What Is Emotional Abuse?

The literature provides several definitions as well as several names for emotional abuse.
These include psychological maltreatment, nonphysical abuse, psychological abuse,
psychological aggression and indirect abuse. Verbal abuse is a feature of emotional
abuse and an article from Sweden states that it is a mechanism that 'communicates
worthlessness'.(Hyden, 1995) Any relationship that consists of strategies to control or
overpower another person must be considered maladaptive. From a feminist
perspective emotional abuse is a means of establishing power and control over the
victim in addition to enabling the abuser to maintain a system of psychological abuse
behaviours that reinforce this power and control. (Shepard & Campbell, 1992). In a book
by Deborah Sinclair (1989) entitled Understanding Wife Assault, she states that
"underlying all abuse is a power imbalance between the victim and the offender.)
Several authors agreed. (Anderson et al, 1991; Loring, 1994; Alexander, 1993)
Patriarchal structures are reiterated in several articles and books. (Chang, 1996)
Emotional abuse includes verbal attacks, harassment, belittling, excessive
possessiveness, isolation of partner, and deprivation of physical and economic
resources. (Alexander, 1993) Emotional blackmail or threats to leave are also present in
the literature. (Follingstad et al, 1990). Much of the literature on emotional abuse
describes it in conjunction with physical abuse and the literature reflects a range of 59%
(StatsCan. 1993) to 88% (Alexander, 1993) of physically abused women also reporting
emotional abuse. Statistics from Australia attest to the inevitability of emotional abuse in
wife battering. In Australia, surveys done by telephone indicated that verbal and mental
abuse ranged from 47.1% to 88% in the battered group. Alexander, 1993) Some of the
literature stated that in virtually all cases of physical violence, some form of
psychological maltreatment is present. (Anderson, et al, 1991; Campbell et al, 1997).
The effects of emotional abuse are seen as adding to the cycle of violence in which a
physically abused woman finds herself (Follingstad et al, 1990) and has long term
debilitating effects on a woman's sense of self and integrity. There are preliminary
investigations into the relationship between emotional abuse and physical abuse. It can
be surmised from the literature that a relationship would exist between emotional abuse
and physical abuse. Some initial questions about prevalence and frequency of

emotional abuse in physically abusive relationships have been investigated. Three types
of emotional abuse appear to predict physical abuse. These included threats, restriction
of the woman and damage to the woman's property. (Follingstad et al, 1990)
Studies carried out in the United States indicated that 55% of divorces were due to
psychological abuse; 27% of dating relationships reported psychological abuse; 89% 97% of engaged couples in counselling reported that emotional abuse has taken place
in the last twelve months. Within the general population there was a direct correlation
between verbal abuse and the probability of depression. (Chang, 1996)
The small amount of literature published exclusively on emotional abuse is
understandable given the lethal characteristics of physical abuse and the struggle of
academics and professionals to develop a measurable and precise definition. However,
the lack of a precise definition and a focus on treatment specifically for these women
may be contributing to the trivialization of this phenomenon in our society. (Barling et al,
1987)
The lack of attention in the literature to psychological maltreatment suggests that it may
be useful to construe such maltreatment on a continuum. On the one end are isolated
hurtful behaviours that may occur in any relationship: withdrawing momentarily, listening
unempathetically, speaking sharply in anger. On the other end of the continuum is
pervasive, one-sided, severe psychological torture parallelling intentional brainwashing
and mistreatment of prisoners of war. (Tolman, 1992)
Emotional abuse, in fact, contains many of the same behaviours that present
themselves in documents by an international human rights organization's description of
torture: "isolation, induced debility (sleep and food deprivation), monopolization of
perception, verbal degradation (denial of powers, humiliation), drugs, threats to kill and
occasional indulgences (positives, verbal or material). (Tolman, 1992)
Naming the Problem
The deconstruction of emotional abuse provides us with further insight into the
destructive nature of this phenomenon:

