Chapter 1

1. List the levels of biological organization and define each term.

Biosphere: all regions of Earths crust, water and atmosphere that sustain life
Ecosystem: group of communities interacting with their shared physical environment
Community: populations of all species that occupy the same area
Populations: group of individuals of the same kind (same species) that occupy the same
area
Multicellular organism: individuals consisting of interdependent cells
Cell: smallest unit with capacity to live and reproduce; independently or as part of a
multicellular organism
2. Describe the big picture of information flow in living organisms and describe the roll of
each form of information.

3. Describe the flow of energy through living systems including loss of energy as heat.

4. List the hierarchy of relationships of living things.

Domain
Kingdom
Phylum
Class
Order
Family
Genus
Species
**Used for identification**
5. List the domains and the kingdoms present on Earth.
Domains: Bacteria, Eukarya, Archaea
Kingdom: Protists, Fungi, Plantae, Animalia
6. List the major parts of the scientific method and define each term.
Scientific method: a method of inquiring that allows researchers to crystallize their
thoughts about a topic and collect measurable data
1. Observations: make detailed observations about a phenomenon of interest
2. Hypothesis: use inductive reasoning to create a testable hypothesis that provides
a working explanation of the observations via words or mathematical equations
3. Predictions: Use deductive reasoning to make predictions about what would be
observed if the hypothesis were applied to a novel experiment
4. Experiments: design and conduct a controlled experiment to test the prediction of
the hypothesis; must be clearly defined so that it can be repeated in future
studies; must lead to the collection of measurable data that others can evaluate
and reproduce it they choose to repeat the experiment
Chapter 2
1. What are the four most prevalent types of atoms found in living organisms? What are 4
other types of atoms found in living organisms?
Hydrogen, Carbon, Nitrogen, Oxygen
Sodium, Magnesium, Phosphorus, Sulfur
2. Given the atomic number and mass be able to draw the atomic structure (Bohr model) of
any atom below:

3. List the types of interatomic bonds from highest to lowest energy and an example of
each.
Covalent double bonds (ex. O2)>covalent single bonds (ex. CH4)>ionic bonds
(Na+Cl-)>hydrogen bonds (H2O to H2O)>Van der Waals interactions (Gecko to walls or
other surfaces)
4. Draw a series of water molecules and their associated hydrogen bonds as water and as
ice.

5. Write the equation for calculating pH

pH=-log10[H+] (in this case H+ is the concentration which is the number of moles divided
by the volume)
6. Write the equation for a carbonate/bicarbonate buffer. Show direction of equation when
acid or base is added
H2CO3HCO3-+H+
If acid is added, equation
If base is added, equation
**This system is used in our blood**
Chapter 3
1. Know the names and be able to draw the structures of the functional groups

2. Show dehydration synthesis and hydrolysis

3. Haworth Projection of glucose

4. General Structure of a phospholipid

5. The five parts of an amino acid

C- Alpha Carbon
COOH- Carboxyl Group
H2N- Amino group
R- R Group
H- Hydrogen (Glycine)
6. Classify amino acids into nonpolar, polar, acidic or basic.
Polar- R group not very symmetric/not close in electronegativities

Nonpolar- R group symmetric/ close to symmetric/ atoms close in electronegativities

Acidic- Negative charge (ion) present

Basic- positive charged (cation) present

7. Peptide bond

8. Four levels of protein structure

9. Picture of ATP

10. Correct pairing of purines and pyrimidines in DNA and RNA with number of hydrogen
bonds

DNA (deoxy ribose nucleic acid): C G

RNA (ribose nucleic acid): CG
A=U

A=T

Chapter 4
1. Write the equation for calculating the change in the Gibbs free energy of a system during
a chemical reaction. Define the terms. When is the reaction spontaneous (see Section
4.2)?
G=H-TS
G= Gfinal-Ginitial
S is entropy/disorder
H is enthalpy/potential energy
T is temperature in K
Exothermic: releases heat
Endothermic: absorbs heat
2. Draw the reaction coordinates (plot of free energy vs. course of the reaction) for
endergonic and exergonic reactions. How can the free energy change be quantitatively
determined from the graph (Figure 4.4)?

Exergonic: energy is released, less free energy than reactants, spontaneously, comes
first
Endergonic: energy is absorbed, more free energy that reactants, not spontaneous, can
occur second to an exergonic reaction
3. Illustrate how coupled reactions can allow an exergonic reaction to drive the progress of
an endergonic reaction using the synthesis of glutamine as an example (Figure 4.6 A
and B only).

