

assisted

decorating the

of San Giovanni,

made

of the Florence Cathedral. The

for the facade

second

this

John the

period

from

dates

the

years

which Donatello made

trips to

into associa-

1425-1435,

the architect Filippo

Brunelleschi

Rome. The bronze David (1435) is considered

the first life-size, free-standing nude statue of

(13771466),
tunity to visit

who gave Donatello the opporRome between 1408 and 1412

Donatello's career marks the transition from

medieval sculpture, which was overtly religious

in context

and created

in the service

church, to sculpture that glorified

in

the Renaissance. In his third period, Donatello

emphasized realism and the portrayal of dra-

to study the ancient sculptures.

of the

man

matic

Donatello emphasized

human anatomy and movement,

for the figure

show emotion

emphasizing the poses of

Donatello

in his sculptures,

his figures

and the

space around them.

story

is

told of Donatello destroying a

sculpture

Judith

and

figures in a single sculpture.

as a

of

to

His

action.

Holofernes (1461) shows the integration of two

youth, warrior, and saint. Based on the study of

St.

The work brought him

tion with

was able

of

refer-

ring to a style invoking

art

career at age seventeen as

apprentice

years of

characterized

is

reality; for

art as a

reproduction

example, he created the drapery

of Judith by dipping a

into wax. Believing that an artist

to "feel deeply

and

real cloth

must be

able

translate those feelings into

concrete form," Donatello had the ability to

create a sense of

11

life in his

work.

JAN VAN EYCK

(1390M441)

Jan van Eyck (van-IKE), a Flemish painter,

is

the founder of the style

(new

art).

rumor

nova

There has been debate and

among

authenticity of
a

as ars

Uncertainty regarding van Eyck's

early training exists.

speculation

known

scholars

some of

regarding the

his paintings, creating

Hubert had

that van Eyck's brother

with

common, everyday

reality in

in the belief that

daily

He

scenes.

proclaimed that the novelty of Flemish

art lay

humans, nature, and

social

were fascinating subjects when com-

life

posed in a

spiritual unity.

Van Eyck was the first to use the optical

phenomenon known as atmospheric perspec-

some of the more problematof

the paintings. Van Eyck's
ic and detailed
the Ghent Altarpiece
masterpiece,
greatest

space and the limit of visibility, serving to add

Bavon,

Bartolomeo Fazio called van Eyck the "prince

Ghent, was commissioned by the mayor of

of painters of our age." In 1422, he entered the

hand

in creating

(1432)

for

Cathedral of Saint

the

service
official

piece was

begun by Hubert and completed by

Hubert died

that Jan

in 1426,

van Eyck took

and

it is

many

presumed

of Hubert's

unfinished works and completed them.

Jan van Eyck was born in Maaseick, in the

province of Limburg, Belgium. His ground-

breaking work combined fantasy and illusion

The

continuity to a painting.

of two superimposed rows of painting,

bearing an inscription that indicates that the

Jan.

Atmospheric perspective

The work con-

Brugge, Belgium, Jodocus Vyt.

sists

tive.

is

a perception of

Italian

humanist

of John of Bavaria, count of Holland,

as

court painter. After John's death in

1425, van Eyck became valet de chambre to

Philip the

Good, Duke of Burgundy. By the

time he was thirty-five, he had already earned

the

of master, which was unusual for

title

someone

that young.

He was

many

pated in

1428

to Portugal to

marriage between

Princess Isabella, daughter of

Van Eyck represented

artist as

partici-

long and secret journeys for

Philip, including a trip in

negotiate

both painter and

Van Eyck

trusted diplomat to Philip.

the

Philip

King John

new

artist

an intellectual and master of other

In 1430, he settled for

good

in

Van Eyck was

he

is

the

arts.

Brugge, where

he began to sign and date his work for the

time.

and

I.

also a chemist

first

of sorts, and

credited with the invention of a type of oil

paint that allowed

nical skills.

These

him

to develop precise tech-

skills

earned him the reputa-

tion as "king of painters"

by fellow

citizens well

into the sixteenth century.

Although controversy

much

authenticity of

name

is

exists

as

to

the

of his work, van Eyck's

noted in history

as the great

pioneer of

Flemish realism. Nine paintings by van Eyck

are

still

in existence,

all

carefully signed

and

dated between 1432 and 1439. Five are portraits.

Jan

vaji

Eyck

The

other four depict religious subjects,

including the
Paele (1436).

12

Madonna

with Canon van der

GIOVANNI BELLINI
(14307-1 51

Giovanni

6)

Bellini, the Italian painter

from

the city of Venice, belonged to an artistic fam-

He was

ily.

born out of wedlock to the painter

Jacopo Bellini (1400?- 1470),

who emphasized

the Renaissance style of perspective, landscape,

and

classical beauty.

of

brother

was the younger

Bellini

Gentile

painter

the

(14291507), renowned for

his

skillful

before

detailed

architectural

structures.

Mantegna
whose work is noted

(1431-1506), a painter
its

of

illusion

began

Bellini

was

Bellini

Andrea

brother-in-law

for

and

arrangement of crowds standing

Another major influence on

his

Bellini

his portraits

realistic

depth.

his artistic career

by

assisting

workshop. By twenty-

his father in the family

nine years of age, he had ventured out on inde-

pendent projects and opened a workshop of his

own.

was famous

Bellini

than emphasis on
to

minute

light, rather

defined his sensitivity

line,

details.

Bellini's

immense

talent,

connections, and family reputation gained

immediate
pendent

and

success. His first

artist

works

as

him

( 1

460)

Man

of Sorrows (1460?). At this point,

work emphasized the use of light,
expressions to convey emotions, and

body language

to dramatize the scene. In 1480,

he was given an annual salary

when he was

appointed

the

chief painter

to

confusion concerning the origin of different

works.

an inde-

were Agony in the Garden

Bellini's

facial

Giovanni Bellini

for religious paint-

His perception of color and

ings.

Venetian

Bellini

did not

international
across the

European continent

taking Bellini's style with them.

his

time

as

chief painter

and

and shadow replaced

court, he

official painter

of the

was not paid an extra commission

for

space.

Madonna of
Bellini's

style

the

was

was emphasized. The

(1487-1576) and Giorgione (1476-1510).

OP. lOH.BELL. became the

trademark of the shop

ings he created

on

his

as well as

of the paint-

own. This

later led to

Venetian

The works

Francis (1480)

(1487).

oil

that

and

Gradually,

built entirely in

own

Bellini's signature

was during

the

forms of

where three-dimensional space

his

altarpiece

St.

Trees

solid objects,

workshop of pupils,

lines.

depict these changes are

work. Simultaneously, Bellini maintained

studio and a large

It

gradual transition of light

his

which included the famous painters Titian

to

painting that lessened the distinction between

solids

ing historical events. As

to apprentice

Republic that he adopted a technique of

Republic, a position he maintained until his

of court personages and portray-

Students journeyed

with him and then returned to their homes

death. Bellini's duties included executing official portraits

yet he exerted an

travel,

influence.

style

is

represented in the

The Virgin and Child and Four Saints

(1483), where the illusions of depth are prominent.

Bellini's

composed
than

13

line.

ideal

was to produce images

entirely in

terms of color, rather

HUGO VAN
I

(1

440'?-! 482)

vices

of Philip the Good,

and

his

wife.

Princess

Duke of Burgundy,
of Portugal,

Isabella

in 1473.

Despite his worldly success, he retired to the

Red

Cloister monastery near Brussels as a lay

brother at thirty-five years of age, but he mainconsiderable

tained

given

privileges

normally not

members of the monastery. Having

allotted to

worldly

his

all

possessions

the

to

monastery, he was allowed to continue paint-

He

ing.

also

drank wine

tained visitors

was permitted to
monastery

and

at the table

enter-

and patrons of royal esteem. He

of the

travel outside the walls

of time.

for brief periods

He was

deeply religious man, but his fame and extravagant

life

were incompatible with

his ideal

of

achieving humility. This incompatibility later

caused him to experience a severe mental colfollowed by an attempt at suicide in

lapse,

1481.

Hugo van

der Goes

Unable
was going

Regarded

as

one of the

century Flemish painters,

greatest fifteenth-

Hugo van

der Goes

Van

der Goes was born in Ghent, Belgium.

He

painted there and entered the

artists'

guild at

and believing that he

an imperfect

men-

Earth, he continued to decline

tally until his death.

Van der

introduced emotional intensity and deep sentimentality into his religious subject matter.

on

state

to concentrate

to leave his paintings in

but

all

of

Goes's paintings are not numerous,

his paintings are

marked by

disor-

The most

firmly

dered feeling and rich colors.

dated of his works

is

the Portinari Altarpiece

his career are The Fall ofMan (1467?) and the

Lamentation (1468?), which are regarded as his

m) tall and 19 feet

m) wide, this piece was considered enormous by Flemish standards. It was received
with disdain because of its size. The entire

induction into the art world. In 1468,

composition of the portrait centers around the

age

twenty-seven.

became dean of the

official

on behalf of the
Belgium

At age
guild.

guild,

The

thirty-four,
earliest

he

works of

he went to Brugge,

to aid in decorating the city for the

marriage of Margaret of York and Charles the

Bold.

From

this

experience,

he earned an

esteemed reputation that enabled him

to

from among the prominent

cit-

attract patrons

izens of Brugge, as well as continual

employ-

ment from Margaret and Charles. At the same

time, van der Goes created paintings for the
church of

St.

Pharahildis for the funeral ser-

(1476). At over 8 feet (2

(6

figure of Christ,
ed.

It

where the

also displays an

light

is

concentrat-

emotional intensity not

seen in previous Flemish paintings.

The

action

of the shepherds entering the scene and the

gaze of Christ's mother, Mary, creates a feeling

of tension in the piece.

The

painting was

com-

missioned by the Medici, the ruling family of

Italy,

and brought van der Goes fame

Florence, placing

him prominently

tory of Italian painting.

14

in

in the his-


BOTTICELLI
(1445?-! 510)

known

AJessandro Filipepi,

Sandro

as

CHEL-ee), was born

Florence,

where value

and

(bot-e-

Botticelli

circle

(1449-1492),

Italian renais-

Botticelli

reflected the popular

enced

was

by

and

thought that the soul

phers

inhabitants

edge and

court.

He was

Filipepi, a tanner. It

sumed

Botticelli,

"little barrel,

name of

whom
ticed.

"

mean-

famous

with

Sandro

helping

emphasizes

and

line, detail,

his

of

life

working

body is elongated and the length of the arms

and legs are exaggerated. This style invokes a
feeling of movement that is free from control

a sense of

spent almost

all

for the great families of

Florence, especially the Medici, the ruling fam-

of

Italy.

goddess
seashell.

Proportions of anatomy are ignored, as the

which

own workshop. He

painting

the

Venus emerging from

the time Botticelli was fifteen years old,

he had

(1482?),

The

love.

is

melancholy.

ily

of

depicts

Botticelli

st\'le,

his

Birth

Botticelli

is

and

develop his personal

By

is

The

both positions on

Lippi

for his altarpieces

credited

experience

which symbolizes

Fra Filippo

(1406-1469).

Lippi

of

this

Venus

appren-

an apprenticeship with the

monk

The
famous

depiction

Botticelli later served

painter and

pagan

Christian

most

from the

first

he recon-

views.

pre-

the goldsmith to

he was

this

and

that he received his

nickname
ing

is

the

Through

ciled classical

Mariano

of

other

of

influence,

itself

the youngest of

sons

five

by

influ-

philoso-

gains ultimate knowl-

withdrawing into

of

Medici

de

sance, his paintings

truth

artistic

court

the

at

Lorenzo

of the leading painters

of the

placed on intellect

As part of the

in

As one

Italy.

is

morality.

and appears
of

gravity.

to be

under the natural influence

The weight of

the

body

is

distrib-

uted unequally, so the figure conforms to a single

For the Medici, he painted por-

continuous curve.
In 1481, Botticelli

was chosen

to travel to

The Adoration of the Magi (1477) is representative of the influence of the circle of the

Rome

Medici family. Although the work was not

and The Temptation of Christ as well as papal

portraits. It was during this time that Botticelli

traits.

commissioned by the Medici,

a vast

number of

figures contain likenesses of personages of the

royal court.

tomiming

The

in

painting depicts figures pan-

animated poses, detracting from

the focus of the central subject.

The

piece

expresses Botticelli's desire to create a world

to paint the three frescoes

The Youth

of Moses, The Punishment of the Sons of Corah,

underwent a
itself in

religious

awakening, manifesting

a devotion to the church

and the paint-

ing of religious subjects. Mystic Nativity

and

Stories

of

St.

(1

Zenobius (1505?)

expressed his enthusiasm for the church.

15

501)

both

LEONARDO DA

VINCI

(1452-1519)

armored
alty

make cannons, and

catapults,

struct

around 1482, where he remained

enteen years.

oped

was

It

his style

build

he entered the world of roy-

vehicles,

for sev-

time that he devel-

at this

and labored on

his masterpiece.

The Last Supper (1495). Incorporating drama

into the depiction of Christ's disciples receiv-

ing testament that Christ was to die, the painting was elaborately calculated to capture the
reaction of each disciple individually

group

in a chain reaction

and

as a

He grouped

of shock.

the figures in units of three, framing the figure

of Christ,

who

is

presented as the only calm

subject.

Leonardo da Vinci

In 1502, Leonardo returned to Florence

Celebrated as a painter, sculptor, architect,

engineer,

and

VIN-chee)

Leonardo da Vinci (da-

scientist,

was

the

truly

quintessential

Renaissance man. His talents characterized the

of

ideals

and

ingenuity

creativity.

For

Leonardo, there was no authority greater than

which he characterized

the eye,

as the

"window

as chief architect

He was born

out of wedlock in Vinci, a

wealthy Florentine notary,

village, to a

Piero da Vinci,

and

a peasant

woman

identified

and

and engineer

by Cesare Borgia, Duke of Romagna. During

employment with the duke, Leonardo

his most celebrated portrait, the

his

painted

world-famous
as

Mona

Vinci's

is

known

Lisa (1506), also

La Gioconda. The painting

famed

for

da

mastery of technical innovations,

as

is

woman who

well as for the mysterious smiling

of the soul."

Tuscan

was employed

the subject. Leonardo used the background,

an imaginary landscape of mountains and

ley,

as a psychological reference to the

val-

woman

only as Caterina. At age fourteen, Leonardo

in the forefront.

was apprenticed

ing gives the impression that the solidity of an

Andrea

as a garzone, or "studio boy,"

del Verrocchio. Verrocchio taught

object

Leonardo the fundamentals of painting and

tance.

to

introduced

works

him

to

for altarpieces

also introduced

the

task

of completing

and panel

pictures.

He

Leonardo to the creation of

diminished

is

known

The work

"smoke,"

which

The

haze.

chiaroscuro

pendent master
His

Magi

first

its

light

The Adoration ofthe

unfinished but stands

left:

organized rhythm, excellent draw-

and sentiment.

Having written the Duke of Milan

a letter

the

Italian

method
word for

the

subtle

transition

is

the

painting

also

incorporates

(kee-ar-e-SKYOOR-o),

tech-

and shadow.

In 1507, Leonardo

became court painter

King Louis XII of France, who was

Milan,

Italy

the

at

Leonardo went

claiming he could build portable bridges, con-

recedes into the dis-

nique of defining forms through contrasts of

large painting,

(1481), was

apart in
ing,

six years later.

it

between color areas to create an atmospheric

Leonardo was twenty, he was indoctrinated

and became an inde-

as

style in the paint-

incorporates

sfumato,

as

marble and bronze structures. By the time

into the painters' guild

His unique

court of King Francis

three years of his

16

time.

to France to

life.

I,

to

residing in

Nine

years

work

in the royal

later,

where he spent the

last

;i471-1528)

of fifteenth-centun'

Artists

Germany

either

God

apprenticed to friends of the family in similar

creating art.

fields.

in

Third-born in a

line

and a

hereditary talent

father

who

introduced

by teaching him the

him

to

craft

of a goldsmith. At age thirteen, he drew a

an

artistic career

remarkable self-portrait and

said,

drew

"I

myself while facing the mirror in the year

1484,

when

was

still

theorist, often referred to as the

Leonardo da Vinci
training in

early

(see no. 9).

art

the

in nature;
sesses art."

He

he

received his

Nuremberg

at

established his

age

st}'le is

was part

human

tion of the body,

to

it

At

fort\'-two years of age,

the

engraving

as

painter

that

Genius

is

condition

helplessness.

of

his depiction

fashion, breaking the

aim was

to ele-

had degenerated. The

is

the

most

painted directly from nature.

handsome, Diirer had

fondness for self-portraits, which also manifested in his attempt to create a high position
for artists in society. In his time, self-portraits

existed only as an exercise using oneself as a

convenient model. In one self-portrait of 1 500,

Diirer

career

Melencolia

cli-

a disarray of scientific instruments, signifying

Magi (1504)

that he was

his

which questions the intellectual

of science and art. Melencolia I

devout of his works and includes a landscape

Aware

as

shows the figure of Genius surrounded by

a painter, Diirer's

which

he exam-

and the use of clothing

vate art above the status of a manufacturing

business,

as

expression.

apparent in the sixteen engravings

Adoration of the

a synthe-

body. In painting, Diirer

and part mystic,

intellect

Michael with a dragon, where the figures are

As

is

in the por-

of Adam and Eve show perfect propor-

o Apocalypse of St. John (1498), of which one

plate depicts the battle of the archangel

formless.

hidden

of animals and plants; however, the

limitations of an idyllic church conception.

The

lies

from her pos-

of rwenty-three, he

fame derives from

human

it

virtues

and engraver on copper and wood.

Diirer's

can wrest

in

own workshop

biblical events in

the laws of nature

"art

to

Returning

centers.

the

of

figures

(1514?),

as a jour-

woodcut designer

gift

ined the system of growth of a plant, the func-

northern

from the painter and

a vessel of

trayal

through Germany and Switzerland

as

who

on

The Fall ofMan (1504)

maxed with

book-publishing

was

of the natural world, accurate

woodcut designer Michael Wolgemut. Upon

leaving Wolgemut's studio, Diirer wandered
neyman, working

that

belief

tions of the

a child."

Diirer was an engraver, draftsman, painter,

and

also studied theor\'

with

sis

artist

because he was the recipient of the

He

of eighteen children

Nuremberg, Germany, Albrecht Diirer had

man, the

a deeply religious

followed their fathers into a profession or were

compared himself to

Albrecht Diirer

Christ. For Diirer,

17

of power and

MICHELANGELO
(1475-1564)

one of the few works he ever

Pieta (1500),

signed, in St. Peter's Basilica.

The work

young Mary, the mother of

depicts

Christ, with

restrained emotion, rather than extreme grief,

while she holds the dead Christ in her arms.

Michelangelo further demonstrated his talent

for

large

m)

in height, depicted as a

nude youth, muscular and

of the

David

sculpture with the marble

(1504), 18 feet (5

facial

expression

The

alert.

on David,

intensity

characteristic

termed

of Michelangelo's work,

is

which means containing

qualities that inspire

fear

terribilita,

and awe. The same could be attributed

own

Michelangelo's

to

personality. In 1505, after

the completion of David, Michelangelo was

Rome

called to

Michelangelo

by Pope Julius

Chapel

frescoes of the Sistine

During

his

long life-time, Italian sculptor,

and

painter,

Michelangelo

architect

was

Buonarroti

of princes,

friend

most

notably Lorenzo de Medici (1449-1492), ruler

of Florence.

and

painters,

of

also

knew

cardinals, popes,

poets. Michelangelo

governor

the

Buonarroti,

ing

He

of

who had

Medici

was the son

Lodovico

Caprese,

connections with the

family.

At

age

rul-

thirteen,

Michelangelo began an apprenticeship with

the

painter

(1449-1494),

Domenico
Ghirlandaio
who painted religious themes

with bourgeois settings and

508

to

5 1 2, lying

on

his

to paint the

II

ceiling.

From

back on scaffolding,

Michelangelo detailed the story of Creation on

a ceiling over 5,800 square feet (539 sq

The images demonstrate a close

of human anatomy and movement in
size.

scenes from the

including

God

book of Genesis

m)

in

scrutiny
the nine

in the Bible,

Separating Light from Darkness,

Creation ofAdam

and Eve, Temptation and Fall

ofAdam and Eve, and Flood. The two greatest

figures in the scenes are David and Adam,
expressing Michelangelo's idea of "divine beauty

on Earth."

first

Michelangelo continued to contribute to

of the two years he spent with Ghirlandaio,

the Sistine Chapel, executing the largest fresco

Michelangelo was involved in a

of the Renaissance with the portrait of the

a fellow student
that left

it

details. In

fight with

fist

and received a blow

the

to his

nose

permanently flattened and crooked.

Thought of

as ugly,

he was painfully aware

of his disfigurement and determined to glorify

the male

human

figure in sculpture.

By

the

time he was sixteen, he had produced the

sculptures Battle of the Centaurs (1492)

Madonna of the
his

Stairs (1492),

development of

and

demonstrating

a personal style.

Michelangelo ventured to

Rome

after the

death of Lorenzo de Medici and completed the

Last Judgment

(1541)

Michelangelo portrayed
but a decade

later

on the
all

another

altar

wall.

the figures nude,

artist,

dubbed the

"breeches maker," was commissioned to add

draperies to the figures.

As chief architect to St. Peter's Basilica in

Rome, Michelangelo was responsible for the
final form of the dome. The dome became a
symbol of authority and a model for domes
throughout the Western world, including the
U.S. Capitol in Washington, D.C.

18

MATTHIAS GRUNEWALD
(14757-1528)

12

The technique of
Matthias GriinewaJd

The

unsurpassed.
said

German

the

painter

thought to be

still

is

of Griinewald

genius

hysteria into glory.

Educated

is

have been his ability to transform

to

with hallucinating minds transformed their

specialist

tragedy into something of respect and dignity.

mills,

The

after

Renaissance had a liberating influence,

him

allowing

work without

to

theoretical

foundations and rational standards, which

him

earned

unpruned

of

appellation

the

tree."

This

wild

"a

Griinewald

to

refers

tendency to work according to simple

as

Mathis

Gothardt Niethardt, he adopted the name

Griinewald

that

his

surname of Niethardt,

had implications of a

it

strict

person. Griinewald's earliest dated

feeling

painter

due

Of all

his

to

when he became an

ring in

painter was cut short

antagonist to his patron

group of hideous-looking men.

who was

upset by

apparently torn between his sympa-

shown by

the fact that after his death, two

were found

library

of Lutheran

Mocking of Christ (1504). The

trates Christ blindfolded and beaten by

to

thy with the peasants and his natural religiosi-

rosaries

illus-

conversion

the masters of this period,

Germany.

He was
ty,

The

his position as

the fervent change in religious practices occur-

and miserly
is

and

support himself

he was deliberately avoided by his contempo-

work

painting

expressive piece,

skills to

he was discharged from

court

Protestantism.

as a derivation to suggest godliness

and dropped

of fountains

design

he used these

Albrecht of Brandenburg,

Wurzburg, Germany,

in

an architect and engineer, a

the

raries, since his career as a

rules,

rather than theorized proofs.

Born

as

in

in his luggage

along with a

literature.

and

colorful

demonstrates Griinewald's

it

use of distorted figures to portray violence.

His

masterpiece,

Isenheim Altarpiece

the

(1515), for the hospital church of the Order of

Anthony

St.

at Isenheim,

Christian mysticism.

mounted on two

els

three
(2

m)

the

views;
high.

divine

each

It

was an expression of

consisted of nine pan-

sets

of folding wings with

panel

The drama of the

is

over

feet

scene symbolized

and human nature of Christ

through the use of contrast between a vibrant

and

light

foreground to a dark sky and bleak,

low mountain landscape

When

in the

background.

the wings of the painting are opened,

the scenes

of the Annunciation,

the Angel

Concert for Madonna, and the Resurrection are

revealed, demonstrating Griinewald's talent in

using light to invoke emotion and the use of

writhing forms to create movement.

pital for

patients

which he painted the

with

mental

The

hos-

portrait received

disorders,

and

Matthias Griinewald

Griinewald's compassion for these individuals

19

RAPHAEL
(1483-1520)

13

and

The

a staff

alluring

woman

other half presents an

offering the

symbol of the

primrose, which signifies irresponsibility

and

pleasure.

what he could from

After learning
teacher,

Raphael

left

his

for Florence to study

the masters Leonardo da Vinci (see no. 9)

There he

and Michelangelo

(see no.

developed his

of expressing light and

style

and dramatic

shade, anatomy,

Raphael's

time

at a

from Florence

Rome.

to

occurred because the Church

shift

wanted

came

the center of the art world was

shifting in Italy

This

action.

royal patronage

first

when

11).

demonstrate

to

wealth and

its

Rome.

power

in

When

Raphael was twenty-six years old,

Pope

decorating the city of

Julius

commissioned him

II

to exe-

cute four frescoes in the Vatican Palace.

These

Raphael

frescoes represented the personifications

of Theology,

Regarded

as the central painter

of religious

of the High Renaissance,

figures

commonly known

Santi or Sanzio,

Raffaello

Raphael

as

(RAF-eye-el), was born in Urbino, Italy into a

He

family of painters.

received his early train-

ing in art from his father, Giovanni Santi, a

painter and poet
twelve.

At age

who

sixteen,

died

when Raphael was

Raphael became a stu-

dent of the painter Perugino (1445-1523),

who was renowned

for his simplicity

and har-

monious symmetrical designs and

Raphael imitated
difficult

to

whom

in style so closely that

it

determine which paintings were

Using

this

ing space, Raphael painted

The Vision of a
Knight (1504). The picture shows a knight
asleep

two

One

under a

tree.

The

parts, presenting a

side

illustrated

represents

scene

is

divided into

symbolism of choice.

intellect

by the figure of a

girl

Michelangelo,

and morality,
holding a book

Plato

who

there,

such

(427-347
and

B.C.)

at the

Justice.

among

portrait

and

B.C.)

the

the

as the

artist

time was painting his

famous Story of Creation on the ceiling of the

Sistine Chapel. At the death of Pope Julius and
the accession of Pope Leo

in

1513, the

He was

responsibilities increased for Raphael.

made

chief architect of

1514, and a year

tor of

all

later,

St.

Peter's Basilica in

he was appointed direc-

excavations of antiquities in

Rome.

Raphael's death at the age of thirt)-seven

was attributed

to excessive indulgences.

romantic

several

uncluttered style and emphasiz-

own

(470-399

Socrates

is

completed by which individual.

his

famous personages pictured

philosophers

and

Philosophy, Art,

Raphael included

affairs

and an

not depicted in his works.

It

times he would not give his

project

due

that "marriage
until

the

He

life

was noted that

full

at

attention to a

to the distraction of the

with his mistress.

He had

active social

need to be

never married, stating

was something that could wait

proper combination of material

advantage and personal attraction came along."

20

CORREGCIO
4897-1534)

(1

14.

Antonio Allegri, known

town

as

Correggio for the

where he was born and died,

in Italy

cre-

ated innovations in depicting space and move-

ment

He was

in painting.

runner of the baroque

of art that empha-

style

and flamboyant

extravagant

sized

considered the fore-

scenes.

Correggio's paintings are characterized by sen-

suous nude figures, representing religious and

mythological subjects.

little

hundred

enjoyed great popu-

town, but he had no disciples and

larity in his

exerted

He

influence in art for a period of one

years.

He

members of

the court in Mantua,

Italy.

Another important patron was Giovanna

di

Piacenza, the headmistress of the convent of

San Paolo

Parma,

in

missioned to paint a

He

ing quarters.

his

Italy.

set

Correggio was com-

of frescoes for her

liv-

produced an allegory on the

One

life.

no written records on

story says he

is

the descendant of

an aristocratic family, while another

he

was

on

man

Numerous

of

how

name

dates.

member of

to

or

but these contracts and pay-

ments do not include

study

states that

background.

simple

records exist either in his

his behalf,

appears as a

remedy

His name also

a board appointed to

structural failures in a

church in Parma.

As an

did find valuable patrons in

Federigo Gonzaga and Isabella d'Este, both

royal

Correggio's paintings serve as a guide to his

personality, for there are

artist,

Correggio never

tinction between sacred

Each

is

the dissubjects.

painted in a sensuous pose, showing

mystical qualities.
in

made

and pagan

An

official at the

Parma was offended by

the

Cathedral

painting

Assumption ofthe Virgin because of legs floating

in the sky. He said that the work was "a frog's
leg stew."

The famous

painter Titian, however,

pagan theme of Diana, goddess of the hunt.

defended the work, saying, "If you turned the

This work

dome

upside

pieces

they would not equal the worth of

shadow

In the

notable for his use of light and

is

enhance the illusionary technique.

to

dome

of the Cathedral in Parma

is

Correggio's

down and

Correggio's paintings

of the Virgin (1530). With its swirling clouds

and intertwined figures flying toward heaven,

Antiope (1532^).

the painting demonstrates

He was
ed

this

thirty-two years old

He

by watching

career differed

and

movement.

developed an early interest in

mix

little if

that

his

colors.

who was

Carreggio's

from those of other painters of

the Renaissance period

fact

when he complet-

his uncle Lorenzo,

grind and

painter,

he had

art

and lo

still exist.

work, and he was from then on consid-

ered a master.
art

the vastness

become an

ular are Jupiter

not by

art

the fact that

training, but

by the

blossomed in one

place.

any formal

Correggio did not travel but worked and lived

in his

own

no proof

small province of Parma. There

that Correggio ever visited

although his

art

is

Rome,

seems to show an influence of

Correggio

the ideas of Leonardo da Vinci, Michelangelo,

and Raphael

(see nos. 9, 11,

and

13).

21

it

with gold

About forty of
The most popand
530?)
Jupiter and
1

masterpiece."

Correggio's most famous painting, Assumption

action that was to

filled

BENlfENUTO CELLINI
(1500-1571)

15

temper and instigating

was exiled

sixteen he

street brawls, at

age

to Siena but fled to

Rome.
Cellini wrote his autobiography (pub-

lished

1728), 77?^ Life of Benvenuto

which spanned the period roughly

in

Cellini,

between 1538 and 1562. In

book, he

this

provides accounts of his turbulent

life

atmosphere in the sixteenth century.

of extravagant

full

and

of the daily political and social

his version

It is

of his

recordings

escapades, relaying a vivid picture of his

complex personality and

tery at using a

He

one.

sword

stating his

as well as

traveled to France in 1540,

he was employed by King Francis

he completed an elaborate gold
sculpture in
the

I.

modeled

style

of

Cellini

was

the

after

(see

no.

11).

compelled to leave France due to

ne en i^do. mcrt en

G:uvres

1571 a

with

the

stant

quarrels

Upon

his return to Florence,

support of

Florence

There

salt cellar

543, depicting the figures of

Michelangelo

el orfevre

where

god Neptune and the goddess Cybele

and

Benvcnuto CELLINI, sculpteur

mas-

designing

his con-

mistress.

king's

he won the
Duke Cosimo de Medici and

concentrated on making full-scale sculp-

Nymplie de Fontaineblenii, Persee,

jjirit. r

Tnnivir.r

tures in the classical style.

,'tC.

His most important work during

period was Perseus (1554),

head of Medusa

Benvenuto Cellini

in his

hand.

who

The

this

holds the

niches

on the

base of the statue depict small figures of gods

and demonstrate the

Equally skilled as a goldsmith, sculptor, and

metal

worker

High

of the

Renaissance,

Benvenuto Cellini (chel-LEE-nee), born

Florence,

Italy,

in

did not follow in his father's

profession as an architect.

He

acquired the

skill

to

make

as

an apprentice to the goldsmith Antonio di

Sandro

intricate designs

at the

on

shields

and swords

age of fifteen. Although he

is

respected as a sculptor, the elaborate detail of

his
at

work was more appropriate for metal work

the time. Renowned for possessing a fiery

Also of

this

detail

of his metal work.

period was the Bust of Bindo

Aldoviti (1550?), completed in bronze

of a

resentative

Remorseful of

monastery

from

classic

style

his fiery character,

his exploits.

he entered a

But two years of peaceful

his familiar lifestyle.

and he then

At age

sixty-four,

he married his housekeeper, Pierra di

and had two

comfort

22

rep-

at age fifty-eight to take a respite

solitude were sufficient for him,

resumed

and

sculpture.

in

children, settling for a

until his death.

life

Parigi,

of quiet

TINTORETTO
(1518-1594)

16
Jacopo

Robusti

Tintoretto,

meaning

his

was

profession

father's

given

name

the

dyer," in allusion to

"little

as

dyer of

silk.

Essentially a self-taught painter, Tintoretto cre-

ated

monumental

ized

by exaggerated body movements and

religious murals, character-

strong contrasts of light and shade. Tintoretto

was

who

a Venetian mannerist painter

and worked
rulers

exclusively in Venice,

and churches of that

He

began

lived

for the

tortions of

He

stayed for ten days,

mood;

the

most famous example

to a

narrow

strip,

On
III

the occasion of the visit of

enough

he was therefore severed from the

and

studio,

possibilit}'

of

formal

searched for a

and discovered diverse

srv'le

(see no.

on

drama of an

ings to heighten the

Mark

Rescuing a Slave

a dramatic departure

Described
Tintoretto's

made

as

from

showman

848) was

S^^^.^^^^'^

tradition.

paint,

in

public

attention
or business

He

brought

work

his

and offering

had done

and gave

He had

away

as partial

payment

as

way

who might

to

for

w^

to

549,

work he

admission to

M)

\
V

an impul-

his paintings

for a monaster)^

membership
with some

to

to paint

anyone who genuinely admired them. In

he accepted,

w
S
an

by seeking well-situated
stalls

their front entrances for free.

sive character

a knight.

^^^%

the majority of painters in Venice shun

him, forcing him to adopt aggressive methods

homes

make him

continued to paint until his

event. His
( 1

bold colors and bizarre angles

of self-promotion.

Upon

<^%

spatial

and extravagant choreographic group-

St.

to get close

death. The last completed painting was

Entombment (1594).

own

his

action. His developed a style focused

painting

bodyguards

sketches for a portrait.

the king's offer to

impression and created a sense of spontaneous

illusions

make

1 1 )

he developed

mannerist painters,

to

Tintoretto disguised himself

king's

Through the study of

and other Florentine

sources of inspiration.

