A2 Psychology Revision

The Psychology of Addictive Behavior

Biological Models of Addiction

MODEL ONE: GENETICS
McGue (1999) found that genes contribute to the development of alcohol dependence, with
heritability estimates from 50-60% for both men and women.
Noble et al (1991) found that the A1 variant of the DRD2 (Dopamine Receptor) was present in
more than 2/3 of deceased alcoholics. Those with the A1 variant appear to have fewer dopamine
receptors; they then turn to drugs and alcohol to increase their dopamine levels compensating
for the deficiency.
Evaluation of Genetics

Strengths
Explains why some individuals are more
resistant to treatment and more likely to
relapse.

Synoptic; Psychology is a science.

Limitations
Caine et al (2007) found that mice
engineered to lack the brain receptor (D 1),
did not develop a taste for cocaine when it
was presented to them. Other normal mice
did however continue to take the drug.
Synoptic; Deterministic, Reductionist,
Ethics of using animals in research
(above), and Ethics of using deceased
individuals.

MODEL TWO: THE ROLE OF DOPAMINE (THE DISEASE MODEL)

Initiation Rewarding experiences (e.g. drug taking) trigger the release of dopamine, telling the
brain to do it again.
Maintenance Chronic exposure to alcohol/drugs result in a reduction in the activity of these
positive reward circuits (down regulation), this causes withdrawal symptoms (+ anxiety). Koob
and Kreek (2001) found that as a result of down regulation, the drug levels that are needed to
trigger the reward systems increase.
Relapse Addicts have learned to expect a reward from the drug, and this is reinforced again
through social cues. An addicts capacity for self control is also weakened, as the frontal cortex
has become less effective at making decisions and judging consequences.

Evaluation of The Role of Dopamine (The Disease Model)

Strengths
Limitations
Volkow et al (2001) gave Ritalin (increases Volkow et al (2003) claimed people who
dopamine levels) to volunteers. Brain scans
grow up in a positive and engaging
show that those who liked the drug had
surrounding are protected against addiction
fewer dopamine receptors. Those who had
even if they dont have a responsive
normal levels couldnt withstand the
dopamine system. They get excited by
additional rush.
natural stimuli, reducing their desire for an
artificial boost.
Synoptic; Psychology is a science.

Synoptic; Deterministic, Reductionist.

Cognitive Models of Addiction

MODEL ONE: THE SELF-MEDICATION MODEL
Initiation Individuals think that the drug is helping with their current problems. Research
indicates that these drugs are specifically chosen for their effects (e.g. alcohol reduces anxiety).
Maintenance Individuals then think the drug is managing the problem. Many smokers say that
stress relief is why they continue to smoke, Parrott (1998) claims an cigarette has an acute effect
on stress as it relieves the withdrawal symptoms that arise when a smoker cant smoke.
Relapse Parrott (1998) also claims that a cigarette has an ongoing (chronic) effect, which
increases the individuals stress levels. Their desire to solve the problem causes relapse.

Evaluation of The Self-Medication Model

Strengths
Limitations
Gottdiener et al (2008) carried out a meta- This model cannot explain why individuals
analysis of ten studies and found
without any major psychological problems
participants with substance abuse
have substance abuse disorders as there
disorders showed significant failure in ego
is nothing to cure.
control (the ability to resist using drugs as a
Synoptic; Cause or consequence.
medicine); compared to a control group.
Synoptic; Reliable and valid research
through the meta-analysis (above).

MODEL TWO: EXPECTANCY THEORY

Initiation The addiction occurs because of the individuals expectations of the costs and benefits
of the activity. Brown (1985) found that among heavier drinkers, there are expectations of social
and physical pleasure, tension reduction, greater sociability and enhanced cognitive functioning.
Maintenance As the addiction develops, there are less conscious expectations and more
unconscious expectations. This explains the lack of control addicts experience.
Relapse Expectations can be manipulated to prevent relapse. Tate et al (1994) told smokers
that there would be no negative symptoms during a period of not smoking this led to fewer
somatic effects (e.g. the shakes) and psychological effects (e.g. their mood), than a control group
not given any advice/information.

Evaluation of The Expectancy Theory

Strengths
Limitations
Leigh (1987) found that the more
This theory does not explain why addicts
favourably people evaluated the
experience a loss of control (which is
impairment effects of drinking, the greater
presented in all other theories). It only
their overall alcohol use.
focuses on the consumption of the drug.

Synoptic; Expectations are culturally-bias.

