ENZYMES

The sum of all chemical reaction in the body are called Metabolism
Metabolic reactions are either catabolic or anabolic
Catabolic reactions involve the breaking down of substance into its reactants
Anabolic reactions involve the building up of large molecule from smaller one
Enzymes acts on substrate, the beginning ingredient of the reaction, to make products in a chemical reaction
Enzymes are proteins.
Every type of enzyme has a specific shape as it is made up of a specific pattern of amino acids.
The active sites are the areas that substrates will bind to and catalyse chemical reactions. When an enzyme binds to a substrate it
makes a new molecule called the enzyme substrate complex
Enzymes usually function at a specific temperature and pH range.
If an enzyme is subject to pH and temperatures outside the ranges, it may change shape and block the active sites of substrates. This
is called denaturing.
The suffix ase is added to the end of the name to indicate it is an enzyme.
The function of enzyme is to speed up the chemical reactions that take place in the body.
For a chemical reaction to take place the molecules involved need to collide at the correct orientation and with the right amount of
energy. This is called the activation energy.
Enzymes work by lowering the activation energy needed for a reaction to progress.
Enzymes are needed in only very small amount to catalyse the reaction and remain unchanged at the end of the reaction therefore
they can be used numerous times
In an anabolic reaction enzymes work by binding to a substrate and forming an enzyme substrate complex, lowering the activation
energy and releasing products.
Two theories involved in enzyme action: lock and key and induced fit theory
The lock and key theory states that the enzyme is like the lock and the substrate is like the key. Only when the substrate fits the
enzyme active sites perfectly will the reaction be catalysed. Just as the key is specific to lock, so is a substrate specific to its enzyme.
An enzyme will not work unless the substrate matches its active sites. Only then the reaction will be catalysed.
The induced fit theory states that the substrate plays a role in determining the final shape of the enzyme substrate complex and the
active site is more flexible than was first thought. The substrate enters in and binds to the enzyme, shaping the active site and
properly aligning the enzyme for the reaction to take place. Other substrates may fit into the active site, but unless they are able to
properly shape the enzyme, a reaction will not be catalysed.
The substrate helps to determine the shape of the active site of the enzyme in a catabolic reaction
Enzymes sometimes need assistance from other molecules to function correctly. These helper molecule can be coenzymes, which are
organic, such as vitamins, or cofactors , which are inorganic and include minerals.
PKU is a disease involving single amino acid in enzymes.
The environment outside the human body is constantly changing but Enzymes have a specific conditions under which they can
operate at an optimal level. Outside these conditions their activity decreases and the enzyme can become denatured. It is therefore
vital that the conditions within the body are maintained at a constant level for optimal enzyme, and therefore metabolic efficiency.
Homeostasis is the maintenance of a constant internal environment.

If a condition within the body changes, such as rise in temperature, the process of homeostasis ensures that mechanisms within the
body detect this change and counteracts it so that the body temperature remains at 37c
Homeostatic mechanisms can be affected by infections

Negative feedback
Homeostatic consists of 2 stages:
1.
2.

Changes from the stable state are detected by organs called receptors or sensors. Receptors are organs that contain
neurons, which detect changes to parts of the body such as skin, the eye or the ear
Those changes are counteracted using effectors organs. Effectors organs bring about a response to the change, for

example the muscle in the skin will contract to produce goose bumps in cold weather
This type of a reaction, where the response is to reduce and counteract the stimulus is called a negative feedback system.
A negative feedback system causes the body to respond so that a reversal in the direction of a change occurs. This tends to
keep the internal environment at a constant regardless of the external environment, thus maintaining homeostasis.
In between the stage of detection and counteraction, the brain and spinal cord will coordinate the response to the change.

Nervous system
The nervous system is an essential element in the process of homeostasis. It enables the detection of changes to body and
then coordinate the responses the body will make to counteract these changes.
The nervous system is made up of two interacting elements the central nervous system and the peripheral nervous
system
Central nervous system
The CNS is composed of brain and spinal cord. The spinal cord transmits message from the receptor organs such as eye,
ear or skin via the sensory neurons to special regions in the brain. The hypothalamus is one of these regions, and is tucked
deep within the brain.
The hypothalamus receives stimuli from sensory neurons and then coordinates the correct response necessary to
counteract the change by sending out messages to the effector organs via the motor neurons..
The hypothalamus also controls the release of many hormones that produce slow acting changes in the body, which also
contributes to homeostasis.

Peripheral nervous system

The PNS is composed of all the neurons outside the CNS. These include sensory and motor neurons. Sensory neurons transmit message from the
receptor organs such as the eyes to the CNS. Motor neurons transmit messages from the CNS to the effector organs such as the muscles to activate a
response.

ECTOTHERMS
Ectotherms are organisms that have approximately the same body temperature as the ambient temperature. They have a
limited ability to maintain their body temperature at the one level, as it changes according to the surrounding
environment. Example, plants, invertebrates, amphibians, reptiles and fish.
ENDOTHERMS
Endotherms are animals that physiological structures that enable them to maintain their body temperature within a
narrow range regardless of ambient temperature. They use the heat produced from metabolism to help maintain their
body temperatures.

RESPONSES TO TEMPERATURE CHANGE

Because of changing temperature, especially on land, animals must possess specialised features, or adaptation that
enables them to survive. These adaptations can be classified as physiological, structural or behavioural.
Physiological adaptations
A physiological adaptation is a feature that helps to regulate a function within an organism. They usually have to do with
the functioning of biochemical reactions within cells and tissues of animals.
Structural adaptations
Structural adaptations are those that have a connection with morphology or physical features of an organism, such as the
length of a birds beak or the shape of the animals body. They include any body part or structure that allows an
organism to better suit its environment. Sometimes adaptations are both physiological and structural, like the length of a
kidney tubule, which helps to decrease water loss.
Behavioural adaptations
Behavioural adaptations are ways an animal behaves that help it survive in its natural environment. Examples include
migration and nocturnal activity.
Australian Ecotherm example:
Australian Endotherm Example