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EXAMPLE 1
Design of punching shear reinforcement
A flat slab is supported by columns spaced on grid of L=6m. the proposed flexural reinforcement
is shown in the figure below. Find suitable shear reinforcement.
The nominal loads are:
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mx m y
sin 2 ..(1.9)
2
These equation apply only for orthogonal reinforcement. If mx = my, these two equation reduce
to mb=mx= my and mt = 0, regardless of the angle of yield. This is referred to as isotropic
reinforcement.
Location of axes and yield lines
When yield lines are formed, all further deformations are concentrated at the yield lines, and the
slab deflects as a series of stiff plates joined together by long hinge, as shown in fig. 1.10. The
pattern of deformation is controlled by axes that pass along line supports and over columns, as
shown in fig. 1.11 and by the yield line. Because the individual plates rotate about the axes and
or yield, these and line must be straight. To satisfy compatibility of deformations at points such
as A and B in fig. 1.10, yield line dividing two plates must intersect the intersection of the axes
about which those plates are rotating. Figure 1.11 shows the location of axes and yield lines in a
number of slabs subjected to uniform loads. The yield mechanism in fig. 1.10 and 1.11 are
referred to as kinematically admissible mechanism because the displacement and rotations of
adjacent plate segments are compatible. If more than one kinematically admissible mechanism
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Consider a rectangular panel (l/b>1) subjected to uniform load, which is increasing up to failure.
Upper and lower bound theorems
The lower bound theorem and the upper bound theorem, when applied to slabs, can be
stated as follows:
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(W c )
(1.10)
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..
The right hand side of equation 1.10 can be expressed as q times the diplaced volume for the slab
yield mechanism. The total external work done by rotating the yield lines is:
Internal work =
(mb l )
. (1.11)
(W c )= (mb l )
. (1.12)
The virtual work solution is the upper-bound solution; that is, the load W is equal to or higher than the
true failure load. If an incorrect sets of YLs is chosen, W will be too large for a given m, or conversely,
the value of m for a given W will be too small.
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Chapter 2
Plastic Moment Redistribution
2.1 Introduction
Some methods of elastic analysis are generally used to calculate the forces in concrete structures,
despite the fact that the structure does not behave elastically near its ultimate load. The
assumption of elastic behaviour is reasonably true for low levels; but as a section approaches its
ultimate moment of resistance, plastic deformation will occur.
Reinforced concrete behave in a manner midway between that of steel and concrete. The stressstrain curves for the two materials (figure 2.1 a and b) shows elastoplasic behavior of steel and
concrete. The latter will fail at relatively small compressive strain. The exact behaviour of a
reinforced concrete section depends on the relative quantities and individual properties of the
two materials. However, such a section may be considered virtually elastic until the steel yields;
and then plastic until the concrete fail in compression. Thus plastic behaviour is limited by the
concrete failure; or more specifically, the concrete failure limits rotation that may take place at a
section under bending. A typical moment curvature diagram for reinforced concrete member is
shown in figure 2.2.
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0.44 1.25
Re distributed Moment
Moment before redistrbut ion
Where,
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0.80
x 0.8 0.44
In moment redistribution usually it is the maximum support moments which are (adjusted)
reduced so that economizing in reinforcing steel and also reducing congestion of bars at the
columns.
Requirements for applying moment redistribution are: Equilibrium between internal and external forces must be maintained, hence it is
necessary to recalculate the span moments.
( min 0.70)
Maximum redistribution is 30%...
2.2 Design procedure using table No. 1a & 1b (with moment redistribution)
Steps
Md
b
d
1. Calculate Km=
a) If Km<km*, where Km* is the value of Km shown shaded in general design table 1a,
corresponding to %age moment redistribution, section is singly reinforced.
Enter the general design table 1a using Km and concrete grade.
Read Ks from general design table No. 1a corresponding to steel grade.
KsM d
d
Evaluate As=
b) If Km>Km*, the section has to be doubly reinforced.
Km
Km *
- Calculate
- Read Ks and Ks corresponding to Km/Km* and steel grade from table No. 1b and
No. 1a, respectively
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- Read
corresponding to d2/d and %age moment redistribution from table No. 1b.
- Calculate
As =
As =
KsM d
d
(tensile reinforcement)
Ks ' M d '
d
(compressive reinforcement)
EXAMPLE 2.1
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Where w is the load to cause the first plastic hinge; thus the beam may carry a load of 1.33w
with redistribution.
From the design point of view, the elastic BMD can be obtained for the required ultimate loading
in the ordinary way. Some of these moments may then be reduced; but this will necessitate
increasing others to maintain the static equilibrium of the structure. Usually it is the maximum
support moments which are reduced, so economizing in reinforcing steel and also congestion at
columns. The requirements for applying moment redistribution are:
1.