MODEL THREE: THE RATIONAL CHOICE THEORY

Initiation The theory uses the concept of utility (the satisfaction gained from consumption of a
particular good or service), measured by weighing up the costs incurred against the benefit they
are likely to receive. If they have increased their consumption, this decision has been made
because of their rational choice/decision of the future benefits.
Maintenance Addicts are rational and look ahead in order to behave in a way which maximises
the preferences they hold. This means that addicts will act in a way to optimise their future use of
the substance.
Relapse Gamblers appear to be an exception to the theory. This theory would suggest that
those gamblers who lose, should stop gambling but they dont!
Griffiths (1994) compared 30 regular and 30 non-regular gamblers in terms of their verbalisations
as they played a fruit machine. He found regular gamblers believed they were more skilful than
they actually were, and treated the machine as a person (e.g. this fruity isnt in a good mood).
Regular gamblers also explained losses as near-misses or near-wins, justifying their choice to
continue.

Evaluation of The Rational Choice Theory

Strengths
Limitations
This theory is able to explain why some
The theory assumes that the preferred
addicts are able to stop engaging in the
behaviour (decided when initially starting
activity; as when the addictive behaviour
the addiction) will be continued and remain
hosts more costs than benefits, they decide
stable throughout the process.
to stop.
Synoptic; Individual differences affect the
perceived costs and benefits of the drugs
West (2006) claimed this theory could be
no two people see the same future
used as an implication for treatment of
benefits/costs. Ethical issues of using
addiction. If the individuals perceived the
addicted gamblers (in the above study).
costs too high for their future (e.g. the
financial costs were increased) they would
not decide to use the substance.

The Learning Models of Addiction

MODEL ONE: OPERANT CONDITIONING
Initiation A behaviour is repeated if it is rewarded in one of two ways; through positive
reinforcement (a desirable consequence e.g. feeling relaxed, increases the level of dopamine) or
through negative reinforcement (the removal of unpleasant consequences e.g. withdrawal
symptoms).
Griffiths (2009) also said gamblers become addicted because of physiological rewards (e.g.
adrenaline), psychological rewards (e.g. near-misses), social rewards (e.g. peer praise) and
financial rewards.
Maintenance Withdrawal effects occur when the substance is discontinued, because withdrawal
is unpleasant, any reduction in the effects will be seen as negative reinforcement.
Relapse The symptoms of withdrawal can be reduced by re-taking the drug. Negative
reinforcement also helps explain why drug users relapse after periods of abstinence.

Evaluation of Operant Conditioning

Strengths
Limitations
West (2006) claimed this theory explains
Robinson and Berridge (1993) suggest
why conflict occurs between the addicts
that many people take potentially addictive
conscious desire to restrain themselves
drugs, but very few become addicted
from using the substance, and the
suggesting that there are other
motivational forces that impel them to
psychological factors involved (not just
continue.
reinforcements).

Synoptic; Deterministic, Cultural-bias as

reinforcements will be seen differently
throughout western and non-western
countries.

MODEL TWO: CLASSICAL CONDITIONING

Initiation This involves the use of secondary reinforcers. An unconditional stimuli (e.g. sitting
with friends) produces an unconditional response (e.g. feeling relaxed). If this unconditional stimuli
is then frequently paired with an conditioned stimuli (e.g. smoking), then it too will start producing
an conditioned response (e.g. feeling relaxed), as the individual has learnt that the conditioned
stimuli (e.g. smoking) produces the same effect as the original unconditional stimuli (e.g. sitting

with friends). Glautier et al (1991) shown that alcohol-related stimuli (e.g. the pub) leads to the
same physiological responses as alcohol itself.
Maintenance Once a habit has been developed, withdrawal symptoms stop that person
changing their behaviour. The withdrawal symptoms have become the unconditional stimuli,
meaning any stimuli that occurred before these symptoms becomes a conditional stimuli, leading
to conditioned responses in anticipation of the substance.
Relapse If an individual comes into contact with one of the cues (secondary reinforcers) there is
an increase likelihood of relapse occurring.

Evaluation of Classical Conditioning

Strengths
Limitations
Robins et al (1975) studied war veterans,
Synoptic; Deterministic, Cultural-bias as
and found those who had developed an
reinforcements will be seen differently
addiction to heroin while in Vietnam (and
throughout western and non-western
returned back to their hometowns) were
countries, the study using war veterans
less likely to relapse; compared to those
(see left) could be historically-bias, suffer
who had to return to the same environment.
from ethical problems and could be argued
that other issues stop their abuse (e.g.
Treatments have been developed for this
cultural expectations and social norms).
model including stimulus discrimination.
This is when addicts are presented with a
cue, but not given the opportunity to
engage in the substance-abuse. They dont
get the reinforcer from the drug, and
extinguish the association with the cue.