Michelangelo

one of the

Tintoretto

Tintoretto

training,

King Henry

the portrait's completion, Tintoretto refused

obtaining public and private commissions.

Without

behind which a group of

of France to Venice, when Tintoretto was

Tintoretto found himself ostracized from the

left Titian's

Crucifixion

is

view the body of Christ.

as

he

and

importance

bystanders, silhouetted against a darkening sky,

fifcy-six years old,

after

used dis-

(1569). This painting shows a setting confined

caused Tintoretto's expulsion from the studio.

community

He

in space

to strengthen the

but the constant arguments between the two

art

Tintoretto toward

style in art.

of the subjects and to convey meaning and

rise to

city.

moved

normal relationships

between people

under the tutelage of

his career

Titian (1487P-1576).

Italy,

Intense religiosity

an expressive narrative

its

make connections
Tintoretto

appreciate him.

23

GIUSEPPE ARCIMBOLDO
17

(1

5277-1 593)

II

and Rudolph

total

of twenty-six

Maximillian
a

for

II,

Rudolph

years.

greatly

II

admired Arcimboldo's work

named him

and

Count

which made him

Palatine,

responsible

designing

for

pageants and other

festivities

of the court. As a servant of

the

court,

his

duties

also

included discovering antiques,

curious

items,

and

freakish

animals for the collection of

the

Hapsburg

An

dynasty.

entertaining

artist,

Arcimboldo enjoyed immense

popularity during his lifetime.

He constructed

fantastic heads

from masses of

fruits

and veg-

produce

double

etables

to

images. For example, in the

Summer

painting Allegory of
(1563), what appears

to be a

nose in a profile portrait

really

the

Giuseppe Arcimboldo

a warty

same

portrait, the

the figure

is

cheek of

an apple

really

combined with other

Giuseppe Arcimboldo
painted

satirical portraits

and famous

(ar-chim-BOL-do)
of court personages

personalities of the past.

He was

thought to be the foreshadower of twentieth

century surrealist

art,

which emphasized the

unconscious, for his paintings of animals, flowers, fruit,

human

and other objects composed

to

Commencing an

likenesses.

career as a designer of stained glass

try in Milan, Italy, the place

and

form

artistic

tapes-

of his birth, he

moved

to Prague, Czechoslovakia, at age thir-

ty-five,

where he became the

the

Hapsburg

court.

under Ferdinand
painter

to

that

He

official painter

began

his

of

service

and vegetables on a
one that

either

platter.

fruits

double image

is

shows the head and shoulders

of a person or just a

pile

of fruit, depending on

how one views the piece. An ingenious individual who employed wit in his portraits,
Arcimboldo was a
ry B.C.

visual

Aesop

such as the double image of a

and

centu-

(a sixth

Greek author of fables), creating morals,

a wolf,

which implies

human

that each

is

forehead
a

symbol

of cunningness.

His work observed analogies that were

apparent and popular in his day and thought

of

as a science.

He was

regarded not

and remained a court

eccentric, but merely as a brilliant

monarch's

had the

successors,

is

cucumber. In

24

abiHrv' to express

humor and

as

an

man who
wit in

art.

SOPONISBA ANCUISSOLA
(15357-1625)

18

The Renaissance

placed emphasis on the

She

later

married a Sicilian lord, Fabrizio de

development of the individual and allowed

Moncada, and moved with him

women

Sicily,

the freedom to expand their positions

and seek

careers outside the domestic realm.

Sofonisba Anguissola was the eldest of

and one boy born

girls

nobleman

the

to

(1494-1573)

Amilcare Anguissola

northern town of Cremona in

six

in

Her

Italy.

the

father

subscribed to the theory that a proper educa-

and

tion should include Latin, music,

so

ing,

all

children

his

paint-

were trained

in

the three disciphnes. Anguissola was one of

but he died four years

The remainder of her long life was then

between Genoa and Palermo. In
Genoa, she was visited by the artist Anthony
van Dyck (see no. 24) in 1624, to whom she
divided

gave

artistic advice.

memory and

woman
the

a sharp

artist to

He

trait artist,

who

trained her so well that she was

Her
(1554). Her

able to teach her younger sisters the craft.

first

known work

study

set

is

Self Portrait

a precedent

in

Italian painters to accept

ity

Crayfish (1560),

that

"lacking

of conversation in her

in

speech,"

as

wrote the author

Giorgio Vassari in his book Lives ofthe Painters,

Sculptors,

and Architects.

encouraging other

female students. Her

which her

Michelangelo

father sent to the

(see no. 11).

Michelangelo

responded by sending Anguissola some of

own

his

drawings for her to reproduce.

Anguissola was a prolific painter, and more

signed works attributed to her sur-

than

fifty

vive.

Like most

women

cialized in portraiture.

of
in

self-portraits

of her time, she spe-

She painted a number

because images of her were

demand; each varied

in size

and format. She

sometimes depicted herself

as

religious

image; other times she was playing an instru-

ment or reading
that she

book

in order to illustrate

had an education and was proficient

other arts and learning. While

ties,

still

she was sufficiently well

known

invited to join the court of Philip

She arrived

in

1560 and stayed

in her

11

in

twento

be

of Spain.

for ten years,

first as

a lady-in-waiting to the queen, then as

official

court painter to the king. While in

Spain, her fame was so great that Pope Pius

first

Her paintings had an expressive qualmade her subjects come alive, only

most popular work was Boy Pinched by a

artist

"good

by whom a large body of work still

Her work exemplified a straightforward

realism, creating a sense

studied with Bernardino Campi, a local por-

first

exists.

pictures.

she

had

achieve international fame and

come from

From 15461549,

said she

mind." She was the

the few artists in the history of western art to

nobility.

to Palermo,

later.

Sofonisba Anguissola

IV

asked her to send him a portrait of the queen.

25

;i541-1614)

19

A prosperous man who received members of

the

nobilir}'

and

intellectual

home, Domenico Theotocopuli was

entertainer

and

He was given
GRECK-o) by

into

elite

his

a popular

socialite, as well as a painter.

nickname

the

Spanish.

the

Greco

El

means

It

(el-

"the

move toward unconventional

strating his

ors, distorted

and

with his

real

name

At twenty-five
to Venice,

Italy,

in

he signed his work

Greek

in the

work-

shop of Titian (1487? 1576), remaining there

for eleven years.

He

Spain, to begin his

then

first

moved

to Toledo,

commission from the

Church of Santo Domingo, which marked the

turning point of his career. His

first

piece was

the Assumption of the Virgin (1577),

demon-

suggesting

after

Michelangelo's (see no.

down and

it.

Greco did not emulate the

El

art

that

Last Judgment in

1 1 )

the Sistine Chapel should be torn

Greco went

years of age. El

was ostracized by the

Italy,

that he could repaint

letters.

and was employed

in

in daz-

presumed that he emigrated

It is

to Spain because he

even though he glorified the coun-

and gestures

ecstatic expressions

zling colors.

community

try in his art. All his life

is

defined by disorder of composition of the body

Greek," in reference to his birthplace in Crete.

er in Spain,

work

gated proportions of the body. His

The Spanish thought of El Greco

as a foreign-

col-

groupings of figures, and elon-

religious

painting style of Spain and was considered a

rebel

and eccentric by the standards of the

land.

His unconventional domestic

made him an

also

life

outsider in religious Spain, which

did not condone two people living together

and having children out of wedlock. His

fees

were extraordinarily high, and several docu-

ments

exist in his

name

pertaining to litigation

over payments where he took his patrons to

court for refusing to pay his price. In 1586, he

painted one of his greatest masterpieces. The

Burial of Count Orgaz, which portrays the
funeral

whose
angels

work

century nobleman

of a fourteenth

soul

is

rising to a

heaven populated with

and contemporary
is

political figures.

The

indicative of his style of elongated

human forms and

technique of horror

his

vacui, or fear of unfilled spaces.

Spain was regarded

compared with

Italy,

as a declining society

yet El

Greco

settled there

become

for

thirty-seven

first

of Spain's triumvirate of great

years

to

the

artists,

including Diego Velazquez (see no. 25) and

Francisco de
It

was

Goya

(see no. 33).

difficult for El

Greco

to live in a

country where the government controlled

freedoms,

El Greco

especially

when Spain attempted

undesired citizens. The

fact

respected position kept

him

dangerous time.

26

all

during the Inquisition,

to

rid

itself

of

its

that he held a

secure in

that

20

(1552-1614)

an example of women
who emerged from Bologna, Italy,
received much of her education from the foreign artists, architects, and scholars who visited
Lavinia Fontana,

artists

her

Prospero

father,

on an exceptionally
its

Fontana,

The

painter of the time.

city

successful

of Bologna took

progressive attitude toward

female citizens, which encouraged

to seek professions in

many

Fontana was taught

and gained fame

young

The

age.

admired her

as

women

fields.

to paint

by her father

a portrait

painter at a

fashionable ladies of Bologna

talent to depict the truth in a flat-

tering manner, with special detail paid to their

jewels

and adornments.

The minute
tumes

is

attention paid to elaborate cos-

demonstrated in her famous

best

of a Lady with a Lap Dog (1 580). The

background she employed when depicting
Portrait

women

was

plain, while her portraits

men

of

incorporated backgrounds that alluded to their

professions.

Lavinia Fontana

She received her

first

authoritative

commis-

sion in 1572 from Pope Gregory XIII and was

summoned

to

Rome at the height of her growAn oversize portrait she made

Zappi,

who

studied at her father's studio but

ing reputation.

was considered untalented. In what was a

of the Stoning of St. Stephen (1603.'') for the

altarpiece of the church of St. Paul was not suc-

reversal for

cessful.

Women

were prohibited from using

nude models, and Fontana found

it

body

However, Fontana was

fee for her

this

women

as

artists

and

altarpieces

role

by taking commissions
paintings

religious

of
to

for

in

churches. Shortly before her death, a medal

to

was struck

rare

honor

for

allowed her to charge a large

work.

was hesitant because she did not want

to disrupt her career.

career.

Fontana expanded the

Lavinia

demand

Fontana received many marriage proposals,

yet she

role

couple of the time, her

She was elected

in great

Rome as a portrait painter.

the Roman Academy, a
woman, and

continued with her

do

without one.

Italian

husband took over the household while she

difficult to

represent the musculature of the male

an

She said that she "would

her honor, one side showing

in

her in profile as a gentlewoman, the other side

showing

an

with hair

in disarray.

artist

work

at

At

in

frenzy

135 works have

least

been attributed to Fontana, proving her to

be a productive

artist.

No

female

her enjoyed the success she did.

It

artist

before

was said that

never take a husband unless he were willing to

when

she passed the Lord of Sora and Vignola

leave her the mistress of her beloved art."

at the

Roman Academy,

eventually married in

1577,

to

She

Gian Paolo

he rose to meet

honor usually bestowed only upon

27

her,

royalty.

an

CARAVAGGIO
(1573-1610)

21

commission, the three

St.

Matthew

Caravaggio had an inclination for low-class

4^

environments and was constantly humanizing

holy and miraculous figures into
form.

^^fe^^^

He

rendered

religious scenes

and

biblical characters

be ignored.
stocky

as a

^^v^

He painted the St. Matthew figure

man a simple rough peasant sit-

ting with crossed legs

and bare

female angel at his

He was

his

side.

common

for

VODGE-o) obtained
his birth.

paintings.

his

surname from the

his

He was

an

as dark, colorful,

Although

his

Italian painter

and violent
father,

Caravaggio was apprenticed

at the

art

however, these people

Common

it.

people were conditioned to believe that rever-

ence for saints had to be glorious. Instead, his

men who

patrons were cultivated

at seeing saints depicted as

felt

elevated

ordinary men.

Caravaggio was an angry young man, prone

Fermo

architect,

to

age often to

he

was a master mason and

Merisi,

as

with a

Caravaggio intended his

people;

were the ones most offended by

Michelangelo Merisi da Caravaggio (cahr-a-

feet

forced to redo

work, depicting the saint with the usual

spiritual reverence.

Caravaggio

was

of

dis-

forefront of the painting so that they could not

^>^^^jA

life

by

regarding reverential poses and using contrasts

%^
whose

common

realistic interpretations

of light and shade to bring the figures to the

'/^l

town of

paintings

for the Contarelli Chapel.

street
is

From

fights.

mentioned

1600

to

in police records for

1606,

wounding

by throwing an

a painter near Milan, Italy.

a captain, assaulting a waiter

he

artichoke at him, throwing stones at the police,

left for

By age seventeen,
Rome, where he turned from the

prevalent taste for the classics to using everyday

common

people

as

models

for his paintings

After a brawl over

of

interested in naturalistic painting, he

Naples,

mirror images of himself His aim was to paint

human

moods

figure

in

its

exact replica.

in his pictures vary

anguish.

He

used his

own

The

from mischief

face

on the

to

Cardinal

discovered at age rwenty-seven by

del

Monte. The cardinal allowed

Caravaggio to paint the way he preferred and

gave

him housing. The

mental

game,

Italy,

to await a

pardon from the Pope.

received with

honor into the Order of Malta

superiors

and was

one of

as

his

jailed.

In 1610, Caravaggio received a pardon

the Pope and set off for

from

Rome, but he was mis-

takenly arrested and detained, thus missing his

in the figure.

He was

lost in a

a cavalier, but he quarreled with

portrait

o( Medusa (1594), with an expression of com-

edy

money he

Caravaggio visited Malta, where he was

could not afford models, so he began to paint

the

and more.

Caravaggio killed his opponent, then fled to

mythological figures and saints.

While

insulting a corporal,

cardinal was instru-

in obtaining Caravaggio's first great

boat,

where

all

his belongings

were stored. In despair

after

and paintings
his

release,

he

began to run in the direction of the departed

ship and collapsed, dying a few days later of

malignant

28

fever.

PETER PAUL RUBENS

(1577-1640)

Peter Paul Rubens, a Flemish painter

became

style

on many

lasting impression

whose

made

internationally famous,

including

artists,

which he completed the

final touches,

intermediary steps.

Jean Antoine Watteau (see no. 28) in the eigh-

and was very

teenth century and Auguste Renoir (see no.

ticular painting

52)

His

Rubens was

the nineteenth century.

in

born

Westphalia (now Germany).

at Siegen,

father,

Jan Rubens, a prominent lawyer,

had converted from Catholicism

and was forced

to Calvinism

Antwerp, Belgium,

to leave

In 1622,

paintings.
cial

began to study the

Not

classics in a Latin school.

became

yet fifteen years old, he

a court

He

page to Lady Margaret of Ligne.

then

visited Paris

and was com-

agent in peace negotiations

series

of

a spe-

among

the

and the countries of Spain,

and France. His contemporaries

thought of him

Antwerp, where he

the

how much of a parhis own hand.

At the same time, Rubens was

Netherlands

and

was executed by

Rubens

England,

to

all

kept meticulous records

missioned by King Louis XIII to do a

1587, after the death of his father, Rubens and

family returned

He

explicit as to

with his family due to religious persecution. In

his

sketches

initial

but his apprentices did

first as

a diplomat

and then

as

a painter, as he performed international negotiations at the highest level

with state

and was entrusted

secrets. In painting,

Rubens

is

best

represented by The Judgment ofParis {\Gy7) In

.

decided to become a painter, although painting

this

was considered a

respectable profession.

green landscape, both elements representing

attained the rank of master painter of the

the greatness of creation. This painting culmi-

He

less

work, voluptuous goddesses pose against a

of twenty-

nated Rubens' lifelong concern to paint what

one. Described as a precocious painter because

he considered to be the most beautiful things

Antwerp
of

his

painters' guild at the age

bold brush stroke and luminous color,

Rubens created vibrant

art,

sion between the intellect

classical

He

in the world.

involving the ten-

and the emotion, the

and the romantic.

left

Antwerp

in

1600

for Italy,

where he

was employed by the Duke of Mantua,

Vincenzo Gonzaga.

He

stayed with the duke

for nine years, also serving as the duke's emis-

sary to

King Philip

the duke gave

el

him

III

of Spain. His time with

the financial means to trav-

and study the works of Michelangelo

no. 11) and Caravaggio

After

formulating

expressions

Rubens

the

first

of the Baroque

returned

to

(see

(see no. 21).

innovative

sryde

Antwerp

in

and

Italy,

was

employed by the burgomaster, or mayor. His

time were Elevation of
and Descent from the Cross
(1614), demonstrating realism and dynamic
movement, which were typical of his style.

major works of

this

the Cross (1610)

The demand

Peter Paul

work was so great that

an enormous workshop in

for his

Rubens established

29

Rubens

ARTEMISIA CENTILESCHI
(1593-1652?)

23

Artemisia

Gentileschi

was said

advanced the development of the

Caravaggio
ized

by

figure

holy
in

(see no. 21),

and the humanization of

entities.

Her importance

style

this

of

style

human
and

spiritual

to

was second only

Italian

to

art

of

that

Gentileschi was the

Charles

who was

first

life,

King

known more

for

rather than her contri-

butions to the Baroque style of art in

Italy.

In

1612, Gentileschi's father accused his friend

and colleague Agostino

Artemisia perspective in
daughter.
to torture

A trial

Tassi, hired to teach

art,

of assaulting his

ensued and she was subjected

by thumbscrews

lie-detector test

even though he was

Tassi's reputation,

guilty of the crime.

married

Gentileschi

Vincenzo

Antonio de

Pietro

month

Stiattesi a

and

after the trial,

they settled in Florence, where she enrolled in

Academia

the

Disegno. At twenty-three

del

was made

years of age, she

used

as a

kind of

before a court of law to assess

the validity of her testimony.

From

child of Orazio

a court painter to

of England. She was

the scandal in her

harm

member of

the

Florence Academy.

Caravaggio himself

Gentileschi,

to

found

which was character-

depictions of the

theatrical

have

to

The

trial

was

source of gossip for the public and did nothing

the beginning of her career, she con-

centrated

An

on

full-scale

compositions of figures.

early painting of hers

Maidservant (1611), which

Old

theme

Testament

is

Judith with her

popular

reflects a

in

Baroque

art.

Gentileschi frequently depicted this scene as a

and the

reflection of the assault she suffered

humiliation she underwent as a result of her

Her work expressed vigorous

trial.

realism,

while the poses of her figures stressed the

drama of the

psychological

scene, rather than

charm of the female

the physical

subject. In

1638, she joined her father in England at the

and

court of Charles

canvases

were

that

assisted in painting nine

set

into

the

ceiling

of the Queen's House in Greenwich.

During the Baroque period, female painters

were prominent, and Artemisia Gentileschi

was the most remarkable. Her power of expres-

and

sion

her

thought of

as

dramatic

male

most of her contemporaries. Other

her

life,

such

usually

intensity,

characteristics, surpassed

as the affairs she

aspects of

was supposed

to

have had with a variety of men, added to her

scandalous reputation.

The women

she portrayed in her paintings

reflect a basic hostility

rent

theme

in her

revealed

from the female perspective.

work was

also

such

as

unique

recur-

the female heroine as

Gentileschi

feminist,

used,

toward men.
is

and sensuous person. As an

a powerfiil

subject

work

in the

early

the

Her

approaches she

stopping the action at the

climax of the event rather than after the action

Artemisia Gentileschi

has occurred.

30

ANTHONY VAN DYCK

SIR

(1599-1641)

24.

Anthony van Dyck (vanDYKE), the son of a rich silk merwas apprenticed

chant,

the

to

Flemish historical painter Hendrik

van

Balen

became

He

eleven.

and pupils

private studio

By

sixteen.

age

at

a professional artist with a

at age

the time he was nine-

van Dyck was considered

teen,

one of the most

brilliant colorists

of

in the history

admitted into the

art,

and he was

Luke guild of

St.

painters in Antwerp, Belgium, the

place of his birth.

was signed on
to Peter Paul

in

van

his

Dyck

as a chief assistant

Rubens

contract

A week after

birthday,

twenry-first

(see no. 22)

decorate

to

the

Church of St. Charles Borromeo.

After its completion, van Dyck
left for

Italy,

for

years.

six

demand

where he remained

He was

as a portraitist,

in

great

due

to his

developed mix of colors, unsurpassed by any other

Romans dubbed him

ly painter"

artist.

demanded

Dyck considered himself

paint everything but the faces in portraits.

his patrons.

Van

Dyck

a painter only

and

adding tension

the notion of the artist as a super

craftsman or an exceptional person whose

made him
In

where

likenesses

him

Dyck

Van

was unique as a painter for his style of

to the visual likeness.

Each por-

trait

depicts fine-boned, slender figures with

full

lips

and

curly

subjects descended

as

hair,

from the same

if

all

the

lineage.

London,

In 1635, he painted his masterpiece, Charles

reputation for creating incredible

I in Hunting Dress, a standing figure represent-

in

settled

of the English aristocracy earned

a position as chief court painter to

Charles

gifts

or her acceptable in society.

1632, van
his

Anthony Van Dyck

the "knight-

because he

equality between himself and

rejected

Sir

The

of England.

knight of the court.

He

He was

later

received a

King

made

town house

ing the haughty grace of the monarch.

new

established

in

styles

Flemish

art

He
and

founded the English school of painting, which

gave

him

artistic

such

heirs

as

and

Sir

Joshua

Thomas

and an annual pension above the payments he

received for executing portraits of the king and

Gainsborough

queen. By virtue of his popularity and the

returned to Antwerp, Belgium, where he was

number of portraits he was commissioned

Dvck was forced to hire assistants

to

made

to

died in England a year

do, van

Reynolds

31

dean

no.

(see

(see

of

31)

no.

the

32).

In

painters'
later.

1640,

guild.

he

He

25

:i

599-1 660)

Along with
Francisco de

Goya

19)

and

no. 33), Diego de

Silva

Greco

El

(see

(see

no.

Magi

(1619), he painted his family in the guise

of biblical

figures.

At age twenty-two, he made

y Velazquez (ve-LAHSS-kez) forms the tripainters.

Spanish
of famous
umvirate

Madrid

Velazquez was born

painter, returning

without success. But leaving

again a year

he executed a portrait of the

1599, the oldest of

Spain,

Seville,

in
six

in

children, to parents

His

first

later,

named

king and was

of minor nobility.
instruction

in

art

came from

his first trip to

to search for a position as a court

and

painter

official

King Philip IV of Spain. At that

courtier to

Francesco Pacheco, whose daughter he later

point in his career, mythological subjects occu-

married. As a painter, Velazquez recorded the

pied his time, although he always maintained

world around him directly

his style

out

false illusions

took an
traits,

his

as

he saw

it

with-

He

of beauty or grandeur.

interest in realistic subject matter, por-

and

religious scenes,

which characterize

this

period

is

the Water

ofSeville (1620). Here, the effect of light

and shadow combines with the direct observaSeller

tion of nature,

and the work

is

compared

to

that of Caravaggio (see no. 21). Velazquez's

religious

from the
cle

works incorporate models drawn

streets

of Seville or from his

own

cir-

of friends. In the picture Adoration of the

god

the

men

work between 1617 and 1623. The most

famous painting of

of realism.

of this

is

in the

portrayed drinking with ordinary

is

an open

in

An example

wine god Bacchus (1629), where

portrait of the

field.

Velazquez was said to be a socially conscious

man who had

He

a desire to be a noble.

companion

that to be a

to the king

was

felt

as out-

standing a prize as being a famous painter.

While

in service to Philip IV, Velazquez

had

the opportunity to meet with the painter Peter

He was

Paul Rubens (see no. 22).

to visit Italy
in Italy,

and

travel

through

also inspired

While

its cities.

he produced his notahXt Joseph's Blood-

stained Coat Brought

to

Jacob (1630), which

combines the chiaroscuro

and-shadow

style

techniques

to

of using

light-

drama.

create

Velazquez returned to Spain in the 1630s and

resumed

produc-

his duties as court portraitist,

ing a series of equestrian portraits of the king

and queen and the heir

Attacked by

Don

Baltasar.

embrac-

critics for his "tasteless

ing of low subject matter," Velazquez was a

realist

who was

ings. In the

Irank and intimate in his paint-

work Surrender of Breda

(1635),

Velazquez portrays a heroic action incorporating

human

sympathy.

tentive troops

and

to the surrender

The

a horse

and

scene presents inat-

whose back

in fact

is

is

turned

lifting its leg in a

gesture of impudence; the battlefield smokes in

the distance, while the attention

is

locused on

the meeting of the two generals, creating a

Diego Velazquez

feeling

of closeness between the observer and

the subject.

32

(1606-1669)

26
Born

artist,

of the greatest painters in the

art.

Rembrandt

Leiden, Netherlands,

in

van Rijn, a Dutch baroque

The son of

ranks as one

histor)'

of Western

had high

a miller, his parents

ambitions for him, and

at the

age fourteen, they

him at the University of Leiden. But

Rembrandt dropped out that same year and
enrolled

apprenticed

the

at

studio

van

of Jacob

Swanenburgh. At age seventeen, he went

to

Amsterdam, Netherlands, and studied with the

painter

historical

and returned

to

Lastman. After

Pieter

months, he had mastered

all

Leiden to establish himself

an independent painter. This period marks

style

six

he had been taught

as

his

of dramatic subjects, crowded arrange-

ments, and contrasts of light and shadow.

When Rembrandt
Rembrandt

was twenty-five,

Amsterdam and remained

returned to

created over six

hundred

of which roughly sixty were

and His Wife

paintings,

self-portraits.

early paintings, such as the Portrait

he

there.

of a

Rembrandt

His

Man

(1633), demonstrate his preoccu-

arrangement of the

pation with the features of the figure and the

details

No

of clothing and furniture.

other

scrutiny

and

himself

He

ly features,

artist

that

Rembrandt was commissioned for

The Company of Captain

In 1641,

the group portrait

subjected himself to the

self- analysis

figures, creating a natural

balance.

Rembrandt

lent

Frans Banning Cocq, the actual

work

that

never attempted to hide his home-

Watch.

although deep shadows cover his

many portraits. The self-portraits of this

may have been done to show his finesse of

The

title

for the

generally referred to as The Night

is

painting,

which

is

12-feet- (3.7-m-

high and 14-feet- (4.3-m-) long, depicts the

Rembrandt had

face in

organization of the

style

dramatized an imaginary scene where the

chiaroscuro (the dramatic

and darkness)
jects

to invoke

emotion. Biblical sub-

account for one-third of Rembrandt's

works.

He

used the flamboyant baroque

to express a sense of
al

employment of light

for Protestant

style

in the seventeenth

members

several

and

art dealer,

him

production

Amsterdam was The Anatomy

Tulp (1632). The piece depicts

in

and

lecture.

fig-

and placed

decline.

artist,

teacher,

Rembrandt's luxurious

life-style

to declare

He

bankruptcy

of paintings,

in

however,

1656. His
did

not

continued to work, producing

Lesson of Dr.

Jacob Blessing the Sons of Joseph (1656) and

the regents of

a self-portrait. Portrait

the Guild of Surgeons assembled for a dissection

civil

shadows while vividly

in

Despite his success as an

forced

major public commission

introduced

illuminating others.

regarded.
first

He

ures for the sake of composition

century, where religious works were not highly

Rembrandt's

guard.

guard was called to arms.

drama, which was unusu-

Holland

civil

Rembrandt used

pyramid

(1659?),
sarcastic

33

where

mood.

he

of the Painter in Old Age

depicts himself in a

ELISABETTA SIRANI
(1638-1665)

2]

Some

believe that her father

was

and prevented her from marrying

of

Others believe

losing her financial support.

remain single for the sake of

Sirani chose to

her

a tyrant

for fear

art.

She painted

portraits, religious works, alle-

from

gorical themes, and, occasionally, stories

Her

ancient history.

style

characterized by

is

the sentimentality of the subject. Extremely

particular about the distinct facial expressions

of her subjects, she used deep colors and shad-

owed

eye sockets to suggest depth of feeling.

Although her
subjects,

art idealized the features

also

it

women

training allotted to

of the

the inadequacy of

reflected

because they were

prohibited from studying nude figures.

Sirani

worked with such

incredible

speed and was so productive that she

was accused of having others paint the

One hundred and

portraits.

fifty

paintings have been substantiated

Her speed was

as Sirani originals.

said to have

the

pressure

prove her
1

been attributed to
of her

abilities,

father.

To

May

13,

on

664, she invited a group of dis-

tinguished persons to view her paint

a portrait of Prince

Elisabetta Sirani

which she completed

An
Displaying an early
Sirani,
art

born

under her

Andrea

artistic talent, Elisabetta

in Bolgna, Italy,

Sirani.

father,

began studying

the painter Giovanni

family friend,

Cesare Malvasia, noticed

the

Sirani's abilities

persuaded her father to take her on

Her

and

as a pupil.

early education also included Bible study,

Greek and Roman mythology, harp, and

Despite her passion for

artistic

success

art,

home
made her

to interfere with her

she did not allow

it

women and

also

became

died

of suspicious

causes.

lengthy

after a

trial.

Sirani

was

given a large fimeral by Bologna's prominent

An enormous domed

citizens.

placed

from

Sirani

father

Sirani's

accused the maid of killing her, but the maid

was acquitted

family

fees

sis-

Anna

a professional artist.

temporary structure

financially

taught her

to paint.

At the young age of twenty-seven,

duties. Elisabettas

dependent on her commissions and

art lessons.

voice.

sitting.

Anna Maria (1645-1715)

Maria

Count

Leopold of Tuscany,

one

important teacher, she established a

painting school for

ter

in

over

occasion,

in

the

Sirani at her easel

34

coffin)

which

catafalque

representing

was made

life-sized

was placed.

(a

tomb

for

the

sculpture of

JEAN-ANTOINE WATTEAU
(1684-1721)

28

Regarded

as a

forerunner of nineteenth-cen-

impressionism, Jean-Antoine Watteau

tury

(wat-TOE)

was

born

in

Valenciennes,

The second son of a master

possession.

come under French

Flemish town that had

roofer,

he lived in a region ravaged by recurrent war-

and with a

fare,

father

who

exhibited violent

behavior and did not approve of his son's ambition

become an

to

Watteau began

At age fourteen,

artist.

to study painting

under the

tutelage of an obscure local painter specializing

in religious subjects.

By

the time he was eighteen, Watteau was

disowned by
of an

suit

his family for his continual pur-

artistic

where he found

He went

career.

a job

to

Paris,

copying paintings of

saints in exact replica for a

merchant who sold

souvenir religious paintings. To alleviate his

boredom
variet}^

work, Watteau would sketch the

at

of beggars, peddlers, and tradespeople

around the market

place.

Jean-Antoine Watteau

After two years, he became an apprentice to

Claude

Gillot, a painter

of theatrical scenes.

Gillot influenced Watteau's interest in the the-

become the main subject of

work. At age twenty-four, he became an

ater,

his

which was

assistant

to

decorator

the

to

Claude Audran.

Audran was also the curator of the Luxemburg

palace, which held a collection of paintings by
Rubens

Peter Paul

(see no. 22).

ied the works of Rubens,

ors influenced Watteau's style.

col-

Studying the

of Rubens's paintings inspired Watteau

series

to

Watteau stud-

whose use of rich

compete

His entry

in the art contest Prix

failed to

home town

de Rome.

win, and he returned to his

for a while

and painted the

to Paris

soon

after

and

recognition with admission into

the French Academy, a government-sponsored

institution

is

left

The

behind.

most probably

for

artists,

with

the

painting

Embarkation for Cytherea (1717). This work

shows a garden scene where couples walk

symbolic of having

tumes,

whom

figures in the painting

were

friends of his, dressed in cos-

he used

as

models and superim-

posed onto backgrounds painted from nature.

Watteau's genius was his use of
in his
his

work.

styXe

The

body language

painting was the beginning of

labeled as fete gallantes.

refers to his

common theme

The term

of yearning for

simpler times and his creation of surroundings

with figures that didn't belong there.

Shortly before his death from tuberculosis,

Watteau painted Christ on

Watteau returned
official

it

taken a journey to an ideal world that must be

soldiers

there.

won

towards a boat, and

reflected his

concern

at the

the Cross (1721?). It

time about

life

death. Later, a friend, Jean de Julienne,

piled Watteau's

Recueil Julienne.

Watteau

works into a book entitled

The compilation brought

to a larger audience than

while he was living.

35

after

com-

he ever had

VflLLIAI

29

(1697-1764)

A London-born
who

painter

satirized the foUies

Hogarth, the son of

and

engraver

WilHam

of his age,
school

was

teacher,

apprenticed to a silversmith at the age of

There he learned how

teen.

arms, family

crests,

to

make

fif-

coats of

design plates for book-

and more. At the age of twenty-three,

he established himself as an independent
sellers,

He

engraver and also illustrated books.

became known
the satirical

in

1726

poem Hudibras

Englishman Samuel

(1726), by fellow

Academy

to learn the basics of paint-

ing and drawing.

and
Sir

at St.

style professed

He

detested the

manner

by the school's

director.

James Thornhill, and did not apply

it

to his

Hogarth began painting

heroes at age thirty-one.

and turned

day

life

in

dals of the

known

work was

a series of six paint-

Harlot's Process
text

by

written

Hogarth, the book contained detailed paintings of furniture

and clothing and told the

who

story of a country girl

ventures to the city

and the adventures she encounters.

with bad company, the country
poverty,

in

end

a fitting

for

Falling in

girl finally dies

what Hogarth

termed "the modern moral subject." The book

was immediately popular and was followed by

of eight

Rake's Progress (1735), a narrative

pictures.

man

This work followed a foolish young

through

of gambling, carousing,

a career

bankruptcy, imprisonment for debt, marriage

money, and more. Although virtue was not

for

always rewarded in Hogarth's scenes, vice was

always punished.

work.

it

first

Along with some

(1732).

Butler.

At the same time, Hogarth enrolled

Martin's

first

for his illustrations for

Hogarth's

ings engraved in a book,

portraits, gods,

He had

little

to painting occurrences

and

success at

of every-

London. He used publicized scanday

as his inspiration

as a social critic

and became

using pictures instead

of words.

Hogarth
riage for

renowned

is

money and

Hogarth hoped

ues of the upper class.

about

him

led

laws

to bring

reform by depicting the

social

society.

of mar-

for his satires

opinions on social val-

his

ills

of

His work was often plagiarized, which

to assist in the passage

in

1735 that

later

of copyright

became known

as

Hogarth's Act.