Isolation (or the restricting of social contact); economic abuse (or restricting of financial
resources); and monopolization (the abuser expects his partner to spend all of her time
with him or use her energies to serve his needs) have been listed as some of the
psychological abuse strategies used by abusers. Constant criticism, demeaning
behaviours, threats, use of male privilege and humiliation are also named in the
literature. (Pilowsky, 1993; Parker, 1996; Follingstad, 1990; Marshall, 1996; Hoffman,
1984; Alexander, 1993).
Monopolization of perceptions is often part of the brainwashing that can take place in
these relationships. The abusing partner insists that the vulnerable partner also believe
the same things that the abuser believes. She is not entitled to her own opinions or
ideas.
Required secrecy can also be a significant part of emotional abuse. The woman's
support system has been destroyed as contacts with individuals who might observe her
bruises and psychological condition and encourage disclosure are nonexistent. Her
secrecy is further prompted by his vigilance and by her shame and bewilderment.
(Anderson, 1991)
Covert behaviours of the abuser are often outside the consciousness of the abused
woman. These abusive behaviours include withholding affection, denial, projection,
subtle conveyances of the lack of importance of the victim. The continuous and
unrelenting pattern of emotional abuse is interspersed with warmth and kindness to
create an 'in and out' of bonding 'crazy-making' feelings in the victim. (Loring, 1997)
Financial AbuseAs a form of isolating the abused woman, financial abuse is also a
control mechanism that limits the woman from becoming independent or looking for
social supports. This type of abuse can manifest itself in behaviours such as checking
the gas gauge on the car or the odometre to see how much gas was used or miles
driven and/or doling out small amounts of money, forcing the victim to ask for more. If
the abused woman works outside the family home, she is often forced to deposit her
pay cheque into her partner's bank account. Often the abuser will put all the family
assets in his name. For the abuser, money is an extension of his power. (Miller, 1995;
Hoffman, 1984) The abused woman is aware that if she leaves her partner, she and her
children may live in poverty thereafter. (Fraser, 1992)

Spiritual AbuseThis type of abuse is characterized by the putting down or making fun of
one's culture or beliefs or forbidding a woman to exercise or practice one's spiritual
beliefs.(Jacko, 1995)
Sexual DominationExcessive sexual demands and sexual put-downs are characteristic
of psychologically abusive relationships. (Chang, 1996)
HIV Risk A more recent addition to the emotional abuse inventory has come in the form
of women being at risk of emotional, sexual and physical abuse as a consequence of
negotiating condom use to avoid the risks associated with unprotected sex and the
contraction of HIV. (Wingood and DiClemente, 1997)
Ritualistic Abuse This type of abuse entails the abuser perpetrating concerted attacks
on the victims sense of self and involves enactments of a ritual identifying the victim in
some way as evil. This type of abuse is repetitious and dissolves her trust in her own
senses. This is a direct assault on identity. Holding a gun to the head of the victim or a
cigarette close to the eyes or skin while denouncing her value are examples of this type
of abuse. (Loring, 1997)
Patterns of Abuse
Adjust Yourself: An abused woman is constantly having to adjust her behaviour and
responses to meet the needs of her abuser. This is often learned in the family of origin.
This pattern is labelled "schismogenesis";
Double Bind: No matter what the woman does, she cannot do it right in the eyes of her
partner as paradoxes and contradictions are plentiful;
Direct verbal attacks are constant;
Silence and Withdrawal: The abuser creates passive strategies to establish rules about
when and what can be contested;
Lack of Emotional Connection: Shared emotional fields are lacking due to behaviour of
abuser. This lack of intersubjectivity demonstrates to the woman that she is not heard,
has no value and is not supported. This lack of connection is strongest when the abused
woman is pregnant, ill or in a grief state. (Chang, 1996; Yoshihama and Sorenson,
1994)
Features of a Prototypic Pattern of Psychological Maltreatment (Termed Psychological
Coercion) That the Battering Male Perpetrates in Violent Intimate Relationships

Early verbal and/or physical dominance

Isolation/imprisonment to various degrees

Guilt induction to promote victim self-blame

Hope-instilling behaviours via contingent expressions of love

Fear arousal, maintenance, and escalation of terror

Promotion of powerlessness and helplessness

Pathological expression of jealousy usually accusing the woman of infidelity

Required secrecy

Enforced loyalty and self-denunciation

If the battered woman attempts to leave the relationship: the abuser may react with:

Cocky disbelief

Confused searching

Bargaining

Pleading

Threatening

Seeking revenge (Anderson et al, 1991)

Some Examples of Emotional Abusive Behaviours:

The abuser may begin a complaint and slide into constant criticism and name
calling before the woman has even senses that there is a problem;

embarrass her in public;

constantly accuse her of having lovers;

begin watching her every move;

stalk her when she meets a friend;

ignore her when she tries to talk to him;

denigrate her family and friends;

forbid her to make decisions, or offer an opinion;

have emotional outburst because woman has said a 'wrong' word or laughed at
the 'wrong' time;

escalate abusive behaviours if she talks back;

threaten to take her children and states she will never see them again;

threaten pets and may tie a cord around a cat's or dog's neck;

destroy her most valued possessions;