4. Draw a modified reaction coordinate including the concept of activation energy for both
an exergonic reaction. How is the activation energy defined quantitatively from the
graph? How would the presence of an enzyme change the graph? (Figure 4.9)

5. Draw the graphs of rate of a reaction as a function of enzyme concentration or substrate

concentration. Note that the curves shown in the book are the initial rate of reaction
(Figure 4.12).

6. Draw a diagram showing the difference between a competitive inhibitor of an enzyme

and a non-competitive enzyme that binds at an allosteric site (Figure 4.13).

7. Draw a graph showing enzyme activity as a function of pH for stomach enzymes vs. a
typical cellular enzyme (Figure 4.16).

Chapter 5 Topic Review (Part I)

1. Create a table showing the following characteristics of each of the following types of
microscopy: transmission electron microscopy, scanning electron microscopy, brightfield
microscopy, and fluorescence microscopy.
Transmission electron microscopy (Dead)
Fixation; staining with heavy electron dense
metals; imaging very thin sheets by shooting a
beam of electrons through the tissue
Scanning electron microscopy (Dead)
Fixation; coating of the outside of a sample
with a thin sheet of metal; electrons bounce off
the surface; detector creates image from
reflected electrons
Brightfield microscopy (can be alive)
Light passes through sample; dye used to
differentiate features in the sample
OR
Optical methods are used to create contrast
based on light paths (phase, differential
interference, Nomarski, darkfield, polarization)
Fluorescence (can be alive)
A stain is selectively introduced which is ableto
absorb energy at one wavelength and emit at
another
2. Draw the basic structure of a cellular membrane (Figure 5.6).

3. Draw a picture showing the major features of prokaryotic cells (Figure 5.7).

4. Draw and distinguish between the structure and function of the following
organelles/organelle systems (Section 5.3):
a. Rough vs. smooth endoplasmic reticulum

b. Secretory vs. endocytic pathways

ex. Golgi complex/lysosomes

c. Nucleus

5. Draw a mitochondrion and a chloroplast (include Section 5.4); label all membranes and
compartments (see Figures 5.18 and 5.25).

Mitochondrion: Site of ATP synthesis; double lipid bilayer; contains DNA and ribosomes;
proteins enter by pores; protein compliment has both mitochondrial and nuclear origin

Chloroplast: site of ATP synthesis but only to power glucose synthesis; triple lipid bilayer;
DNA and ribosomes
1. Draw microtubules, intermediate filaments, and microfilaments; indicate whether each
structure (i) has polarity, (ii) assembles in a reversible manner, (3) is involved in cell
motility (and for those involved in motility, list 2 examples) (see Figure 5.20).
Microtubule: Polar/reversible/responsible for junction
Intermediate: Nonpolar/not reversible
Microfilaments: muscle contraction

2. Draw 3 types of cell junctions (Figure 5.27); describe the major function of each

Chapter 6 Topic Review

Draw a picture of a cross section of a membrane showing sufficient structure so that you
can describe how unsaturated acyl chains in phospholipids, cholesterol, and integral
membrane proteins contribute to the Fluid Mosaic Model of the membrane (e.g., Figure
6.5, but refer to Figures 6.2b and 6.3 for discussion).

Create a table comparing diffusion, facilitated diffusion, and active transport for the
properties of substrate binding, energy requirements, and ability to saturate the transport
process. (Table 6.1)
Characteristics
Sample Diffusion
Facilitated Diffusion
Active Transport
Binding of transported No
Yes
Yes
substance
Energy Source
Concentration
Concentration
ATP Hydrolysis
Gradients
Gradients
Saturation at high
No
Yes
Yes
concentration of
transported molecules

Draw a diagram showing how osmosis could cause a red blood cell to swell or shrink.
Include a description of the salt concentration (qualitative, not quantitative) in the fluid
surrounding the cells. (based on Figure 6.10)

Draw a plasma membrane symporter. Include a representation of the relative

concentrations of the transported molecules/ions inside and outside of the cell. Which
transported particle requires energy? (Figure 6.13a)

**requires energy
5 Create a table comparing endocytosis and phagocytosis: for each process, list two
similarities and two differences between the processes. (Section 6.5)
Endo
Phago
cell drinking
cell eating
Absorb extracellular fluid
Endo inside phago
Process inside cell outside cell
Slated for destruction lysosome
Chapter 7 Topic Review Questions
1. Draw a diagram showing the basic series of events that occur after a ligand binds to a
G-protein coupled receptor (Fig. 7.9).