Never compromising

in his factual

accounts

of life, he once painted a historical piece showing

drinking

soldiers

and acting

Hogarth gained permission

painting to King George H,

to

foolish.

present

who was

the

angered

by the work.
Hogarth's

career

He

began to decline.

attempted to regain favor by publishing

aesthetic principles of art titled

his

The Analysis of

Beauty (1753). This book details his analytical

approach for organizing the subjects

paintings.
dull.

The book was

During the

last

Hogarth was engaged

the

British

life,

with

reformer John Wilkes

whom

he had often satirized

in engravings.

36

years of his

in political feuds

his

being

political

(1727-1797),

William Hogarth

five

in

criticized as

CANALETTO
(1697-1768)

30
Born
Canal,

Venice,

in

known

his vedute,

Giovanni Antonio

Italy,

was renowned

as Canaletto,

or views, of the

and per-

received his instruction in painting

from

spective

was

a painter of theatrical scener)'. After a trip

Rome when

to

who

Bernardo Canal,

his father,

^S:^^-

for

Canaletto

city.

he was twenty-two years old,

Canaletto became heavily influenced by landscape

painters,

Panini,

Giovanni

especially

and established himself

of landscapes and
were

city views

cit)'

At the time,

views.

new and

relatively

Returning to Venice soon

art.

influenced by the

and began

Luce Carlevaris

artist

were topo-

and unique

rendering

precise

rare in

he was

after,

to depict views that

graphically accurate

Paolo

as a painter

of

the

in

architectural

structures.

work

Canaletto's

contrasts of light

drama of
dent in

marked by strong

is

and shade

to depict the

the landscape. This

is

most

evi-

painting Stone Mason's Yard

his

(1730). In his works, he used luminous

light

combined with glowing color

in deli-

cate detail to depict a storm developing in

the sky, such as in Piazza San

Marco (1740).

His principal patrons were English

whom

for

such

the scenes of the

as the

cit\'

aristocrats,

Canaletto

and

its festivals,

annual celebration of the Marriage

of Venice to the Sea, were pretty souvenirs to

take back to their homes. Success
ly,

and he soon met Joseph Smith,

art collector,
later

and

became

When

travel,

Canaletto
to

visits to

lost

England

main

in

1746;

Venice, he remained

Thames, and

var-

While Canaletto was

critics said that his style

linear

his

1755. There he painted English

ious country houses.

familiar themes. His popularity did not waiver

of the criticism. Canaletto returned to

in spite

Venice

1755

in

capriccii

imaginary

and

began

and mechanical

in

in

had become

repetition

of

places.
style

producing

scenes that incorporated

actual architectural subjects

landscapes, such as the River

too

who

the Austrian Succession

moved

except for a few

England,

merchant,

British consul at Venice,

War of

patronage and

there until

his agent.

the

interrupted

came quick-

from a variety of

Extremely popular, he was imitated in

during his lifetime in both

Italy

and

England. Canaletto's agent sold the majority of

his

works

England.

to

Bernardo
brought
of

his

King George

Upon

it

(1738-1820) of

Bellotto,

adopted

his

style

and

to Central Europe. Artistic followers

style

in

England included William

Marlow and Samuel

37

III

Canaletto's death, his nephew,

Scott.

JOSHUA REYNOLDS

SIR

(1723-1792)

31

be a business and adopted

to

art

social pretenses to align

the aristocracy.

and snob and

self
is

from

his

himself with

He became

an

elitist

tried to distance

him-

humble beginning. He

credited with over two thousand

which epitomized London

portraits

society of his day.

The

by Reynolds are

portraits

distinguished by a serene dignity of

the subject, allusions to classical

fig-

ures in history, vibrant color,

and

of character com-

realistic portrayal

bined with a keen understanding of

human

nature.

England

In

1764, Reynolds

in

founded the Literary Club, which

included essayist

Samuel Johnson

(1709-1784), actor David Garrick

and

(1717-1779),

Edmund

statesman

Burke (1729-1797),

name a few. When

Academy of Arts was

the

to

Royal

instituted in

1768, Reynolds was elected president, later

made

a knight,

and given

an honorary degree from Oxford

Sir

Joshua Reynolds

College. This represented a step for-

ward

The son of

Reynolds was the

achieve

clergyman,
first

English

recognition

social

for

Joshua

Sir

painter
his

treated

A year later,

to

artistic

the

in

and viewed

idealistic principles

Discourses,

painter

Thomas Hudson

London. At the

in

time, portraiture offered stability

and

respect.

In 1749, he sailed to the Mediterranean

spent three years traveling in

worked

becoming

Italy,

clarity

where he

gentleman

of grandeur in

trait,

include

warm

colors

{\7 5 A),

he viewed in the work of the

Italian

artist.

While

in Italy,

painter Tintoretto (see no. 16).

Reynolds was

shrewd

man who

art

of academic

and

rigid

subject.

art,

Other

Honorable

entitled

importance

academic training.
his greatest por-

English actress Sarah Siddons

was the

an

his first dis-

also stressed the

The Tragic Muse (1784),

and

as

heavily influenced by the use of

and

and

which

At the same time, he exhibited

he was

at

improved

the

which society

Reynolds delivered

Reynolds

learned portraiture from

in

course to the students of the academy on the

achievements. Born in Plympton, Devonshire,

first

way

artist.

of his

for

which the

(1755-1831)
famous works

Augustus

Keppel

William Robertson (1772), and Duchess

of Devonshire and her Daughter (1786), which

demonstrates the use of a subtle brush stroke to

considered

invoke a sense of dignity.

38

Thomas Gainsborough
(1727-1788)

32
The
born

youngest
England,

Suffolk,

and

of

portraitist

children

nine

merchant

to a cloth

Sudbury,

in

landscape

painter

Thomas Gainsborough

demonstrated a talent for drawing

early age.

at

an

At age fourteen, he went

to

London, where he studied etching

under Hugh Gravelot and painting
under Francis

Haymon

Martin

at the St.

Academy.
Returning to

home in 1746, he
who was sixteen,

his

married Margaret Burr,

and began
piece"

included landscapes of

that

English

"conversational

These were intimate

portraits.

paintings

the

paint

to

The works

countryside.

showed the influence of seventeenthcentury Dutch landscape painting, espeof Jacob van Ruisdael.

cially that

Six years later, he

and
find

he

up

built

more

later

moved

and make money,

subjects

moved

to Ipswich

In order to

his practice.

to the

more prosperous

of Bath. In Bath, he concentrated on the

city

works of Anthony van Dyck

(see no.

24) and

the rich colors of Peter Paul

Rubens

(see no.

The

22).

painting Mr. William Poyntz (1762)

even depicts

men

dressed in clothing similar to

worn by van Dyck's subjects.

While in Bath, Gainsborough occasionally
exhibited his work at the Society' of Artists
in London. He became well known and was
invited to be among the original members of

that

the Royal
lished

Academy of Arts

by King George

in

III in

London,

estab-

By 1774, Gainsborough was extremely

moved to London, where he

that
Sir

he

rest ot his life. It

moved

there

Joshua Reynolds

commissions.

In

to

is

speculated

compete

contrast

to
as a

and

subjects did not appear rigid,

"a master at

famous piece

is

handling paint." His most

Blue Boy (1779), notable for

Reynolds,

spontaneous

its

cool blue colors, as opposed to the reds used by

Reynolds.

By 1780, he had gained

George

III

royal court.
in

the favor

and painted many

At

this time,

he

also

another manner, which he

of-

King

portraits of the

began

to paint

called "fancy pic-

by darker landscapes and

imaginative figures that dominated the paintings. The best known is

Dog and Pitcher [179,5).

Gainsborough

with

(see no. 31) for portrait

Gainsborough was described

whose

painter,

tures," characterized

1768.

prosperous and

remained for the

Thomas Gainsborough

and was influenced by the

full-scale portrait

left

the Country Girl with

no immediate

but his

artistic

style,

artists

Richard Westall

Thomas
39

st\-le

later

heirs to his

influenced

(1765-1836)

Barker (1813-1882).

and

FRANCISCO DE COYA
(1746-1828)

33

ed the techniques of Diego Velazquez (see no.

The Duke of Osuna (1785)

25).

change of

typifies his

luminous back-

featuring

style,

grounds and stark simplicity in the subject.

Goya became ill and was left

The episode turned

1792,

In

almost completely deaf

Goya's
cal,

work from quaint

to tragic

and

analyti-

based on his observations of everyday

life.

His work was then characterized by bold and

and

swift brush strokes

brown, and touches of

colors of gray, black,

red.

Goya's celebrated work, showing his mockery

of corruption
eighty

the aristocracy,

in

etchings

(1794-1798). The
satire

and parody,

a set of

is

Los

Caprichos

city life motif,

emphasizing

titled

reflected his conception of a

by

society held together

a loose structure of

conventions that were ready to snap. His pop-

Francisco de

The son of

a painter

pieces, Francisco Jose

small

ularity grew,

and guilder of

altar-

de Goya was born in the

town of Fuendetodos, Spain. He began

formal

his

Goya

sponsored

named

Napolean

Luzan (17101785). Goya's acceptance into

Goya witnessed

came

in

won

77 1 when he

sec-

place in a painting competition in Parma,

Italy,

representing Fiannibal

down on

looking

Italy

the

Conqueror

from the Alps.

Returning to Spain, he met the painter

Francisco Bayeu (1734-1795),
early

his

baroque

style.

He

who

influenced

married

later

commission

Bayeu's

sister.

was

1774 with forty-three cartoons,

in

Goya's

trating the life

first

of the people

at that time, for

the tapestries for the Royal Factory of Santa

Barbara.
try

One famous

cartoon from the tapes-

was The Crockery Vendor, noted

ism and vivid

human

for

its real-

By the time he was thirty-nine years old,

Goya had became an official painter to King
Charles
this

III

(1716-1788) of Spain.

It

was

at

time that he broke with Bayeu and adopt-

his sovereignty.

the horrors of warfare.

known

War (1808-1814), using

He

cre-

as Disasters

of

political allegory to

man killing man.

One noted work from the series. The Second of
May 1808 (1814), depicts an uprising in the
portray the degradation of

street

which

in

armed with

citizens

sticks

attack soldiers.

Goya

also

the

created

Los Proverbios or

These paintings

The

are

series

known

as

(1813-1818).

Follies

marked by dark moods

that reveal a world of nightmares. In Saturn

Devouring His Children (1820), rapid, expressionist

brush strokes, showing contrast of light

and shade,

characterization.

a political crisis

impose

ated a series of paintings

in Spain
illus-

he was

later,

underwent

tried to

apprenticing with a local painting master, Jose

the art world

Four years

art institute.

First Painter to the king.

as

ond

he was elected pres-

in 1795,

In 1808, Spain

training at age fourteen,

artistic

and

ident of the Royal Academy, a government

his

are evident.

Goya
work softened

In

1824,

such painting from

settled

this

Milkmaid of Bordeaux
40

in

France,

tone and color.

in

period

827).

is

where

One

called the

ELISABETH VIGEE-LEI
(1755-1842)

34,

A celebrated

her

in

artist

own

time,

Elisabeth Louise Vigee-Lebrun developed an

drawing during her years

interest in

in board-

government sponsored
famous piece was the

in Paris

Due

16, 1755, she received

draw-

Paris

home

Doyen

visited her father's studio

during her holiday

visits.

At the young age of twelve, she began a professional career and supported her mother after

Her wit and

her father died in 1767.

attracted patrons as

Remarkable
ed in

tive

as

personalities of her

Europe

for twelve years.

Her

settings.

life

and of European

and

early

Entitled Souvenirs, the

in

society in the late

nineteenth

book was

first

1835.

detail

wearing a fur-edged jacket adorned with two

decorations.

He also wore

across his waist to

shows

his

meant

body turned

to give

At age

He

to the left while he

The

averted gaze was

him an aura of reserve

of the aristocratic

dealer

bands of silk ribbons

mark other honors. Lebrun

looks out to the right.

indicative

class.

twent)', she hesitantly

and painter Jean-Baptise

married the

art

Pierre Lebrun.

took her money and insisted she give

art

lessons to supplement her income. Yet he was

also well

connected in the

art

world and

intro-

duced her to upper class people and exposed

her to prominent

art.

Her fame was soon acclaimed by

royal

members of the court. In 1779, she was called

on to paint Queen Marie Antoinette, after
which she was named the official painter to the
queen and completed twenty

The most famous was

portraits of her.

Marie-Antoinette

and contin-

Before her death, she wrote an account of

her

paintings

Vigee-Lebrun painted in exact

in

to paint.

would exaggerate the charms of her subjects

and gloss over their imperfections. Among her
patrons were Count Schouvalofif of Russia,

whom

exile

She had already estab-

lished an international reputation

ued

the

escape

during the French Revolution' in 1789.

her work, and she was always inven-

with poses and

to

Leaving her husband, she lived in

eighteenth

her talent did.

as a portrait painter, she paint-

and depicted the

oils

clients in

much

beaut)'

with

relationship

close

Queen, Vigee-Lebrun was forced

and from others who

she was

her

Vigee

ing and painting lessons from Gabriel

when

to

to the painter Louis

Born

on April

ofthe Marquise de

Jaucourt{\7?,^).

ing school, which she attended from the ages of

six to eleven.

Another

art institute.

Portrait

and

Her Children (1787). The Queen facilitated

her acceptance into the Academie Royale, a

Elisabeth Lebrun

41

century.

published

WILLIAM BLAKE
(1757-1827)

35

English poet, engraver, and painter William

Blake was born on

London,

November

who

to a father

28,

1757, in

sold stockings.

When

and

intuition

creating art,

imagination

a trust in the

and he did not want

academic system. At twenty-five years of age,

he was four years old, Blake stated that he had

he married Catherine Boucher.

seen a vision of God. This visionary power

he

remained his source of inspiration throughout

years.

his artistic career.

trating.

when

to follow an

up

set

He

The

nervous child and sensitive to punish-

a print

shop that

Two

years later,

failed after a

then returned to engraving and

few

illus-

death of his brother, Robert, in 1787,

ment, Blake only went to school until the

brought a new mysticism

age of ten, then entered the drawing school

at this

of Henry

illuminated printing, an elaborate combina-

Pars.

His parents purchased prints of

famous artworks

By
ticed

for

him

tion

to copy.

the time he was fourteen, he was apprento

the

James

engraver

(17301802). After completing

Basire

his seven-year

life. It

was

of engraving and hand-tinting, which

allowed

him

and

to fuse art

the technique
is

to Blake's

time that he developed a technique of

is

poetry.

drew on copper

believed he

Although

not completely understood,

it

plates the pic-

poems he wrote, using

term, he studied at the Royal Academy, but he

tures for the

rebelled against the doctrine of its president Sir

impervious to acid.

He

burn away the

of the

plate, leaving the

in relief

The work was then

Joshua Reynolds

(see no. 31).

Blake believed in

rest

words and pictures

a liquid

then applied acid to

given a color wash and later finished by hand

in

He

water color.

used

this

technique to pub-

Songs of Innocence (1789) and Songs of

lish his

The theme of

Experience (1794).

these books

was the struggle between reason and imagination.

on

Blake's paintings focused

jects,

Book ofJob (1825).

sor to

modern

patterns
a

religious sub-

the most famous being illustrations of the

art.

Blake's style

The

was a precur-

use of rigid geometric

and the emphasis on

means of expression were

line

and color

as

inspirational in a

Other works

time that favored realism in

art.

include Marriage of Heaven

and Hell (1793)

and M/?o (1810?).

Constant quarrels and a

refusal to subjugate

himself and conform to his patrons' desires lost

him many commissions, and he was

and depressed.
and

raise his reputation,

he held his

exhibition, charging an entrance fee

tising the event

find tho' few."

William Blake

and he

42

left

poor

money
own art

In an attempt to earn

and adver-

with the motto "Fit audience

The

stunt

met with bad

failed to achieve his goals.

reviews,

WASHINGTON ALLSTON

(1779-1843)

Regarded

America's

as

major land-

first

Washington Allston introduced

scapist,

to

movement known
romanticism. Romanticism emphasized

the United States the art

as

nature and atmosphere, arising in opposition

and rationalism. He was

Georgetown Count\^ South Carolina.

to classical formalism

born

in

Upon

graduation from Hars^ard University in

Massachusetts

twenty-one, he sold his

at age

portion of the family estate to study painting

in

He

London, England.

at the

immediately enrolled

Royal Academy, where he studied under

Benjamin West (1738-1820) and was

Henry
showed

also

by the works of romantic painter

inspired

At that time,

Fuseli.

subjective

his

paintings

his

of

interpretation

nature and his fondness for the marvelous and

mysterious.

After two years, he

Europe, visiting

romantic

Italy,

to

to travel

Samuel

poet

(1772-1834). While
title

left

throughout

where he met the English

in Italy,

T.

Coleridge

Washington Allston

he acquired the

of "the American Titian," in reference

the

Italian

famous

painter Titian

(1487?-1576),

for his color schemes.

intellectualism through his writings

tures.

Allston broke from the prevalent thought in

his

His essays

He

after his death.

minor elements

typical analogies

painting.

His landscapes

emphasized ambiguous shapes, and he used

and color

texture

famous

also

give

more

to express feeling. Allston

was

under-painting

to

for

his

United

for the

States

and Europe, he

continuously between the two.

Europe
dents,
later

Four

his conflicting feelings

in

On

travelled

one

trip to

1811, he took one of his art stu-

Samuel E

B.

Morse (1791-1872), who

invented the telegraph and Morse code.

Allston's

The Dead

first

Man

work of importance was

years

book of
and Other

his

later,

he

began

painting

which remained unfinished,

but attempted to combine his ideas of logic

and

classical

views with romanticism.

He

also

began to paint in a simpler, dreamlike fashion

and often used

subject.

The

most evident
Samuel

in

dim

landscapes as his

in

Moonlit Landscape (1819).

T Coleridge wrote to him once, say-

"To you alone of all contemporary

it seem to have been given to

the Bones

ing,

painters does

know what
43

women

delicate tones of his painting are

classical

Allston was also at the center of American

wrote poetry, making

Sylphs of the Seasons

Belshazzar's Feast,

Restored to Life by Touching

ofElijah (1813), which combined the

form and romanticism.

also

Poems was published.

light to his works.

Always torn between

lec-

between the moods of nature

and the moods of man. In 1813,

poems The

and

Art revealed

viewpoints and were published

classical

the United States that color and light were

in

titled Lectures in

nature

is."

JOHN JAMES AUDUBON

(1785-1851)

3]

ed him financially while he travelled and paint-

Two

ed.

Kentucky

years later, he left for

merchant and

his fortune as a

to try

a speculator in

real estate.

He

bankruptcy

declared

was imprisoned
his

and doing crayon

drawings at the Western

Museum

in

Ohio, and was received with

Cincinnati,

laudatory reviews.

The

reception he received

convinced him that he should

United

portraits.

of age, he exhibited

years

thirty-five

his bird

1819 and

in

unpaid debts. After

he moved to Ohio and made

release,

living teaching

At

for his

and

States

paint

travel across the

birds

their

in

natural habitats.

Without money or experience, Audubon

New Orleans,

established himself in

and began

John James Audubon

Louisiana,

to collect specimens, painting

more

than one thousand subjects. Trying to establish

Born on April 26,

Fougere
to a

1785, Jean Jacques

Audubon was born out of wedlock

chambermaid and

the sea captain Jean

Audubon, who was temporarily docked

Haiti,

then

known

mother died soon

as

Santo Domingo. His

after his birth,

brought him to France to

other children. As a boy,

live

and

his father

with his wife and

Audubon began draw-

ing pictures of birds on his own,

instruction.

who

He was

in

without

a temperamental

child

himself as an

bird in
ty

its

exact

out

Philadelphia,

Pennsylvania. There,

near

Audubon

told his neighbors that he was the son of Louis

XVI and

Marie-Antoinette and had been taken

out of France

by

the

as a child to save

guillotine

him from death

during

the

French

Revolution.

He

continued to draw

he married Lucy Bakewell,

and

in

who

later

support-

1808,

which a mixture of water and egg yolk

as a

binding

medium

to

add sheen

is

in

used

to areas.

After meeting with disappointment in his

showing, where
science

scientists

questioned the

of his work,

he sailed for

a portfolio

work impressed

of 240 paintings. His

the critics there; they called

it

"an expression of wild abundance in America."

In 1838, he completed

435

life-sized

engrav-

ofAmerica. From 1831 to

William
collaborated
with

ings titled The Birds

1839,

he

MacGillivray to write an accompaniment to

the

paintings.

Biography,
birds,

combination of watercolor,

he used

England with

father's

with-

and tempera, a painting technique

of his

lines

texture,

natural

estate

emphasized the beau-

pastels,

first

an

He

To reproduce color and

distortions.

sent

in

size.

of the contours by using natural

save

resided

he learned to wire the bod-

tions of flight, feeding, or battle, painting each

did not do well in school, and his father

him to the United States at age eighteen to

him from military service and make him
more responsible and serious person.
While in the United States, Audubon

artist,

of different kinds of birds into natural posi-

ies

it

Entitled

Oriiithological

was a biographical account of

his

fascination with birds, describing their flight

behavior, their habits,

44

and

their cries.

HONORE DAUMIER
(1808-1879)

38
A

French

and

caricarurisr, painter,

notable

political

Daumier

Honore

and

and sculptor

social

(doe-me-YAY)

satirist,

devoted

the time he wrote, "I'm getting four times as

much work done

I

The son of

a glazier, he

was born on

February 26, 1808, in Marseille, but he moved

to Paris

with

his family as a boy.

as Daumier was old enough

way around, he began to work

his

that time, he began to

from a friend of his father's, Alexandre

At nineteen, he was supporting himself
lithographer, and he studied for a brief

period of time at the Academie Suisse. Fie

began

his artistic career

for advertisements. Fie

by making drawings

became

member
and made a

a staff

of the comic journal La Caricature

reputation for himself as a bold, satirical

becoming the most

in France. Fiis

also

began to

The law

Deeply interested
were

of everyday

and the

Daumier's
never
ing.

Rembrandt's works

style

made

commercial success of

(1862?),

Rabelais

The

to

mere outlines while

Upon
1879,

his

coffin

was

layered with flowers as

on

a substitute for tradi-

bas-

tional velvet cloth.

from

local

The

church refused to

for

six

drape the coffin of a

Fie

man who

to

sentence

sanatorium

Daumier's

death on February 11,

result.

was imprisoned

half his

lines,

the bodies are solid.

and Daumier

months as a
was allowed

simply,

minimal

showed

kets of gold taken

the poor,

created

passengers are reduced

Louis

(1494-1553).

the king gorging

on

painting

where the hands of

author

caricature

travelers

The

train.

from romance
by

The

is

which depicts

group of

utilizing

Gargantna, a gigantic

conjured

his paint-

Third Class Carriage

published in 1832,

creature

26).

was labeled baroque, and he

was

as

(see no.

Daumier's most celebrated work

carica-

King

He did

compared

colors in his paintings were

to those in

sense of nervous energ)'.

(1773-1850)

life.

not include decorative elements in his works,

Philippe

while

in people, his paintings

satirical portrayals

the figure gave subjects a

depicted

his

courts were sat-

Representatives Represented.

tures,

satirize political

the hardships of the poor were depicted in The

sponta-

of his

to

journal

the

irized in the series Parliamentary Idylls,

neous and the contour of

One

returned

in

socierv'

enormous popularity with

Robert Macaire.

manner of

was

drawing

artist,

feared political cartoonist

as

during the Revolution of 1848 in

France, enjoying

Lenoir.
as a

He

Le Charivari.

series

lessons

boarding house

he again

release,

as

draw and take

my new

bourgeois

to

a messenger for the bailiff of the law courts.

During

his

satirizing

subjects

As soon

know

in

at papas.'

Upon

paintings to even-day themes and social

his

protest.

did

and

in

his

the

the

other half in prison. At

professed a

humanitarian love for

spend

Honore Daumier
45

fellow

peers

over

love

of

the

Christian God.

CAMERON

JULIA

39

(1815-1879)

English

photographer

Cameron made
traits

a series

of the great

men

Margaret

Julia

of her day, including the

Darwin (1809-1882), Alfred

Henry
(1809-1892),
Wadsworth Longfellow (1807-1882), and
Robert Browning (1812-1889). She also
writers Charles

Lord

Tennyson

photographed

astronomer

the

Sir

John

Frederick William Herschel (1792-1871).

She was born on June

India.

high

the East India

his

11,

5, in

servant from England in

civil

Company. James

daughter on

strict

Prattle raised

Victorian principles. At

the age of twenty-three, she married Charles

Hay Cameron.
years old,

member of the Supreme

Council of India. The couple had

six children

in 1848.

when

years old

fifty

she

began to be a serious photographer. She was

presented with a camera as a

gift

from her

daughters in order to begin a hobby. She converted her garden greenhouse into a darkroom

and studio and worked

for ten years straight.

Friends, family, servants,

and even passersby

were coerced into modeling for pictures.

Her photographs were notable

extreme close-ups, suppression of

for

their

detail,

and

dramatic lighting. Her technique for drawing

out the expression of the person, rather than

a

mere

reflection,

was regarded to have been

ahead of her time.

Although sometimes

Charles was then forty-three

and he was

London, England,

settled in

She was almost

Calcutta,

She was the third daughter of James

Prattle, a

and

of photographic por-

criticized

for

poor

focus and pictures smeared with fingerprints,

she said that she was "interested in spiritual

depth, not technical perfection."

photographs

were

influenced

Her
by

the romantic Pre-Raphaelite paintings

of the time. These paintings reflected

materialism

the

of

England and imitated the

industrialized
style

of Italian

painters prior to Raphael (see no. 13).

Her

friend

and mentor, George Frederic

Watts, also inspired her to create beauty.

My

Among

her works were Annie,

Success

(1864), Sir Joshua

(1867),

and Mrs. Herbert Duckworth

First

Herschel

(1867).

At the request of the writer Lord

Tennyson, she

illustrated his

book,

Idylls

of the King, with her photographs. The

book was published in 1874, as was her
autobiography Annals of my Glass House.
Cameron's photographs were brought
to the limelight

when

they were discov-

ered by photographer and art dealer

Alfred

Stieglitz

(see

no.

64).

Legend

holds that she continued to photograph

on January 26, 1879,

word was "beautifiil."

until her death

Julia

Cameron

and her

46

last

ROSA BONHEUR
(1822-1899)

roam about

teens to be able to

found the

attire

man

dress like a

She

freely.

convenient and continued to

in her adult years.

By the time she was seventeen, she was earning money selling copies of paintings she completed at the Louvre

and found

direction

the'

of her art with her portraits of animals.

Concerned about the anatomical

correct-

ness of her art, she obtained limbs of animals

trom butcher shops

and

to dissect

also visited horse fairs

and

observe and sketch from

life.

She

study.

markets to

cattle

Rosa described

her art and herself as "matter of fact in every-

Her work demonstrates

thing."

of movement and
a

a strong sense

of light to lend

lyrical effects

romantic feeling to her paintings.

As her fame grew, admirers throughout

parts to draw. Her first

Europe sent her animal

appearance

at the

annual Paris exhibition in

1841, with the paintings Goats

Two Rabbits was

and Sheep and

well received. In 1849, her

picture Plowing in Nivernais, a pastoral scene

taken directly from nature studies in the country, was purchased by the government for its
permanent collection at the Luxembourg

Caller)'.

Rosa Bonheur

Her
Specializing

animal subjects,

in

painter

Marie Rosalie Bonheur (bon-URR), known

Rosa, was the

first

woman

as

to receive the Cross

came when she won

greatest reward

medal

first-class

(1853?).

It is

ment and

remarkable for

its

dynamic move-

the use of light to add energ)' to the

of the French Legion of Honor. She was born

painting and the ten

on March 22, 1822,

she received the Cross of the Legion of

artistic parents.

was

in

Her mother, Sophie Marqui,

a student in the

father,

The

Bordeaux, France, to

drawing

of Rosa's

class

Raymond Bonheur.
family moved to Paris when

she was

seven years old, and there she visited the art

galleries

where she copied the works of the

She quit school

mother
lings,

died,

at

age twelve

and she helped

when

her

to raise her sib-

spending her free time sketching animals

in the fields.

She often dressed

like a

bov

in her

who was

representative for her husband,

philosophy of

art

In 1864,

Honor

acting as a

Napolean

III.

was the verse

written bv her favorite author, George Sand

(1804-1876), "Art for

Art for truth,
good, that

great artists.

life-size horses.

from Empress Eugenie,

Rosa's

the

her picture Horse Fair

for

is

art for

sake

is

a vain word.

the beautiful

the religion

cal perfectionist,

two years

art's

seek for."

and the

techni-

Bonheur would often allow

for drying the thick underpainting

she applied to her pictures. She died on

25, 1899.

47

May

MATHEW BRADY
(18237-1896)

He

perfected the daguerreotype

method of

photography, in which a direct positive image

on

a silver plate, exposed to sunlight, could

He was

record a sharp image in half an hour.

number of the

notable for inventing a

tricks

of

successful photography, probably through trial

and
it

such

error,

was bright

as

rubbing a freckled face until

without a uniform

red, because

appearance, any spots could appear blotchy.

He

also raised or

gloves be

lowered the camera to correct

face or long neck,

a distorted

that

insisted

worn by women with long

fingers,

and so on.

At the outbreak of the American

Civil War,

Brady invested $100,000 to record the event

in

photographs. Brady assumed the government

would buy

He

ended.

photographs

his

hired

men

war

the

after

to cover the territory

and

take pictures. Brady paid the photographers

$35

a week, taking the credit for the actual

shot.

He was

on making the only com-

intent

plete pictorial history of the Civil War.

Mathew Brady

began to ignore

his

accumulating

tography chemicals and glass

sonally photographed

Mathew

Brady, best

known

for his

pho-

of Bull

Battle

Run

some

bills for

plates.

battles,

(1861),

He

pho-

Brady persuch

the

as the

Battle

of

tographs of pohticians and the American Civil

Antietam (1862), and the Batde of Gettysburg

War (1861-1865), was

(1863).

County',

New

No

York.

native of

Warren

childhood have been discovered, but around

1844, he opened his

own

business,

Daguerrean Miniature Gallery, and

photograph
American

famous

the

He

society.

ures in photographs.
as a

felt

and

set

Brady's

out to

wealthy

that he

documenting

serving history by

records of his birth or

its

During Brady's

in

would be
great figfifty

years

from John Quincy Adams

William McKinley, the

ty-fifi:h

presidents.

President William

month

sixth

to

through the nven-

(The only exception was

Henry Harrison, who died

after his inauguration, so

got a chance to photograph him.)

Brady never

scene, asking a general to stand in a favorable

wounded

position for the camera, or telling a

man

to

remain

still,

gun

or ordering

into different positions to improve the

sition.

He created

war

dramatic appeal.

in

batteries

compo-

a technique of presenting the

The government showed no

photographer, he photographed the U.S.

Presidents,

Brady Civil War photograph was posed

and grandiose. Brady would take charge of

interest in his

photographs, and Brady declared bankruptcy

in 1873.
his

The War Department

photographs

at a public

later

purchased

auction for $2,840.

Brady died on January 15,1 896, from

problem,

alone,

poor

Presbyterian Hospital,

48

and

kidney

forgotten

New York.

at

CUSTAVE MOREAU
(1826-1898)

42

A French symbolist painter who emphasized

morbid

the

side of

Moreau exemplified the term "decadent." Born

on April 6, 1826, in Paris, Moreau, the son of
an architect, enrolled

government-spon-

at the

sored art school Ecole des Beaux-Arts, at the

age of twenty.

He was

first

taught by the neo-

Moreau's mature

style

when he came

was not formed

until

with Theodore

in contact

Moreau was dominated by

the

desire to represent the legendary

and

divine in

writers,

He

art.

painted

literar)'

such

vision

ist

artists

appealed

feelings in their works.

whose works emphasized dream

imagery and the unconscious.

In 1898,

Moreau

thousand paintings

left his estate

to

museum. His former student, Rouault, became

first

curator of the collection.

and

way, using rich colors, which he

the colors.

His landscapes were often depicted with steep and rocky

and

cliffs

twisted trees, set against light distant

backgrounds.

He found

inspiration

Muslim

in the Koran, the bible of

prophecy, as well as Egyptian, Greek,

and Oriental mvaholog)'. He often

combined

details

from each book

to

depict universal concerns in fairy tale

form.

His famous pieces that demonstrate the

dark hues and subject mat-

include Oedipus

ter

(1864) and

and

the

Sphinx

The Young and Death

(1865). After receiving hostile

criti-

cism, he withdrew from exhibiting at

the

official

and

1876,

exhibiting

Salon
in

altogether

himself off Irom

In

from

1880,

1869

closed

societ\'.

892, after years of solitary

he became a professor
des Beaux-Arts.

to

he stopped

and

He was

at the

life,

Ecole

a teacher

who

them Henri Matisse

(see no.

Gustave Moreau

cultivat-

ed the individual talents of his students,

and eight

France to create a

heightened in tone by using wax

when mixing

Huysmans,

attraction to the surreal-

m)T:hological subjects in an imaginative

symbolist

to

as the novelist J. K.

who pursued similar

He also held a strong

the

Chasseriau.

(see no. 69).

Moreau's

Francois-Edouard Picot, but

classical painter

1850,

Rouault

and death, Gustave

life

among

68) and Georges

49

DANTE ROSSETTI
43

(1828-1882)

Romantic

May

religious painter

was born

Rossetti
12,

in

Dante Gabriel

London, England, on

1828. His father, the Italian poet

with the medieval past and a rejection of materialism of the industrialized world.

The

between

Gabriel Rossetti, was living in exile from Italy

union

for his liberal views. Rossetti's artistic educa-

society.

tion began at age nine, with drawing lessons at

Middle Ages allowed chivalry and love

King's College,
teen.

He

which he attended

until age

fif-

then took private lessons from the

painter Ford

Madox Brown (1821-1893) and

also enrolled at the

was described

as

tinent tongue

and

flamboyant appearance.