'gaslighting' where the abuser slowly corrodes the foundation of logic on which a
person has learned to make decisions and take action; and doubts her own perceptions;
(Miller, 1995) This term comes from the movie "Gaslight" where a husband confuses his
wife by denying he had stated something to her, or moving a picture from the wall and
accusing her of misplacing it;

force a woman to emigrate to another country by husband or husband's family;

leaving all supports behind; (Papp, 1990)

denying her access to English or French classes in Canada; (my experience

working with

immigrant women)

utter racist, ableist, classist or sexist slurs which may intensify the abuse. This is
especially true is the

man is from the dominant group. (Burstow, 1992)

tell her the details of affairs with other women. (Burstow, 1992)

in the case of Deaf women, being prevented from communicating by slapping

hands away or being held or the tying of her hands; (Merkin, 1995)
Emotional Abuse Against Specific Populations
Immigrant and Refugee Women
The dilemma of immigrant and refugee women is also highlighted in the literature. The
social and emotional effects of emotional abuse in the form of isolation, is particularly
striking in the lives of this population. Besides previously outlined issues, forces may
include such issues as linguistic barriers, past experiences in country of origin, limited
kinship and friendship systems locally, and difficulties in settlement. These external
difficulties were reported by immigrant and refugee women as contributing to their
vulnerability and were later internalized in the form of emotional isolation. This isolation
became an important factor in being abused.(Pilowski, 1993)
Immigrant women are identified as very vulnerable and some abusers threaten to
contact immigration if he is sponsoring her. (Miller, 1995) Some of the literature written
by immigrant women stated that being 'born female' is the cause of the abuse that they
experienced. (Papp, 1990) Asian women reported that a single accusation of infidelity is

cause for abandonment. Some stated they do not even look up while walking down the
street with their husband but keep their heads lowered. (Miller, 1995) Issues of arranged
marriages to men that they did not know and being forced to emigrate to another
country also were highlighted in the literature. (Papp, 1990)
In situations where the woman is older, abuse is declared only when the situation
becomes truly unbearable. Their isolation is increased due to their dependent position.
Social consequences are more important for these older women than for those who
have their Canadian citizenship. Laws in Canada may be very different from laws in their
respective countries. (Beaulieu, 1992)
Lesbians
The hostility of a misogynist environment, coupled with the heterosexism and
homophobia of a community, can render a lesbian vulnerable. If the relationship is
secret or hidden, the isolation can increase. Her isolation can be compound by threats
from her abuser that she will 'out' her to parents, employers and others. Her self esteem
may already be low due to homophobia and its invalidation of the relationship with her
partner. The internalized oppression and self hatred accompanied by such a social
climate causes serious issues and renders the lesbian who is experiencing abuse
particularly vulnerable. The multiple oppressions of this group puts them at greater risk.
The lists of abuse behaviours mirror those of the heterosexual community but some
listed by abused lesbians include also, "outings" (the sharing with inappropriate others
the sexual orientation of the abused partner without their consent), selection of food the
partner eats, constant criticism of her demeanor, looks or intelligence. (Loring, 1994) .
Older Women
According to the literature, older women are abused more than any other group, when
their partner retires. (Miller, 1995). It is at this time that a senior abuser escalates his
abusive behaviour. Up until this point, the woman may have had some freedom during
the time her partner was working. However, retirement can exacerbate the partner's
feelings of isolation and add to his sense of alienation and lack of self-worth. His
frustrations are taken out on his partner coupled with the generational perception of the
man being omnipotent in the family. For an older woman, the amount of time she has

