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Writing and Grammar
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Rpublique Dmocratique Populaire Algrienne
Ministre de Lenseignement suprieur et de la recherche
Scientifique
Ecole Normal Suprieure de Constantine

Distant Course LMD

Fourth Semester

Prepared by
Mrs RadIa Bouguebs and Mrs Dihia Taoutaou
(Maitres Assistantes LENS de Constantine)
2008/2009

Part one : Writing

Part one
I. Classification Essay
In a classification essay, the writer organizes, or sorts, things into categories. When you
classify, you divide members of a group that share the same characteristics into categories.
For example, say you need to sort the stack of papers on your desk. Before you would put
them in random piles, you would decide what useful categories might be:
1.
2.
3.
4.

1st category: papers that can be thrown away;

2nd category: papers that need immediate action;
3rd category: papers to read;
4th category: papers to pass on to other co-workers; or papers to file.

1. The Principle of Classification:

To assign the members into categories, we need a principle of classification, or a guideline for
the procedure of classification. To classify, or sort, things in a logical way, find the categories
to put them into. For example, if you are asked to identify the principle of classification of the
following categories: teachers who dress conservatively, teachers who dress fashionably, and
teachers who dress in a variety of styles. In this context we can say that the principle of
classification of these teachers is the way they dress.

Exercise: study the following subjects and categories then write down the principle of
classification.
1. Teachers: those with Bachelors degrees, those with Masters degrees, and those with
PhDs.
The teachers of this school can be classified according to
2. Burns: first degrees, second degrees, and third degrees.
Burns can be classified according to .
3. Snakes: those that swallow the prey live, those that inject poison into the prey, and
those that squeeze the prey to death.
Snakes can be classified according to .
4. Smokers: those who smoke because of nervousness, those who smoke to look
sophisticated, those who smoke because of boredom.
Smokers can be classified according to.

2. Organizing the Classification essay:

Categorize each group: we have to identify the name of each group. For
example, what is the name of 1st degrees burns?
2.
Describe or define each category. List down the general characteristics of the
members of this category. Once you have finished, discuss the common characteristics
of the members.
1.

3.

Provide enough illustrative examples. It is so important to illustrate the characteristics

by giving concrete examples of typical members of the category. An example should
be a typical representative of the group. The most important category, usually reserved
for last, might require more elaboration.
4.
Point out similarities or differences of each category, using comparisoncontrast techniques. You have to discuss the characteristics of the second category by
comparing and contrasting them with those of the first category.

Thesis Statement of a Classification Essay

The thesis statement usually includes the topic and how it is classified. Sometimes the
categories are named.
(topic)...(how classified)...(category) (category) (category)
Ex: Tourists in Hawaii can enjoy three water sports: snorkelling, surfing, and sailing.
Exercise: write the thesis statement of the following subjects and categories.
1.
2.
3.

Police officers: detectives, sergeant, captains.

Transportations: on land, by water, by air.
Automobiles: two doors, four doors, station wagons.

3. Common Classification Transitions

Since a classification essay is combination of example and comparison essays; so, the
transitions that are used in addition to those used in example and comparison and contrast
essays are the following:

The first kind (the second kind, the third kind) includes those who.........
The first type (the second type, the third type) includes those who.........
The first group ( the second group, the third group) includes those who.........

Remember: In a classification essay, you have to organize, or sort, things into categories. In
addition to that, three steps should be remembered: organize things into useful categories, use
a single organizing principle, and give examples of things that fit into each category.