At the academy, Rossetti met the painters

Sir

John Everett Millais and Holman Hunt and

with

them

founded

Pre-Raphaelite

the

Brotherhood. This movement imitated the

style

of

no. 13).

Italian painters prior to

The movement

also

Raphael

(see

the

For Rossetti,

and

individual

ambiance of the

the

to flour-

His subjects were influenced by the writ-

ish.

Dante

ings of

of The Divine

Alighieri, author

Comedy.

Love was the main theme

Royal Academy, where he

rambunctious with an imper-

past

was conceived to be a time of harmonious

paintings.

known

He

as the Rossetti girl.

and vacant, suggesting

Her

ture

Rossetti's

The only

was sad

face

sensuality.

long neck, a flowing weight of

protruding eyes.

her

in

painted only one type of woman,

She had a

hair,

and dark

distinguishable fea-

among each of the women was

the color of

hair.

The woman he most immortalized

in his

paintings was Elizabeth Eleanor Siddal,

whom

was preoccupied

he married in 1860. The most notable of these

works were Mary Magdalene at

Simon

the Pharisee (1858?)

the

House of

and Beata Beatrix

Other renowned paintings include

(1863).

Monna Vanna

(1866) and Prosperine (1874).

Elizabeth committed suicide in 1862 after contracting tuberculosis

and giving

birth to a

still-

born son.
Rossetti

was

also

Elizabeth's funeral,

renowned

unpublished poems in her

his

as a poet.

At

he placed the only copy of

coffin. In

1869,

however, he had the coffin raised to retrieve his

work.

When

he was in his mid-thirties, he alienat-

ed himself from society. At

living in

this time,

he was

an apartment with a private collection

of birds and a kangaroo,

among other

animals.

In 1872, he collapsed due to an addiction to

chloral hydrate,
pill.

He

to paint

which he used

as a sleeping

recovered temporarily and continued

and write

poetry, but

he maintained

his addiction. In 1881, at the age

of fifty-three,

he had an attack of paralysis and died on

Dante Rossetti

April 9, 1882.

50

CAMILLE PISSARRO
(1830-1903)

44,
A

French impression-

incorporated a sponta-

painter of landscapes

ist

and

viewed nature

"One

motto:

with

quality

brush stroke that

light

by

lived

Pissarro

own

his

Camille

river scenes,

Jacob

neous

in a

sym-

pathetic manner.

must have only one master

nature." Born in St.

ited in the first impres-

Thomas, Virgin Islands,

he showed an early inter-

only

artist to exhibit in

all

eight

In 1874, Pissarro exhib-

drawing and paint-

est in

ing,

despite

fathers

his

show and was

sionist

the

succeeding

impressionist

exhibits.

was not

As the oldest member of

serious learning. Pissarro

the group, he serv^ed as a

worked

mentor

belief that

art

his

at

father's

Mary

he was twelve

store until

then

years old,

Gauguin

for

left

and

France to complete his

Homesick

education.

and unable
trate

on

to

trees, plantations,

When

and other memories of the

Pissarro

returned to the island

away

painter, Fritz

Melbye,

on the docks. Three

Paris to

He
ed

Venezuela with a fellow

whom

he met sketching

years later, he returned to

that he

first

It

was

painter Claude

Monet

he had a picture accepted into

(see no. 50), in

1859.

the Salon, the nationally supported art gallery.

Pissarro

had approached the painter Jean-

Baptiste-Camille Corot (17961875),

he idolized, and obtained

name him

his

as his teacher in his

whom

who found

his

the pointillist

who were

artists,

lism was

too

restrictive

him, and he

for

The

achieved some recognition for his work.

painting Bather in Woods (1895)

strates his use

of light to invoke

cit}'scapes.

him to
From windows, he painted Paris
Figures and carriages moved

through the

street,

Failing health at age sixt)'-five forced

trees

large scale;

and

displaying

life

His

style

and energy;

against the buildings were depicted in

and the

skies

were

with light

filled

clouds. Pissarro's genius was his ability to

and

movement and

and change within constancy

"

demon-

feeling.

paint indoors.

portray

"free.

effects.

returned to impressionism. At this time, he

submission to

he was rejected by Corot,

technique too

pure color to produce intense color

After ten years, Pissarro realized that pointil-

permission to

the Salon. Although Pissarro exhibited at intervals in the Salon,

revolt with

at the

met the impressionist

That same

year,

considered an impressionist painter, joined a

finally

Ecole des Beaux-Arts and then

studied at the Academie Suisse.

Academic

even

painters. Pointillist artists instead used dabs of

At twen-

attended the government-support-

art school

years of

demand

his father's

pursue the study of art.

first

fift^'-six

Pissarro,

against the brush stroke of the impressionist

upon

to

54

was seventeen, he

that he assist with the family business.

ty-two, he ran

(see nos. 48,

though he himself was

covered his books with drawings of banana

tropics.

At
age,

he

studies,

his

and Paul

55).

Camille Pissarro

concen-

Cezanne,

to Paul

Cassatt,

life

order,

898, Pissarro painted his

series

in

stabilit)',

nature.

In

of the Avenue

de rOpera, which consisted of eight views of

the street from the Theatre Fran^ais.

51

EDOUARD MANET
45.
He

(1832-1883)

refused ro label his style of work, but

others think of

Edouard Manet (mah-NAY)

the forerunner of French Impressionism.

as

He

ing and the development of modern

when he

used bold brush strokes

art.

Manet

painted, in

order to accentuate realism in his subject mat-

common

was born in Paris on January 23, 1832, to a

high government official, and Manet was

people, including beggars, street urchins,

expected to follow his father in a legal career.

cafe characters. Typically, his figures maintain

After finishing his studies at College Rollin, in

an

1848, he went to sea as an apprentice cadet to

always giving the feeling that both the

avoid going into the legal profession.

and the subject

In 1850,

when he

failed the entrance

to the navy, Manet's father allowed

him

sue an art career at the studio of

Couture.

He

exam

to pur-

Thomas

throughout Europe,

ing the galleries and

museums

to

visit-

copy the

works of the masters.

His portrayal of everyday subject matter
to be influential to French paint-

His subject matters included

and

alert glance

Manet used
claire,

lighted

studied with Couture for six

years, then travelled

would prove

ters.

and

stare directly at the viewer,

are

artist

observing one another.

the technique

known

as peinture

whereby the subject of the painting

from the

front, illuminating

is

shadows.

His most famous painting, Le dejeuner sur

I'herbe (1863), portrays a picnic scene,

nude female

is

where

attended to by two fully dressed

young men. The work was attacked by critics

as indecent, which in turn made Manet a
leader in the dispute between the academic

and

the rebellious art factions of his time.

The

painting Olympia (1865?) also

made him

focus of controversy. This portrait of a

the

nude

female in a modern setting was accepted into

the official Salon, but

it

met with bad

reviews.

Manet's idea of success was measured by his

acceptance

government-sponsored

the

into

Salon, even though he rejected the principles

for

which

it

stood.

sy

Manet was a pivotal figure in the controveron the judgment of art that finally discredit-

ed the French Academy, the

official judges.

created an uproar in a country

were closely

tied to

whose

He

artists

government, by participat-

ing in the Salon des Refuses.

The works

reject-

ed by the Salon were to be displayed, and the

public was given the opportunity to decide

whether the jury had been right or wrong

in

rejecting the paintings.

Throughout

his career,

of contemporary

life.

Manet was

A year

a painter

before his death,

he was nominated for the Legion of Honor for

his

Edouard Manet

contributions

nineteenth-century
April 30, 1883.

52

to

the

art.

He

technical

style

of

died in Paris on

JAMES WHISTLER
(1834-1903)

46

James Abbott McNeill Whistler embodied

the image of the cosmopolitan

on

born

July

He was

artist.

1834,

11,

Lowell,

in

Massachusetts. His father was a distinguished

moved

At age nine,

engineer.

militar\'

to

Petersburg,

St.

attended the Imperial Academy.

died

when Whistler was

which point he returned

Two

years later, he

Military
tastes

Academy

were not

ies suffered.

my

to the

West

His father

United

own

His

Point.

dismissed from the acade-

later.

He

then

made an unsuc-

attempt to enter the navy and

cessful

States.

to the U.S.

however, and his stud-

military,

He was

three years

where he

fifteen years old, at

was admitted
at

family

his

Russia,

finally

obtained a position as a draftsman in the Coast

Survey Department in Washington,

which was established

map

to

coastlines for militar}' purposes.

that he learned etching.

work soon
Paris,

tired

The

him, and

D.C.,

the United States

It

was there

1855, he

in

left for

where he studied painting under Charles

Gleyre, Whistler obtained unlim-

ited access to the

ilege to set

museum and

Louvre

up an

easel

the priv-

and copy the artwork.

Whistler was talented in his combination of

techniques acquired from past masters.
learned

how

liant

to silhouette a figure against a

and was noted

color

of

for his avoidance

and absence

Japanese prints,

Gold: Falling Rocket, in which globs

of paint

represent

of

detail.

he acquired the

skill

ences with

bril-

From

of creat-

its

embers floating down

The

sky.

painting shocked audi-

revolutionary style, and critic

John Ruskin accused Whistler of

Ruskin and won.

Moving

was regarded

to England, Whistler

as arrogant, witr\', satirical,

and an expert

recordings

of

his

He

also

devoted

with

quarrels

associations and was published

much

time to lithography,

As an

which he brought

His work emphasized a relationship between

he was second only to Rembrandt

and music, and he used musical terms,

as

nocturnes,

harmonies,

and sym-

He completed
over

400

way

elected

of gaining fame. In 1863, his painting White

Artists.

Girl achieved
Refuses. In

welcoming

notoriety

at

the

to perfection.

etcher,

(see no. 26).

roughly 150 lithographs and

etchings,

which he exhibited

at

the

Fine Arts Societ}' in London. In 1886, he was

phonies, to describe his paintings.

^"histler loved scandal,

art

1890.

in

borrowed the flowing decorative techniques.

such

in

The Gentle Art of Making Enemies, the title of

the only book he wrote. The book consisted of

ing shapes, and from Oriental ceramics, he

color

"flinging a

pot of paint in the public's face." ^Xliistler sued

He

bland background to create a full-length portrait

and

Black

through a dark

Gabriel Gleyre.

Through

James McNeill Whistler

tediousness of the

it

as a

Salon

des

1875, he exhibited Nocturnes in

president

When

of the

he and

Societ)'

of British

his friends left the soci-

ety in 1888, Whistler remarked that "the artists

had come our and the

53

British

had remained."

(1834-1917)

4?

Germain Edgar Degas (deh-GAH)

Hilaire

was the oldest of

He was

five children.

born

into a wealthy family in the banking business

France, on July

in Paris,

the Louvre

When

museum

19, 1834.

He

visited

often while he studied law.

he was twenty years old, he decided to

become

a painter.

He

two years

school, but

he

later,

art

left for Italy to

Rome, he

in

The

noted for

is

relatives

visited

completed the portrait

(1859), which

Degas

movement;

its

Bellelli

and

Family

nuity of

he captured the action of

dancers, are depicted in poses that demonstrate

the physical exertion of dance.

Believing that a painter could have

sonal
"there

life,
is

ty years

love

of

and there

is

his life in seclusion

September 27, 1917,

in Paris.

conti-

returned to Paris in

1861 and was commissioned to com-

ment-sponsored Salon. In 1870, with

outbreak of the Franco-Prussian

the

Degas enlisted

in

the

artillery.

While recuperating from the experience,

he decided never to exhibit

at the

Salon

again.

After

New

to

trip

Louisiana,

became aware of

Orleans,

where he

1872,

in

first

losing his eyesight, he

returned to Paris where he discovered a

new

subject

ballet.

the female

Known

dancers," Degas

models

in

form and the

the

as

sketched

"painter

from

of
live

where he could

his studio,

control the factors of form and composition.

He combined

different poses into

groups that depicted dancers on stage,

either stretching or performing.

In

1873,

Degas was among the

founding members of the impressionist

group,

who

are

known

for their direct

observation of nature. Other impressionist

painters

include

Camille

Pissarro,

Claude Monet, and Auguste Renoir,

nos. 44, 50, and 52).

Edgar Degas

(see

54

per-

work, and we have

plete a series of paintings for the govern-

War,

no

he never married, explaining that

acute perception

movement and

He

lines.

more of

sculpture,

his female figures, notably ballet

of four personalities. His paintings were

characterized by

to devote

Through

but a single heart." Degas spent the

study the masters.

While

as in his painting,

enrolled at the Ecole des

government-sponsored

the

Beaux-Arts,

Failing eyesight led

his attention to sculpture.

last

twen-

and died on

PAUL CEZANNE
(1839-1906)

48,

During the

greater part of his Hfe-

Cezanne (say-ZAHN), who

time, Paul

initiated the revolution in

modern

art

by shifting the emphasis from realism

to abstraction,

worked

was

largely ignored

and

in isolation.

Cezanne was born

in the

town of

Aix-en-Provence in southern France,

on January

His

1839.

19,

father,

Louis-Auguste Cezanne, was a wealthy

banker

who

disapproved of Cezanne's

him

early artistic interests, but allowed

to study

drawing

Aix museum.

at the

At the same time, Cezanne received a

education

classical

He

Bourbon.

College

the

at

did not have any com-

when he
met Emile Zola (1840-1902), who
was to become a prominent author.
panions until age thirteen,

The two remained friends

when Cezanne became
what he assumed
his failures in

estranged
friend

until 1886,
bitter

over

to be a reference to

one of

Zola's novels

himself from

his

and

Paul Cezanne

oldest

and supporter.

At age twenty-three,
ter family disputes,

after a

number of

Cezanne was given

allowance and sent to study art in

bit-

a small

Paris.

him

disinherit

for his choice in a bride,

her existence from

He

Cezanne had a

him for years.

way of imparting

he kept

density to

never had any formal training but worked by

the structure of individual objects; covering the

copying the models

entire canvas, he

at the Academic Suisse.

Cezanne represented contemporary life. He

conveyed the

illusion

by overlapping planes and painting

of space

in patches

painted the world he observed rather than

of color. Although he painted from nature, he

painting an idealized version of his

would

landscapes,

on

portraits.

The most

lifes,

significant

work was Camille Pissarro (see

who gave Cezanne the encouragement

influence
no. 44),

and

still

his

he needed. Pissarro also introduced Cezanne to

new
him

impressionist techniques
to lighten his colors

and encouraged

and break away from

brooding moods.

his

and

whom

later

he formed

or

more depth

change colors of
to the

work. Always

regarded as an eccentric, Cezanne never sold a

painting in his lifetime. His most famous

work

was House of the Hanged Man, Auvers (1874).

Other works that express forms in space were
The Kitchen Table (1890) and The Card Players
(1892).

On

In 1869, Cezanne met the model Hortense

Piquet,

shapes

distort

objects to give

a relationship

with

married. Afraid that his father would

October

the fields

week
55

15, 1906, he

and was caught

later.

was painting in

in a storm.

He

died a

AUCUSTE RODIN
(1840-1917)

49

Leaving the monastery when he was twenty-

Sculptor Francois Auguste Rene Rodin (roe-

DAN)

is

distinguished for his reaHsm as well as

conveying both the positive and negative

for

aspects of humanity, such as beauty

ety, in his

and anxi-

police official,

Rodin was born

on November

in Paris, France,

began studying

12, 1840.

art at age fourteen

He

by attending

the Petite Ecole, a school of decorative arts,

and

visiting the

occasions,

Louvre museum.

On

three

he attempted and failed to gain

admittance to the Ecole des Beaux-Arts.

At eighteen,

in order to earn a living,

began to work

he

for other sculptors, including

Ernest Carrier-Belleuse.

When

he was twenty-

Maria traumatized

two, the death of his

sister

him

he joined an order of

so

greatly

who became his life companion and a

model for many of his works. That same year,
Beuret,

he submitted his work

work.

The son of a

met the seamstress Rose

four years old, he

that

Man

with a Broken Nose

(1864) to the government-sponsored Salon;

was rejected
the

initially

him

to travel to Italy,

work of Michelangelo

influenced by the

He came

no. 11).

it

accepted under

later

of a Roman. The success

where he was

Portrait

title

inspired

and

back to

(see

and created

Paris

his

Age of Bronze (1877). The work depicted a

male nude figure and showed extreme realism.
It

created a controversy

Rodin had made

that

models.

The

and caused accusations

plaster casts

episode brought

from

living

him more fame

than harm.

monks.

Rodin had the

through

He

of the body.

ability

convey feeling

to

expression and individual parts

facial

cut the hollows of the face

deeply to create strong shadows, while his textured surface heightened the sense of

movement,

and

life

a technique not seen in the imper-

sonal smoothness of classical sculpture.

Rodin considered beauty

to be a truthful

representation of inner states. Thus, he did not

anatomy of his

distort the

In

sculptures.

he was commissioned by the

1880,

French government to design a pair of doors

for a
built.

museum of decorative arts that was to be

The project, known as The Gates of Hell,

absorbed Rodin for the remainder of his

although

it

was

(see no.

tionship.

63) with

whom

Rodin always worked

he had a

in

grand

and most of his works depicted human

ing,

such

life,

unfinished at his death.

He

on the project with Camille

collaborated

Claudel

still

as

rela-

scale,

suffer-

The Thinker (1888) and

The

Prodigal Son (1885).

At seventy-six years
works

Aug^ste Rodin

Rodin
at the

56

to the
set

old,

Rodin donated

French government.

them, they are

Hotel Biron in

in the

Paris.

Still

his

placed as

Musee Rodin

CLAUDE MONET
(1840-1926)

50

The French impressionist painter Claude

Monet (moe-NAY) was born in Paris on
November 14, 1840, but spent most of his
childhood in Le Havre, where his father owned
a grocer)' store.

At

fifteen,

he was selling his

own

drawings on the

later,

he had committed himself to a career

moved

painter and

Academie

Suisse.

soon

service

after,

and four

street,

years
as a

to Paris to study at the

Forced to complete

military'

he returned to Paris in

862

and studied under Charles Gleyre. While

Gleyre's studio, he befriended

45) and Auguste Renoir (see no. 52).

(see no.

Monet was noted

for

brush strokes,

loose

at

Edouard Manet

changing
His

first

trait

of

extreme

detail,

bold colors,

using

and the

effect

of light in his studies of nature.

success

was the acceptance of the porThe Green Dress

his mistress Camille,

(1866), in the official Salon. After that, he was

He became

continually rejected.

buy painting supplies and resorted

his friends for

Monet and

too poor to
to soliciting

money.
friends,

his

Camille Pissarro,

Edgar Degas, Paul Cezanne

(see nos. 44, 47,

and 48), and

their

others,

formed

own

exhibi-

1874 that they hoped would have more

tion in

prestige than the Salon des Refuses.

Impressionism

is

characterized by a direct

The word

observ'ation of nature.

ism

is

derived from the

title

ing Impression, Sunrise (1873).

painting reminded
the

impression-

of Monet's paint-

A critic

said the

Claude Monet

him of wallpaper because

work appeared sketchy and

unfinished.

In 1880, a year after his wife's death, his

painting was accepted into the Salon.

Monet

to Alice

Hoschede. Together, they

Giverny, France.

It

was

in

settled in

Giverny that he

was not pleased with the position the painting

began

was given and refused

(19001926). These large canvases show a

to exhibit there again.

Six years later, he began to gain recognition

and painted the two

Poplars,

which depict

series

Haystacks and

a single scene painted

numerous times with

variations

of

light,

shadow, and season.

At the age of

fifry-two,

painting

rhythm of the brush

in pattern,

remarried

Water

series

out the focus of the subject, but

with visions of water,

of paint.

57

Lilies

stroke, appearing abstract

which could stand on

translate a simple

Monet

the

pond

light,

its
is

and

own

with-

combined
foliage

to

into a visual spectacle

BERTHE MORISOT
(1841-1895)

51

Baptiste-Camille Corot

who became

her teacher.

(1796-1875),

Her

early style

was characterized by subtle color harmonies.

At twenty-three, she debuted

official

at the

Salon with two landscapes and

was accepted regularly

to exhibit for the

next ten years.

At twenty-seven, she was introduced

to

Edouard Manet

became her mentor,

(see no.

on her work, and her brother

Morisot also posed for

in-law.

many of Manet's

Under Manet's guidance,

paintings.

Morisot's brush stroke

became

using broad strokes

loose,

fast

and

depict

to

Details were eliminated

planes.

who

45),

major influence

from

her paintings, and her colors were bold-

She focused on representing the

er.

changing

effects

of light. Her work con-

veyed a sense of spontaneity,

Sisters

as in

The

(1869), which shows two figures

seated in a parlor, representative of a

common
often

domestic

mer
Berthe Morisot's (MOR-e-so) career and
success as an impressionist painter, character-

first

to challenge the established art circles.

She was the youngest of three daughters of an

on January

Her

14, 1841.

in

life.

father

had

She

outdoor or

1873, she exhibit-

teacher, Guichard,

wrote a

work was

for-

letter to

that of a

"madman."
NXTien she was thirty-three, she abandoned

showing

at the Salon,

the impressionists.

choosing to exhibit with

That same year she married

Eugene Manet.

upper-middle-class family, born in Bourges,

France,

settings. In

her mother saying that the

by a direct observation of nature, were

remarkable in that she was one of the

women

women

ed her painting The Cradle, and her

Berthe Morisot

ized

scene in everyday

painted

In

1892, her

held at

the

first

one-woman show was

Boussad and Valadon Gallery.

studied at the Ecole des Beaux-Arts before

Two

becoming

bought her work Young Woman Dressing for

a Ball (1884?). The freshness of her style and

government

official.

Morisot began to draw

as a child, taking

lessons seriously at age seventeen with Joseph-

Benoit Guichard,

whom

she

allow her to paint outdoors.

she was

introduced

to

persuaded to

Two

the

years later,

painter Jean-

years

later,

the

French

the intimacy she captured in her

her a significant

government

work made

artist in the rebellion against

the factions that dominated the art world at

the time.

58

AUGUSTE RENOIR
(1841-1919)

52

Other works of

Unlike other impressionist painters, Pierre-

Auguste Renoir (ren-WAHR) was interested

human

painting the single

figure or family

groups more than landscapes. Born to a

on February 25, 1841,

Renoir began an

in

in Limoges,

tailor

He

painted designs on china in a Paris porcelain

factory.

At seventeen, he copied paintings from

pictures

museum onto

Louvre

the

at

fans,

and The Luncheon of

the Boating Party (1881).

At

he travelled to Algeria and

forty,

Raphael
cal

(see no. 13)

and began

of painting.

style

He

Nine
ed in

There he met Claude Monet, Camille

and
ist

50, 44,

formed the impression-

48). Together they

Noted
ings,

many

During the

last

move

and intimate paint-

for his radiant

usually

portraying sensual

figures

of

strokes
his

his

hands

arthritis

freely.

1874, Renoir led the

ist

exhibition.

He had

bition five years

mood.

arm.

whom

In

impression-

a personal exhi-

organized by

later,

Renoir painted family por-

traits.

After the

first

impressionist show,

Renoir was torn between maintaining

the

theme of painting outdoors and

his true passion to paint in the studio.

The

his conflict

painting

was painted
a

young

of the time

masterpieces

Renoir's

demonstrate

girl

in his

on

garden and depicts

swing while an

admirer stands idly

by.

was said

the

vision

to

lack

he captured

Moulin de

of interest.

The Swing (1876)

a rope

in

The

in the studio.

painting

spontaneous
his

la Galette (^1876),

famous
painted

That work showed

group of dancers,

carefiilly

to appear as if the

tured at a fleeting

organized

group were cap-

Auguste Renoir

moment.
59

to

his

life,

and unable

continued to
looser brush

and painting with the brush strapped

Georges Charpentier,

the publisher
for

first

He

sr\'le

women, he used harmony of lines and

briUiant color to express

he paint-

twenty years of

Renoir was crippled by

to

whom

works.

paint by adapting his

group.

classi-

strictly

years after his travels, he married Aline

formally at the academy of Charles Gleyre in

(see nos.

more

defined forms, as evident in Bathers (1887).

Charigot and had three sons,

and Paul Cezanne

painted in

twenty-one, he had begun to study painting

Pissarro

Italy,

where he was influenced by the -works of

lampshades, and blinds. By the time he was

Paris.

Two

Children (1878),

Little Circus Girls (1879),

France,

artistic career as a child.

Madame

period were

this

and Her

Charpentier

to

HENRI ROUSSEAU
(1844-1910)

53

no proof

exists to substantiate this.

Rousseau did not begin

to paint until

he was almost forty years old and was

When

completely self-taught.

he was

forty-nine, he accepted early retire-

ment

so that he could devote himself

To supplement

entirely to painting.

he gave drawing

his small pension,

and music

lessons.

Rousseau's imaginative paintings

were characterized by

fantastical sub-

jects

and disproportions of the

ures.

A lack

fig-

of training in anatomy

and perspective gave

his paintings a

sense of innocence.

He

best

is

known

most

scenes,

for his jungle

notably

Surprised!

Tropical Storm with a Tiger (1891)

and Sleeping Gypsy (1897). These

imaginative

were exotic,

paintings

detailed perceptions of animal

plant

life,

his visits to the zoos

and botanical

The last of these

The Dream (1910), culmi-

gardens of

works.

the

nates

and

which were derived from

Paris.

magical

quality

of his

scenery.

Rousseau exhibited regularly

at art

shows organized by experimental

Although

artists.

Henri Rousseau

ridiculed by critics

he

was

often

and the public, he

interpreted their sarcastic remarks as

Henri Rousseau (roo-SO), known

Douanier
a

in reference to his

as

former position

minor inspector with the

Le
as

Customs

Paris

Office,

was the most celebrated of "naive"

artists,

painters.

term used to

The son of

classify

untrained

a dealer in tinware,

on May 21, 1844, Rousseau served

in the

born

army

for four years prior to obtaining a post at the

customs

had

office in

visited

1871.

Mexico while

He

claimed that he

in the army,

praise.

and form, which was adopted

ration of object

by

surrealist artists.

In

Pablo

1908,

his

Picasso

(see

work was discovered by

no.

71).

Picasso bought

Rousseau's paintings and attended

gatherings.

to gain

ol his
art

for other untrained artists to

acknowledgement.

Rousseau died on September

Paris, France.

60

many

Recognition of Rousseau's

opened the way

which he

said influenced the subject of his paintings, but

His work showed an irrational configu-

2,

1910, in

(1844-1926)

54.
In

of the

spire

was an

she

that

fact

impressionism to the United States and

in per-

American, Mary Cassatt was welcomed into

suading American collectors to invest in the

the group of European impressionist painters,

work of her

who emphasized

she was awarded the Legion of Honor, a medal

The

tions of nature.

and

Robert

hght and color

fifth

of seven children of

Katherine

Allegheny City,

in their depic-

born

Cassatt,

in

on May

Pennsylvania,

22,

colleagues in the group. In 1904,

confirming her success

notable in a time

as

when

an

artist,

which was

the profession

1844, Cassatt was a descendant of a wealthy

rioration of her eyesight in later years

family and had the opportunity to travel to

forced to stop painting in

Europe

young

as a

by

child. Inspired

young

exhibitions in Paris as a

artists'

she was

girl,

determined to become a painter. She began

studying

Pennsylvania

at the

Academy of

first

life

and where she was

inspired to paint.

Fine

ty-one under the tutelage of Charles Joshua

Chopin.

Her work was accepted

in the Salon, the

museum

or

"independents"

as

France,

in

movement,

before she joined the impressionist

preferred

she

to

call

them, upon the invitation of Edgar Degas

The

no. 47).

(see

impressionists were in defiance of

the jury system that selected paintings to be

displayed in the Salon.

They

also

wanted

to

elevate their status above the admittance to the

Salon des Refuses, which did not discriminate

against

any

artists.

Cassatt exhibited with the

impressionists in 1879, 1880, 1881,

She developed
Degas,

who

the objective

women

activities.

through patterns of

was influenced by Degas

and

on

of the subject, mostly

dren involved in everyday

reality

with

also painted her portrait.

Cassatt's paintings focus

reality

and 1886.

friendship

lifelong

light

and

or chil-

Capturing
color, she

in her precise

drawing

casual arrangement of her subjects. She

began to emphasize

line after

viewing an exhi-

bition of Japanese prints in 1890. This

is

evi-

dent in the Bath (1892). Other important

works include The Boating Party (1892?), The

Letter (1893?),

and Mother Feeding her Child

(1893?).

She

was

instrumental

in

and was

1914. She died

twelve years later of tuberculosis in Paris, where

she spent most of her

Arts at age seventeen, then in Paris at age twen-

government-sponsored

was

dominated by men. She suffered from the dete-

Mary

introducing

61

Cassatt

PAUL GAUGUIN
(1848-1903)

55

The French

post-impressionist

painter

classes at the

Academic

Colarossi. Developing

Eugene Henri Paul Gauguin (go-GAN) was

born in Paris on June 7, 1848, but moved to

an interest in impressionist
avid art collector

and made acquaintance with

Lima, Peru, when he was three years old.

Camille Pissarro

(see no.

Gauguin

lived there until he

greatly influenced

was seven and was

by the open, carefree culture

and

returned to Paris to begin his education,

at

marines

seventeen,

he joined the merchant

as a navigation cadet,

working

into the navy at age twenty.

When

his

the

44) and Paul Signac

came

success

first

in 1876,

Landscape at Viroflay

painting

and two years

later,

he

married Mette Sophie Gad.

took up painting

as a

ment-sponsored

1883, Gauguin abandoned his job

In

as

a stockbroker to devote himself to painting.

Due to a lack of income, he was forced

Denmark to live with his in-laws.

to

wife

his

hobby, beginning

was impressive

art gallery. It

for a first attempt.

way

he was

twenty-three, he returned to Paris to begin a

career as a stockbroker,

He

when

His

(1875?) was accepted at the Salon, the govern-

of South America.

He

(see no. 60).

he became an

art,

Denmark,

in

to Paris in 1885.

Two

he

move

to

Leaving

returned

years later, he travelled to

Martinique in the West Indies

where he became enamored with

the exotic tropical country.

was

trip

influential

Gauguin's

The

moving

in

away from impres-

style

sionism and towards bright color

and primitive
Jacob

art.

He

new

(1888) using his

Angel

style,

termed

synthetism. Synthetism
terized

by

painted

the

with

Wrestling

is

charac-

large, simplified forms,

and

abstract shapes,

brilliant col-

ors.

Continuing
in Tahiti

to travel, he settled

from 1891

created the painting

(1892).

On

from 1895

to

1893 and

Aha Oe

Feii

another stay in Tahiti,

1901, he painted

to

Holiday (1896) and Two Tahitian

Women

(1899),

which demon-

strates his flat planes

and

abstract

drawing of figures.

He

longed for freedom from

European constraints

and

his

work

in artwork,

characterized that.

His health began to deteriorate,

and he died on

Paul Gauguin

the Marquesas.

62

May

8,

1903, on

VAN COGH

rn VIHCENT
(1853-1890)

\}\}^

Vincent van

Gogh (van-GO),

Dutch

post-

impressionist painter, represents the epitome of

emotional spontaneity in painting. The oldest

of six children, born to a Protestant minister in

Groot Zundert, Holland, on March 30, 1853,

he was characterized as a moody, restless, and
temperamental person throughout

was

and well

also articulate

his

of knowledge that he displayed in

than seven hundred

The

letters to his

He

more

his

brother Theo.

were published in 1911 and consti-

letters

tute a record of van Gogh's

At

life.

read, with a wealth

van

sixteen,

Hague, Holland,

to

life.

Gogh was
work

sent

to

The

for his uncle, a part-

ner in an international firm of art dealers.

There he studied painting with Anton Mauve.

Failing to appeal to the clients, he
ferred to the

London

was

trans-

branch, then sent from

uncle to uncle, until he alienated everj'one

with his preaching on the vulgarity and excesses

of the

rich.

He

ing in Belgium, which he soon abandoned to

among

work

as a lay

there.

At the age of twenty-seven, he found

true calling

preacher

his

his

Relocating to Paris in 1886, he abandoned

to Holland,

he painted

his

humanitarian views. The Potato Eaters

and moralistic

realism.

brilliant colors to express

symbol-

the bold brush stroke

He

most famous piece of the period, which kept

with

adopted

ism in his scenes of fields,

such

He had gone

and poverty of the people. Van Gogh wrote

invited the painter Paul

"I

have tried to emphasize that

light,

have dug the earth with those very hands

That same

year,

he relocated to Antwerp,

Belgium, where he enrolled

Art.

He

Academy of

entered the drawing class wearing his

signature round fur cap,

famous

at the

in

many

which would become

self-portraits.

The

teacher

felt

him.

to join

It is

Gogh
Gogh

Peter Paul

Rubens

(see no.

22) and by Japanese

The

cut off his

own

ear.

The

event was

com-

memorated by van Gogh in Self Portrait with

Bandaged Ear (1889). Van Gogh went to an
asylum at St. Remy, France, producing 150
paintings in one year. His depression became
and he shot himself on July 27,

1890, dying two days

in

two painters

threatened Gauguin with a razor.

more

academy the second day. While

Antwerp, he was influenced by the works of

that the

and

(see no. 55)

night, feeling remorse for his actions, van

Gogh

the

life,

and one evening, van

van Gogh's strokes to be "too heavy," and van

left

rustic

to Aries to rest

Gauguin

rumored

argued vehemently,

same

they put in the dish."

and

(1889), which he painted in the countryside of

Aries, France.

those people, eating their potatoes in the lamp-

trees,

Night Watch (1888) and Starry Night

as

(1885), dark and somber, expressed the misery

about the work,

Gogh

print makers such as Hokusai (1760-1849).

the coal miners

to be an artist.

Moving back

Vincent van

enrolled in evangelical train-

acute,

later.

Van Gogh

sold

only one painting in his lifetime, Red Vineyard

at Aries

63

{\^m-

GEORGES SEURAT
(1859-1891)

51.

Georges Seurat (soo-RAH) originated

scientific

technique of pointillism, also

one of the techniques

in the

as divisionism,

French

tlie

known

neo-impressionism.

of

school

pointillism, solid forms are built

the application of

many

In

up through

small dots of contrast-

ing color on a white background.