invested in the relationship also has an impact on her choice to stay, not to mention her
lost sense of self which may have been experienced over many years.
Indicators of emotional abuse of older women are similar symptoms of all groups and
include confusion, lack of self-esteem, insomnia, apathy, problems with elocution,
inability to make decisions, nervousness, depression and bouts of crying. Material or
financial abuse can be detected when fundamental needs are not being met such as
glasses or dental prothesis. A new will may be drawn up in favour of one person.
(Beaulieu, 1992)
Women with Disabilities
A disability is any limitation on the amount or type of activity a woman can undertake.
There are many types of disabilities and some women have more than one. Disabilities
include, mobility, visual, hearing, non-visible (epilepsy, asthma, allergies, chronic
fatigue, diabetes and some heart conditions), psychiatric, developmental, chronic illness
(AIDS), learning disabilities, and environmental illness that may render a person isolated
in their own home.
Along with sexism, women with disabilities experience 'ableism'. They are, in fact,
doubly oppressed. Women with disabilities also come from a variety of backgrounds,
including race, sexual orientation, ethnicity and linguistic groups. Ageism and poverty
also are experienced by women with disabilities. (Eastcott, 1992)
Evidence indicates that women with disabilities experience more abuse than women
without disabilities. Also it is more difficult to escape abuse due to their social and
economic circumstances. With very few choices for economic independence, many
women with disabilities become more dependent on others than their disability requires.
(Cusitar, 1994)
Women with disabilities may depend on a number of caregivers and the larger the
number, the more the chance exists that she will be abused. Any abuse or neglect which
occurs where people live or when they are in the care of others is considered family
violence. Family, in the case of women with disabilities, can include parents, spouses
and other relatives, but also friends, neighbours, and caregivers. Caregivers can include

attendants, homemakers, counsellors, doctors, nurses or group home workers.

Emotional abuse involves a violation of trust and an abuse of power.
Women with Intellectual Disabilities
Those women with intellectual disabilities may tend to learn slowly and may also have a
limited ability to learn. They may already have difficulty in coping with the demands of
daily life. In addition, sensory, speech and language, behavioural and psychiatric needs
can be associated with 'mental handicap'. It is important, however, to remember that
there is a great range of abilities among people who have been labelled 'mentally
handicapped'.
While as a group they may share certain characteristics and experiences, the variety of
their responses, feelings, learning styles and needs is as broad as it is for the rest of the
population. (National Clearinghouse on Family Violence, 1993)
Because there is still considerable prejudice against people with 'mental handicaps',
they are often subjected to emotional and verbal abuse. Women with intellectual
disabilities reported that verbal
abuse was very common and are often based on aspect of oneself that are already
stigmatized as 'different'. (Ridington, 1989) Neglect takes the form of not providing the
necessities of life and failure to seek medical assistance. Mistreatment has been
defined as the use of physical or chemical restraints which harm or are likely to harm the
person. Aversive therapies (such as physical restraints, cattle prods, spraying lemon
juice in the mouth, time-out isolations) are sometimes used to control the behaviour of
people who have an intellectual disability.
People with intellectual disabilities are more vulnerable to violence and various forms of
abuse due to the effects of segregation, lack of power over decision-making, lack of selfesteem, lack of access to community-based services, poverty and lack of positive
images of people with disabilities in popular media. (National Clearinghouse on Family
Violence, 1993)
Women with Physical Disabilities

Numbers of caregivers also produces risks for women with physical disabilities. If she
does report abuse there is fear on her part that she won't be taken seriously and her
vulnerability may increase. Women who are disabled are often trained to be compliant
and are sometimes punished for being assertive or for challenging authority figures.
Often women are not given sex education as they are seen by society as non-sexual.
This may preclude them not recognizing inappropriate touching from necessary forms.
Growing old increases the likelihood of becoming disabled, which can increase the
likelihood of abuse. DAWN Canada: DisAbled Women's Network found that violence
and fear of violence were the most critical issues facing women with disabilities.
(Cusitar, 1994)
It is extremely difficult for any abused woman to leave a situation of abuse. However, it is
particularly difficult for women with a disability. She may be dependent on her abuser for
affection, communication and financial, physical and medical support. If she reports the
abuse, she may risk poverty and loss of housing. She may fear she will not be heard or
believed if she speaks out. She may face further violence, institutionalization, or loss of
her children if she seeks help. Her lack of options may leave her feeling so powerless
and despairing that suicide seems the only viable choice. Forms of abuse include denial
of
food, lack of or inappropriate personal or medical care, rough or inappropriate handling,
overuse of restraints, over-medication and confinement. Verbal abuse, social isolation,
intimidation, emotional deprivation, forcing her to watch pornography, taking away
crutches or wheelchair, refusing to assist her in using her work board or bliss symbolics,
denial of the right to make personal decisions, and threats of having her children taken
away constitute forms of abuse of disabled women. Financial exploitation such as
denying her the right to control her own finances and misusing her finances also exists.
(National Clearinghouse on Family Violence, 1993; Ridington, 1992)
Reports also indicated that caregivers would insist that the woman eliminate body waste
on cue for the convenience of the caregiver. (Ticoll,1994)