MODEL THREE: SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY

Initiation The addiction begins through operant conditioning as the user learns (observes) the
consequences of using the drug (any positive consequences (e.g. social norms or peer support)
results in repeated use and any negative events results in the individual having a decrease
likelihood of taking the drug).
Maintenance According to West (2006) drugs have both positive and negative effects, this
creates an approach-avoidance conflict (the drugs motivate users to seek the drug, while they also
want to stop taking the drug). Addicts can also learn through classical conditioning to associate
other stimuli with the drugs.
Relapse If after a period of abstinence, the user comes into contact with one of the cues, there
is an increase likelihood of relapse occurring.

Evaluation of The Social Learning Theory

Strengths
Limitations
DiBlasio and Benda (1993) found peer
Synoptic; This approach appears to ignore
group influences to be the primary
all biological approaches and theories,
influence for adolescents who smoke or
cultural expectations and social/peer norms
take drugs. Those who smoked were also
may also change between the various

more likely to associate with other

adolescents who smoked.

countries and social groups.

Botvin (2000) suggested a treatment

programme for beginner adolescents, as
this is when individuals are most vulnerable
to peer influences. He suggested
resistance training as it teaches not only
how to refuse the drug, but also about the
influences surrounding the individuals (e.g.
the peer and social expectations and
norms).

Explanations For Specific Addictions

EXPLANATION ONE: SMOKING ADDICTION
*You Dont Need To Know Everything Here, Just A Couple of Explanations and Studies*
Why Do People Start Smoking? According to Javis (2004) children who favour the view of
smoking as associated with adulthood or rebelliousness tend to come from backgrounds which
approve smoking or where smoking is common. The desired image is therefore sufficient enough
for the novice smoker to tolerate the unpleasant effects, which after time are replaced by the
physical effects of nicotine.
Physical and Psychological Effects of Nicotine Nicotine activates nicotinic acetylcholine
receptors (nAchRs) which release dopamine in the nucleus accumbens. These reactions create
the feeling of pleasure, but only for a short-period, once past the smoker then experiences
withdrawal symptoms, alleviated by smoking another cigarette.
Socioeconomic Status and Nicotine Addiction Research into smoking trends in the UK,
found that smoking was associated with social and economic disadvantage, with poorer smokers
tending to smoke more.
Smoking In Pregnancy Buka et al (2003) collected data from 1,248 pregnant women aged 17
to 39, using blood samples measuring nicotine levels. It was found that children of heavier
smokers were no more likely to try smoking or to smoke regularly than children of light smokers.
However children of women smoking more than 20-a-day were more likely to become addicted.

Evaluation of Smoking Explanations

Strengths
Limitations
Mayeux et al (2008) found a positive
Research has found that gender
relationship between boys smoking at age
differences occur between men and women
16 and popularity two years later. The
with regards to their onset and
opposite was found for other risky
development of smoking (which are not
behaviours (e.g. alcohol and sex).
addressed in the above).

Paretti-Watel et al (2009) conducted a

French study and found a correlation
between poor housing conditions/
socioeconomic status and smoking. They
claimed interventions that improve the
smokers living conditions will help more.

Synoptic; Scientific research, takes into

account the biological approach.

Synoptic; Gender-bias, Nurture vs Nature

(as the individuals may have been bought
up differently in a deprived socioeconomic
status).

EXPLANATION TWO: GAMBLING ADDICTION

Characteristics of Gamblers According to the DSM-IV gambling addiction occurs when;

An individual losses control of their gambling behaviour.

An increase in gambling frequency and time spent thinking about gambling is seen.
Individuals continue to gamble, despite negative repercussions (e.g. financial losses).

Genetic Factors Research by Black et al (2006) found that first-degree relatives of gamblers
were more likely to suffer from a gambling addiction than distant relatives. Other research also
indicates that there is a strong genetic transmission of gambling in men.
Sensation-Seeking and Boredom Avoidance Zuckerman (1979) claimed that high sensation
seekers have a lower appreciation of risk, and anticipate arousal as more positive than lower
sensation seekers. He also found a relationship between sensation-seeking and gambling as
gamblers entertain the risk of monetary loss for the positive reinforcement produced by high
arousal and winning.
Blaszczynski et al (1990) found that poor tolerance for boredom may contribute towards
repetitive gambling behaviour. They also found gamblers had significantly higher boredom
proneness scores than a control group of non-gamblers.