Combining
life

science

and

art,

structures.

line

December

1859,

2,

in

He was

born on

His father,

Chrysostome Antoine Seurat, was

ofFicial,

and

his

mother came from

legal

a family

of jewelers.

received a rigorous

Seurat began drawing as a child, and, at

left

institute.

enter

to

the

later,

where he

and standardized

art train-

At that time he was influenced by

ing.

Rembrandt

(see no. 26)

and Francisco de Goya

Seurat was

regular school

to

enroll

interested

"optical formula" for art.

and

life

stressed the

ability to transmit

an

discovering

in

He

always drew from

importance of a painting's

moral views. In 1879, he

left

the Beaux-Arts for mandatory enlistment in

He

the military.

maintained his

by drawing

ests

age fifteen, he

him

prepared

Ecole des Beaux-Arts four years

Seurat spent his

Paris.

municipal drawing

local

training

(see no. 33).

studying color theories and the effects of

different

the

at

The

artistic inter-

in a notebook. His military

experience forced

him

to

look for his subject

matter in the world around him and further

influenced his style of creating large compositions with small dots of color. This

dent in his painting

Man

most

is

evi-

Leaning on a Parapet

(1881).

He was

first

accepted to exhibit at the Salon

1883 with the dvi^^fmg Aman-Jean (1882?),

in

but the next year his painting Bathing at

Asnieres (1882?)

was refused.

Seurat and several other

including

artists,

Paul Signac (see no. 60) then founded the

Societe des Artistes Independants in 1884.
exhibit allowed artists of
their

work

calibers to

all

regularly without the scrutiny of the

jury system.

The

first

show was

art

chaotic, but

permanent

led to the establishment of a

dence for

The

show

outside the Salon.

Seurat never submitted

Seurat's subjects

all

work

it

resi-

Thereafter,

to the Salon.

revolve

around

a central

figure acting out a role in society, since he felt

felt

that people in Paris were posing or per-

forming

at living.

He

is

lous attention to detail,

among

artists

famous

and

his

for his meticu-

high reputation

was cemented with

his paintings

The Bathers (1884), a scene of boys bathing

the

Georges Seurat

river,

and the world-famous

in

Sunday

Afternoon on the Island of La Grande Jatte

(1886), representing Sunday

64

strollers.

GRANDMA MOSES
(1860-1961)

58

Without formal
and

American

training

art

self-educated,

largely

Anna Mary

painter

Robertson Moses, better known

Grandma Moses,
her

wife

farmer's

as

life

as

spent most of
in

New

York.

She dropped out of school

at age

Washington County,
twelve

work on neighboring

to

farms. At seventeen, she married

Thomas Moses, and together they

moved to Virginia. The couple

New

returned to

York in 1905,

and Moses painted her

first

picture

1918, on the fireplace in her

in

parlor.

Two

years later, she painted

on the panels of her

a picture

which was

out table,

become her

Upon

pull-

Grandma Moses

to

later

landscape and the subjects she focused on,

easel.

husband's

her

death

in

1927,

such

as a bridge or

Grandma Moses moved to Vermont, where she

stayed until 1935, when she again settled in

ferred to paint

New

(circa 1943),

York. In her seventies, she began to sub-

stitute painting for

embroidery,

as

was

it

Her

painful to her arthritic condition.

less
first

an automobile. She pre-

from memory.

Her work, such

as

Thanksgiving Turkey

Sugaring Offi\945), and Out for

the Christmas Tree (1945),

duced

began to be repro-

in postcards, books,

and greeting cards

paintings were copies of postcards she received.

around the nation. In 1949, President Harry

Then

Truman

works.

in 1938, she

group of her paintings shown

drugstore

window was

lector Louis Caldor,

three

began composing original

of

her

who

succeeded in showing

paintings

in

the

Contemporary Unknown American

the

Museum

in a

noticed by the art col-

of Modern Art,

in

show

S.

Women's

National Press Club Award for outstanding

accomplishments

She was

in art.

also presented

with two honorary doctorates, from Russell

Moore

Sage College and

Institute

of Art.

It

was

not until she was ninety years old that her work

New York City,

toured Europe, gaining her an international

reputation.

Caldor brought her work

to the attention

the art dealer Otto Kallir. Kallir gave

Moses her

first

Etienne in

Painted.

the

Painters at

in 1939.

St.

presented her with

Grandma

who

a painter,

depicted

Grandma Moses was

life as

a realist

she lived and saw

it.

Her

solo exhibition at the Galerie

pictures always maintained a positive outlook.

A Farm Wife

She once stated that she would not paint any-

940,

titled

WTiat

That same year she was awarded the

New York

As

of

State Prize at the Syracuse

Museum

of Fine Arts for her work The Old Oats Bucket

(1939?).

Her uniqueness and

views of

life

primitive realistic

created a relationship between the

thing she

knew nothing

memoirs, entitled

My

about. She wrote her

Life's

History, in

1952.

Her one-hundredth birthday was declared

Grandma Moses Day by then New York
Governor Nelson

65

Rockefeller.

FREDERIC REMINGTON
50

(1861-1909)

American painter, sculptor, and writer

Remington is famous for his depiction
of the American West. He was the son
of Clara Sackrider and Seth Remington, a
newspaper publisher. Remington was born
Frederic

Canton,

in

the

New

Frederic was only a baby,

His

when
home a

The academic study of

for the Yale

He

did not interest

art

newspaper Courant.

school and then spent

left

much

of his

time travelling across the United States on

and returned

horseback,

working

cowboy,

hired

as

four years old.

prospecting for gold, and holding other odd

and

exploits always

jobs.

father's

constant

tales

began sketching

interest in

He

recorded the

He began

lifestyle in art.

submitting his drawings to magazines in 1882,

moved

at

to

age ten, and the next

Ogdensburg. There

drawing increased

as

he por-

trayed frontier clashes between the Cavalry

when he was

accepted by Harper's Weekly,

which encouraged him

historian of the

and

account of Roman warfare, copied from one of

York

on

a discarded

window shade.
Academy

attended the Highland Military

become

a pictorial

His second picture of the West was not published until 1885,

his schoolbooks,

to

American West.

American Indians. At fourteen, he painted an

He

1878, where

when Remington was

year, his family

his

in

the Civil War,

fascinated him.

He

and then Yale

art.

him, and he began to do journalistic cartoons

York. His father enlisted in

Union Army during

colonel

in Massachusetts

he studied

to establish

and he then moved

an

art career.

Many

New

to

editors of

magazines were reluctant to print pictures of

the

Wild West,

preferring to give their readers

the impression that the country was a peaceful

respite

from

city

Harper's Weekly accepted

life.

a third picture

from him

the cover, the

first to

1886 and ran

in

appear exclusively

it

on

as his

own. His other submissions were re-drawn by

on

a "professional"

He

magazine.

staff at the

then received recognition by the conser-

vative National Academy of Design with his

work The Courier's Nap on the Trail (1887?).
Remington began to create clay models of his
subjects in 1895. Bronco Buster (1895) demonstrates his

unique technical

skill

figures

on slim supports, such

horse,

which

is

supported by

1896, he got a job as an

Cuba with
owned by William R.
dent in

the

its

person on a
hooves. In

and correspon-

New

York Journal,

Hearst.

Always ambitious,
write

artist

of suspending

as a

and published the

Remington began
illustrated

to

books Pony

Tracks, Men with the Bark On, and The Way of

an Indian. Remington received a note from

then-colonel Theodore Roosevelt stating, "You

come
Frederic

Remington

closer to the real thing

any other

66

man

in the

with the pen than

Western business."

PAUL SIGNAC
(1863-1935)

The son of

shop owner,

a saddle

Paul Signac (SEEN-yock), born on

November

was a leading

11, 1863,

neo-impressionist

the

figure

in

school

known

technique

the

for

pointillism, also referred to as divi-

sionism. Signac took an early inter-

while visiting the various

est in art

along the avenue on his

art dealers

way

to school.

been told that

It's

once he was sketching an Edgar

Degas

(see

gallery

and was thrown out of the

gallery

by Paul Gauguin

doing

for

no.

painting at a

47)

(see no. 55)

so.

Signac's

was always

taste

for

impressionism, which favored bright

colors

and painting

nature.

To

he named

Wagner
sial

from

directly

overtly express his views,

his

boat Manet-Zola-

for the three

names

in

art,

most controverand

literature,

music of the time. In Signac's opinPaul Signac

become
and make a

ion, an impressionist painter strove to

a "non-conformist, revolutionary,

virtue out of enjoying

Georges Seurat

formed
ed

in

the

founding

pointillist

57), with

(see no.

a close friendship.

the

was the most serious period

life."

he met

1884,

In

He

of

the

organized

from exhibiting

at the official

whom

he

then participat-

by

Independants,

painter

Salon

artists

des

rejected

Salon in France.

own

in his

life,

and he

considered abandoning the fight of the impressionists.

Recovering, he married Berthe Robles,

a relative of the painter Camille Pissarro (see

no. 44).

world

He

later

published his views of the art

book

in the

titled

From Delacroix to Neo-

Impressionism (1899).

of

By 1900, Signac had adopted the use of

pointillism, described as a juxtaposition of dots

small squares of color in painting to produce a

Signac then developed his

using pure color.

similar to that

The

style

dots created an effect

produced by the refraction of

mosaic

effect, best

work View
From 1908 to 1934,

depicted in the

of Port Marseilles (1905).

his

he went on to become president of the Salon

paintings the impression of glittering sunlight.

des Independants and exhibited the works of

He

cubist artists

light

through a prism or a rainbow, lending

depicted

nature and

landscapes,

most

notably river scenes, and his most famous work

is

Port

St.

Tropez {1889).

Seurat's death in

Signac,

who

fauves' use

1891 was a severe shock to

thought of Seurat

as a

mentor.

It

and controversial

meaning "wild
Signac's
al rules.

67

beast"

fauves, a

and applied

for

term
the

of bright colors.
life

He

was spent opposing convention-

died on August 15, 1935.

EDVARD MUNCH
(1863-1944)

61

studied under Christian Krohg.

He was

then awarded a state grant to study in

when he was twenty-two

Paris

old.

While

in France,

years

he was influenced

by impressionist works, especially those

of Paul Gauguin

(see no. 55)

de Toulouse-Lautrec

Munch became

that time,

new

with a

lifestyle,

exhibit at the

labeled as

Union of

62).

At

associated

Munch was

1892,

In

an.

and Henri

(see no.

bohemi-

invited to

Berlin Artists

Germany. The exhibit opened and

in

closed within a week, due to the controversy created by the violent

depicted

Munch's

in

"Munch

was debated

Affair"

about

questions

The
in

the

raised

unanswered

artistic

freedom of

and further

press

emotion

work.

expression.

Simultaneously, he painted stage sets

plays.

(1828-1906)

of Ibsen's

several

for

Henrik Ibsen was among the

included in Munch's

eral writers

sev-

circle

of friends. Between 1892 and 1908,

Edvard

Mimch

Munch

Paris

Berlin.

(MOONK)

began to paint pictures

his personal grief after the

and older
another

from

tuberculosis. His father

also died

when he was young, and

sister

and brother

sister

atric hospital.

mind of
and
was

to express

death of his mother

was institutionalized

He

in a psychi-

resolved to paint the states of

who breathe and feel

The spectacle of death

"living people

and

love."

a principal

theme

suffer

Sick Child (1886)

in his work, such as

and

The

77?^

Death Chamber

12,

1863

Born on December
Norway,

also

in

Loten,

Munch showed an aptitude for drawHe attended the School of

ing at an early age.

Art and Handcraft

in

Oslo, Norway, where he

began

to

make

human

existence.

The emotional power of his works made

him one of the most noted figures in the early
development of modern art. His most celebrated painting, the world-famous The Scream or

The Cry (1893),

isolation

and

is

typical

fear

of the expression of

included

his

in

works.

Pessimistic in his portrayal of misery, illness,

and death, such

(1900) and

as in

the works

Dead Mother

(1900),

lenged conventional views of

(1892).

between

continued to paint

and woodcuts, showing

prints using etching

the anxiety of

He

and he

frantically,

At the age of seventeen, Edvard Munch

frequently

travelled

and

life

Dead

Munch

Life

chal-

and death by

invoking a sense of passion in natural causes.

He
a

spent his

more

last

colorful

years in solitude, painting in

and

less

with an increased interest

68

pessimistic
in nature.

manner

HENRI DE TOULOUSE-LAUTREC
(1864-1901)

62
Known

in his family as the "Uttle treasure"

because of his spirited

Henri de

nature,

(too-LOOSE-low-TREK)

Toulouse-Lautrec

was energetic and passionate about

two accidents crippled him

aficer

on

fall

a polished floor

years old caused

other

leg.

him

The

for

when he was

even

life.

falls left his legs

fourteen

to break a leg, while a

1879 caused him

in a ditch in

life,

fall

to break his

weak, and they

stopped growing. As an adult, he was only four

and

a half feet

tall.

Born on November 24,

figure

is all

cally in the

he would

that counts."

Montmarte

visit cafes,

He

lived enthusiasti-

section of Paris. There

dance

and

halls, cabarets,

the theater, sketching his surroundings, then

expanding them into bright color paintings.

was
art

also at this

It

time that he was inspired by the

of James Whistler

(see no. 46),

and he was

taught by Edgar Degas (see no. 47) to paint "as

if

he were looking through the keyhole," so

that the

model appeared unaware of the

ence of the

pres-

His passion for the eccentric

artist.

him

1864, in Albi, France, Henri-Marie-Raymond

and ostentatious

de Toulouse-Lautrec came from a family that

which eventually

claimed descent from nobility, but the story

he produced the

was

Goulue at the Moulin Rouge, demonstrating

myth. Toulouse-Lautrec's mother, Adele

Tapie de Celeyran, was

Count Alphonese,

father,

he called himself

His father was a gambler and

sion

for

way

in

flirt

with a pas-

and flamboyant clothing,

colorful

whom Toulouse-Lautrec
tering

cousin to his

first

as

many

his affection for

led

to

drink heavily,

affected his health. In 1891,

first

of

many

posters.

flamboyant scenes. Since his

death on September 9, 1901, the collection

of Moulin

Rouge

posters

have

been

high demand.

depicted in an unflat-

portraits.

In addition to his short stature, Toulouse-

Lautrec was also inflicted with a speech impediment, which

sound

made him pronounce

like a "t"

physical

the

"s"

sound. Although he had some

challenges,

he made caricatures of

himself in a humorous way.

His
three,

earliest

when he

memory

of drawing was

signed the register

at age

at a christen-

ing in a church with a picture of an ox. At age

sixteen,

he began to draw

seriously, especially

horses and everything associated with them.

He

possessed a natural

skill

ment. His family encouraged

suit

and engaged

him. In 1882,

he went to

became

to depict

live

move-

his artistic pur-

a family friend to instruct

after the divorce

of

his parents,

with his mother in Paris and

a student of

Leon Bonnat, who was an

accredited portrait painter of statesmen and

philosophers.
Interested in painting the artificial, orna-

mental, and the spectacular, he had an aversion

to painting landscapes, stating that "the

La

Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec

human
69

in

CAMILLE CLAUDEL
(1864-1943)

03

who was

49),

forty years old at the

time. Exhibiting natural talent, she

became

eventually

Rodin and

a collaborator of

him

assisted

in a variety

of projects, including the famous

Gates ofHell (1880).

Soon

became

Her work was

his mistress.

intertwined with

on

busts

contorted

figure groups in

Demonstrating

poses.

her lyrical and sensitive

she

style,

own work,

continued to do her

also

she

concentrating

his,

and naked

after,

including a famous bronze statue

Young Girl with a Sheaf (1890).

Continuing
ents,

who

to live

with her par-

disapproved of her

rela-

tionship with Rodin, she eventually

moved

1888,
years

own apartment

to her

near

Rodin's

her relationship with

later,

him began

in

Four

studio.

to deteriorate.

Having

contributed whole figures and parts

of figures to Rodin's projects, she

used by him

felt

especially as his

reputation grew and she remained

relatively obscure.

From 1892

own and

her

on, she

worked on

refused to exhibit her

work with Rodin. Although she

Camille Claudel

exhibited at reputable showings, such as the

(cloe-DELL)

Camille Claudel

work with

her history indicated an

She

was

December

began to

clay as a child, although nothing in

born
8,

at

artistic

background.

Fere-en-tardenuis

on

who

to

1864, to parents

did

little

Salon des Independants and Salon d'Automne,

her

work did not

sell.

She was

At age

fort\'-nine, she

was committed

first

children. Apparently, according to her brother

remained a psychiatric patient

become

famous

writer,

who was

later to

"Everyone always

Educated

at

the Colarossi

Claudel began her career

Academy

in Paris,

as a sculptor at

twenty, apprenticed to Auguste

Rodin

age

(see no.

to

to the

of several psychiatric hospitals, and she

until her death.

Her

letters to

for

many

obscure until

years

her brother are a

testament to her disappointments in

work remained

fought in the family."

known

Rodin's supposed injustice to her.

encourage and support one another or their

Paul Claudel (1868-1955),

also

destroy sculptures she produced, outraged by

it

had

life.

Her

a resur-

gence during the 1970s and 1980s, and her

story

was immortalized

Claudel (1988).

70

in

the film

Camille

ALFRED STIEGLITZ
(1864-1946)

64,
All his

American photographer Alfred

life,

took pride

(STEEG-lits)

Stieglitz

own

things his

doing

in

way, ignoring rules he consid-

ered to be unreasonable and inventing ones

that suited him.

Born on January

was the oldest of

Germany, who made

1864, he

of Edward

New York City

an immigrant to

Stieglitz,

1,

children

six

a living as a

from

wool mer-

zine

Camera Work, published from 1903

Avenue
291.

in

He

New York

and the family

In 1881, his father retired

moved

to

Germany where

Stieglitz enrolled at

He

the Berlin Polytechnic Institute.

stud-

first

ied mechanical engineering but shifted to

City,

it

came

to be called

used the gallery to introduce to the

public the works of European and American

artists,

such as Pablo Picasso

Georgia O'Keefi^e

chant.

ried O'Keeffe in

photographs of

(see no.

71) and

(see no. 81). Stieglitz

1924 and created a

Gallery 291 closed in 1917, but Stieglitz

opened two other

galleries

between

more.

and 1929.

was the

first

returned to the United States

when

at

Helichrome Engraving Company,

the

photo engraving firm. Maintaining an

photography,

in

he

edited

the

interest

Stieglitz

in

United

and the

States

phy recognized

as

an

first

art

to

Stieglitz's

July 13, 1946.

to

their

to 1902.

photographs are characterized by

candor and realism, lending an element

of purity and simplicity.

Stieglitz

never defined

work other than through pure

his

technical

explanations, such as the use of lighting, allow-

ing the viewer to draw a personal conclusion

on the

and the

subject matter

feelings por-

trayed. Venetian Boy (1887), a picture of a ten-

year-old

and

still

urchin,

communicates the

humankind

to sustain suffering

street

capacity for

remain

beautiftil.

His other famous photographs include The

Terminal (1892), which shows a conductor of
a horse-drawn streetcar taking a

(1896), described by

make
In

him

as

rest,

and Night

an attempt to

a clear picture of a dark street.

along with Edward Steichen

1902,

(1879-1973),
Secession,

an

photographers.

Stieglitz

founded the Photo

organization

of

The group produced

Alfred Stieglitz

pictorial

the

maga71

1925
exhibit

make photogra-

form.

1896, and he was the editor of the magazine

Camera Notes from 1897

to

major museums across the

photographs

magazine

American Amateur Photographer horn 1891

of

they are considered his

her;

tography and chemistry, which interested him

Stieglitz

mar-

series

greatest works.

pho-

he was twenty-six years old and went to work

until

The group also opened their own gallery,

officially named Little Galleries of the Photo
Secession. Due to its location at 291 Fifth
1917.

He

died on

ROBERT HENRI
65

(1865-1929)

Robert Henry Cozad,

better

known

as

Robert Henri, was the mentor of the group of

painters

known

School.

Founded

leagues

broke with academic tradition and

family adopted separate

was passed off as

last

names and Henri

The

a foster child.

family was

as the Eight, or the

Ashcan

forced to live as fugitives after Henri's father

Henri and

his col-

killed a

in 1908,

conservative standards to paint

with dramatic realism.

American

He was born on

life

June

24, 1865, in Cincinnati, Ohio. As a boy, his

man

in self-defense.

After attending the Pennsylvania

of Fine Arts in Philadelphia, he

1888

to attend the

Academy

left for Paris in

Academic Julian and the

Ecole des Beaux-Arts, the

official art

academy.

Returning to the United States in

1900, he began a long career as a
teacher,

New

the

at

first

York

School of Art until 1909, then

private school in

his

at

York

when he began

1915,

until

New

to

teach at the Art Students League.

Among

were George

his students

Bellows (see no. 73) and Edward

Hopper

(see no. 75).

Henri taught that any subject

taken from
paint.

was

life

suitable

compilation of his

tures, entitled

The Art

to
lec-

was

Spirit,

Renowned

published in 1923.

for

dark colors and broad brush

his

Henri and

strokes,

took

his colleagues

as their subject

matter slum

work-

areas, low-class restaurants,

ing-class

and

people,

littered

similar scenes,

streets,

which earned

them the name Ashcan School.

Henri's most celebrated works
are

Laughing Boy (1907), Young

Woman

in

Portrait

of Mrs.

Black

(1907),

and

Robert Henri

(1911).
In

1910,

he organized the

Independent Artist Exhibition.

It

did not have a jury of panelists

deciding which

artists

able to exhibit there.

championed
dent

Robert Henri

artists

suit-

the cause of indepen-

and established a new

liberal position

72

were

The show

on

art.

WASSILY KAKDINSKY
(1866-1944)

As an

and

artist

a theorist, Russian painter

Wassily Kandinsky played an important role in

art.

He

used spon-

and squiggles

to

symbolize

the development of abstract

taneous

shapes

and intangible

ideas

of thought. After

states

French impressionist exhibit, where

visiting a

Monet

he viewed the works of Claude

Kandinsky decided

50),

an

(see no.

to pursue a career as

Moscow on December
he was nearly thirty years old when
Born

artist.

1866,

in

tor

Anton Azbe and at the

Franz von Stuck.

titles

his

works. Kandinsky's

was more abstract than the

tion of lines, circles, arcs,

no references

arranged on a canvas to suggest movement,

Kandinsky painted
of the

first

chased

who
art

until his death in Paris

13, 1944.

He

is

classified as

The

majority' of his art

form of

his

both on canvas and

Kandinsk}' trav-

in writing.

widely from 1900 to 1910.

He came

exhibited the paintings in his

museum.

art

in

contact with the art of Paul Gauguin (see no.

55),

neo-impressionist

paintings,

les

for their use

of brilliant colors.

In

the

group

The Blue Rider (Der Blaue

Reiter)

Kandinsk\' formed

1911,

known

as

fauves artists,

with other expressionist

Marc and Paul Klee

produced

art that

plex patterns

In

blue.

and

artists

(see

including Franz

a^. 70).

The group

was characterized by combrilliant

colors,

Kandinsky

1912,

Concerning the Spiritual in Art, the

retical

views on abstract

new forms of geometric

invited
to

to

1921 and

of Art

and the

who were known

paintings of

in

teach

art.

especially

published
first

theo-

Forever inventing

shapes,

Kandinsky was

Moscow from 1918

in

famed Bauhaus School

Germany, from 1922

later at the

Dessau,

to 1933.

Relocating to Paris after the

Wassily Kandinsky

German

gov-

73

was pur-

by collector Solomon Guggenheim,

he began to exhibit

on,

one

explorers of non-representational,

made

throughout Europe, defining

elled

on December

Demonstrating

to real objects.
early

talent

great

and simple geometric

forms. Swinging (1925) depicts colored shapes

pioneered by

art

260

painting.

cello as a

the impressionists. Kandinsky's painting

fiirther

(1923) exemplifies his ideas with a composi-

abstract art.

he gave to

who

he

child influenced his paintings later on, includ-

ing the

(see no. 84),

while the colors create a sense of space in the

in

Learning to play the piano and

Miro

influenced his work. Composition VIII No.

4,

Germany under
Munich Academy with

and anatomy

sketching,

as a perpetra-

of "degenerate" thought, Kandinsky met

the artist Joan

an academic law career to study drawing,

left

art

ernment shut down the Bauhaus

New

York

CUTZON BORCLUM
(1867-1941)

6]

Gurzon de

la

Mothe Borglum was

great imagination.

was known

An American

man

of

sculptor, he

for his political statues carved into

Born

in Bear Lake,

Idaho, and raised in

Nebraska, Borglum attempted on several occasions to write his autobiography, but he never

completed the
in his notes

project.

The main

point stressed

was possessing the courage

to be

oneself without the need for popular approval.

Appropriately, his middle name, de

means
As

"the

one with courage"

a child, education

was

stressed in the

Mary's

St.

College in Kansas, where he learned to draw.

moved
work as

After he completed school, the family

where Borglum went

a lithographer, learning to engrave

on

to

and design

stone.

its

realism

and

detail

came

man

pur-

the opportunity

Ecole des

at the

when

in 1891,

mistakenly brought a bronze

stat-

ue of his. Death of the Chief, to the Salon, the

government-sponsored art gallery, and it was

immediately accepted. The honor allowed him

the opportunity to meet the sculptor Auguste

Rodin

(see no. 49).

In 1916,

Borglum was commissioned by

group of Southern

women

an image

to execute

of General Robert E. Lee (1807-1870) for the

Mountain

face of Stone

women had

While the

in Georgia.

planned for an isolated

envisioned a

full regalia

soon occurred

as

of

figures.

figure,

he

Dissension

expenses grew; he destroyed

the models, and the state of Georgia filed a

lawsuit.

After painting Stage Coach (1887?), noted

for

delivery

him

and study

to travel to Paris

Mothe,

la

in French.

house, and Borglum was sent to

to California,

chased his work, allowing

Beaux-Arts. His break

natural rock formations.

who

discovered by a local art collector

Borglum won the

case,

but he was

dis-

missed from the project.

of expression, he was

In 1927, he was commissioned by the

United States government to execute

his

most

famous work, the Mount Rushmore sculpture

in

He

South Dakota.

Abraham

on American land expansionism

development of the country.

political

Carved into the mountain 500

above the ground, each head

is

feet

70

The massive heads were

high.

Jefferson,

Lincoln, and Theodore Roosevelt,

for their ideas

and

choose the four presi-

George Washington, Thomas

dents,

(152 m)

feet (21

dynamite and jackhammers. Borglum's

to create sculptures

him

as

an engineer

on

grand

as well as

an

m)

carved with
ability

scale defined
artist,

making

his contributions a

combination of technical

and

He dedicated

teen

artistic

years

mastery.

of

his

Rushmore. Upon
completed the

life

to

his death, his

project.

the last four-

carving

The work

Mount

son Lincoln
cost over

one

million dollars to complete. Other large scale

works of Borglum's include

The Mares of

Diomedes' and the head o( Abraham Lincoln in

Gutzon Borglum

the U.S. Capitol Rotunda.

74

"

HENRI MATISSE
(1869-1954)

French painter, sculptor, and lithographer

Henri Emile Benoit Matisse (mah-TEESE)

was regarded

form

as a

master in the use of color and

on December 31, 1869,

the

in

ily

He was born

convey emotion.

to

to a middle-class fam-

town of Le Cateau-

industrial

Cambresis, France. At age eighteen, he was

Two

sent to Paris to study law.

suffering

years

later,

from an attack of appendicitis, he

began to paint to pass the time while recovering.

Reading a how-to-paint book by Frederic

Goupil, Matisse
ing

class,

draw-

later enrolled in a local

continuing to work

Realizing that his double

was

life

law

at a

office.

intolerable,

Matisse quit law and went to Paris to enroll

where he was

in the Ecole des Beaux-Arts,

first

by Adolphe Bouguereau and then

taught

Gustave Moreau

(see no. 42).

Matisse began to

methodically copy art from the masters he saw

at the

Louvre museum, following exact

without adding any personal

st\'le.

Not

he was rvvent)'-seven years old did he

Henri Matisse

detail

until

dimensional aspect of the

figure.

among

His success grew

really

foreign patrons,

begin to paint, after discovering some of the

including writer Gertrude Stein.

more

with

radical artists

When

of the time.

Matisse was

and Matisse began

sionism. His

new

Moreau had

thirty,

died,

to experiment with impresinstructor,

did not approve of Matisse's

Eugene

Carriere,

new style. His

painting incorporating bright colors.

first

Still Life

les

fauves in

to another identifiable

he opened his

own

operated

for

he

He

broke

1907 and never belonged

movement.

A year later,

art school in France,

three

he was accepted to exhibit

which

In

years.

1913,

New

at the

York

Armory Show, which introduced European

American

New

Against the Light of 1899 (1899), was met with

to the

controversy at the school.

were surprised to meet him, expecting an

Developing the use of color to depict structure, the public first

viewed Matisse's work

1905

d'Automne.

the

portrait

of

Salon

Woman

wife.

his

with the

(1905?), was abused by critics for

confusion of colors.
using

that

style

its

at

The
Hat

"formless

Matisse and others

"

were labeled

les

fauves,

French for "wild beast.

dressed,

ture

the

first

and landscape into

art.

Nude (1906) emphasizes

The

its

cul-

painting Blue

his use

of the three

uneducated man, judging from

After

World War

I,

ill-

his

he began to design

sets for Sergei Diaghilev's ballets.

Other exper-

iments in art included illustrations for books,

such

as Poesies

a series of
ly

to incorporate

art

York, people

paintings.

de Stephen Mallarme (\9 32) and

works using shapes cut from bright-

colored paper.

He

Matisse travelled to Africa the year after the

show and was

public. In

continued

producing

to

Egyptian

paint

into

Curtain

old

age,

(1948) and

Large Lnterior in Red (1949?). Matisse died

on November
75

3,

1954.

GEORGES ROUAULT
(1871-1958)

human

conditions of immorality and redemp-

At

tion.

this time,

he formed a friendship with

Leon

the Catholic writer

who

Bloy,

heavily

influenced his work. In 1903, 1904, and 1905,

he exhibited at the Salon d'Automne with representations of clowns, circus people,

people.

The

and

street

mood and

public rejected the dark

tone of his works, which reflected anger and

sadness for the plight of humanity.

At

thirty-nine,

at the

he had

in attracting the interest

way

of the

he met the

to fame,

lisher

show

his first solo

Galerie Druet in Paris, which succeeded

critics.

On

his

art dealer

and pub-

whom

he signed

Ambroise VoUard, with

a contract in

1917, allowing VoUard to pur-

chase

unfinished work.

his

all

Among

the

paintings executed during this period were The

Old Clown (1917) and The Lovely Madame

(1915), which was a satire on the indifference

of the upper

Georges Rouault

created

class to

World War

the

prints,

I.

Rouault also

most notable collection

being Misere (1914).

Widely exhibited and highly respected

his Hfetime,

Georges Henri Rouauk (roo-OH)

was a French painter devoted to depicting reh-

The son of

gious themes.

Rouault was born on

shelter during

an

27, 1871, in a cellar

Commune

the time of the

began an

May

a cabinet maker,

artillery shelling

of Paris

Revolt.

him.
bus

When

fare to

sent

buy

He

he would not

felt

be able to finish or did not want to

Around 1928, he heralded

style

most of

retrieved

that he

finish.

new

painting

likened to stained glass windows.

The

Mocked
(1938).

on

errands, he

would

save the

(see

by Soldiers

( 1

932) and

Rouault did not

when he made

Head of Christ

travel

until

his first trip to Italy.

1948,

Although

he did not show his work while employed by

Vollard,

meaning "wild

of vibrant colors.

He

beasts"
left

the

school five years later after two unsuccessful

attempts to win the Prix de

The death of Moreau

Rome competition.

left

him

depressed.

Rouault began to paint subjects concerning the

he did publish

under the

title

articles

and poetry

Souvenirs Intimes.

was designated Commander of

In 1951, he

no. 42), later forming

fauve group,

for their use

them and burned 315

glass.

Beaux-Arts school of art and studied under

les

recover over eight hundred

for art manifested itself in

paint.

Gustave Moreau

to

paintings demonstrating this style are Christ

age fourteen,

At age ninteen, he entered the Ecole des

part of

battles

unfinished paintings.

when

artistic career at

profound love

legal

at

Rouault

he was apprenticed to a maker of stained

After Vollard's death, Rouault was tied to

in

the Legion of Honor, a society of acclaimed

artists officially

years later.

recognized by the

papal knight.

Upon

his

given a state funeral, the

artist

76

state.

Two

Pope Pius XII appointed him

death, Rouault was

first

ever given to an

by the French government.

PAUL KLEE
(1879-1940)

70

Belonging to no specific

movement,

art

Paul Klee, a Swiss painter and watercolorist

who was known

for fantastic

dream images and

use of color, was an individualist, remaining

aloof from

all artistic

that

surrounded him

ural

medieval

alliances.

as a

The

that allowed

flair

landscape

youth provided a nat-

him

to

com-

bine the grotesque and the fairy tale in his

which he labeled with

such

art,

fantastic poetic titles,

Two Men Meet, Each Believing

as

the

Be ofHigher Rank A 903).

Klee was born on December 18, 1879, near

Other

to

Bern, Switzerland. His parents were musicians

who

him

in

instilled

accomplished

At nineteen

art.

An

a love of music.

violinist,

Klee linked music to

moved

years of age, he

Munich, Germany, where he studied

to

the

at

Munich Academy and apprenticed with the

painter Franz von Stuck. At that time, he made

When

his first trip to Italy.

years old, he

(Der Blaue Reiter)

Kandinsky

Klee was thirry-two

met members of The Blue Rider

group,

impressionism and a promotion of abstract

His
that

in

second showing, even though he never

became an

official

Klee was a master draftsman, and he did

many

dream imagery

elaborate line drawings using

He

as

described his technique in

the drawings as "taking a line for a walk."

incorporated

letters

and numbers into

the

Gray ofNight (1918).

in 1914 moved
color

and marked the begin-

ning of his ftiUy mature

declared himself "a true painter

by

color."

The

piece that

in

style,
.

nificant than the final form.