Infantilization (being treated like a child) is another form of abuse which robs the woman
of her dignity and self-esteem.
Blind women have reported being stalked and not knowing who the person was or how
threatening they were. (Report and Recommendations of the Steering Committee of the
Abuse of Adults in Vulnerable Circumstances, 1995)
Deaf Women
A culture that is seldom explored is the Deaf culture. Often Deaf people are viewed from
a pathological perspective and not as a cultural entity. (Merkin, 1995) Deaf women and
hearing women share a similar experience of spousal abuse in terms of its nature, cycle
and escalation. Verbal violence clearly exists with respect to Deaf women. Instead of
being expressed verbally and heard, it is expressed by signing and emphatic physical
posturing and facial expressions. This is how threats are communicated. Most Deaf
women are living with or married to Deaf men. Signing in an aggressive and short
manner indicates his abusive tone. The same sense of fear is felt by the woman as the
spoken word would to a hearing woman. It is the message itself that does harm or
induces fear, not the form of language used. As with any other language, Sign
Language (LSQ, ASL) can be the vehicle of abusive messages.
The widespread nature of psychological abuse of Deaf women is supported in the
literature. Forms of abuse outlined include denigration, emotional withholding, waking
the woman up at night to ask questions, controlling her outings and telephone calls and
monopolizing her time. Tying her hands so she cannot sign has been used by abusers
as well.
Stalking and having others spy on her were indicated as forms of emotional abuse.
Expressions such as 'heart hurt' were used by Deaf woman to mean psychological
abuse. Using religious blackmail to intimidate Deaf women was a strategy of the abuser
outlined in the literature, as Deaf women often were raised in boarding schools that
were religious. Many have a strong faith and this faith is used as a site for abuse.

Breaking visual contact is also a form of abuse. This entails the closing of one's eyes to
what the woman is 'signing', turning one's back, looking elsewhere. This blocks the
message and marginalizes her ideas and opinions.
When a deaf woman is living with or married to a hearing man who is abusive, he may
also control the flow of information to her. He may fail to provide her with important
information, fail to inform her of telephone calls and not allowing her to join in
discussions. She may be denigrated because of her deafness and states to others that
she always misunderstands his intentions. The dissuasive argument goes like this: 'If
you talk, who do you think they'll believe, you or me?' He may also state to a judge if the
couple separate that 'the children told me they want to be with me.' She may lose her
children and the courts often give custody to the hearing partner. Abusive hearing men
will also prohibit her from contact with other Deaf people, thus exacerbating her
isolation. (Langlais et al, 1995)
Rural and Farm Women
During personal interviews and focus groups set up by the Muriel McQueen Ferguson
Centre for Family Violence in Fredericton, N.B. Canada, participants stated that rural life
is a particularly ordered environment - a way of life that many rural people experience
collectively as well as individually.
There can be a sense of belonging, safety and support but that the closeness of rural
life can create a sense of rigid traditional values, control and even intimidation. Several
strong recurring themes have emerged in the stories told by abused rural woman. From
all accounts, familial relations are structured on hierarchal relationships which are based
on traditional inequalities between men and women.
On a community level, there were strong expectations that women demonstrate
subservience to men. Almost all of those interviewed spoke of growing up with strictly
defined stereotyped gender roles...these roles were understood as the way that women
were able to complement and support the role of the husband. The division of labour,
traditions and attitudes throughout the community reinforced this...interviewees (italics
mine) noted that their own mothers catered to their fathers every need and the girls

expected to defer to the boys...were not allowed to obtain driver's license or have access
to the family car...A number of those interviewed recalled that their mothers lived in fear.
It was unlikely that somebody in the community would confront an abusive man...As one
interviewee said, "Country people tend to know everything about everyone else, but
they would never dream of interfering in one another's personal business."
Destruction of farm animals such as a child's pony was named as a form of abuse.
(DeVink & Doherty, 1995)
Rural women face many of the same issues as emotionally abused urban women face.
However, one of the unique aspect of farming is that husbands and wives often work
closely together. Consequently, the farm business, day to day operations and family life
are tightly interwoven. Farming may be especially difficult as women living and working
on a farm can experience severe isolation and stress from financial or workload worries.
When a woman makes a decision to leave a farm there are many feelings that must be
untangled. She may feel she is losing her career, her home, her source of income, and
her only identity; all at the same time.(Community Abuse Program of Rural Ontario
CAPRO, 1997)
Teen Women
While we tend to associate partner abuse with adults, it is also present in teen
relationships. Surveys show that violence is experienced in 28% of teen relationships.
(Levy, 1995) One may assume that including emotional abuse in such a study may
inflate this percentage. (Words and italics mine) Again, reasons why a teen male would
inflict abuse is similar to why adult males do so; to control the young woman. Literature
also states that at this age, young men may have poorer impulse controls due to levels
of immaturity. Emotional abuse of teen women also occurs in all social classes, races,
and ethnic groups, in gay and lesbian dating, in rural and urban settings. Emotional
abuse in teen relationships occur where the teens are living together or with parents.
Types of emotional abuse include threats of physical violence, verbal attacks,
demeaning or humiliating the girl in front of others. A teenage boy may control his
girlfriend by being self-centered, frequently insisting that she follow his orders or