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Assignment No-2
1. The ultimate load to be resisted by a beam is given as 40kN/m (Figure below).
a) Compute elastic moments,
b) Determine the design moment assuming a 20% redistribution of bending moments at the
supports and mid-span,
c) Plot all the elastic BMD, Moment curvature behaviour, free body diagram for
determining redistributed forces, combined plastic and elastic moments, and design
bending moment envelope and extent of reinforcements.
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of bending moments at the internal support and find the design bending moment and
shear force envelopes for the beam. The characterstic loads are self weight Gk=25kN/m
and live load Qk=10kN/m.
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spiral
tie
a) Tied columns
reinforced
Pitch
b) Spiral columns
c) Composite column
Infilled column
Tied and spiral columns are by far the most common than other types of columns.
On the basis of slenderness ratio, columns may be further classified as short or long columns
If the moments induced by slenderness effects weaken a column appreciably it is
referred to as a slender (long) column otherwise it is a short column.
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The slenderness ratio of columns is defined as the ratio of the effective buckling length
Ii
)
Ai
(Lei) to the radius of gyration (ri =
, where i refers to the axes x and y of the cross
section.
Lei
L
= ei
ri
I i . (3.1)
Ai
The effective length (lei) of a column is the distance between two consecutive points of contra
flexure or zero bending moments. In other words it is the height of a theoretical column of
equivalent section but pined at both ends. This depends on the degree of fixity of column ends
which in turn depend on the relative stiffnesses of the columns and beam connected to either
ends of the column under consideration. For this consider the following.
Le = L
Le = 0.5 L
Le = 0.7 L
Le = 2.0 L
0.7
L m 0 .8
a) Non-sway mode
(3.1)
Le
7.5 4( 1 2 ) 1.6 1 2
1.15
L
7.5 1 2
b) Sway mode
(3.2)
Le
1 0.8 m 1.15
L
or
For theoretical model shown below: 1 and 2 may computed as
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K1 K c
;
K 11 K 12
K2 Kc
;
K 21 K 22
1 2
2
free to rotate
N sd
f cd A c
M1
25
(
)
b) For non-sway frames, 50
M 2 shall be used.
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2 EI e
Le
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Longitudinal reinforcement
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Lateral reinforcement
The diameter of ties or spirals shall not be less than 6mm or one quarter of diameter or
longitudinal bars.
The center-to-center spacing of lateral reinforcement shall not exceed: o 12* diameter of the longitudinal bars
o b (least dimension)
o 300mm
The pitch of spirals shall not exceed 100 mm.
3.3.3
Axial compression
The ultimate capacity of an axially loaded short column can be computed from;
Pdu = fcd(Ag-Ast) +Astfyd
= fcd Ag[1-g]+ g Agfyd
= Ag [fcd(1- g)+ g fyd]------------------------------------------------------------------- (3.4)
Where Ag and Ast are gross concrete area and total area of main reinforcement, and g is steel
ratio.
g
Le
12
b
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Le
48 * b
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max f cu
P
f cu A
My
1
f cu I
M max
------------------------------ (3.5)
f I
cu
y
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1
Pmax
M max
Substituting in (3.5)
---------------------------------------------------------- (3.6)
Equation. (3.6) is known as an interaction equation because it shows the interaction of, or
P
relationship between P and M at failure.
Pmax
(C )
1.0 A
Interaction Diagrams
M
(CCW ) -1.0
M max
1.0
-1.0
-0.5 0.5
P
(T )
Pmax
1.0
M
(CCW )
M max
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P
(C )
Pmax
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M
(CW )
M max
0.5
M
Mm
P
(T )
Pmax
0.25
M
-0.75
D
(CCW )
M max
0.75B
0.5
M
(CW )
M max
P
(T )
Pmax
f tu
f cu
2
b) Material with
Figure 3. 4: Interaction diagrams
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s1
s1
N .A
A
s2
fcd
= 0 .0 0 3 5
fsc
0 .8 x
C s = A s1 fsc
C c = 0 .8 x fcd b
s2
f st
Ts = A
S t r a in s
S tre s s e s
In te rn a l fo rc e s
( x < 0.8h )
( x 0.9h )
s2
f st
R e s u lt a n t f o r c e s
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Le
20mm
300
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For first order moments varying linearly along the length, the equivalent
eccentricity is the higher of the following two values:
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For different eccentricities at the ends (negative and positive) the critical end
section shall be checked for first order moments.
etot= e02+ea
For non-sway frames, the second order eccentricity e2 of an isolated column may
be obtained as
2
K 1 Le 1
e2
( )
10 r
K 1=
0.75
20
where Le is the effective buckling length of the column
K1
0.75
20
K1=1.0
1
r
for 15 <
< 35
for >35
1
5
K 2 ( ) * 10 3
r
d
, where
d is the column dimension in the buckling plane less the cover to the center of
the longitudinal reinforcement.