Bauhaus School from 1920

lished an essay

his art

Once

trip to Tunisia, Africa,

him toward using

on

art

He
to

In

1931 and pub-

theory in 1925. In 1931,

at the

Dusseldorf Academy

who

said

1933, he returned to Switzerland and

known

as

scleroderma. During this time, his subject matter

grew increasingly gloomy. His

(1940),

possessed

concern

as

this

sig-

taught at the

developed a crippling skin disease

Still Life

period in his art was a composition of colored

because

was "degenerate."

which he

commemorates

visible,"

but was soon dismissed by the Nazis,

in

makes the

his

between the abstract and

as

it

he considered the process of forming more

he began teaching

work; they were used to create a

real,

the visible, rather

He

medium

Emerged from

Red and White Domes (1914).

Klee believed that "art does not reproduce

showed the influence of impressionism.

subject matter.

squares entitled

member.

works were pencil landscapes

earliest

Paul Klee

art.

The Blue Rider group

Klee exhibited with

their

by

established

GG) as a rebellion against

(see no.

an

is

artist,

surrounding us

is

painting,
lifelong

that "the objective world

not the only one possible;

there are others latent."

77

last

summation of his

(1881-1973)

II

termed

melancholy subject matter and

for the

cool blue tones. Blindness was a characteristic

depicted in most of his subjects of this time,

denoting

such

a inner vision,

The Old

as in

Guitarist (1903).

Following
for the

this

was the Rose Period, named

pink shades.

The

subjects during this

period were dancers, acrobats, and harlequins.

The break from lyrical

1 906, when Picasso was
art, as

The

painting occurred in

influenced by African

seen in Les Demoiselles d'Avignon (1907).

painting shocked the public with

stark,

its

primitive exposure of the female form, distort-

ed into geometric shapes,

later

termed cubism.

Cubism attempted to interpret a three-dimensional world on a two-dimensional canvas by

destroying the continuity of the surface and

reducing the subject to sharp-edged planes.

Pablo Picasso

Multiple views of any given object, musical

One

of the most

prolific artists in history,

instruments being his favorite, were superim-

the Spanish painter and sculptor Pablo Picasso

posed to present the idea of the structure of the

more than twenty thousand works

lifetime. Born on October 25, 1881,

and

most

created

in

object

his

in

famous cubist paintings were Head ofa Woman

Malaga, Spain, Picasso was the son of an

teacher,

Jose

Ruiz Blasco.

Picasso was

art

torians

diversity

of

divide

into

remark

by

77;^

the art form

which

Picasso's art,

art his-

prompted the
Georges Dessaignes,

periods,

writer

909) and

position in space. Picasso's

Continuing

first

taught to paint by his father.

The

( 1

its

Three Musicians (1921).

to test the art world,

known

as collage

an oilcloth to the painting

Caning

Chair

principle

(1912).

of cubism

Still

Picasso
to

he created

when he

pasted

with

Life

applied

sculpture,

as

the
in

was

Mandolin and Clarinet (1914). The work

dating from 1918 to 1925, developing the

completed when he was eight years old and

cubist technique, was later termed the Classical

depicted a bullfight. His genius

Period.

"Nothing that anyone can say about Picasso

correct." Picasso's first painting, Picador,

lies in

that he experimented with every

art.

In his

open before

own
us,

is

the fact

medium of

words, "The whole world

is

everything waiting to be done."

By age nineteen,

Picasso was dividing his

time between France and Spain, working in

Experiencing personal turmoil,

his

mood

coincided with the outbreak of the Spanish

Civil

War, moving him to paint Guernica

(1937).

A grim portrayal of the horrors of war,

the painting displays a complexity of symbol-

different styles of painting until his develop-

ism to express his

ment of cubism,

work was exhibited at the Louvre museum

Paris, making Picasso the only living artist
show there. He died on April 8, 1973

Braque

(see no. 74).

bohemian
Period,

in collaboration

street

with Georges

Depicting beggars and the

life

dating from

of

Paris,

1901

to

Picasso's

Blue

1904, was so

Mougins, France.

78

feelings. In

1971, this large

in

to
in

UMBERTO BOCCIONI
(1882-1916)

11
An

Italian painter

leader

of the

and sculptor who was

(botch-ee-OWN-ee)

Boccioni

people living

movement, Umberto

futurist

wrote

the

in

it.

After 1911, he was introduced to cubism,

influencing his later work. Three years

later,

he

and

published his book Futuristic Paintings

of Futuristic Painting
(1910), urging artists to abandon the con-

Sculptures {Pittura-scultura futurista). In 1912,

of enclosed space and adopt technolog-

he advocated the use of a motor to create

Technical Manifesto

straints

Born

civilization.

ical

on October

Calabria,

in

Rome when

he visited

19, 1882,

Italy,

he was sixteen years old, where he began study-

Giacomo

ing art with

style

who

Balla,

new

tures.

media and

art

in the planes

styles

of

that

art

his sculptures,

material.

Milan,

employed

as

artist.

It

was

at

met the writer Filippo

and

time that he

this

Tommaso

where he was

in 1908,

Italy,

commercial

Marinetti, author oi Foundation

who demanded

Manifesto of Futurism,

that

new art should be based on the dynamic element of life, namely speed. Following
Marinetti's

belief that

culture

Italian

he was introduced

placed in the

combination of material and the space around

an

object

is

exemplified

in

also

became

in

World War

recovering from a

I,

and

in

1916,

wound, he was

riding accident.

was

sculptures

to

for the group.

a principal theorist in

create

sense

of industrialization

As with most

in their

vitalit)'

work.

futurist painters, the continu-

movement of planes

ous

mobile

of movement,

believing that artists should express the

in space

was an obses-

sion with Boccioni. His revolutionarv' vision of

art

was best paraphrased by

us

open the

in

it

figure like a

the milieu in

which

his

comment, "Let

window and
it

lives."

include

In painting,

Boccioni would distort forms into a spectrum

of colors to create a link between space and

solid objects.

He

labeled the sense of action in

painting and sculpture "dynamic abstraction."

His

first

major

Rises (1909),
of-

the

futuristic

work was The

Citj'

which demonstrated the growth

modern

industrial

citv

and

his

piece

Development of a Bottle in Space (1912). In

1915, he volunteered for military service

Boccioni joined the group of futurist painters

He

to,

breaking away from traditional

The importance he

burdened by a past that prohibited progress,

and became an ardent speaker

of his sculp-

Boccioni incorporated glass and cement into

introduced him to the color theories applied by

settled in

lines

Forces of a Street (1911).

Continuously adding to the forms and

the neo-impressionists.

After visiting France and Russia, Boccioni

and

Examples of this are State ofMind (1911)

and

turned his

toward neo-impressionism. Balla encour-

aged him to venture into

movement

Umberto Boccioni

the

79

while

killed in a

GEORGE

BELLOlMfS

(1882-1925)

public

attract

to

on

paintings
including

with

attention

Knockout and Club Night

which incorporated

(1907),

his

of boxing,

sport

the

past

his

desire to have excelled in sports into his

Two

art.

years

he painted Stag

later,

Night at Sharkey's (1909), which was

described as having a revolutionary style

incorporating liquidity of movement.

The

Despite his identification with

Eight,

and partly

for his

accomplished

landscape paintings, he was elected an

Academy at
becoming the

associate of the National

twenty-seven,

age

youngest

full

artist to

Four years

tion.

receive the recogni-

he was elected a

later,

member. His paintings had univerappeal to a mass public, as he was

sal

also fascinated

by the spectacle of people

and buildings

in the ciry. In

was one of the American

sented at the

which

George Bellows

New

York Armory Show,

European

introduced

realist

George Wesley

painter

Bellows distinguished himself as an

artist in his

youth. Born in Columbus, Ohio, on August

19, 1882,
at

Ohio

he received his

first

State University,

instruction in art

where he

art

also con-

ried

Art

and began

Students

Branching out

made

age,

New

League in

York City.

lithography in

to

he mar-

a teaching career at the

1916, he

over two hundred prints of various city

scenes, literary illustrations,

and

mentaries. Disturbed by the events of

graduating in 1904, he

War

New

the university to

left

York School of Art. Taught

by the painter Robert Henri

(see no. 65),

he

began to paint scenes of poverty and destitution, entirely

new

He became
on

to

American

the unique character of

States.

art at the time.

determined to create
life

art

in the

based

of the

due

he recorded

his

emotions

artist

Francisco de

Goya

By 1919, he was teaching

in his paintings,

the classics in his work.

By 1907, he had begun

(see no. 33),

at the

Chicago

Art Institute and completing illustrations for

independence in

to

of

work

metric system of quantifying the relationship

both the avant-garde and the

by using references

to the

to Bellows's technique that applied a geo-

known as The Eight, or Ashcan School, which

was headed by Henri, Bellows maintained
his art

in a series

which were often compared

of color.

United

Although associated with the group

I,

prints

comWorld

satirical

tributed cartoons to the student paper. Before

enroll at the

to

Americans.

At twenry-eight years of

American

1913, he

artists repre-

novels by author

tive style

80

H. G. Wells. Representing
classical tradition

he was revered for his innova-

and subject matter.

GEORGES BRAQUE

(1882-1963)

Following in his

Georges

father's profession,

May

Braque (BROCK), born on

1882,

13,

apprenticed himself to the house-painting and

decorating business at age seventeen. Raised in
the French seaport

town of Le Havre on

the

English Channel, he always had an affinity for

the landscape.

Working

and

craftsmanship,

materials,
effects.

for his father

and other

he gained an understanding of

local decorators,

Moving to

decorative

Paris at eighteen,

he enrolled

in evening art classes, but continued to

a decorator,

become

still

Louvre

He

a professional painter.

ed with several

museum

work

as

not convinced that he could

experiment-

schools and visited the

art

often to view the works of the

masters.

After

seeing a series

Cezanne

painter Paul

of exhibits by the
no.

(see

established a studio for himself

paint seriously. In 1906, he

48),

Braque

and began

showed

to

his first

paintings at the Salon des Independants, fol-

lowing the
later

les

all

of these paintings.

their interpretation of nature

"c)'linders, spheres,

and cones." Art

through

historians

consider this to be the origin of cubist paintings.

Two

of Braque's best-known works of this

lished an article in the

magazine Gil Bias accus-

is

little

who were now col-

essentially the use

two-dimensional picture surface

as

of a

opposed

(1914)

most famous painting during

work was

his

controversial,

received international acclaim. In 1912, he

Upon

his

return to Paris, his

partnership with Picasso had ended, and he

adopted a more sensuous

style.

it

and

Braque did not

have his major retrospective exhibit until 1933,

in Basel, Switzerland.

After

World War

II,

he took an interest

Eastern mysticism, especially

time with Picasso was Violin and Candlestick

(1910). Although his

Gillette

Violin (1914).

head wound.

to

the illusion of three-dimensional objects.

Braque's

of these collages,

on a Table:

Drafted into the French army in 1914, he

were concerned with creating

a "tactile space" that

and The

fifty-seven

Still Life

served for three years and received a severe

cubes." Braque and Picasso,

art,

and created

including

Road

ing Braque of "reducing everything to

laborating in

es

In 1908, a critic pub-

period are House at L'Estaque (1908) and

Near L'Estaque (1908).

Georges Braque

and they

the artist Pablo Picasso (see no. 71),

began

He
He met

fauve st)de of vibrant colors.

destroyed

His

later paintings suggest a quest for the spir-

itual,

his

and images of

works

in the

birds in flight

and decorative

pasted strips of wallpaper onto painted canvas-

his

dominated

1950s and 1960s. Braque pro-

duced sculptures, graphics, book

Picasso invented the collage style of art. Braque

81

in

Zen Buddhism.

art.

He

illustrations,

continued to work until

death on August 31- 1963.

HOPPER

EDIMTARD
15.
With

who
city

(1882-1967)

wide

reputation

life,

Edward Hopper

ome of American
on

as

the

artist

painted the loneHness and boredom of

is

revered as the epit-

realist painters.

a artistic career in

New York,

Embarking
illustration

in a

commercial

Two

years later, he switched to painting

enrolled at the

art school at age seventeen.

New York School

by Robert Henri

(see no. 65).

and 1910, he made four

trips to

exposed him to different

and

of Art, taught

On

He married
own right,

her

House by

Josephine Nivison, an

to

United

further his career.

American

States,

continue

a commercial illustrator.

He

he aban-

career

as

York,

seri-

It

works, including

his

which helped

was during

think

"I don't

artist in

one of her shows,

in 1924. In

this

time that

ever tried to paint the

scene; I'm trying to paint myself"

His paintings had a composition

simple geometric forms,

his return to the

New

in

from Europe

did not paint

the Railroad (1925),

Europe, which

but did not

He

some of

she exhibited

he stated,

art styles

States.

art"

ously again until he was forty-one years old.

Between 1906

influence his own.

doned painting

and the United

where he was

born on July 22, 1882, he studied

Armory Show

once, at the 1913

which presented "modern

based on

style

masses of color,

flat

and the use of architectural elements

to create

blunt shapes and angles.

The

exhibited only

figures in his

works were

isolated,

all

anonymous, and non-communicative,

as

portrayed best in the famous Nighthawks

(1942).
cafe,

The

painting shows an all-night

where the few customers

are illumi-

nated by the eerie glare of electric

lights.

Hopper's sense of loneliness was rooted in his presentation of familiar city

scenes and concrete subjects, such as bar-

ren apartments, lunch counters, and city

streets.

In

America

as

space.

The

he

landscapes,

depicted

an alienating and vacuous

figures in

all

his

He

despairing and alone.

works appear
earned wide-

spread recognition for providing visual

form

to

the emotions of the big

Considered revolutionary in
acterized the sense of
ness, also indicative

human

city.

he char-

hopeless-

of the time of the

Great Depression of the

his

art,

930s.

Among

works of that time were Room

Brooklyn

in

and Cape Cod Evening

( 1 932)

(1939).

Hopper's

style

was

development of pop

influential in the

art later.

His

style

and subject matter, characterized by

melancholy,

Edward Hopper

throughout

his

remained

unchanged

life.

82

IMOGEN CUNNINGHAM

(1883-1976)

An American

photographer best known for

her

realistic portraits

and

plants,

and closeups of flowers

Imogen Cunningham began taking

1906 with a small-format camera

pictures in

from a mail-order correspondence

acquired

photograph

She was the daughter of Isaac and Susan

Coast photographers known

was

such

She entered the University of

viewing

After

photography exhibit

Gertrude Kasebier, she wrote a

Scientific

thesis

of

on The

Development of Photography and

had

a passion

as

West

Group f64,

rejected the popular sentimental photog-

museums throughout

California.

Her pho-

tographs were famous for their sharp focus,

as

Two

Divorced

1903, majoring in chemistry.

in

Plant

raphy of the time, she began to show her work

in

six years old.

her.

for gardening. Joining an association of

Cunningham of Portland, Oregon. The family

moved to Seattle, Washington, when Imogen
Washington

around

objects

subjects, especially since she also

who

school.

the

forms and flowers were the most accessible

to

Callas (1929).
in

documentary

began

1934, she changed her style

street

to take pictures

photography and soon

with a

35mm

camera.

Included in exhibitions around the world,

Upon

decided to pursue a career in photography.

she traveled extensively to Europe.

After working in a portrait studio, learning to

return to the United States, she supplemented

retouch negatives and print with platinum

her art career by taking teaching positions peri-

paper, she traveled to Dresden,

study photographic

chemistry.

seven, she published her research

ing lead

for

salts

print paper.

The

Germany,

to

At twentyon

substitut-

platinum in photographic

publication was followed by a

odically at the

San Francisco Art

Amazingly

Padula in 1966, and ten years

profiled in a

documentary by

had her

active, she

1914

solo exhibition in

the

Brooklyn Institute of Arts

and Sciences

in

at

New York,

show-

Marsh

Dawn

ing works such as

at

(1901), which imitated the acad-

emic painting of romanticism,

and the

allegorical prints entitled

The Woods Beyond the World

(1912).

The

next year, she mar-

ried Roi Partridge, a

er in his

own

right,

she had three sons.

settled in the

area

photographwith

whom

The couple

San Francisco Bay

of California, where she

began

commercial

portrait

business in 1921. Being a mother

confined her to the house

fea-

tured in the film Two Photographers by Fred

Women.

first

Institute.

Recognized internationally, she was also

Photography as a Profession for

thesis entitled

her

Imogen Cunninghajn

much

of the time, and she began to

83

later,

CBS

she was

television.

MAX BECKMANN
7]

(1884-1950)

German
maker

expressionist

Max Beckmann,

painter

and

print-

born on February 12,

where he received a

won

1884, was famous for his pessimistic portrayal

teen. After a

of society and catastrophic events, such

he

as the

The son of
a prosperous flour business owner, Beckmann
entered the Art Academy at Dresden,
sinking of the ship Titanic in 1912.

Germany,

He was expelled soon

much independence in
the Weimar Academy,

at age fifteen.

after for exhibiting too

his

work.

Entering

traditional art training, he

a scholarship to study in Paris at age nine-

few weeks

already know."

Academy,

at the Paris

"What

claiming,

left,

He walked

do

they

the entire

there,

he

Paris to Berlin in order to "see things,"

Not long

after his arrival,

Tube,

whom

he had met

student

the

at
at a

way from

he married

said.

Minna

Weimar Academy,

costume

Soon

ball.

after

mother died of cancer, which

the wedding, his

had a profound effect upon him and turned his

work toward a depiction of pain and tragedy.
That

1906, he painted the Great Death

year,

Scene to exorcise the shock of his mother's

now

death. His art was

and

achieving great success,

was placed on the executive

in 1910, he

board of the renowned

The

Secession.
artists

group Berlin

art

was normally reserved

Beckmann

twice his age.

later to

At

office

for

resigned a year

devote more time to his painting.

of age, he enlisted in the

thirty years

medical corps of the

World War

I.

German army during

Although he meant

to be an

objective observer, he was discharged the fol-

lowing year for mental and physical exhaustion.

After

Frankfurt,

he

experience,

the

settled

Germany, where he proceeded

in

to

portray the horrifying experience of war. His

work was

characterized by heavy outlines, areas

of harsh colors, and brutal subject matter.

These pieces included The Descent from the

Cross (1917) and The Dream (1921). He continued to express his feelings toward war into
1930s, especially against the Nazi party.

the

His painting Departure (1933) was

allegory of figures in war.

spoken

attitude,

he

As

was

dismissed

his professorship at the Stadel

He

from

School of Arts.

emigrated to Amsterdam, Holland soon

after.

1947,

He

finally settled in the

where

University in

Max Beckmann

a realistic

a result of his out-

December

St.

he

taught

United States
at

Louis, Missouri.

in

Washington

He

died on

27, 1950.

84

HH

DIEGO RIVERA
78

(1886-1957)

Diego Rivera inspired the movement of

Mexican
buildings.

for public

He was born on December

former

the

in

with the depiction of

historical art

themes painted on murals

social

1886,

8,

town

silver-mining

of

Guanajuato, Mexico. Drawing since the age of

three, Rivera first
at

began

his

formal study of art

San Carlos Academy of Fine Arts

years of age.

Combining

was heavily influenced by the folk

who

Posada,

painted

at eleven

with

politics

art

art,

he

of Jose

satirical portraits criticiz-

ing the regime of the dictator Porfirio Diaz.

commented

Rivera

that through Posada, he

learned "that you cannot paint what you do

not

feel.

After five years at the academy, Rivera was

expelled for leading a student strike against the

At

of Diaz.

re-election

artist,

travelling

of

years

sixteen

age, Rivera defined himself as

an independent

and painting throughout the

country. His most famous piece of this period

was The Threshing Floor (1904), a depiction

of realism. At twenty-one years of age, Rivera
left for

Spain to study.

He was

dissatisfied

Diego Rivera

with

the rigidity of the academic style in Spain, so

from 1909

to 1920,

commenced

he settled in France.

Rivera continued to

take brief jaunts

to

return

trip

to

Mexican Revolution.

in

He was

Gogh

(see nos.

Mexico from pre-Columbian

civihzation

the

introduced to the

included a forecast for the

48 and

Deciding that he was needed

olutionary government
returned in

Communist
official

1921.

He

in

Mexico,

joined

It

new

the

rev-

Rivera

Mexican

paper of the party. El Machete.

In

murals

of

began

he

Mexican

social

to

history,

industry, agriculture,

execute

including

festivals,

and landscape. His

commission was 124 panels

first

for the courtyard

of the Ministry of Education, which took four

years to complete.

Two

years later, in 1929, he

to

present.

The

fiiture.

married the painter Frida Kahlo

56).

in the

Party and began to write for the

Mexico,

piece for the

epic history of

works of painters, including Paul Cezanne and

Vincent van

commemorative

1910 during the

England, Spain, and Holland, along with a

Mexico

his

National Palace in Mexico City, painting an

the

was

in

New York in

commission

RCA

1933

piece

That

also

year,

he

(see no. 94).

that he received

to decorate the lobby of the

building in Rockefeller Center. Rivera

had painted the

face

of the Russian Bolshevik

on the mural, causing a

work was destroyed by authorities
in 1934. Fortunately, one of his assistants had
managed to photograph the piece before it was
destroyed. He returned to Mexico and devoted
leader Vladimir Lenin

scandal; the

his

time to painting on canvas.

Upon

his death,

Rivera was given a state funeral for his contri-

bution to Mexico.

85

MARCEL DUCHAMP

n
A

(1887-1968)

dada artist who focused on

dream imagery, Marcel Duchamp

French

abstract

(doo-SHOMP)

exerted

strong

influence

on the development of twentieth-century

radical art. He came from an artistic family; his
grandfather was an engraver and painter and
his

mother

a musician. His brother, Gaston,

abandoned a law

career to

become

a painter

under the name Jacques Villon. Another

Raymond Duchamp-Villon,

brother,

left

the

members of his family

mechanical motion of the

He

another.

Independants

removed

painting, Landscape at Blainville, at age fifteen,

Duchamp

and two

one

service

soon

after,

where he began
azines

he returned to Paris in 1904,

to

draw cartoons

Le Rire and

Continuing

to

Le

explore

for the

Courrier

different

art

mag-

Frangis.

move-

ments, he was influenced by the rising fauve

artists,

who

used vibrant colors, and in 1910,

he painted The Chess

Players,

which depicted

human

figure in

other

Nude Descending a

exhibited

No.

Staircase

the

Forced into military

followed the

dozens of geometric shapes overlapping one

Born on July 28, 1887, in Blainville,

Normandy, Duchamp painted his first oil
years later, he left for Paris to study at

as well as his fascination

work with the

Nude Descending a Staircase (1912), which was
followed by the more famous Nude Descending
a Staircase No. 2 (1912). It demonstrated

medical profession to become a sculptor.

the Academie Julian.

He

game.

for the

the

at

Salon

Paris

des

1912, provoking anger from

in

exhibiting

He

artists.

quietly

his painting.

At the 1913 Armory Show

New

in

York,

again exhibited the painting, where

critic stated,

looks like an explosion

"It

in a shingle factory."

Duchamp's

The

experience ended

serious involvement in painting.

Taking a job

he did not

a library clerk,

as

exhibit but continued to paint. In 1913, he

began to make
the laws of

his

"ready-mades" in defiance of

Ready-made

art.

out of a normal context and

by simply showing them

took objects

art

made an

form

art

in a different way.

An

example of this type of art was the mounting of

down on

a bicycle tire upside

The

a kitchen stool.

success of his ready-made art brought

to the

United States

showing

at the

29 1

in 1915,

gallery

him

where he had

of the photograph-

er Alfred Stieglitz (see no. 64).

in

co-founding the Societe

New

York City to promote modern

Duchamp

Mona

duction of the

9), to

tache and a goatee.

Lisa by

his

Stripped Bare

Leonardo da

which he added

The

act

was true to

He

of "annihilating painting."

working on

Marcel

Duchamp

by

Her

Bachelors,

a construction of lead wire

glass plates.

continued

The

Even,

86

also

The work

and painted

foil

irony was that his

ready-mades, which were considered

"anti-art,"

mus-

his goal

famous sculpture The Bride

referred to as Large Glass (1923).

on two

art,

exhibited his controversial repro-

Vinci (see no.

is

Anonyme

After

were being preserved

in

to

be

museums.

MARC CHAGALL
(1887-1985)

The

oldest of nine children,

Marc Chagall

(sha-GAHL) was born on

July 7,

Vitebsk, Russia. His father,

who changed

name from

family

supported
barrels.

1887, in
the

Segal to Chagall, financially

by packing herring into

his family

His parents were both devout Hassidic

Jews. Chagall began to copy illustrations from

magazines

as a

in painting.

boy and dreamed about a

career

His parents apprenticed him to

photographer, thinking he would be bet-

local

make

ter able to

a living as a photographer

than a painter. Bored by retouching pictures,

he persuaded

his parents to allow

him

to study

At twenty, he entered the Imperial School

art.

for the Protection

of the Arts

in St. Petersburg,

Russia.

He worked
self

At

as a sign painter to

this time,

support him-

he painted The Dead

Man

The work depicts a funeral

scene in his home town and also shows a man
playing a fiddle on a rooftop. The theme later
(1898).

Marc Chagall

provided the source for the famous Broadway

musical Fiddler on the Roof.
In 1910,

Maxim

Vinaver, a lawyer in

Petersburg, saw Chagall's

a

to

trip

Paris

Chagall

Chagall. There,

for

developed a personal

sryle that

memories of the small Russian

his

Ambroise VoUard

of

his

Nikolai

village

The two

youth and the elements of

fantasy.

I and the Village

(191

1)

and

r/7f Soldiers

Drink (1913).

later

commissar of Vitebsk, and founded an

in

art

museum. He was soon involved

disagreements with the political leaders of

Russia, concerning

what was considered

They were opposed

to his "flying green

and upside-down

girls"

art.

cows

and pressured him

to leave Vitebsk. Constantly

meeting with

dis-

approval of his "floating figures" in his paintings,

he emigrated to Berlin in 1922, where he

began work on

his

autobiography,

Ma

to

for

Paris,

dealer
for

illustrations

create

supported Chagall's

have

to

Souls.

travels

themes for an

to

Vollard
Israel

illustration

in

of

the Bible.

Rosenfeld, was appointed the cultural

school and

enough

book Dead

Gogol's

1931 to search

Returning to Russia in 1916, he married

Bella

in Berlin long

memoirs published, he relocated to

where he was commissioned by the art
his

combined

works indicative of

this are

Remaining

St.

work and sponsored

Vie.

In 1952, he visited Israel again, where he

began a new medium of

He

art,

stained glass.

designed twelve stained glass windows,

symbolizing the twelve tribes of

the

synagogue

at

Hebrew

for

Israel,

University

near

Jerusalem. Other works of his include mosaics

for the First National

Bank

plaza in Chicago,

ceiling decorations for the Paris

stained glass
in

New

York

windows
Cit\'.

France after World

March
87

28, 1985.

for the

Chagall

War

II

Opera, and

United Nations

made

his

home

in

and died there on

GEORGIA O'KEEFFE
(1887-1986)

81

Raised on a small family farm near Sun

Prairie,

Wisconsin, Georgia O'Keeffe went on

to gain international notoriety as a leader of

the

semi-abstract

November

15,

style

of

Born

art.

on

1887, she was the second of

York and studied under Arthur Dow, developing her personal

him

talking about the

style. Later,

inspiration she received

from Dow, she

called

man "who affected my start, who

me to find something of my own." She

the

helped

seven children. At eighteen, she began formal

returned to Texas in 1915 and taught at the

training at the Art Institute of Chicago, trans-

West Texas Normal College

ferring to the Art Students

City two years

League in

Although she

later.

won

for her work, she felt "unoriginal"

school, destroying

commercial

prizes

and quit

work she had comShe worked as a freelance

the

all

pleted as a student.

New York

artist for

Deciding to become a teacher, leaving her

art in public schools

became supervisor of

in Amarillo, Texas,

1912 and taught summer school

at

in

the

University of Virginia. In 1914, she took a

year off to attend

Columbia University

abstract pictures to a friend, Anita

in

New

among them
Number 10 (1916),

took the pictures,

PoUitzer. Anita

the watercolor Blue Lines

to Alfred Stieglitz (see no. 64), a

and owner of the

four years.

spare time to paint, she

numerous

until 1918.

and drawing again, she sent

Painting

gallery 291,

photographer

where the work

was immediately exhibited. O'Keefife had her

solo

first

showing

at

291

same time began posing

tographs for

came

tion

Stieglitz.

five

1917 and

in

for a series

Her

first

at the

of pho-

major exhibi-

years later at the

Anderson

Gallery in

New York. The show was called One

Hundred

Pictures,

and

all

the paintings were

unsigned and untitled. She believed that "any

personal quality in a picture should be signature enough."

At age

thirty-seven, she married Stieglitz.

The famous
Iris

(1926)

(1928).

pieces of this period were Black

and

Two Calla

The works, famous

Lilies

on Pink

for their closeup

view of a single subject, emphasize her use of

voluptuous organic forms, finding

in nature

corresponding images for emotional

states.

In

1929,

began to

she

Mexico. Flowers were

travel

difficult to

to

New

come by

in

the arid climate, so she began painting bones,

new series, which included Cow's

SkullRed, White and Blue (1931). She was
starting a

almost seventy years old

and-a-half-month
trip inspired a

ing

trip

new

when

series of paintings, depict-

what she viewed from the

Above Clouds (1965), which

wide.

Georgia O'KeeflFe

she took a three-

around the world. The

air,
is

such

as

Sky

24-feet (7-m)

Although she preferred imagery

to

words, O'Keeffe published her autobiography,

elegantly illustrated, in 1976.

MAN RAY
(1890-1976)

82

His obituary read, "He used the materials of

poke fun

art to

at

American

serious ideas."

its

Man Ray

and photographer

painter

Emmanuel Radnitsky on August

born

27, 1890, in

Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, started painting at

age

five,

although his parents, Russian-Jewish

immigrants, disapproved and urged him to

pursue architecture or engineering. His autobiography, Self Portrait (1963), describes

of oil paint for

stole tubes

He won
due

ture

a scholarship to college in architec-

mechanical and

to his excellence in

freehand drawing, but he declined

New York

how he

art.

He

Ciry.

held a

variet)'

it

to

an apprentice to an engraver, then

as

He

advertising office.
publicit)' firm

and

night

courses

Design and

He

an

was a mapmaker

for

an

meantime, he enrolled

in

Academy of

National

the

at

first

in

then did layouts for a

later

atlas publisher. In the

go to

of jobs,

at the Ferrer

Center.

visited art galleries in the ciry

lunch hour, meeting Alfred

during his

Maji Ray
Stieglitz (see no.

him
work of the modern
including Paul Cezanne (see
time, Ray was influenced by

64) at his gallery 291. Stieglitz introduced

to

photography and

European
no. 48).

artists,

At

that

romanticism in
scape paintings

to the

art, as

The

(see no.

his canvases

duce a ghostlike imprint, making the camera

79),

by

artist

Marcel

its

Ray hung

corner, forcing the

Bringing dadaism to

it.

New

York,

where

for a fee

of two

dollars, artists

could exhibit whatever they chose. Avant-garde

and revolutionary, Ray mounted a

lages

on

series

of col-

a turnstile so they could be viewed in

sequence to

the

end.

He

titled

the

series

Revolving Doors (1916).

In

1918, he

made

his

first

Arousing curiosity with

Ray took

photographs.

his

his

changing

famous photograph

d'Ingres in 1924, in

style,

Violin

which the sound holes of

the violin were painted

known model named

on the back of a

well-

Kiki.

In the early 1930s, he experimented with

he

helped found the Society of Independent

Artists,

unnecessary to his work.

and Ray joined the

audience to straighten the picture in order to

see

he devel-

placing objects on light-sensitive paper to pro-

participation in his expressions,

one of

later,

oped Rayographs. The technique involved

and The

dada movement. Interested in provoking public

aerographs. In Paris three years

evidenced in his land-

Village (1913)

Hill {1915). In 1915, he met the

Duchamp

which he airbrushed on, and he labeled them

the process

known

as solarization.

He

exposed

a photographic negative to light so that the

background would be bleached, while the

left with a dark, jagged edge. These

object was

photographs resembled paintings, and

Ray

book The Age of Light

published them
died
in his sleep on
Man
Ray
(1934).
in the

November
89

19, 1976, in his Paris studio.

NAUM CABO
(1890-1977)

83

that he

had

his first exhibition in 1916.

His engineering training was evident

He

precision.

in

which displayed mathematical

his sculptures,

experimented with wood, card-

board, and metal in his work, such as in Bust

Head of Woman (1916).

Returning to Russia after the war, he hoped

(1916) and

the

government would be receptive

avant-garde
official art

art.

He was made

magazine

Izo,

to

his

co-editor of the

and exerted a great

deal of influence at the state art school. Faced

with a shortage of

wood and

metal in Russia,

he incorporated celluloid and clear

his structures.

plastic into

art

was under

scrutiny by the state, to which he

political

retaliated

The

By 1920, Gabo's

by writing the

Realistic Manifesto.

Manifesto stated the central values of con-

structivism, saying, "Art has

absolute inde-

its

pendent value and a function to perform."

Government opposition to his art forced

him to move to Berlin in 1922. He remained
there for ten years

and lectured

at the

Bauhaus

School of Art. While in Germany, he

developed the use of plastic and

Naum Gabo

sculptures to convey a sense of space.

Most

Monument

for a

notable was Project for a

Naum Gabo

changed

his

name from Naum

Physics Observatory (1922).

After Nazi guards plundered his studio in

Pevsner to avoid confusion between himself

and

brother Antoine Pevsner,

his

became

sculptor

and

renowned sculptor and

who

Gabo

relocated to Paris, where he joined

the Abstraction Creation group. In 1946, he

move-

emigrated to the United States, where he was

1890, com-

5,

1932,

painter.

leader in the Constructivist

ment, Gabo, born on August

also

fiirther

glass in his

able to execute sculptures

on

a grand scale,

pleted high school in Russia, the place of his

such as the aluminum, bronze,

and enrolled at the University of

Munich, Germany, to study medicine, natural
science, and engineering. His interest in art

and gold wire piece

Suspended in Space (1950).

surfaced after he attended lectures by the art

about in popular national magazines. In 1971,

birth,

historian Heinrich Wolffen

bition
66).

by the

artist

(1914).

his

Soon

first
after,

visited

an exhi-

Wassily Kandinsky (see no.