Evaluation of Gambling Explanations

Strengths
Limitations
Slutske et al (2000) found that 64% of the
Coventry and Brown (1993) found that
variation in risk for addictive gambling was
those who betted on horse racing were
due to genetic factors alone.
actually lower sensation seekers than
non-gamblers.

Coventry and Brown

(1993) also found casino gamblers were
higher sensation seekers than nongamblers.

Synoptic; Takes into account the biological

Synoptic; Nurture vs Nature (it may not be

the genetics at work, but the environmental
factors see left).

approach.

Vulnerability to Addiction
EXPLANATION ONE: SELF-ESTEEM
Research has found that low self-esteem may cause people to behave in self defeating ways to
escape self awareness (e.g. drinking to increase confidence). Taylor (2007) analysed a sample of
over 800 boys over a nine year period and found that those with low self-esteems when they were
aged 11 have a higher chance of being addicted at aged 20.

Evaluation of Self-Esteem Explanations

Strengths
Limitations
Bianchi and Phillips (2005) studied 195
Some research indicates that it is un-ethical
participants by comparing their mobile
to study individuals with addictions,
phone use to their self-esteem using the
especially when these individuals have lowMobile Phone Problem Usage Scale
self esteems.
(MPPUS). They found those with poor self Synoptic; Cultural-bias, gender-bias,
esteems have a greater tendency to seek
cause or consequence, un-ethical.
reassurance through socialising on phones.

EXPLANATION TWO: ATTRIBUTIONS FOR ADDICTION

Eiser (1982) found that smokers attempt to cover their responsibility for engaging in smoking (the
cognitive conflict they experience) by attributing their behaviour to something out of their own
control (e.g. an addiction).

Evaluation of Attributions for Addiction Explanations

Strengths
Limitations
Hammersley et al (1990) found that drug Research claims that if smokers saw
users in prison tended to blame their drug
themselves as addicted, this would be an
use for their crimes of theft, even when
major obstacle to behaviour
theft occurred prior to drug-use.
change/recovery; as they perceive
themselves as not being in control.

EXPLANATION THREE: SOCIAL CONTEXT OF ADDICTION

Research suggests that smokers tend to befriend other smokers, and that increase smoking levels
are linked to peer encouragement and approval, two theories support this;

The Social Learning Theory Behaviours are learnt through modelling (observing) others,
once an individual has started smoking, positive and negative experiences determine the future
use of the substance.

Social Identity Theory Social group members (smokers and non-smokers) adopt group
behaviours, beliefs and identities as their own. Individuals are likely to be similar to one another
in their smoking habits.

Research also indicates that motivation to take heroin includes; wanting to experience the high of
the drug and pressure to belong to a social group. Gossop et al (1992) also found that when
injecting the substance an identity of solidarity within users (sharing the risk) is formed.

Evaluation of Social Context of Addiction

Strengths
Limitations
Eiser et al (1989) claimed perceived
Brown et al (1997) found a relationship
rewards (e.g. social status and popularity)
between age and decreasing influences
also explain why adolescents smoke.
and pressures from crowds/social groups.
They also found the roles of close friends
and romantic partners become more
important.

There is little known about the extent to

which social groups influence their
members to smoke, as individuals may not
smoke when on their own.

Synoptic; Un-falsifiable, un-ethical, cant

generalise (age-bias), cultural differences,
demand characteristics.

The Role Of Media In Addictive Behaviour

EXPLANATION ONE: FILM REPRESENTATIONS OF ADDICTION
Sulkunen (2007) collected 140 scenes representing various addictions, from nearly 50 films, but
only used 60 scenes. From the scenes analysed drug-use was presented in a pleasant and
enjoyable manner, which was contrasted with the dullness of ordinary life. Drugs were also shown
to alleviate various problems.
Gunasekera et al (2005) analysed 87 modern-aged films for their portrayal of sex and drug-use.
They found that alcohol and smoking addictions were more common than drug-use, but the use of
these substances was again portrayed positively. They also found of the 53 episodes containing
sex, only once was a condom mentioned. Overall only one in four films were free from negative
health behaviours.