Birth Order The Perfectionist, The Tornado, and The Princess

Before I had children, I did not believe that birth order could affect the personality of a
person. But now I have three beautiful yet very different daughters. So different that not only is
it sometimes hard to believe they come from the same two parents, its sometimes hard to
believe they come from the same species! I have come up with three categories to describe the
peculiarities of birth order, the Perfectionist, the Tornado, and the Princess, at least as they
pertain to my daughters.
The Perfectionist is the oldest child. Miss Perfection has been the center of attention since
the moment of conception. The parents just know that this child would be the smartest, most
compassionate, most beautiful child ever born on the face of the earth. The parents then pour
all their energies into making sure this is true. The child then decides that this is what life is
like. The oldest child believes that their hair has to always be perfect with a hair bow that is the
exact shade of their carefully chosen ensemble. Their schoolwork reflects this also. They will
be at the top of their class in everything from reading to hopscotch. They will also be involved
in everything imaginable drama, girl scouts, cheerleading, youth group, yearbook, honor
societies, and the list goes on and on. These are the children you find in gifted classes and are
bored if they dont get challenging enough homework. On top of everything else, things have
to be perfect the first time. In my oldest daughter, Megans mind, a rough draft of a paper
means that the handwriting is messy. These children are also natural born leaders. Bossing their
siblings around just comes naturally. This can benefit them when they become CEOs,
politicians, or dictators.
The middle child is the Tornado. The middle child will gladly expound on why life is not
fair. They will do this in a loud and very emotional way. No matter their age, they think they
should be able to do everything their older and younger siblings do. And if they cant, Its not
fair! is followed by an endless tirade about how they are not loved and how they are going to
run away and find people who have no children so they can be an only child. Ten minutes later
this same madman will be asking you to listen to a song they wrote about how much they love
their siblings or calling you to come see the cute new thing their younger sibling is doing. This
child can be very compassionate and loving but life is so unfair to them that they forget to
show it sometimes. This child constantly hears Cant you be more like your older sister?
This only enflames the child to do even bigger and better things than their older sibling. This
makes all of life a competition for this child. They are constantly trying for better grades,
bigger trophies, faster times, and higher jumps. If they dont better their sibling they go into
deep depression. If they can do better than their sibling, they strut around and brag for weeks.
And they never let their older sibling forget. Life with the Tornado is never boring! In fact, if
you ever hear that Hurricane Maddie is heading for Texas, EVACUATE!!! It wont be a
hurricane but my middle daughter in a major meltdown!

Then theres the baby, the Princess. The youngest believes that life revolves around them.
When they are very young they have no motivation to learn to do anything on their own,
including crawling, walking or talking. Their older siblings cater to their every need. As the
Princess gets older she expects this behavior to continue much to the annoyance of their older
siblings and the older siblings cant figure out how that sweet little baby became such a spoiled
brat. Of course, the parents dont help the situation. This is the baby of the family and
everybody needs to watch out for them. Maybe this is why our three year old has taken to
wearing a crown around the house and demanding to be referred to as Princess Katie.
Birth order, I thought it was study done to waste taxpayers money, but it does exist. If you
still dont believe it just visit my home for a while. Just dont forget to bow to the Princess.

Questions on the model:

1.

What is the thesis?

2.

What seems to be the writers purpose for writing about the peculiarities of birth
order?

3.

What is the principle of classification?

What are the characteristics of the Perfectionist?

5. What are the characteristics of the Tornado?
6. What are the characteristics of the Princess?
7. Do the examples the writer uses to illustrate the categories seem appropriate?
4.

8.

Does the conclusion appear to be logical?

9.

Write an outline of this essay?

Exercise: using the preceding essay as a sample, choose one of the following topics then
write a classification essay.
1.

You have received a letter from a friend back home asking you about your friends
here. In your response you have decided to classify your friends.

2.

Teachers in you college can be classified according to the way they dress.

3.

Teachers at the university can be classified according to their educational degrees.

4.

If we are to define process analysis it can be said that it is the examination of a series
of activities that results in a certain planned output.

II. Process Analysis Essay

1. Definition:
If we are to define process analysis it can be said that it is the examination of a series
of activities that results in a certain planned output. In a process analysis essay, you write to
explain how to do something or how something works. Whereas the narrative essay tells what
happens and the cause and effect essay tells why it happens, the process analysis explains how
it happens. a good process analysis either helps your readers perform the steps or it can help
them understand how something works.

2. Types of process analysis:

There are two types of process essays: directional and informational.

The directional type essays tell how to do something. For example, a directional
process might explain how to find an apartment. The purpose of this type of essay is to
clarify the steps in the procedure so that the reader can re-create the steps and the
results.
The informational type essays tell how something works, how something is made, or
how something occurred. This type of essay explains or analyzes a process. For
example, you could explain how World War II began or how hurricanes form. The
informational process essay has a purpose different from that of a directional process
essay. It s main purpose is to inform, explain, or analyze. The reader is gaining an
understanding of the process; he or she does not necessarily expect to be able to
recreate the process.