2. Explain the difference between adenylyl cyclase and phospholipase C as effectors in the
G protein pathway (Fig. 7.10 and 7.12).
Adenlyl Cyclase
Phospholipase C
Second Messenger= cAMP & 2Pi
Second Messenger= IP3 & DAG (DAG stays
by the cell wall)
ATPcAMP+2PiProtein Kinase
IP3 activates Ca2+ from Rough E.R. Protein
kinase
Cellular Response
Cellular Response
3. Draw a diagram showing the basic series of events that occur after a ligand binds to a
tyrosine kinase receptor (Fig. 7.7).

4. Draw a diagram showing the basic series of events that occur after a ligand binds to a
ligand-gated ion channel (Slide #14 in Chapter 7 lecture).

** Happens with Potassium, Chlorine, Sodium, Calcium

5. Draw a diagram showing the basic series of events that occur after a ligand binds to a
steroid hormone receptor (Fig. 7.14).

6. Describe three types of endocrine signaling and provide a brief description of the
distinguishing feature of each type (Slide #8 in Chapter 7 lecture).
Autocrine: secreted molecule acts on same cell/cell type; clonal amplification of
lymphocytes via interleukin 2 secretion
Paracrine: molecule secreted has local effect; sonic hedgehog is a protein bound to
cholesterol to limit diffusion; diffusion gradients provide information for pattern formation;
also neuronal synapses
Hormonal (classical endocrine): molecule secreted into blood stream and acts on a
distant target; adrenaline secreted by adrenal gland acts on blood vessels, the heart,
muscles, liver etc. **blood stream**
7. Draw a diagram that illustrates the concept of a signaling cascade (Fig. 7.5).

Chapter 8 Topic Review Questions

1. Draw the overview of energy flow from sunlight to ATP (Fig. 8.1).

2. Draw the summary of the three stages of cellular respiration (Fig. 8.4).

3. Explain the difference between substrate-level phosphorylation and oxidative

phosphorylation.
Substrate-level phosphorylation: uses enzymes; ADP+P substrate with P added to
enzyme ATP + substrate; no P unphosphorylated
Oxidative: phosphorylation synthesis of ATP by ATP synthase using H+ as an energy
source
4. Draw the structure of a mitochondrion and show which aspects of cell respiration occur
in each compartment (Figure 8.6).

5. Draw a diagram showing the process of chemiosmosis in mitochondria; include the inner
and outer mitochondrial membranes, intermembrane space, protons, electrons, ATP
synthase and electron transport chain (WITHOUT detail on the individual proteins in the
chain) (Fig. 8.13).

Chapter 9 Topic Review Questions

1. Draw a cutaway of a small section from the leaf from Fig. 9.3 and show where gas
exchange and photosynthesis occur.

2. Draw the cutaway view of a chloroplast from Fig. 9.3 and show where the major
reactions of photosynthesis occur.

3. Draw a diagram showing the overview of light-dependent and light-independent

reactions in photosynthesis in the context of chloroplast structure (Fig. 9.2).

4. Draw a diagram showing the process of chemiosmosis in chloroplasts; include the

thylakoid membrane and lumen, the stroma, protons, electrons, light energy, ATP
synthase and electron transport chain (WITHOUT detail on the individual proteins in the
chain) (Fig. 9.10).

5. Write the reaction for cell respiration and the reaction for photosynthesis (Section 8.1,
page 164; Section 9.1; page 184).
6CO2+12H2OC6H12O6+6O2+6H2O
C6H12O6+6O2+32 ADP+32Pi6H2O+6CO2+32 ATP
Chapter 10 Topic Review Questions
1. Describe the difference between a tumor suppressor gene and an oncogene (class
notesinclude BOTH the type of common function for each type of gene product - for
tumor suppressor gene products, see Slide 14; for oncogene gene products, see Slide
15) as well as the number of mutations required to start cancer (see Slide 4).
Tumor suppressor gene- codes for a protein that is like a break; you have to lose both
copies of the gene to lost your ability to apply brakes; if you are born with one copy
missing, you have a propensity to form a tumor
Oncogene- codes for protein that is like an accelerator; if the protein gets stuck in the on
position, then you will form a tumor.