Evaluation of Film Representations of Addiction

Strengths
Limitations
Sargent and Hanewinkel (2009) surveyed Some researchers argue that films do
over 4000 adolescents aged11-15 who
display the negative consequences of
were re-surveyed a year later. They found
substance abuse. In the US filmmakers are
after exposure to movie smoking, a strong
paid if they represent drugs in a negative
correlation was seen with the participants
manner.
smoking.
Synoptic; Cultural-bias (westernized),
demand characteristics, age-bias and unFilms are important in representing and
ethical (see left), correlation not causation,
spreading information about drugs and
ignores the biological approach.
other substance, when used in the correct
way. For example the film One Flew Over
the Cuckoos Nest explains
electroconvulsive therapy (ECT).

EXPLANATION TWO: THE MEDIA AND CHANGING ADDICTIVE BEHAVIOUR

Television Support for Problem Drinking Kramer et al (2009) assessed the effectives of a
television self-help programme, designed to reduce problem drinking. They found that viewers
were more successful (than a control group) in achieving a low-risk drinking level, even after 3
months.
Antidrug Campaigns The US spent nearly $1 billion in the US National Youth Anti-Drug Media
Campaign between 1998 and 2004. This campaign aimed to educate the youth of America,
prevent them from taking drugs and stop users taking the drugs. Research by psychologists
indicates that the campaign led to delayed unfavourable effects (e.g. more drug taking), and didnt
help.
The researcher suggested two reasons why this campaign failed;

The ideas within the campaign were not new or creative.

The adverts portrayed drug-taking as a social norm/expectation.

Johnston et al (2002) found that youths who saw the campaign took the message that their peers
were using marijuana, and they then took the drug.
Evaluation of The Media and Changing Addictive Behaviour
Strengths
Limitations
Krammers Flaws - Firstly the viewers
analysed received weekly visits from
researchers which may have affected the
research and secondly, the control-group
was placed on a waiting list for help,
therefore they may have postponed their
behaviour change.

Synoptic; Demand characteristics,

un-ethical, ignores individual difference,
cultural differences, correlation not
causation (as the exposure may not have
caused/stopped the addiction)

Models Of Prevention
EXPLANATION ONE: THE THEORY OF REASONED ACTION (TRA)
Attitude towards
Act or Behaviour

Behavioural
Intention

Behaviour

Subjective Norm

The Theory of Reasoned Action (TRA) is a cognitive theory where an individuals decision to
engage in a behaviour can be predicted by their intention to engage in the behaviour. An
individuals intentions can be influenced by two main factors;

Personal Factors These include an individuals attitude towards the behaviour (e.g. how
desirable the behaviour is). This attitude is based on the consequences of performing the
behaviour (e.g. it will feel good) and the appraisal of the consequence (e.g. whether they
will be good or bad).

Social Factors These include an individuals awareness of the social norms the beliefs
about what we think is the right thing to do, and the perceptions of what other people are
doing.

Moore and Ohstuka (1999) in a sample of adolescents and adults, found that the TRA predicted
gambling frequency and problem gambling effectively. Subjective norms and attitudes predicted
intentions to gamble (or not), and intentions to gamble predicted actual behaviour.

Evaluation of The Theory Of Reasoned Action (TRA)

Strengths
Limitations
Synoptic; This theory takes into account
Research indicates that when attitudes and
cognitive and social (behavioural) theories,
intentions are assessed by questionnaires
free will not determinism.
the results may be poor representations of
the actual behaviours which occur in
different situations (e.g. a smoker may
indeed to give-up for health reasons, but
when with friends this may change).

Warshaw and Davis (1985) claim a

distinction should be made between
behaviour intentions (person plans for the
future) and behavioural expectations (the
likelihood of performing a behaviour). For
example, a smoker may expect to stop
smoking in five years, but have no
intentional plans to achieve this.

Synoptic; Demand characteristics,

simplistic approach.

EXPLANATION TWO: THE THEORY OF PLANNED BEHAVIOUR (TPB)

Attitude towards
Act or Behaviour

Subjective Norm

Behavioural
Intention

Perceived
Behavioural
Control

Behaviour

Perseverance

According to this theory all behaviours are under conscious control (e.g. if somebody intends on
giving up smoking, they will). The Theory of Planned Behaviour (TPB) is an extension of the TRA
as it includes Perceived Behavioural Control - this is said to act on the intention to carry out a
behaviour, or directly on the behaviour itself, because;

The more control we have, the stronger our intention to carry out a behaviour.

A person with higher perceived behavioural control is more likely to persevere for longer.