The choice between directional and informational approaches to process analysis would
however depend on the subject. An analysis of the process of repairing an automobile will
necessarily have to be directional. On the other hand, clarifying how N.Mahfouz wrote his
first book has to be informational.
3. Planning The Process Analysis Essay
Though directional or informational processes have different purposes, they can be
developed by using the same pattern of development and organization. To construct
adequately the process analysis essay, some advice should be taken into account by the
writer.
Be aware of the audience. Because your piece of writing is written for a given
audience, you should know before starting the planning of your process essay what
do your readers know about the topic you will develop. To who Im writing, or the
identification of the audience is important in deciding what to include and what to

omit in the essay. For example, imagine that you decided to explain how to prepare
a traditional cake to an inexperienced audience - people who never before prepared
a cake. You would have to be very specific and assume that the readers know little
or nothing about the process. However, if your audience is made up of professional
or experienced in this field, you would have to approach the assignment
differently. In this case, you would provide them with something special say new
techniques in preparing this cake that your audience may not be aware of.

Order the steps chronologically. Knowing that a process analysis essay describes a
sequence of steps, it is important that these steps have to be discussed in the order that
they occur. In other words, the steps should be arranged in chronological order.
Ordering ideas chronologically is vital, especially if readers are to be able to re-create
the process. The principle of organization in a process analysis essay is the same
followed in a narration essay. The only exception to break from chronological order is
when you find it important to explain an unfamiliar word, or to give an advice.

4. Suggested transition words:

Like narration essays, Process essays are generally organized according to time: that is,
they begin with the first step in the process and proceed in time until the last step in the
process. Some common transitional words used in process essays are listed below:
One
time

Another
time

Transition
TIME
After a few hours,

Immediately following,

Afterwards,

Initially,

At last

In the end,

At the same time,

In the future,

Before

In the meantime,

Before this,

In the meanwhile,

Currently,

Last, Last but not least, Lastly,

During

Later,

Eventually,

Meanwhile,

Finally,

Next, Soon after,

First, Second, Third, etc.

Previously,

First of all,

Simultaneously,

Formerly

Subsequently,

Immediately before,

Then,

10

A Sample of Process Essay

Successful Exercise
Regular exercise is something like the weatherwe all talk about it, but we tend not to
do anything about it. Exercise classes on television and exercise programs on videos and CDs
as well as instructions in books, magazines, and pamphletsnow make it easy to have a
low-cost personal exercise program without leaving home. However, for success in exercise,
you should follow a simple plan consisting of arranging time, making preparations, and
starting off at a sensible pace.
Everyone has an excuse for not exercising: a heavy schedule at work or school; being
rushed in the morning and exhausted at night; too many other responsibilities. However, one
solution is simply to get up half an hour earlier in the morning. Look at it this way: if you're
already getting up too early, what's an extra half hour? Of course, that time could be cut to 15
minutes earlier if you could lay out your clothes, set the breakfast table, fill the coffee maker,
and gather your books and materials for the next day before you go to bed.
Next, prepare for your exercise session. To begin with, get yourself ready by not eating
or drinking anything before exercising. Why risk an upset stomach? Then, dress comfortably
in something that allows you to move freely. Since you'll be in your own home, there's no
need to invest in a high-fashion dance costume. A loose T-shirt and shorts are good. A
bathing suit is great in summer, and in winter, long underwear is warm and comfortable. If
your hair tends to flop in your eyes, pin it back or wear a headband or scarf. Prepare the
exercise area, too. Turn off the phone and lock the door to prevent interruptions. Shove the
coffee table out of the way so you won't bruise yourself on it or other furniture. Then get out
the simple materials you'll need to exercise with.
Finally, use common sense in getting started. Common sense isn't so common, as
anyone who reads the newspapers and watches the world can tell you. If this is your first
attempt at exercising, begin slowly. You do not need to do each movement the full number of
times at first, but you should try each one. After five or six sessions, you should be able to do
each one the full number of times. Try to move in a smooth, rhythmic way; this will help
prevent injuries and pulled muscles. Pretend you're a dancer and make each move graceful,
even if it's just getting up off the floor. After the last exercise, give yourself five minutes to
relax and cool offyou have earned it. Finally, put those sore muscles under a hot shower
and get ready for a great day.
Establishing an exercise program isn't difficult, but it can't be achieved by reading about
it, talking about it, or watching models exercise on television. It happens only when you get off
that couch and do something about it. As my doctor likes to say, "if you don't use it, you'll lose
it."