By 1914, he was

executed

and

resolved to study art

sculpture,

he

left

for

being drafted into the army.

Negro Head

Norway
It

and

was

in

entitled

plastic, steel,

Constructivism

He was commis-

sioned for several sculptures and was written

he received an honorary knighthood from

Queen

Elizabeth

II

of England. After his

death, the magazine Art

News wrote, "He

cre-

ated a brilliant series of transparent construc-

to avoid

tions that gave tangible

Norway

and movement."

90

form

to light, space,

JOAN MIRO
(1893-1983)

84.

A Spanish painter and sculptor whose surreworks combined elements of

alist

came from

of craftsmen. His father

a family

was a goldsmith, and both

his grandfathers

Drawing

were blacksmiths.

at

and

Joan Miro, born on April 20, 1893,

fantasy,

pictures

he began formal training

eight,

reality

at

age

in

Barcelona,

Pressured by his father to abandon art for a

clerk

when he was

Miro took

a job as a store

seventeen years of age.

The

long hours taxed his strength and he suffered a

He

nervous breakdown.
ents'

in

home and

Moon

recovered at his par-

enrolled in another art school

at the

school for three years, he discov-

ered the works of the

was

artists

at this

portrait, in

which

Around 1934,
in

renowned

had

the art dealer Lluis

exhibit enabled

met the

artist

his

work became

Still Life

for five

months on

strate his

empathy

Dividing

his

Miro began

time between France and Spain,

to

create

sculptures,

his

Although he was

He
It is

affiliated

said,

"A form

is

his First self-

les fauves,

The

where he

paintings

The Farmer's Wife (1923) and The Carriage

Light (1923) are representative of his uniqueness, in

which memory and the

creative forces.

and distorted animal

shapes,

irrational are

His dreamlike paintings con-

tain a whimsical quality,

by featuring playful

figures, twisted organic

and odd geometric constructions. The

forms of

his paintings are

organized against a

neutral background, whereas the subject

is

dis-

played in bright color.

The aim of
tradition

the surrealists was to

and perform outrageous

the upper class.

The

denounce

acts to

with

art

in

move-

shock

group, including Yves

Joan Miro

Tanguy and Max Morise, would parade down

91

never something

always a sign of something."

Pablo Picasso (see no. 71). In

on.

most

ments, he rejected the notion that his art was

show, sponsored by

work from then

the

1941 and over 41 inches (104 cm) in height.

1923, he was introduced to surrealism, which

pervaded

demon-

famous of which was Woman, completed

abstract:

to visit France,

the painting

for Spain's poorer citizens.

Dalmau. The success of the

him

political

with an Old Shoe (1937) to

of bright colors.

his first

his

the

support of Spain's stand against fascism.

his style depicted the influ-

for their use

In 1918, he

its

abstract.

ences of the impressionists and the

at

the world of the intellect.

(see

time that he painted

Dog Barking

piece.

(1926), which has been interpreted as a

(see no. 56). It

Claude Monet

and Vincent van Gogh

no. 50)

At that time, Miro painted

symbolic link between the physical vyorld and

1912, where he was taught by Frances Gall.

While

state.

most celebrated

He worked

Spain, the city of his birth.

stable career,

and the

at age fourteen

La Gonja Academy of Art

more

the street shouting defamations against society

STUART DAVIS
(1894-1964)

85

The son of Edward

Stuart Davis, born

was

among

raised

Returning to the United States

Davis, art director of the

Philadelphia Press, and Helen Davis, a sculptor,

on December

He

1894.

7,

including his father's

artists,

Henri

close friend, the painter Robert

(see no.

what constituted "American

of

realistic

paintings

in art. Politically active

enrolled in Henri's art school, where he was

he was the

encouraged to draw everything and anything.

Project sponsored

An

Roosevelt.

he would haunt jazz

clubs and depict the musicians and

To support himself while

paintings.

in

school, he

his feelings

drew cartoons

in

magazines

for the

Artists'

youngest person to exhibit in the 1913

Show
States

nization in

from that

years.

The

many honors

Fine Arts

become

at age twenty-three,

The

In 1921, Davis
a

of a

became the

was the precursor of the pop

critics

art

to use

as the entire

Lucky

painting.

The

solo

Intelligence

first artist

pack of cigarettes,

described as a "collage in paint."

1960s.

modern
first

was

Strike

The painting
movement of

responded favorably,

leading to his further development of abstract

painting. In 1927, in Davis's words, "I nailed
electric fan, a

beater to a table

rubber glove, and an egg-

and used them

subject matter for a year."

sale

The

period was Eggbeater No.

as

my exclusive

first

painting in

(1927).

of these paintings convinced him to

to Paris,

where he rented

and painted

cityscapes.

a studio for

last

The

travel

one year

Among them was Place

Stuart Davis

Pasdeloup (1928).

92

2,

died on June 24, 1964, leaving his

next year he took

mapmaker for the Army

Department during World War I.
commodity,

He

where he exhibited

a job as a

this

during his

United States Post Office on December

and Multiple Views

Gloucester Terrace (1916)

an

articles for its

stamp, designed by him, was issued by the

on. Adopting the

of the impressionists, he had his

liberal

Commemorative postage

have experienced in

moment

(1918), both landscapes.

the

1936 and writing

painting Switchsky's Syntax unfinished.

described the event as "the

work" and resolved

subject

member of the

Union, becoming secretary of the orga-

He

to

by President Franklin D.
also a

1964.

my

show

He was

from Europe and the United

style

throughout the 1930s,

artists

showed.

upsurge

to enroll in the Federal Arts

York, where a conglomerate of

greatest single influence

artist

Armory

An

New

in

modern

first

Davis received

he was the

age,

art."

of "American scenes"

publication Art Front.

The Masses and Harper's Weekly.

At nineteen years of

he

emerged, and Davis opposed cultural isolation

65). Leaving high school at age sixteen, Davis

ardent jazz enthusiast,

in 1929,

was faced with the challenge of determining

HORMAN ROCKVfELL
(1894-1978)

An American
best

known

who

painter and illustrator

for his covers for the

Saturday Evening
Look, and others,

is

magazines the

Ladies' Home Journal,

Norman Rockwell painted

Post,

everyday scenes in such detail that they resembled photographs.

1894, in

He was

New York

born on Februar)'

Rockwell began drawing

compensate

During

At

child

as

his teens,

he took

art courses at the

two-hour commute each

home.

his

sixteen years of age, he quit high school

to concentrate

on

art full time, feeling that art

was the only thing that gave him an

He

to

for his lack of athletic prowess.

Chase School,

way from

3,

City.

identity'.

received a scholarship to attend the Art

Students League to receive traditional training.

Flipping a coin to determine which instructor
to study with, he entered the academic draw-

who

ing class of George Bridgeman,

lished the precedent for his storytelling

painting. Rockwell

and dedicated

Along with

and

to his work,

him

school gave

was described

the nickname

his friends,

as

estabst\'le

his peers in

"The Deacon."

he signed a pact in

blood vowing to "never cheapen their

never do advertising jobs, and never

more than

fifty dollars a

week."

an expression of the idealism he

His works,

with

illustrated

The

from children playing or

to

men

Norman Rockwell

art,

make

pact was

supplemented

humor and

visiting

Huckleberry Finn.

paint

would

sordid

the
like

it

ings were vivid with color

sion.

National

reputation.
ers for

and

ugly.

During World War

and

Freedoms.

immediately

received,
Illustrator

first

com-

mission, and Rockwell was then given a job as

an

illustrator

Information
Rockwell's

responded.

with the magazine

Boy's Life.

He

By 1969, he had painted 317

The Saturday Evening

facial expres-

Rockwell's instructor obtained his

for

The

others soon followed, elevating his national

to be." His paint-

magazines

cover

first

doctors'

talking in a barber shop, to

"excluded

life as I

His

freelance

Tom Sawyer and

as

Saturday Evening Post appeared in 1916, and

teenagers at ice cream parlors. His idealized

income by doing

books such

t^-pes,

views of society and small town America, as he

explained,

his

illustrations for

felt.

warmth, depicted American scenes of all

offices,

of

solemn

and

posters

His

and

960) and

Illustrator (1970).

My

be until he died on

War

distributed

depicting

the
also

Four
well

Adventures as an

Norman

Rockwell, Artist

Rockwell continued to

portray America as he saw

93

the Office of

own books were

including
(

II,

printed

cov-

Post.

it

and wished

November

8,

1978.

it

to

RENE MACRITTE
8]

898-1 967)

:1

autobiography, "moved

with the

self

me

to tears,"

more vigorously and

painting

surrealist

he began

associated

him-

movement.

Magritte was a great force for the surrealist

movement and marketed himself by

newspapers.

letters to

He was

writing

given a contract

with the Galerie Le Centaure, which held his

first

show

solo

reviews from

in

1927.

The show

and he went

critics,

got bad

to Paris for

the next three years, where he completed the

famous

known

False

Mirror (1928).

painting,

and

bles the corporate logo of

fied

eye

fills

CBS TV. A
is

magni-

reflecting a

thought to be a

He

for a solar eclipse.

best-

resem-

it

also

complet-

Threatening Weather (1928), in which a

ed

and armless female

headless
a

his

is

the entire canvas,

cloud-filled sky; the pupil

metaphor

It

in simple form,

wicker

chair,

torso, a tuba,

ghostlike

all

and

and painted

in

white, are suspended in the sky.

Active in both art and writing, he wrote

articles

and statements

for surrealist publica-

tions, stating his feelings

Rene Magritte

for

lUusionary, dreamlike paintings that display

a sense of wit

and humor

the surrealism of

are characteristic

of

Rene Francois Magritte (ma-

GREET). A native of Lessines, Belgium, he

moved with his family to the town of Chatelet.
It

was there that Magritte's mother drowned

herself in the

Sambre River when he was four-

teen years old.

He

then

moved

about the dimensions

of his work. Magritte had an extraordinary

to Charleroi

with his father and two brothers and took an

gift

combining ordinary objects into something

expressive of magic. His

(1937) shows a

man

The Therapeutic II

wearing a hat that

pended on a nonexistent head,

beach; his torso

doves in

it.

is

sitting

a birdcage with

is

sus-

on

two white

Magritte wanted to see objects

"spontaneously brought together in an order in

which the

familiar

and strange

are restored to

mystery," as evidenced in his symbolic dis-

membered

figures.

Described as a heavyset

Royal Academy of Fine Arts in Brussels,

man, he was often photographed wearing the

costume of a cape and bowler hat, two items

Belgium, between 1916 and 1918.

that he painted in several works.

interest

in

When

studying periodically at the

he was twenty-four years old, he

found a job
ry

art,

as a designer in a

and devoted

wallpaper facto-

his leisure

time to painting.

work of

painter Giorgio di

After viewing the

In 1965, he painted his

view of

art

summation on

his

with Exhibition of Painting, where

an empty landscape covers the foreground, a

bowler hat on a stand shaped

like a chess piece

Chirico (1888-1978), especially his Song of

is

balanced by a penguin, and a cloud-filled sky

Love (1914), which, Magritte

is

parted by a dark form.

later

wrote

in his

94

ALEXANDER CALDER
(1898-1976)

American sculptor Alexander Calder

known

for his creation of

was descended from a family of

and

Alexander Stirling Calder, were

his

tradi-

His mother, Nanette Lederer,

tional sculptors.

was a portrait

He
His

artists.

grandfather, Alexander Milne Calder,

father,

best

is

mobile sculpture.

Born on July 22, 1898,

painter.

Sandy, as he was called by his family and

remembered making

friends,

wood and

wire at the age of

figures

At age seventeen, he entered

the Stevens

New

of Technology in Hoboken,

Institute
Jersey,

out of

five.

graduating four years later with a degree

mechanical engineering. After graduating,

in

he went through a succession of

from

jobs,

automotive engineer to insurance investigator

to

machinery salesman. Gaining an

he enrolled

art,

New York

and studied there

at age twenty-five

for three years

with Kenneth Hayes Miller and

Thomas Hart Benton. While

received his

interest in

Art Students League in

at the

art job,

first

magazine National

school,

in

Police Gazette.

He became

fascinated with the circus and used

book of drawings

In 1926, he published a
at

New

Animal

sailed for

York's Central Park

Sketching.

his

moved,

in Paris.

He

wood-and-wire animal

first

later

known

Zoo,

That summer, he

Europe and took sketching

Grande Chaumiere

the

classes at

figures

as Calder's Circus.

that

While

he met the sculptor Jose de Creeft,

who was

impressed by his work and assisted

in exhibiting.

States,

and

the

Company began
as

He

to

"action toys," in

returned to the United

Gould

Manufacturing

market the animal

also

figures

known

as mobiles.

(see no. 84),

who had

ed by

electric

nothing in
ing."

In

life

except their

1934,

his

char-

manner of

react-

New

York's

of Modern Art.

rights his entire

Mondrian, whose studio he

deliberately used the

sets,
life.

illustrated books,

and fought

for

human

Always a craftsman, he

word "work"

"art" to describe his activity.

95

He

which resemble

motorized sculpture

Calder also drew, painted,

orful geometric shapes in the paintings of Piet

first stabiles

parts, operat-

Universe (1934) was purchased by

Museum

mobile

first

motors or hand cranks.

designed stage

These paintings inspired Calder's

moving

acterized these as "abstractions

Calder was influenced by the abstract and col-

1930.

met Joan Miro

on his

also

In 1931, Calder created his

abstract sculptures with

1927. Back in Europe,

visited in

He

a great influence

work.

made

also

in Paris,

him

Alexander Calder

circuses to sketch the animals.

he executed
entitled

his press

and Barnum

pass to visit the Ringling Bros,

and Bailey

he

freelancing for the

instead of

HENRY MOORE
(1898-1986)

known

Best

for

sculptures of the

is

semi-abstract

large,

figure in a reclining

Henry Moore, born on

position,

1898,

his

human

regarded by

many

July

30,

boy growing up

town

in the industrial

of Castleford, Yorkshire, he would always find

material

from the manufacturing plants to

amuse himself with. He would

wood

find

to

whittle with his pocket knife or clay from the

local pits to

mold

into shapes.

twelve years old, he

local

grammar

story

in

if

When

where

he

From

(see no. 11).

Moore would

At the age of

that time on,

He

returned

Moore

sixteen,

grammar school two

army.

to be in

He

war

years

later

home

in

as

full

he joined the

1918 and applied

for a grant to study at the Leeds School of Art

at

age twenry-one.

He was

waited before entering

knew

to have

gone to

art school

better than to believe

what the

teachers said."

Moore's work came to maturity with his

reclining figures, the

Reclining

Woman

five

most famous of which

Carved

(1930).

is

green

in

stone, the figure has a masklike face, while the

work shows Moore's concern

for bringing out

the particular character of the material he uses.

The work

is

evidence of the influence of pre-

Columbian and African

and

life

He

sculptures.

ued to produce reclining

contin-

figures, fusing nature

and suggesting a continuity that

trans-

forms the figure into a landscape of mountains,

valleys, caves,

and more. Later

visits to Paris

brought Moore into contact with the works of

Moore's

entered a

returned to his

in 1917,

Pablo Picasso (see no. 71) and Jean Arp.

respond, "a sculptor."

teacher training college.

teacher. Called to

heard

about the great sculptor

anyone asked him what he wanted

life,

he was

a scholarship to the

school,

class

Michelangelo

won

until

most promi-

as the

nent British sculptor of the twentieth century.

As

was very lucky not

content that he had

art school, stating, "I

press as

first

show was attacked by

solo

"immoral" due to

his

the

de-emphasis of

the head and the features of the face. During

World War H, he was commissioned by the
War Arts Committee to make drawings of

Londoners confined
nightly air raids.

to

His

shelters

series

due

entitled

the

to

Shelter

hun-

Sketches (1941) depicted the spectacle of

dreds of people running for

cover during the air raids. In

1946, he visited

New

York on

the occasion of his retrospective exhibit.

daughter

That same

Mary was

birth of his daughter

his

motif,

year, his

changed

and he began

carve rocking chairs and

pile a series

The

born.

to

com-

of drawings on his

daughter's everyday activities.

Claiming that sculpture

never-ending
stated,

my

of

an

as a sculptor

attempt to

understand and

is

what form and shape

are about."

96

development

realize

Henry Moore

"The whole

is

he

discovery,

ISABEL BISHOP
(1902-1988)

An American

painter

known

for her realistic

works, Isabel Bishop portrayed straightforward

views of people and city

life.

Many

of her sub-

jects

were found around Union Square

York

Cirv'

and the subway she rode

The

her studio for forty years.

subway was

in

New

and from

to

experience of the

integral to her art.

A perfectionist,

her paintings sometimes took months or years

to complete.

Born on March
Ohio, she was raised

3,

1902, in Cincinnati,

in Detroit,

Michigan. Her

family was poor, yet they were high-minded in

on education, and

their views

was not

Isabel

allowed to interact with the neighborhood

children. Lonely as a child, she began to draw,

and her family allowed her

At twelve

to take art lessons.

years of age, she began to

female models. She came to

New

draw from

York

at age

sixteen to continue her studies to

become

commercial designer and

She spent

two years
of

School of Applied Design for

at the

Women, and

illustrator.

and Guy Pene

Du

Bois, former students of the

Robert Henri

During

Union

Depression,

York was a scene of

the National Institute of Arts and Letters, and

she was the

since

(see no. 65).

Great

the

New

Square in

Bishop

she enrolled at the Art Students

relatives,

League to study under Kenneth Hayes Miller

artist

Isabel

then, with the financial assistance

rallies

and

its

first

woman

founding

awarded the American

1947

to be

in 1898.

Artists

for her etching

New

named an

officer

Although she was

Group

Prize in

Outdoor Lunch Room

York Times found her "worn

soapbox orators. She would look out her studio

(1947), the

window

subway straphangers and shopgirls to be fright-

at the scenes

and paint what she saw

without adding sentimental overtones. Her

ures express a feeling of mobility,
said
tic

means

girls

which she

"a potential for change, characteris-

of American

class," as

fig-

life."

She painted the

she called them,

who were

"leisure

the sales-

tion." Similar pieces include

drugstore customers, and pedestrians.

Her marriage

to the neurologist Dr. Harold

George Wolff

in

1934 gave her the

maintain an

securit}' to

went on

to

fort\'-four.

become

Girls

situa-

(1947)

war demonstrators

When

filled

the

cit}'.

she was sevent\-two years old she was

awarded the honor of a retrospective of her

work, presented

at the

Whitney Museum.

In

financial

1978, the lease on her studio, where she had

Their

worked for forty-four years, expired. She

moved to a new studio, but said that her
art would not be the same without her familiar

artistic career.
six years later,

and he

a photographer.

At age

Remsen, was born

human

Two

and Waiting (1935) In the 1960s, she continued to take her models from the street, as anti-

and waitresses hurr\'ing to work, bench

sitters,

son,

eningly isolated from any sort of

Bishop was elected vice president of

97

SALVADOR DALI
(1904-1989)

91

of the psychologist Sigmund

writings

the

(1856-1939), whose theory of the

Freud

unconscious influenced his

also

writers,

(1896-1966).

He

1924, he was

charged with creating a student

for a year. In

was imprisoned

May

and

riot

of the same

sus-

year,

he

briefly in Figueras for alleged

political activities against the

government of

Spain. Reinstated in school a year

permanently expelled
behavior" soon

Breton

incurred the antagonism of

the school authorities, and in

pended

and

artists

poet Andre

the

especially

He was

later style.

influenced by the surrealist

he was

later,

for "extravagant personal

According

after.

to Dali, the

expulsion was a result of his refusal to take an

exam given by

art history

were intellectual
Still

Salvador Dali

active in art, he

tions throughout Spain,

Spanish

artist

from Figueras

province of Catalonia, Salvador Dali

May

born on

ee),

in

the

(DAHL-

1904, was a painter,

11,

his first solo

form of painting.
of Bread

At an

1927,

early age, Dali's artistic skills were

a notary,

who

provided him with reproduc-

two paintings, Joseph Greeting his

Brothers and Portrait of Helen of Troy. He was
municipal school of

ed with various

art,

to pointillism. Salvador
a child,

and

Nunez

at

where he experiment-

art forms,

from impressionism

was impressionable

in his autobiography,

as

77?^ Secret

of Salvador Dali (1942), he admitted that

behavior was always marked by episodes of

Life
his

al prizes.

During

one

to

cubism

paintings.

painted Blood

several

in

wasn't

It

until

Sweeter than

Is

lucinatory

focusing on

art,

He

used

"psychological

term to describe

this

Painting

objects

in

desolate

his

special.

landscapes,

which Dali described as "hand painted

dream images," he called the method "critical
paranoia." It is a state of mind in which
reason was

deliberately

suspended

the subconscious to emerge. This

in

to
is

allow

evident

The Lugubrious (1929), in which he presents

dream

imagery,

and

in

his

famous

The

of Memory (1931), where limp

watches hang from distorted trees.
Persistence

Always productive, he produced the films

At age seventeen, Dali entered the National

in

when he

obsessions."

violent hysteria.

School of Art

and

(1926)

committed

realism in his Basket

Honey, that he demonstrated his renowned hal-

Before he was ten years old, Dali had com-

pleted

he had

in 1925,

childhood memories that he held to be

tions of classical art to copy.

taught traditional art by Juan

and

He used

Harlequin (1926)

apparent, and he was encouraged by his father,

had numerous exhibi-

variety of styles, not quite

of books, jewelry craftsman, and creator of the-

and costumes.

felt

show. At the time, he portrayed a

designer, producer of surrealist films, illustrator

atrical sets

professors he

inferiors.

Madrid, where he
his school years,

won

sever-

he discovered

An Andalusion Dog 1 928) and The Golden Age

(1930). He continued working until his death
(

on January 23, 1989.

98

WILLEM DE KOONING
(1904-1997)

92

The term

"action painting," in reference to

the male figure to painting the female figure.

first

appHed

The

Willem de Kooning, an American

abstract

series

very visible brush strokes, was

interest evolved into his

famous Women

Rotterdam,

of paintings, which included Queen of

Hearts (1943) and Pink Lady (1944). In 1948,

Netherlands, on April 24, 1904, he dropped

he had his most controversial showing, featur-

to

and

painter

Born

sculptor.

in

out of school and went to work

and decorating

proprietors of the business recognized his

Painting (1948). Also an instructor, he taught

art

and encouraged de Kooning

evening

of drawing anatomy from

He

models.

as a

classi-

casts

and

wood

graining

sixteen,

he went

also learned

and marble techniques. At

work

to attend

where he learned the

art classes,

cal skills

to

ing black-and-white enamel abstractions, one

of which was an entirely black painting entitled

talent

live

an apprenfirm.

commercial

tice to a

The

as

decorator for a department store,

but continued to attend

De Kooning had

art

at

Black Mountain

College

He

revolutionized American art with the

new Women

series,

beginning with

strokes to create a fragmented

image.

he stowed away in

become
1926 on

which docked

Virginia.

in

and

the ship Shelley,

Penniless

and

unable to speak English, he got a job painting

houses for nine dollars a day, moving to

York City a year

later.

department store

New

For the next eight years,

he earned a living doing commercial

art,

displays, sign lettering, car-

and painting nightclub murals. In

pentry,

1935, he was persuaded to join the Federal

Arts Project, a

(WPA)

Works

Project Administration

The

series,

was "the interpretation of the

mural

in contrast to his visible

Described

as a

into the landscape.

much

He

also

for

man who would

with his

first

Pink Landscape (1938)

and The Wave (1940). In 1938, he

met Elaine Fried, an artist and art
critic,

whom

he married

later.

After

meeting

five years

Elaine,

he

Willem de Kooning

turned his attention from depicting

99

began to devote

of his time to sculpting in

Fair.

art

dis-

By the late 1950s, his paintings became

more symbolic, where the figure was absorbed

conform to anyone else's

ideas," de Kooning developed his
theme of

its

of tension in his work.

than

paintings,

in

brush strokes and

"choose to be uncomfortable, rather

abstract

figure

torted forms, he succeeded in evoking a sense

the Hall of Pharmao,' at the 1939

New York World's

and distorted

ambiguous environment." Recognized for his

use of soft colors, especially pink and orange,

project that paid local artists to create

to design a

according to de Kooning,

murals for public buildings. Fie was

commissioned

Woman

(1952). Achieving a synthesis of figure painting and abstraction, he used slashing brush

art classes.

a true artist,

North

Connecticut from 1950 to 1951.

fantasized about going to

the United States to

in

Carolina in 1948 and at Yale University in

clay.

DAVID SMITH
(1906-1965)

93

he abandoned painting for

1930,

sculpture after viewing pictures of the

welded metal sculptures of the

artist

Pablo Picasso (see no. 71).

Smith learned

in

riveter

to

work with metal

he was employed

in 1925, while

He

plant in South Bend, Indiana.

duced

as a

Studebaker automobile

pro-

his first sculpture at age twenty-

from agricultural-machinery

seven

He was

parts.

the

artist in

first

the

United States to make welded metal

sculptures. In 1934, he established a

studio in a machine shop in Brooklyn,

New

York, called the Terminal Iron

Works.

He

then travelled to Europe

and the Soviet Union, and upon

return

to

United

the

States,

himself with

involved

he

Works

the

(WPA)

Administration

Progress

his

Federal Arts Project. In 1937, Smith

began a

series

the

entitled

first

of antiwar medallions,

Medals for Dishonor

(1937). During World War II, he

worked in a locomotive factory,

acquiring

lifelong

machinery and

David Smith

sculptures using wires

An American

sculptor and painter, David

Roland Smith was born on March

Decatur,

Illinois.

After his

he dropped out to move to

at various jobs,

He

from

first

Students League in
to

that art

metal

strips,

and

working

at the

Art

York, which intro-

The

art,

and he

influence of

to attach bits

objects he

human

metal rods twisted around a central shape, rep-

cubism and abstract

moved him

Royal Bird (1948), were metaphors for

year of college,

New York,

intended to become a painter.

rods.

violence and greed, showing skeletal forms of

taxi driver to carpenter.

New

and

of Smith's sculptures, such as

1906, in

9,

completed two years of study

duced him

in

construc-

he began to create

tion. After the war,

Many

interest

large-scale

of wood,

found on the

street

resenting an organic figure.

his

works were

showing
ate

"real

his

Cubi

change of style,

objects"

Most impressive of

series,

as

begun

he

that exist in

set

1963,

"real

space,"

instead of illusionary objects restricted to the

base of the sculpture

consist

shapes

of

large,

The Cubi works

itself.

blocklike,

arranged

at

Unfortunately, his

on became the support

23, 1965, by an automobile accident.

100

life

metal

polished

oblique

to his paintings. Finally, the canvas he painted

for his structures. In

in

out to cre-

angles.

was cut short on

May

FRIDA KAHLO
(1907-1954)

94.

in

Magdalena Carmen Frida Kahlo was born

was content

Mexico City on July

feelings,

of six

6, 1907, the third

children of Guillermo Kahlo, a jewelry maker.

She was introduced

had an

interest in

by her

to art

father,

who

Mexican archeology and

art.

to be able to merely express her

although she had three showings dur-

The French

ing her lifetime.

Also an amateur painter, he would take Frida

(see

with him to the park to paint. Later he taught

1939. She had her

how

her

camera and how

to use a

to develop

and retouch photos.

At age

fifteen,

Preparatory School, which

elite

youth attended

While

to prepare for professional careers.

she

first

made

Diego Rivera

there,

the acquaintance of the painter

who had been com-

(see no. 78),

missioned to paint a mural for the school.

Three years
dav

later,

on September

Mexico celebrated

after

17, 1925, the

anniversary' of

its

independence from Spain, Kahlo was struck by

and

a bus

of plaster
to

paral\'2ed.
casts to

Forced to wear

keep her

perform any physical

still,

number

she was unable

activities

mind from

paint to free her

no. 79)

1953.

and began

arranged her show in Paris in

incorporating

subject

The

with graphic imagery.

painting Broken

Column (1944)

depicts her wearing a metal

brace, while her

body

ken column
over her

in place

inabilit)' to

is

open

have children

and

included

and her

own

a pelvic

bone, and a machine.

Covoacan, Mexico.

to

elements,

about the accident

inability to have children.

Kahlo recu-

perated but was always in pain. She became

joining

politically

active,

Communist

Party and

workers'

rallies,

Young

the

involving herself in

making speeches and attending

meetings to improve the plight of Mexico's

working

class.

work The

In 1929, she painted her

Bus, depicting the

life

famous

of the people

of Mexico. The painting showed figures

ing

in

social

class

essentially equal

differ-

challenging stereotypes

and making the statement

that

all

The

her works are at the Frida Kahlo

the pain.

fantastical

feelings

is

revealed in

Henry Ford Hospital (1932), where she depicts

herself in a hospital bed surrounded by a baby,

work to Rivera, who encouraged

continue. Her paintings had broad color

expressing her

to reveal a bro-

of her spine. Her sorrow

she took her

areas

matter from

folk art in her depictions of her personal grief

After three years of painting self-portraits,

her to

poet

first exhibition in Mexico in

Her paintings affirmed her Mexican

identity,

she entered the National

surrealist

Andre Breton (1896-1966) arranged her New

York exhibition in 1938, and Marcel Duchamp

people are

and deserve equal economic

standing.

At twenty-two, she married Rivera, and

together they traveled around the world. She

Frida Kahlo

never pushed for exhibitions of her work and

101

majority of

Museum

in

HENRI CARTIER-BRE
(1908-)

9!)

A French

photographer

known

for his

pho-

tojournahstic reporting and a key figure in the

of the scene with sharp observations.

documentary

events, introducing a

(car-tee-YAY-

tography.

His

bress-SONE) was born on August 22, 1908.

ment was

in

development of photography

as a

Henri Cartier-Bresson

record,

ExceUing

in

composition, he had a unique

abiUry to capture the fleeting

moment, which

he termed the "decisive moment," where the

significance of the subject

revealed in form,

is

Bresson studied art in Paris from age nineteen

to twenty with the cubist painter

Andre Lhote.

to surrealist painting,

He

to influence his photography.

didn't begin

photography

until 1930,

when he

was influenced by the works of twentieth century photographers

Man Ray

Eugene Atget. In 1931, he

(see no. 82)

and

visited Africa

and

began taking photographs with a miniature

camera.

35mm

Two

years

later,

he purchased his

first

Cartier-Bresson's
narrative

qualirv

that

photographs

have

combines the drama

new

interest in

in the

Renoir

The

including

People

he served in the

II,

French army, was captured, and spent thirty-

months

five

German

in

prison camps. After

three separate attempts, he escaped

way

his

where he joined

to Paris,

and made
a photo-

graphic unit of the Resistance that recorded the

German occupation and

retreat following the

Allied invasion.

After the war, he

and

States,

moved

to

United

the

1947, he founded

in

Magnum

Photos with the photographer Robert Capa

98) and others.

(see no.

It

cooperative photo agency.

Leica camera.

war

assisted director Jean

films,

During World War

Originally interested in pursuing painting,

which was

three

found

assign-

civil

of France (1936).

content, and expression.

Lhote introduced him

also

chose

perspective to pho-

Spain during the

filmmaking and

on

new

photojournalistic

first

He

1930s.

late

He

of people, rather than

to record the reactions

piled the

became the

first

The agency com-

work of several photographers, work-

ing worldwide, to provide photos to magazines.

tion

He

served as president of the organiza-

from 1956

Working
from 1948

to 1966.

in

Pakistan,

India,

to 1954,

months of the change

People's

to

first

first six

government

in

Republic of China.

became the

and China

he witnessed the

In

in the

1954,

he

photographer from the West

be allowed to photograph in the Soviet

Union

since

World War

II,

publishing his pho-

tographs in the book The People of Moscow, in

1955. That same year, he was invited

become the first photographer to exhibit at

Louvre

museum

in Paris.

photographs include
(1971),

Henri

Portraits

Line), in 1989.

102

France

1932-1983 (1983), and

his early love

book of drawings.
Henri Cartier-Bresson

His collections of

Cartier-Bresson's

Cartier-Bresson

Continuing

to

the

Traits

in

India

(1988).

of art, he published a

pour

Traits (Line

by

FRANCIS BACON
(1909-1992)

Francis Bacon, born

on October

28, 1909,

Dublin, Ireland, the place of his birth,

left

set

to

before

While

or designer.

in Paris in 1927,

he visited

an exhibit by the painter Pablo Picasso

71),

at

self-taught

out to make a name for himself

London and worked at an office
relocating to Paris to work as an inteii-

and

Bacon went

painter

He was

of age.

years

sixteen

became fascinated with the

exclaimed,

"Why

shouldn't

Returning to London

(see no.

paintings,

and

try to paint?"

he sup-

a year later,

ported himself as a furniture designer and intewhile continuing to paint.

rior decorator

had an exhibit

magazine Studio published a two-page

on

British

article

"The 1930 Look

in

Decoration." His individual style

is

showing

his

He

and the

in his studio in 1930,

entitled

Francis

based on images of terror and anger, using

Bacon

bizarre subject matter to shock the audience

about the violence of the

emerged on the

art

human

condition.

He

scene in 1933 with three

abstract paintings entitled Crucifixions. After a

series

of rejections from museums and

galleries,

ed demonstrated

his use

of gruesome colors

and horrifying contortions of

figures.

and adorned

in a scream,

in a lurid purple

followed by the failure of his

first

solo show.

drape, as opposed to the red normally

gamble and

lost

interest in

the pope.

Bacon began

to

During the
as

an air-raid warden

ings, dating

was

unknown

picture

"first

he

ever

1944, because he

to

He remained

when he
really

Painting (1946).

He

hovering above a

field,

painted the

liked,"

intended

entitled

to be a bird

it

but the finished paint-

ing was centered around a foreboding umbrella.

Now

first

old.

equated with surrealism, he had his

major solo show when he was

It

series

was

at this

Popes (1949),

fort\'

years

showing that he unveiled

of paintings

worn by

human body

known

variations

as

his

the Screaming

on the

Portrait

of

Exhibiting his

in a series

committed suicide
had

in

cide provided the

activities.

1971, the year Bacon

theme

paintings,

sational

companion
Dyer

his

of daily

grand retrospective in

his

Paris.