2. Draw the overall view of the cell cycle as shown on Figure 10.3.

3. Draw a diagram showing the plasma membrane, chromosomes, and microtubules

indicating the major stages of mitosis as shown in Figure 10.4.

4. List three contributions to mitosis made by microtubules and one contribution of

microfilaments to mitosis (based on the description of mitosis in the lecture and the
textbook).
Microtubules: help to line up the chromosomes in the middle of the cell (metaphase);
help to separate the sister chromatids by pulling them from one pole to another
(anaphase); help to maintain the shape of the cell during mitosis; bind to the
kinetochores to preform metaphase and anaphase
Microfilaments: help to pinch the two daughter cells apart in telophase and cytokinesis
5. List three checkpoints in the cell cycle and give a brief description of each checkpoint
(Section 10.4).
G1 checkpoint: either continue or go into G0
G2 checkpoint: checks for accumulation of cyclin protein/check if it is ready for mitosis
M phase checkpoint: checks for proper attachment of chromosome due to microtubules
during anaphase/ check for bipolar tension
11 Topic Review Questions
1

Create a table showing the reactants and products of mitosis and meiosis starting in
the G1 before mitosis or meiosis.
Mitosis
Meiosis
Reactants
1 cell
1 cell
1 genome
1 genomes
23 pairs of chromosomes
46 pairs of chromosomes
Products
2 cells
4 cells
1 genome
2 genomes
2 sets of 46 chromosomes
23 chromosomes

Using one pair of homologous chromosomes, draw the stages of meiosis as they are
shown on Figure 11.2 (including one crossing over event).

Show how three pair of chromosomes create 8 possible combinations in gametes

without taking crossing over into account (Figure 11.6).

Using the idea of homologous recombination in the synaptonemal complex, please show
how a parental collection of alleles on one chromosome can be changed so that a new
combination of alleles can be created (see Figure 11.5).

Chapter 12 Topic Review Questions

1. Draw a picture of two homologous chromosomes illustrating the difference between a
locus and an allele; provide definitions of these two terms.

2. Starting with a cross between two true bred parents, use Punnett squares to show the
possible offspring of the F1 and F2 generations. In the F2 generation, state the predicted
genotypic and phenotypic ratios of the offspring.

3.

Starting with a cross between two F1 plants that resulted from a cross of true bred
parents, use a Punnett square to show how the 9:3:3:1 ratio of phenotypes results in the
F2 generation.

4. State Mendels Law of Segregation and his Law of Independent Assortment. Whenever
a Punnett square is drawn, the axes define the possible genotypes of the parents
gametes while the boxes at the intersections of the columns and rows define the
genotypes of the offspring. Show how the Law of Segregation is used to set up the
parental gamete genotypes in a monohybrid cross and how both the Law of Segregation
and the Law of Independent Assortment are needed to set up the parental gamete

genotypes in a dihybrid cross (such as the cross described in problem 3).

Mendels Law of Segregation: the pairs of alleles that control a characteristic separate as
gametes are formed; half the gametes carry one allele, and the other half carries the
other allele. Each allele has an equal chance to be passed from parent to offspring
Mendels Law of Independent Assortment: the alleles of the genes that govern two
characteristics are independent during the formation of gametes.
Chapter 13 Topic Review Questions
1. Draw a Punnett square that describes the genotypes of gametes and offspring for any
cross involving an Xlinked trait. List two ways that this Punnett square differs from a
Punnett Square that describes inheritance of autosomal traits.

2. Draw a pedigree showing three generations of a family that is carrying any X-linked trait.
This pedigree does NOT have to be drawn from memory, but it MUST utilize the correct
rules of inheritance for Xlinked traits. Assume that spouses in the second generation
are unaffected. Please assume a minimum of 4 children from each marriage.

3. Using a Punnett square, show how would you expect linkage to affect the experimental
outcome of a dihybrid cross. This answer may be qualitative rather than quantitative.

4. Define the terms recombinant, parental, and centiMorgan as they relate to the
concept of linkage.
Recombinant- phenotype with a different combination of traits from those of the original
parents
Parental- phenotypes identical to that of the parent
CentiMorgan- map unit of linkage make equivalent recombinant frequency of 1%=
700kilobares
Chapter 14 Topic Review Questions

1. Draw a picture of double-stranded DNA showing nucleic acid base pairing, the
backbones, the orientation of the backbones, and the dimensions of a single step in the

ladder.
2. Draw the two levels of packing of DNA, nucleosomes and solenoids, as indicated on
Figure 14.21.