K2
Md
M bal
Md - is the design moment at the critical section including second order effects.
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25
15
d
N sd
f cd Ac
<5025
,
M1
M2
where M1 & M2 are 1st order moments, M2 being positive & greater than
M1.
M1 =
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Mh
f cd bh 2
----------------------------------------------------- (3.6)
In using these charts for design, the following procedures may be adopted:
Given Pd, Md = Pded = Pdetot
As ,min 0.008 Ac
Ast , prov
Check that
As ,max 0.08 Ac
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arctan
M ny
ex
arctan
ey
M nx
Bending for this case is about an axis defined by the angle with respect to the x-axis. For other
values of , similar curves are obtained to define the failure surface for axial load plus bi-axial
bending.
Any combination of Pu, Mux, and Muy falling out side the surface would represent failure. Note that
the failure surface can be described either by a set of curves defined by radial planes passing
through the Pn axis or by a set of curves defined by horizontal plane intersections, each for a
constant Pn, defining the load contours (see Fig. 3.7 d).
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where:
Pc A ci f i
nx
M ny
A ci f ci y ci
f y sci
sci sci
f y sti - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -(3.9)
sti sti
(3*)
Since the determination of the neutral axis requires several trials, the procedure using the above
expressions is tedious. Thus, the following simple approximate methods are widely used.
a) Load contour method: It is an approximation on load versus moment interaction surface
(see Fig. 3.7). Accordingly, the general non-dimensional interaction equation of family of
load contours is given by:
M dx
M dxo
M dy
M dyo
p
n 0.667 1.667 da
p do
and
1.15 n 2.0
where: Mdx = pd ey
Mdy = pd ex
Mdxo = Mdx when Mdy = 0 (design capacity under uni-axial bending about x)
Mdyo = Mdy when Mdx = 0 (design capacity under uni-axial bending about y)
b) Reciprocal method/Breslers equation: It is an approximation of bowl shaped failure
surface by the following reciprocal load interaction equation.
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p dx p dxo p dyo p do
-------------------------------------------------------------- (3.10)
Where: Pd = design (ultimate) load capacity of the section with eccentricities e dy and edx
Pdxo = ultimate load capacity of the section for uni axial bending with e dx only (edy = 0)
Pdyo = ultimate laod capacity of the section for uni axial bending with edy only (edx = 0)
Pdo = concentric axial load capacity (edx = edy = 0)
However interaction charts prepared for biaxial bending can be used for actual design. The
procedure involves (considering the cross-section shown below):
-
b'
b
Calculate
and
(range of values of 0.05, 0.1, 0.15, ,
0.25 are available)
Compute:
Normal force
N
f cd Ac
h'
h
h'
b'
ratio:
Moment ratios:
Mh
f cd Ac h
b'
Mb
f cd Ac b
A tot
-
h'
h
and
b'
b
ratio:
Ac f cd
f yd
Compute
Check Atot satisfies the maximum and minimum provisions
Determine the distribution of bars in accordance with the charts requirement
Circular columns
When load eccentricities are small, spirally reinforced columns show greater ductility (greater
toughness) than tied columns; however the difference fades out as the eccentricity is increased.
Interaction Diagram for Circular columns
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cu
fcd
s1
N .A
M
f st2
s2
fsc
0 .8 x
s3
y
c r o s s - s e c t io n
f st1
s tre s s e s
s t r a in s
C o m p r e s s io n z o n e
R e s u lt a n t F o r c e s
C e n t r o id o f c o m p r e s s io n z o n e
C e n t r o id o f c o m p r e s s io n z o n e
0 .8 x
(h /2 -0 .8 x )
(0 .8 x -h /2 )
h / 2 0 .8 x
h / 2
0.8 x h / 2
h / 2
cos 1
cos 1
sin cos
A h2
The moment of this area about the centre of the column is:
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, = 180o -
sin 3
12
A y h 3
b)
First-order theory, using the initial geometry of the structure, may be used
in the following cases
Non-sway frames
Braced frames
c)Second-order theory, taking into account the influence of the deformation of the structure,
may be used in all cases.