Perceived control is important when issues of control are associated with the performance of a
task (e.g. control contributes little to the intentions to consume convenience food, but is important
for the intention to lose weight).

Evaluation of The Theory Of Planned Behaviour (TPB)

Strengths
Limitations
Armitage and Conner (2001) conducted a Research indicates that both the TRA and
meta-analysis and found that perceived
the TPB may be too rational, failing to take
behavioural control added an extra 6% of
into account emotions, compulsions and
the variance in intention, compared to the
other irrational determinants of human
other contributing factors.
behaviour.
Synoptic; This theory takes into account
cognitive and social (behavioural) theories,
free will not determinism.

The model has been said to only predict

the intention to change rather than the
actual behavioural change. Abraham et al
(1998) therefore proposed a motivational
phrase (e.g. the formation of the
behavioural change) and a post-decisional
phrase (e.g. the behavioural intention and
maintenance).

Synoptic; Demand
characteristics.

Types Of Intervention
EXPLANATION ONE: BIOLOGICAL INTERVENTIONS
Heroin Addiction and Methadone Methadone is a synthetic drug used to treat heroin addicts
as it mimics the effects of the drug. It produces a feeling of euphoria, but to a lesser degree. The
user is prescribed an increasing amount of the drug to increase their tolerance, and then slowly
given decreased amount until the addict no longer needs either methadone or heroin.
Drug Treatments for Gambling Addiction Hollander et al (2000) treated gamblers with SRRIs
(as gamblers suffer from supposed serotonin dysfunction), and found positive results compared to
a control group. Other research suggests the use of naltrexone (a dopamine receptor antagonist)
which reduces the rewarding and reinforcing properties of gambling.

Evaluation of Biological Interventions

Strengths
Limitations
Kim and Grant (2001) support the effects
Some addicts claim to be addicted to the
of naltrexone, with a significant decrease in
drug treatments being used. With
gambling behaviour after 6 weeks.
methadone causing over 300 deaths in the
UK.
Synoptic; Supports the biological and
The Hollander study carried out above
social learning theory (reinforcements).
only used 10 participants over 16 weeks. A
longer study failed to find a difference
between the SRRI treatment and a
placebo.

Synoptic; Demand
characteristics, treats the effect and not the
cause.

EXPLANATION TWO: PSYCHOLOGICAL INTERVENTIONS

Reinforcement Research suggests you can reduce addictive behaviour through rewarding
addicts for not engaging in the activity. Sindelar et al (2007) split a group of participants into two
conditions; one received monetary rewards and the other received nothing. Drug use was
significantly reduced when rewards were given, with a result of 60% having clear urine samples.
Cognitive-Behavioural Therapy (CBT) This is based on the idea that the behaviour is
continued due to the addicts thoughts about it. The goal of CBT is to therefore help addicts
change their way of thinking through providing new ways of coping with different circumstances.
For example, gamblers believe that they control the outcome of their games, CBT attempts to
correct these thoughts.

Evaluation of Psychological Interventions

Strengths
Limitations
Ladiyceur et al (2001) allocated either
CBT or placed on the waiting list to 68
addicts. Of those receiving treatment 86%
were successfully treated with better
perceptions of their own control and
increased self-efficacy.
Synoptic; Unethical (by giving drugs to users), It doesnt
treat the problem as it gives users the
money to buy drugs, demand characters.
EXPLANATION THREE: PUBLIC HEALTH LEGISLATIONS
The NIDA Study The NIDA conducted a US study, and found that individual and
group counselling reduced cocaine use, along with other associated behaviours (e.g.
unprotected sex).

Telephone Smoking Quitline Services Stead et al (2006) conducted a meta-analysis of over

18,000 patients and found that people who received repeated telephone calls from a counsellor
increased their odds of stopping by 50%.

Anti-smoking Legislations In 2007 it became illegal to smoke in public buildings in the UK. It
has been found that this environment has made it easier for people to stop smoking, with over
250,000 people between April-December 2007.

Evaluation of Public Health Legislations

Strengths
Limitations
A study regarding 24 US war veterans,
found a combination of counselling and
medication was the best treatment for
smoking addicts, with 46% of the
participants quitting by their agreed
quit-date.
West (2009) found
a rebound effect from the anti-smoking
legislation introduced in 2007. It shown
attempts to quit smoking were greater in
the 9 months leading up to the smoking
ban.

Synoptic; Demand
characteristics, Individual differences,
Cultural differences.