3. Draw a diagram distinguishing the three possible models of DNA replication (Figure
14.8a).

4. Draw a replication bubble showing the leading strands and lagging strands including
RNA primers and Okazaki fragments (summarize Fig. 14.15 re: DNA strands and RNA
primers).

5. List the five enzymes required for DNA replication. Draw a diagram showing where they
act (summarize Fig 14.15 re: enzyme activity).

Chapter 18 (Section1)
1

Draw an example of the PCR reaction including the template, primers, and products
through 2 full cycles. Be sure to include designations for the 5 and 3 ends of each piece
of DNA and clearly indicate complementary binding and sites of extension (Figure 18.6).

List the three main parts of the PCR cycle and describe what is happening during each
part of the cycle.
Denature
Anneal DNA Primers
Extension of DNA
Draw before and after pictures of an agarose gel that has been loaded with samples of
DNA. At least one lane should include a ladder (Figure 18.7). Describe the difference
between bands found at the top of the gel and the bottom of the gel.

Define the term restriction enzyme. Draw a diagram showing how a restriction enzyme
might result in a sticky end (Figure 18.2).

Chapter 15 (part a) Topic Review Questions

1. Draw a picture of DNA and the RNA that is transcribed from the DNA. Apply labels
including the orientation of the nucleic acid strands and the nomenclature (both
coding/template and sense/antisense) (Figure 15.4 and lecture notes).

2. Draw a picture of RNA polymerase acting on a strand of DNA to produce an mRNA.

Include nucleic acid backbone orientation (Figure 15.6).

3. Draw a schematic diagram showing an mRNA before and after processing. Include the
orientation and all of the parts of the mRNA (Figure 15.7).

4. Draw a diagram showing an mRNAs introns and exons (numbered for clarity) and at
least 2 possible products that could result from alternative splicing (a simplification of
Figure 15.9 will be acceptable).

Chapter 15 (part b) Topic Review Questions

1. Draw a picture of a ribosome with mRNA, tRNA w/nascent peptide, aminoacyl tRNA,
ribosome subunits, and three functional sites within the assembled ribosome (Figure
15.10).

2. Draw a schematic showing an amino acyl tRNA including its secondary structure (exact
nucleotides NOT required) and anti-codon interacting with a codon. Include the polarity
of the mRNA and tRNA backbones and identify the wobble position

3. Draw a eukaryotic ribosome and its structural units as shown in Figure 15.13b

4. Draw a figure showing how nascent proteins with signal sequences ultimately insert
across the endoplasmic reticulum membrane during protein synthesis (see Figure
15.19).

5. Define the terms silent mutation, missense mutation, nonsense mutation, and
frameshift mutation. Draw a short segment of a coding region of an mRNA to show
where these mutations are likely to occur (use Figure 15.20 for guidance)

Chapter 16 Topic Review Questions

1. Draw a diagram representing the overall structure of a gene (DNA sequence in the
human genome) including locations of the enhancer, promoter, introns, exons, and 5/3
untranslated regions, transcription start and end sites (see Figure 16.6, but you will have
to add translation start and end sites).

2. Draw a diagram showing the mechanism for enhancer activation of a promoter (see slide
#9).

3. Be able to provide a diagram showing how either the Lac or Trp operons achieve
regulation at the transcriptional level (Figure 16.3 or 16.5 you are responsible for both).

4. Draw a diagram showing how microRNAs are processed prior to inhibiting gene
expression from selected mRNAs (Figure 16.14).

Chapter 20/21 Topic Review Questions

1. State the Hardy-Weinberg Principle (your book does not have a concise statement of the
Principle please look for a concise statement on line).
States that allele and genotype frequencies in a population will remain constant from
generations to generation in the absence of other evolutionary influences. These
influences include non-random mating, mutation, selection, genetic drift, gene
flow and meiotic drive.
2. For each of the Hardy-Weinberg assumptions, cite one piece of evidence that suggests
that the assumption is NOT always correct. There are five questions and answers here.

3. Solve the problem on slide #11 of the Chapter 20/21 lecture (relating to
hemochromatosis).
4. Write an equation expressing the population frequency of two alleles at a locus that has
only two alleles.

5. Write an equation expressing the frequency of homozygotes and heterozygotes in a

population, where the equation relates to a single locus with only two alleles.