constantly criticize her. Some controlling behaviours have the characteristics of leading
to physical violence.
Emotional abuse can be very confusing for teen women because the teen abuser may
also be telling her that he loves her. She may begin to feel confused, her self-esteem is
lowered, and she feels shame. Also due to her immaturity, she may self-blame and feel
that she has caused the problems in the relationship. Statement that continue to
confuse may include, 'its a good thing you have me to love you, because you are so ugly
(or crazy or disgusting...'), no one else would want you.'
At a time when the teen woman's identity is developing, these putdowns can have a
devastating effect on her. Statements that isolate her would include 'we have each other;
we don't need anyone else.' (or) 'your friends and parents are trying to keep us apart.'
(or) 'no one else understands us and what we have together.' The constant monitoring
of her behaviour and suspiciousness of the teen abuser may lead the young woman to
stop activities outside the relationship. He may threaten to commit suicide and this too is
a burden a young woman may find unbearable to imagine. (Levy, 1995)
It may be very difficult for a teen woman to go to her parents regarding abuse, as this is
the time in her life that she is individuating. Services that address woman abuse often
do not serve the teenage population. The effect of abuse on teen woman may include
over-identification with the abuser so she cannot develop her own interests, forced
dependency on abuser, coping with the abuse uses up all her energy and she may face
failures in other areas. Developing a healthy body image and value system may be
impeded. (Victim Services on line 1999)
College and University Women
In college age young men, the literature indicates that low level violence (defined as
playful force during sex, sudden mood swings and/or quick temper) in courtship exists
and can measure tendencies towards woman abuse in later life. Personality
characteristics in college age men were used as indexes. Threats and verbal abuse
were the most predictive signs of courtship violence. (Ryan, 1995) Emotional
dependency in primary relationships among college-aged students indicated that
anxious attachment, exclusive dependency and emotional dependency as well as self-

esteem and identity may be indicators of maladaptive relationships leading to emotional

abuse. (Rathus and O'Leary, 1997)
Aboriginal Women: First Nations, Inuit and Metis
Historically, family violence was rare in the Aboriginal community. It was unacceptable
and the community would not tolerate the abuse of children, spouses, disabled or the
elderly. Many Aboriginal peoples have experienced the detrimental effects of the
residential school system, the oppression of sacred traditions and spiritual ways, the
loss of family influence and the absence of parental and elder teachings. As a people,
they adopted non-functional, non-Aboriginal attitudes, beliefs and values. They became
oppressed and internalized this oppression (self-hatred) and the result has been
"violence". (McTimoney, 1993)
The types of emotional abuse levelled against Native women by their intimate partners
is similar to what takes place in other groups. However, as explained above, when
extreme forms of oppression of the whole group exist, the damage can be much greater.
The fragility of the severely oppressed woman only makes issues of self-esteem, terror,
shame, isolation, depression, hopelessness and severe anxiety more acute.
The literature states that Aboriginal people do not view family violence as a offendervictim relationship, but rather as a dysfunctional community, where family violence is
only one problem.
In the American literature, to date, no systematic research that seeks to determine point
or lifetime prevalence of wife abuse within or between American Indian communities has
been conducted. (Chester, 1994) It would seem logical, therefore, that issues and
solutions regarding emotional abuse are in their infancy.
Testimonials by Aboriginal women on reserves stated that it was difficult to leave an
abusive relationship due to lack of housing; the abuser continually burnt her clothing;
they had to leave the reserve due to lack of safety. They were turned out of her and her
children's home by the abuser.

In addition, Native women who had married a white man and divorced were
marginalized by the community and put down by their new Native partner. Despite the
family violence model of dealing with woman abuse, Aboriginal women have raised this
issue in the context of theirmarginalized (italics mine) place in male dominated
governing systems. (Stout, 1996)