The

sui-

for Bacon's most senTriptych,

titled

May-June

1973 (1975), which was written about in Time

and Newsweek magazines. The painting depicted the figure of Dyer in a

state

Painting the morbid and violent in

said

he

still

remained exhilarated:

painting, however despairing,

When
\XTien

ten popes

he began to paint

1970s,

George Dyer

Bacon paint-

The more than

work throughout Europe and

the United States in the late 1960s and early

Innocent Xhy the painter Diego Velazquez (see

no. 25).

also painted the

Eadweard Muybridge.

in a civil defense

with them.
1946,

until

II,

about seven hundred paint-

from 1929

dissatisfied

War

of World

years

He destroyed

unit.

He

based on the motion studies of photographer

painting.

worked

He

depicted the pope with a twisted mouth, open

103

meet someone

of nausea.
life,

comes out

get

have a mars'elous win."

Bacon

"When

right.

on well with.

JACKSON POLLOCK
(1912-1956)

9]

attacked the faculty for

In

ics.

entered

emphasis on

its

1930, he

moved

the Art

Students

to

New

athlet-

York and

League,

studying

under Thomas Hart Benton (1889-1975).

The

emphasized

painting

realistic

bored Pollock and led to

abstract painting.

At

his

in

this time,

he also

country by freight

several trips across the

class

experiments in

made
train,

sketching the spacious landscapes.

During the Great Depression, he incorporated his style of surrealism,

where the uncon-

the focus, with cubism in his painting

scious

is

titled

Masked Image (1928). This painting

shows blurred and writhing images, rather

than

the

cubism.

sharp

He was

outlines

characteristic

of

employed by the Works

also

Progress Administration

(WPA)

Federal Arts

Project in 1935.
In 1937, he began psychiatric treatment for

Jackson Pollock

alcoholism.

pioneer of American abstract expression-

known as action

ist

art

is

dripped on

painting, in

a canvas

which paint

with no fixed center,

Paul Jackson Pollock was a key figure in

ing

New York City the world capital

art.

The youngest of five

became

also

artists.

makof modern

boys, three of

Pollock was

whom

born on

apy.

in

Henderson,

His doctor, Joseph

had him complete drawings

Henderson

as part

of his ther-

published these drawings

later

1970 under the

title

Jackson

Pollock:

Psychoanalytic Drawings.

one-man show in 1943,

show of new works
every year after that. Moving to the

Pollock had his

in

New

nearly

first

York, and had a

January 28, 1912, on a sheep ranch near Cody,

country in 1947, he began to execute

Wyoming. His

creative works, inspiring action painting.

and he had

He worked

family was constantly moving,

lived in six states

as a

by the age of ten.

farmhand, milking cows, plow-

and harvesting crops

ing

fields,

free

time was spent exploring the Indian ruins

as a boy.

His

of Arizona, where the family settled for some

time.

It

was

in

Arizona that he developed an

interest in Indian

When

to

worked

as a

way

Riverside,

year

California,

later

at age sixteen,

for

where he

Manual Arts

he was expelled a

preparing and

the floor

He

and dripped,

splat-

He

titled

and dribbled paint onto

these expressions Cathedral,

it.

Number

1 (1947),

White Cockatoo (1948), and his most celebrated.

Autumn Rhythm

ry color

is

(1950), where the prima-

black, the secondary

is

orange, with

a focal point, as the action spreads across the

canvas.

Although he was gaining acclaim interna-

surveyor and began to draw as a

to release tension. Entering

High School

tered,

on

touches of other hues; the entire work lacks

sand painting.

he was fourteen years old, the family

moved

laid a canvas

most

his

distributing

paper entitled Journal of Liberty, in which he

tionally,

August

he was uneasy about his fame.

On

12, 1956, while driving a car he

had

traded two paintings

overturned the

104

car,

for,

he struck a bump,

and died

instantly.

;i

91 3-1 954)

Robert Capa was born

Photojournalist

Endre Erne Friedman on October

He was

Hungary')-

in

ticipation

to his active political par-

His

first

it

job,

in

one place long

home.

German newspaper

as

an errand boy

Dephot.

for the

was there that

It

he came into contact with successful photojournalists of

Germany. Holding

a variety of

He

took the

detailing the settlement of the

rience of

war

Capa was

(see no. 95), the

cooperative agency for worldwide free-

lance photographers. In 1954, Life magazine

him an assignment covering the war in

(later known as Vietnam).
He took the job and was killed by a land mine

offered

French Indochina

on

May

25, 1954, while trying to capture a

watching others and borrowing cameras. His

was the

first

It is

published photograph was of Russian rev-

meeting in Copenhagen, Denmark.

to Paris for a short term, he passed

himself off as a wealthy American photographer

named Robert Capa.

Later, emigrating to

the United States as Robert Capa, he

would

take photographs for magazines and newspapers, obtaining three times the

unknown

pay

rate that

an

photographer would.

Known

for his action photographs, he

his career lifted

when he

saw

accepted a position in

1936 covering the Spanish

Civil War.

The pho-

tographs later appeared in Life magazine and

brought him immediate international recognition.

His most famous photograph taken dur-

ing the Spanish Civil

War shows a Loyalist solwhen a bullet ends his

dier at the exact second

His photographs were admired for their

grim views of death and destruction. Capa

life.

would immerse himself in

battle to capture the

best images, stating, "If your pictures aren't

good enough, you're not close enough." Life

magazine commissioned him to record the
events of

World War

the fighting in Africa,

II

in Europe.

Sicily,

and

He

Italy

covered

and

also

photographed the Normandy invasion on June

6,

Robert Capa

1944. In 1948, he was sent to Palestine to

105

believed that he

.American killed in that conflict.

olutionary leader Leon Trotsk\', taken in 1931

Moving

nation and

founder of Magnum Photos

with Henri Cartier-Bresson

scene of soldiers fighting.

at a

new

first

pictures

as the fighting occurred.

also a

jobs in the photographic field, he learned by

first

first

captured soldiers in action and the actual expe-

first

where he learned the technique

of photography, was

record the establishment of Israel and the

Arab-Israeli war.

Emigrating to

groups.

liberal

Germany, he never remained

to call

day

expelled from the country

due

at age seventeen

enough

(modern

Austria-Hungary

Budapest,

13, 1913, in

LEONARD BASKIN
(1922-)

The son of

who

a rabbi

emigrated to the

(33-cm) high, entitled Torso

United States from Poland, Leonard Baskin

was born on August

Brunswick,

15,

New

Jersey.

and

book

1922,

in

American

New

sculptor,

After

World War

New

York and attended the

Research,

(circa 1943).

New

he returned to

II,

School for Social

continuing to voice his political

Baskin

opinions through his work. While in school, he

received a strict religious upbringing. At age

executed a red oak statue oi Prometheus (1947),

printmaker,

illustrator,

he enrolled in night school

sixteen,

Educational Alliance, where for

at

five years,

the

he

studied with the sculptor Maurice Glickman

and

later

took courses

of Architecture.

He

at the

New York

School

received a scholarship to

study at the Yale University School of Fine Arts

but was expelled in

insubordination."

He

1943

for

enlisted

in

the

navy,

merchant marines. While on

was allowed
self,

to set

up

ship,

he

a small studio for him-

where he wrote and sculpted.

he completed a wood sculpture,

On

board,

13-inches

class.

fellowship in

work earned him a

1947, and he also became editor

of the journal

New Foundation, which

His social message in

ed

articles

his

on the economic

state

present-

of people in

society.

During

"incorrigible

qualifying as a pilot, and later was a gunner

in the

representing the hardships of the working

his

year of school,

last

abandoned sculpture
for a year.

He found

that prints were effective

and he showed

in relaying social messages,

six prints entitled

1949, he

of printmaking

in favor

his

Prophet (circa 1949) at an

exhibition at the Philadelphia Art Alliance.

Baskin

left for

Europe

1950 and had

in

solo exhibition in Florence,

showed only woodcut

prints,

He

including Son

he became an

later,

printmaking

instructor in

his first

1951.

Returning to the

Carrying Father (1950).

United States a year

Italy, in

at

the Worcester,

Museum. He also established his own company, the Gehenna Press, in

his home at Northampton, Massachusetts. The
press produced over one hundred books, many
Massachusetts Art

illustrated

by

his prints,

and remained

active

for twenty-five years.

Although he did not exhibit between 1952

and 1956, he continued

to sculpt, incorporat-

ing the themes of death and reverence to past

poets and artists in his work.

The bronze Head

of Blake (1955) was his most remarkable piece

from this time and was also almost lifelike.

Communicating moral

human

loose

obese bodies, and spindly legs

faces,

to illustrate his

tion
his

Leonard Baskin

through the

ideas

portrayal of

Baskin included

opinion of the spoiled condi-

of humankind.

Other

work includes Armored

Figure [1^7 \).

106

figures,

examples

Man

of

(1962) and

ANDY WARHOL
(19307-1987)

Andy Warhol was an American painter and

who was a leader of the pop art
movement because of his devotion to eliminatfilmmaker

ing individuality in
ate art that

Never discussing

make up
every

art.

Pop

his

a different

to cre-

common

life.

Warhol would often

background for himself at

Although

interview.

meant

is

life,

thought that he was born

as

it
is
commonly
Andrew Warhola

Pennsylvania, other records

Philadelphia,

in

art

akin to everyday

is

say Pittsburgh and give the birth year as either

1927, 1928, 1929, 1931, or 1932.

At seventeen years of
Carnegie

the

Institute

Pittsburgh to study

he sold

tion,

worked

as a

most

the

artist at

gifted

in

for his educa-

from a truck and

he moved to

an advertising

as

He was

over ten years.

he entered

later

decorator at a department

store. After graduation,

where he worked

To pay

art.

fruit

window

age,

of Technology

New York
artist for

and successful commercial

the time. In 1957, he received the Art

Directors Club
tisement,

and

three years

it

later.

Andy Warhol

considered to be one of

Medal

for a giant shoe adver-

him to begin to paint

The department store Lord &

thought beautiful

always

things

you use

every day and never think about."

inspired

1964, he established his

In

called the Factory,

first

studio,

where he could mass-pro-

Taylor bought his enlarged painting of the

duce assignments using a photographic

comic-strip hero Dick Tracy to display in their

screen

window

around him, he was inspired by

pop

in 1961.

This launched

his career as a

According to Warhol, he painted what he

did because he had no ideas of his own.

an

to

do

stencil pictures

art dealer

of

money

He

because

had told him to paint whatever

was most important

to

him.

Recalling

his

fondness for soup, eating the same soup lunch

in his mother's kitchen for

the street, turning the

into art.

famous

signs

and

will be

Exploring

new

Interview,

which published

about current

avenues, he began a magazine,

of movies, including Empire (1964?) and

ducing 100 Soup Cans (1962). The paintings

The Chelsea

were exhibited the next year and were noted

as

no

action or plot.

being his most successful commercial items.

his

works

images of film

star

his art

by

Marilyn Monroe. Warhol

stating, "I paint things

illustrated articles

celebrities.

Turning to filmmaking, he produced a

twenty years, he

famous work consisted of multiple

that "in the future,

for fifteen minutes."

everybody

series

defended

silk

everything

common and mundane

Warhol observed

painted rows of cans of Campbell Soup, pro-

similar

by

advertisements he saw in supermarkets and on

artist.

began

Influenced

process.

Girls (1966), in

in the

He

book Andy

States,

107

opened

Warhol's Exposure

Andy Warhol Museum,

artist museum in the United

(1980). In 1994, the

the largest single

which there was

then published some of

in Pittsburgh.

TRIVIA QUIZ
1.

Many

artists

self-portrait.

condemned

for

artist

7. Artists often

was supposedly

blasphemy by introducing

being the

first

What

famous

artist,

for

female to receive the

Legion of Honor, went to unique mea

among

did actually paint his image

go to extreme lengths to

depict a subject.

onto sculpture, and which

his portrait
artist

have achieved fame for their

Which

sures to paint her subject?

the famous personages depicted in fres-

What were

those measures? (See page 47)

coes for the Vatican Palace?

(See pages 8

and 20)

8.

Individual style

is

important to

What two unique methods

2.

What two women

da Vinci incorporate into

revolutionized the art

world by joining the impressionist move-

Mona

ment? What was the main subject of their

(See page 16)

artists.

did Leonardo

his

famous

and how did they work?

Lisa,

work? (See pages 58 and 61)

9.

3.

Nicknames

the profession of their fathers, the

name

of the people they were apprenticed

Few

achieve fame in their lifetime.

artists

What was

that allude to their profession,

artist,

Elisabetta Sirani's

fame

and how did she prove

as

an

herself?

(See page 34)

to,

or the place of their birth were often

bestowed on
a

name

artists.

Which

artist

invented

10.

in order to obtain better pay?

What was
it

Hogarth's Act, and

when was

established? (See page 36)

(See page 105)

11.
4.

Who was

responsible for creating the

symbol of authority and

domes throughout

model

What

and what

art

to

Washington

movement did he

introduce? (See page 43)

for

the Western world?

(See page 18)

12.

What
all

5.

was given

label

Allston,

What was Andy Warhol's famous

predic-

artist

was the only one to exhibit

eight impressionist shows?

this artist's

What was

motto? (See page 51)

tion for people in the future?

(See page 107)

13.

What

painting gave birth to the move-

ment known
6.

Photographers often capture a

on

film.

ture

moment

was the

as

impressionism?

artist? (See

Who

page 57)

Techniques are employed to capat their best. What tech

Mathew Brady employ and

models

niques did

what were the

effects? (See

14.

What

is

pointillism?

(See page 64)

page 48)

108

Who originated

it?

in

TRIVIA QUIZ
15.

Where

is

Mount Rushmore? Whose heads

on it, and what was the name

19.

16.

of the

artist that

What

turned Henri Matisse towards an

artistic career?

him and

created

What

it?

(See page 74)

painting was the precursor of the

movement of the 1960s? Describe

art

the painting. (See page 92)

20.

What

action painting?

is

work was

term was appUed to

later to the entire

What
pop

are carved

group? "WTiat

the term

first

To whose

art

applied to? (See

page 99)

does the term mean? (See page 75)

21.
17.

Who

created the art form

lage?

How was

it

known

as col-

Who
it

What Broadway
Marc Chagall?

first

Louvre

photographer to exhib-

museum

in Paris?

What

agency did he found and what purpose

created? (See page 78)

did
18.

was the

at the

it

serve? (See page 102)

musical was inspired by

(See page 87)

SUGGESTED PROJECTS
1.

In our

modern times

it is

difficult to

imag-

ine the materials artists used in the past to

create art,

make
tools

from cavemen who used

paint to the ancient artists

were primitive

and appreciate the

express themselves,

oil colors.

berries to

whose only

To understand

tools available to artists to

tr)'

2. Many people are in awe of Michelangelo,

who painted the ceiling of the Sistine Chapel

on
on

painting, drawing, or

not thought of as means to draw or paint.

burnt

tree

are

ground beets

as paint

To capture

the feeling of this

and

bark for charcoal drawings.

109

draw

a picture

a piece of paper taped to the underside of

a table. Lie

creating a sculpture using materials normally

Some examples

his back.

incredible feat, try to paint or

on your back and begin.

93

INDEX
100 Soup Cans

107

Blue

62
5
55

Academie
Academie

Colarossi

Acropolis

Suisse

15,

Bonheur, Marie

Aesop 24

Age of Bronze 56
Agony in tfie Garden
Aha Oe Feii 62

Washington 43
American Amateur
Photography 71

Anatomy Lesson
33

Andre

25

Burial of

Annunciation

Burke,

John

Arcimboldo, Giuseppe 24

Bus

Edmund 38
22

art spirit

Bacchus 32
Bacon, Francis

Giocomo 79
98
Baskin, Leonard 106
Bathers

Woods

the

64

59,

Battle of the

Mary 61
Number
CBS 83, 94

Centaurs

Bauhaus School

of Art

73,

77
50

Beato Beatrix

Belgium

12, 14, 31,

54

Bellelli

family

Bellini,

Gentile

Bellini,

Giovanni

Bellini,

Jacopo

George 72, 80
Belshazzor's Feast 43
Birds of America 44

Charles

in

Hunting Dress

King of England

I,

III,

Bishop, Isabel

97

Christ

16,

42
73, 77

on

Bloue Reiter

Cimabue 10
City Rises 79
Civil War 48

is

Sweeter than

Honey 98

Forces of a Street

the

35

Bones

41

Sigmund 98

Friedman, Endre Erno

From Delacroix

to

105

Nea
67

Impressionism
Sculptures

and

79

Gobo, Noum 90

Andrea

16

Descent from the Cross

29

84

Gainsborough, Thomas 31,

39

30

Enemies 53

George
36
George

75

38

Dog Barking

106

Gentle Art of Making

85

Comedy

Press

Gentileschi, Artemisia

Giorgio 94

Diaz, Porfirio

Gorrick, David 38
Gates of Hell 56, 70
Gauguin, Paul 62, 63, 67,

68
Gehenna

Development of a Bottle in
Space 79
Di Betto Bardi, Donoto di

110

22

War 54

French Revolution
Freud,

King of France

Gargantua 45

Del Verrocchio,

Divine

I,

Futuristic Paintings

Death of the Chief 74

Degas, Edgar 54, 61, 67,

Discourses

79

of Futurism

43
Dead Mother 68
Dead Souls 87
Death Chamber 68

Di Chirico,

27
79

Foundation and Manifesto

ofElija

Dioghilev, Sergei
the Cross

40

Fontano, Lovinio

Fra Filippo Lippi

Niccolo

14, 16, 17, 18, 19,

Christ

on the Roof 87
Allesondro 15

Follies

92
Jose 95

33

23

Blake, William

Blood

14

Chess Players 86
chiaroscuro

88

King of Spain

40
Charles the Bold

24
35

Filipepi,

Departure

30, 31

Charles

golante

Fiddler

69

15

Iris

by Touching

89
Marc 87
I

Venus

Block

16, 17,

104

Charles
1

Bellows,

Birth of

fete

31

Do

92,

100

Franco-Prussian

Cesare Borgia
6
Cezanne, Paul 55, 59, 81,
Chagall,

63

Federal Arts Project

De Creeft,
De Kooning, Willem 99
Dead Life 68
Dead Man 87
Dead Man Restored to Life

Benvenuto 22

Cellini,

85,

Max 84

Beckmann,

91

75, 76, 81

Francis

Cassatt,

Cathedral,

94

Davis, Stuart

102
51

14, 17

102,

Cartier-Bresson's France

Basket of Bread

in

91

105

Bollo,

Bother

102, 105

Cortier-Bresson, Henri

103

Man

100
Cunningham, Imogen 83

David

37

Light

of

fauve

Carriage

37

37

capricii

Fall

Cry 68

Leonardo

Farmer's Wife

Caravaggio 28, 29, 30, 32

Cord Players 55

Conoletto

Avenue de I'Opero 51

10

20, 21, 86
dado 86, 89
daguerreotype 48
Doli, Salvador 98
Dante 10, 50
Darwin, Charles 46
Daumier, Honore 45

21, 26
Athens 8
atmospheric perspective
Autumn Rhythm 104

Eve

Ferdinand

Canal, Giovanni Antonio

Eyck, Jon van

False Mirror

Vinci,

29

of

II,

47

95

Assumption of the Virgin

Capo, Robert

Greco 26, 32

Elevation of the Cross

Exhibition of Painting

Cubi

Camera Notes 71
Cameron, Julia 46

72

Adam and

Embarkation for Cytherea 35

Eugenie, Empress of France

Trail

18
Crucifix

101

Colder, Alexander

on the

66

Count Orgaz 26

Bust of Bindo Aldoviti

86,92

El

Queen
England 90

Nop

Elizobeth

Cradle 58
Creation of

Armory Show 75, 80, 82,

ars novo

in

Cow's Skull Red, White

and Blue 88
Cozad, Robert Henry 72

101

Brunelleschi, Fllippo

29, 3

54, 56, 64, 72, 7^. 76

Eggbeoter No.
92

Correggio 21
Courier's

Bronco Buster 66
Browning, Robert 46

Animol Sketching 95
St.

104

86

Bachelors

Anguissola, Sofonisba

Suspended

51, 58

78, 81

101

Broken Column

Ecole des Beaux-Arts

Spiritual in

Space 90

Bride Stripped Bare by Her

of Dr. Tulp

Dyck, Anthony van

Corot, Jeon-Boptiste-Camille

Brenton, Thomas Hart

Breton,

Durer, Albrecht

73

Constructiivism

Braque, Georges

Angel Concert for Madonna

19
Anguissola, Amilcore 25

of

Art

Mothew 48

Brady,

36

Analysis of Beauty

Concerning the

Boy Pinched by Crayfish 25

Antonio 21

73

15

Botticelli

Allston,

Apocalypse

Umberto 79

Boccioni,

47
Bonnot, Le6n 69
Book of Job 42
Borglum, Gufzon 74

32

16, 17,

77

Dream 60
Duchamp, Marcel 86, 89
Duchomp-Villon, Raymond
86

Club Night 80
Coleridge, Samuel T. 43
Compony of Captain Frons
Banning Cocq 33
Composition VIII No. 260,

61

Boating Party

Donatello

70

Cloudel, Paul

73,

Blue Rider

70

Claudel, Comille

78

Blue Period

Adoration of the Magi

Allegri,

39
Nude 75

Blue Boy

III,

King of England
King of

England

at the

II,

Moon

91

37,

Ghent Altarpiece

39
12

Ghiberti, Lorenzo

Giorgione

Jefferson,

John

12

38

Johnson, Samuel

10

Giotto

92

Gloucester Terrace

God

Joseph Greeting

Dorkness 1
Goes, Hugo von der 14
Gogol, Nikolai 87
Goya, Francisco de 26, 40,

80
Grandma Moses 65

his Brothers

Judgment of Paris 29
and Holofernes
Judith with her Maidservant

Judith

of the Trees

Green Dress 57

Kondinsky, Wassily

Man
Man

85, 101

Guggenheim, Solomon 73

Klee, Paul

of a

77

73,

55

73,

Sorrows

of

Henderson, Joseph 104

Henri, Robert 72, 80, 82,
92,

97

Gioconda 16
La Goulue at the Moulin
Rouge 69
Ladies' Home Journal 93
Landscape
Last

Herschell, John Frederick

Le

46

Hill

52

horror vacui

Horse Fair

26
47

House ot L'Estaque 81
House by the Railroad 82
House of the Hanged Man,
Auvers 55

LeoX 20

Hudibras 36

Lincoln,

Idylls of the

Impression,

68

46
Sunrise 57

Independent

Artist Exhibition

Interview

Isenheim Altarpiece
Italy

9, 10, 11, 13, 15,

Louis

Louvre

29, 30,

37

XII,

Lovely

7
18, 20, 21,

Lisa

6,

86

King of France

Robertson

16

25
II, King of Spain
Photography as a Profession
Phillip

Madame

la

Vie

Madame

87

78

65

59

Adventures as an

Mystic Nativity

Pink Lady

93
1

47
Napoleon
Negro Head 90
III

Niethordt, Mathis Gothardt

19

111

99

Pink Landscape

Plato

76
20

Pliny

Pius

99
51,55,

67

XII

Plowing

in

Nivernois

Pollock, Paul Jackson

47
104

Pope Gregory XIII 27

18, 20
Pope Julius
Pope Pius IV 25
II

Port

St.

Tropez 67

14
a Lady with a

Portinari Altarpiece
Portrait of

Chorpentier and

60, 71, 78,

18

Pieta

59, 62,

43

Galette

Illustrator

X 76

Women 83

Picasso, Pablo

58
F.B.

Mount Rushmore 74
Multiple Views 92
Munch, Edvord 68

My

32

Pissarro, Camille

Moses, Anna Mary

92
Lugubrious 98

Ma

Good

Picador

Morse, Samuel

Psychoanalytic

Drawings 104
Jacob Blessing the Sons of

King of Spain

81, 91, 100, 103

Morisot, Berthe

47, 53, 54, 56, 59,

Memory 98

20

Philip the

for

07
Monroe, Marilyn
Moore, Henry 96
Moreau, Gustove 49, 75,

Moulin de

02

Piazza Son Morco 37

19

76

40

Philip IV

73, 91

of Christ

Lucky Strike

Jackson Pollock:

22

91

81, 102

23, 25, 26, 27, 28,

Perseus

Naum 90

Monet, Claude 57, 59, 73,

France 45

16, 17, 20, 21, 22,

d'Avignon

and
Architects 25
Longfellow, Henry
Wodsworth 46
Look 93

19

Pericles

Phidias

Mocking

Cellini 22
Abraham 48, 74

Pevsner,

15, 18

85

Benvenuto

8,

Moscow

People of

Persistence of

22, 23, 25, 26, 29,

Louis Philippe, King of

107

100

Medusa 28

Mono

Los Coprichos

72

24

II

56,96

Lives of the Painters,

King

Pausanios

49, 75

45

Idylls

Medici, Lorenzo de

Sculptors

Ibsen, Henrik

Parthenon

Perugino

78
Life of

50

14, 15

Mir6, Joan

Les Demoiselles

Parliamentary

Michelangelo

76

99, 103

Painting

Medici, Duke Cosimo de 22

Legion of Honor 47, 52,

61,

at the

Simon

Dishonor

for

Melencoli

43
74

Lenin, Vladimir

Holmon 50

Medals
Medici

41
Lee, Robert E.

38

of

Maximillian

Vigee 41

Hopper, Edward 72, 82

House

Matisse, Henri

Douanier 60

Lectures in Art

Christmas Tree

for the

Outdoor Lunchroom 97

Dawn 83

at

Masked Image 104

Lebrun, Jean-Boptiste Pierre

Hokusai 63
Honorable Augustus Keppel

Out

65

Pharisee

Lebrun, Elisabeth Louise

36

77

of Night

86

Le dejeuner sur I'herbe

Gray

44

Tommaso

Mary
Mary Magdolene

86

at Blainville

Last

89

Hogarth, William

Hunt,

Marsh

88

Ornithological Biography

79

Judgment
8, 26
Supper
6
Laughing Boy 72

Henry Ford Hospital 101

Henry III, King of France 23
Hermes Holding the Infant
Dionysos 9

86

Oedipus and Sphinx 49

Old Clown 76
Old Guitarist 78
Old Oats Bucket 65
Olympia 52
Once Emerged from the

41

Marlnetti, Filippo

14

Lamentation
Large Gloss

William

Nose

La

06

53

Staircase No. 2

O'Keeffe, Georgio

with a Broken

Montegna, Andrea
Marble Faun 9
Marie Antoinette, Queen

77

Knockout 80

Woman 78

of Blake

94

Falling Rocket

Nude Descending
Staircase 86
Nude Descenchng

Leaning on a Parapet

of France

Head
Head

102, 105

Photos

58

Guernica 78

Kitchen Table

Hawthorne, Nathaniel 9

Mandolin and Clarinet 78

Manet, Edouord 52, 57,

90

19

36

33

Nighthawks 82
Nocturne in Black ond Gold:

Canon van

with

56
Kahio, Frida

Harlot's Progress

Night Watch
8

Magritte, Rene Fron^ois

Man

Night 71

64

and Antiope 21
and lo 21

Jupiter

14, 29, 31

Magnum

30
Jupiter

of the Stairs

der Paele

Great Death Scene 84

Greece 8, 9

guild

Madonna
Madonna
Madonna
Madonna

98

Separating Light From

Grijnewald, Matthias

Her Children 59
Enthroned 10

33
Thomas 74

Joseph

Ghirlandaio, Domenico

Lop Dog 27
o Man and His

Portrait of

Wife 33
Portrait of

a Roman 56

Helen of Troy 98

Portrait of

Portrait of Innocent

Mrs. Henri

Portrait of

St.

Francis

72

St.

John

St.

John the Evangelist

Matthev/ 28

Marquise de

Portrait of tfie

Sunday Afternoon on the

Island of La Grande
Jatte 64

103

Jaucourt 41

St.

10
1

Old Age 33
Portraits 102
Potato Eaters 63

Salon 51, 52, 54, 56, 57,

58, 59, 61, 62, 64

Prodigal Son

56
Monument

Santi, Rofaello
1

06

Punishment of the Sons of

Corah

15

Saturday Evening Post 93

Terminal

Development of
Photography 83
Scream 68
Second of May 808 40

terribilita

99

of Hearts

Secret

Emmanuel 89
36

Raphael
Ray,

20, 21, 46,

ready-made 86
Realistic

90

45

Sick Child

Reclining

Woman 96

Siddons, Sarah

66

Remington, Frederic

Auguste 29, 57, 59

Representatives Represented
Renoir,

45
9

Resting Satyr

Resurrection

Road Near L'Estaque 81

Robert Macaire 45
Robusti, Jacopo 23
Rockefeller, Nelson 65
Rockwell, Norman 93

Rome

56, 70, 74

9, 10, 15, 20, 22,

27, 28, 35, 37,

Roosevelt, Franklin D.
Roosevelt,

54
92

Theodore 66, 74

Rose Period

78

Dante Gabriel 50
Rouault, Georges 49, 76

Rubens, Peter Paul

32, 35

Rudolph

II,

King of

Hapsburg 24
53

Ruskin, John

67

34

80

05
S. 65
Two Calla Lilies on Pink 88
Two Collas 83
Two Girls 97
Two Men Meet, Each
Trotsky,

Life

Life

Universe

95

Van der Goes, Hugo

4
Van Dyck, Anthony 25, 31
Van Eyck,. Jon
2
Van Gogh, Vincent 63, 85,
91

77

Velazquez, Diego 26, 32,

40, 103

Against the Light of

with Choir

Venetian Boy 71

Caning

78
Life

71, 86, 88,

1899 75
Still

Leon

Truman, Harry

89
Still

May-June 1973

Triptych,

Mind 79
Steichen, Edward 71
Stieglitz, Alfred

View

of Port Marseilles

Vigee, Louis
with

Old Shoe 91

37
Stephen 27

Stone Mason's Yard

Stoning of
Stories of

St.
St.

Zenobius

Story of Creation

Sugaring Off 65

20

Ball

15

Villon,

Violin

112

41

89

Jacques 86
and Candlestick 81

Violin d'Ingres

Virgin

67

41

Vigee-Lebrun, Elizabeth
Village

the

World

58

Woman

Youth of

Line)

76

State of

Life

by

be of Higher Rank 77
Two Photographers 83
Two Tahitian Women 62

Stage Coach 74
Starry Night 63

Still

Line

Hat 75

Young and Death 49

Young Girl with a Sheaf 70
Young Woman Dressing for
a

Believing the Other to

41

Stag Night at Sharkey's

Still

29, 31,

20

Song of Love 94
Songs of Experience 42
Songs of Innocence 42
Souvenirs intimes

Woods Beyond

Young

103
1

Souvenirs

de

Muse 38
(

Woman 91
Woman 99
Woman with the
Women 99

Moses

102

34

58

Socrates

26

06

pour

Traits

Chapel
8
Sky Above Clouds 88
Smith, David Roland 100

60

100

Royal Bird

62, 64,

Sistine

Rossetti,

Rousseau, Henri

Tragic

Independants 64

Diego 85, 101

Rodin, Auguste

38

Societe des Artistes

89
Reynolds, Joshua 31,38,
39

13, 21, 23,

Torso

53, 69

White Cockatoo 104

White Girl 53
Wilkes, John 36
William Robertson 38

83

Toulouse-Lautrec, Henri

Giovanni Andrea

Sisters

85
23, 38

Titian

James Abbott

38, 39

Sirani, Elisabetta
Sirani,

94

Threshing Floor

68

Signac, Paul

Revolving Doors

Rivera,

96

Shelter Sketches

Rebelais

Red and White Domes 77

Red Vineyard at Aries 63
Rembrandt 33

Domenico 26

II

56

Thinker

Tintoretto

Georges 64, 67

sfumato

Manifesto

Bandaged

Ear 63
Seurat,

46

43

West, Benjamin

McNeill

15

45
Threatening Weather 94

25, 89

Self Portrait with

32

80

Wells, H. G.

Whistler,

Third Class Carriage

Self Portrait

50

Man 89

18

Therapeutic

98
Rake's Progress

Eve

71

Theotocopuli,

of Salvador Dali

Life

79

Fall of

Thanksgiving Turkey 65

Seller of Seville

Wove 99

Tennyson, Lord Alfred

Scientific

07

Watteau, Jean-Antoine 29,

Futuristic Painting

Temptation of Christ

20

35

Adam and

47
20

Sanzio,Rafaello

106

Rodnitsky,

Water

Temptation and the

90
Prometfieus

Queen

Sylphs of the Seasons and

Technical Manifesto of

a Pfiysics Observatory

Propylcea

Washington, George 74

Salon des Refuses 52, 57,

for

20

Ambroise 76

Swing 59
Other Poems 43

81

61
Sand, George

Project for a

Prophet

60
32

Salon des Independants 67,

46, 50

Pre-Rapfiaelite

Vollord,

Waiting 97
Warhol, Andy

Salon d'Automne 75, 76

Praxiteles

Surrender of Breda

with a Tiger

20

St. Peter's

18,

Surprised! Tropical Storm

Portrait of the Painter in

Basilica

Saints

Vision of a Knight

89

and Child and Four

Zola, Emile

55

Black

in
1

72

BOSTON PUBLIC LIBRARY

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Afiston Branch Library
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Alston, MA 02134

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ftKHaiiBa<9BiNara

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Now, from

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corners of the globe, these one-page entries will appeal to readers

a sweeping view of world history, as well as those

browse. Each

title

who

just

want

to

contains an index with cross references and a special

section with a trivia quiz

and suggested

projects.

Who Changed the world

From

the ancient Greek sculptor Phidias to the twentieth-century

..

Andy Warhol, 100

artist

.kaleidoscopic

photography.

Artists

Who Changed

the

pop

World takes readers on a

and
Rembrandt van Rijn and the

journey through the history of painting, sculpture,

Learri.

Fre;rieh sjeulpior

about

tlie

Dutch

painter

Camille Claudel. Find out

wayS:of |)ainting,

how

how

new
much

Pablo Picasso created

FridarKahlo challenged social stereotypes, and

^?^^^rB^]

Titles

irr

People Wiibc

series:

world

lOay^^^

itioM
100 Miii^v^ te^K^rs

World

world

who Changed

the world

world

^^^^^^^^

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