II. Design of Non sway Frames
Individual non-sway compression members shall be considered to be isolated elements and be
designed accordingly. (Design requirements were listed in section 3.5)
III. Design of Sway Frames.
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where
1
N
1 sd
Nc r
The amplified sway moments method shall not be used when the critical load ratio
N sd
0.25
N cr
Sway moments are those associated with the horizontal translation of the top of story relative to
the bottom of that story. They arise from horizontal loading and may also arise from vertical
loading if either the structure or the loading is asymmetrical.
As an alternative to determining
N sd N
N cr HL
N sd
Nc r
Creep effects may be ignored if the increase in the first-order bending moments due to creep
deformation and longitudinal force does not exceed 10%.
The effect of creep can be accounted by:
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Detailing Requirements
Size: The minimum lateral dimension of a column shall be at least 150 mm.
Longitudinal Reinforcement (see section 3.3):
Lateral Reinforcement (see section 3.4 also)
a) Ties shall be arranged such that every bar or group of bars placed in a corner and alternate
longitudinal bar shall have lateral support provided by the corner of a tie with an included
angle of not more than 135 0 and no bar shall be further than 150 mm clear on each side
along the tie from such a laterally supported bar( see Fig. )
b) Up to five longitudinal bars in each corner may be secured against lateral buckling by means
of the main ties. The center-to-center distance between the outermost of these bars and
the corner bar shall not exceed 15 times the diameter of the tie (see Fig.)
smax = 350 mm
c) Spirals or circular ties may be used for longitudinal bars located around the perimeter of a
circle. The pitch of spirals shall not exceed 100 mm.
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Chapter 4
Slender Columns
They are columns with high slenderness ratio and their strength may be significantly reduced
by lateral deflection.
When an unbalanced moment or as moment due to eccentric loading is applied to a column, the
member responds by bending as shown in Fig. 4.1 below. If the deflection at the centre of the
member is, d, then at the centre there is a force P and a total moment of M + P . The second
order bending component, P, is due to the extra eccentricity of the axial load which results
from the deflection. If the column is short is small and this second order moment is negligible.
If on the other hand, the column is long and slender, is large and P must be calculated and
added to the applied moment M.
Fig. 4.1
Slenderness Ratio
The significance of P (i.e. whether a column is short or slender) is defined by a slenderness ratio.
In EBCS 2, the slenderness ratio is defined as follows:
a) For isolated columns, the slenderness ratio is defined by:
where:
Le
i
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12 A
Kl L
where: A is the sum of the cross-sectional areas of all the columns of the story
Kl is the total lateral stiffness of the columns of the story (story rigidity), with
modulus of elasticity taken as unity
L is the story height
Limits of Slenderness
25
15
d N sd f cd Ac
where
b) For non-sway frames
M
50 25 1
M2
Where M1 and M2 are the first-order (calculated) moments at the ends, M 2 being always positive
and greater in magnitude than M 1, and M1 being positive if member is bent in single curvature and
negative if bent in double curvature
Effective Length of Columns
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Fig. 5.8 Effective length factors for centrally loaded columns with various idealized conditions
b) The alignment chart (see Fig. 5.9) is used for members that are parts of a framework. The
effect of end restrained is quantified by the two end restrain factors 1 and 2
1 (or 2 )
E cm I col
/ Lcol
E cm I b / Lb
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Note that: if the end of the column is fixed, the theoretical value of is 0, but an value of 1 is
recommended for use. On the other hand, if the end of the member is pinned, the theoretical value
of is infinity, but an value of 10 is recommended for use. The rational behind the foregoing
recommendations is that no support in reality can be truly fixed or pinned.
Fig. 5.9 Alignment Charts/Nomograph for effective length of columns in continuous frames
c) The following approximate equations can be used provided that the values of 1 and 2 dont
exceed 10 (see EBCS 2).
(a) Non-sway mode
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0.7
L m 0.8
Le
7.5 4( 1 2 ) 1.6 1 2
1.15
L
7.5 1 2
Or Conservatively,
Le
1 0.8 m 1.15
L
1 2
2
Note that: for flats slab construction, an equivalent beam shall be taken as having the width and
thickness of the slab forming the column strip.
Slender columns bent about the major axis
A slender column bent about the major axis may be treated as bi-axially loaded with initial
eccentricity ea acting about the minor axis
Biaxial Bending of Columns
a) Small Ratios of Relative Eccentricity
Columns of rectangular cross-section which are subjected to biaxial bending may be checked
separately for uni-axial bending in each respective direction provided the relative eccentricities
are such that k
0.2; where k denotes the ratio of the smaller relative eccentricity to the
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etot denotes the total eccentricity in the direction of the larger relative eccentricity
k denotes the relative eccentricity ratio as defined in above.
may be obtained from the following table as a function of the relative normal
force
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fcdA c
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
0.6
0.8
0.9
0.7
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1.0
0.5
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