Questions on the model:

1.

What is the thesis?

11

2.

Does the author establish a need for this process? If so, where?

3.

Look at the paragraph divisions. Why does the author divide the steps as he does?

4.

What are the steps of this process?

5.

What is the principle of organization followed in this essay?

6.

Is there a topic sentence for each paragraph? If not, is it implied?

7.

Is the essay unified? Coherent?

8.

Are the steps clearly explained? Is the process complete?

9.

Who is the audience?

10.

Is this essay an informational or directional process explanation?

11.

What tense verbs are used in this essay? Underline them in the essay.

12.

Is the conclusion appropriate and logical

13.

Write an outline of this essay.

Exercise: using the preceding essay as a sample, choose one of the following topics then
write a process analysis essay. First decide if you want write a directional process or an
informational process. Then make a list in a chronological order of the steps involved in
the process. Make sure that the process is complete. Define any unfamiliar term. Be sure
to use appropriate transitions.
1) Write an essay on how to prepare and eat one of your traditional dishes?
2) Explain how to repair something, such as sewing on a button or changing a car tire?
3) Can you explain the life cycle of an insect (butter fly, bee)?

12

III. Definition Essay

1) Definition:
Because the definition of a word or a phrase is the key to our understanding, If we are
to define definition essay, it can be said that it is to characterize the object or the phenomenon
by its notion, structure (how something is organized or put together), function (explain what
something does and how something works), features, properties, etc. In other words, a
definition essay tends to explain what a term means. Some terms have definite concrete
meaning such as dog, moon, or forest. Terms such as peace, love, or courage are abstract
ones and depend more on a person's point of view.
In order to write an effective definition, you should tell your reader about the term you
are with, or the term you are defining. The information you provide for this term should be
clear and basic. To support your definition, you can use facts and illustrations that may help
your readers more in their understandings. So, to write a successful definition essay you must
share all the knowledge you have obtained on the subject with your readers.
If you are asked to write about feminism", to help the reader to have an absolute
understanding of the word "feminism," you may want to start with the history. From that point
you could tell about the men and women who saw the need for equality, and finally how
feminism affects us today.

2. Characteristics of a Definition essay

1.

Choose the subject you want to define.

2. As a second step, you have to carefully consider all of its meanings by organizing all of
your thoughts in the order that would best convey the message. It is better to follow an outline
at this step.
3. Because a definition essay is often a combination of narration, process analysis,
comparison and contrast essay, you have to decide what style of essay you want to use. If you
are breaking your definition into parts, the process method may be your best choice. If you are
defining by comparing your subject to another, comparison and contrast may be your
approach.
4.

Avoid defining a word by quoting the dictionary. Example: Oxfords dictionary says . . .

3. Choosing a Definition

13

The first step in writing a definition essay is to choose a definition. To reach this key step,
you need to understand the term before you can define it for others.
a. Read the dictionary, but don't just copy the definition because taking the words of
others may lead to plagiarism. Thus, if you take thoughts and ideas of other people,
you to quote and give reference to the original source. Even if you paraphrase ideas
from books, articles or websites, you should give reference to this source.
b. Explain the term briefly in your own words.
c. Limit your term before you start defining it. For example, you could write forever on
the term "love." To limit it, you would write about either "romantic love," "platonic
love," or "first love."

4. Significant Topics for Definition Essays

The best topic for a definition essay is connected with abstract words. Since there, to
develop these topics following this type, the writer will have the opportunity to reflect on
what other people think this word means. For instance, such words, as freedom, love, hate,
education, morality can be understood differently by different people and cultures.
To write on an abstract word, it is advised to use simple and clear language so that
everyone can understand your ideas and explanations. Besides, you may use facts, statistics,
and examples to support your paper.

Thesis Statement of a Definition Essay

The thesis statement of a definition essay usually identifies the term being defined and
provides a brief, basic definition.
(Term) (Basic definition)
Ex: Assertiveness is standing up for your rights.
5. Some Rhetorical Points about defining things:
To write acceptable definitions for the term you are defining avoid the following:
Avoid using the phrases "is where" and "is when" in your definition: "Total
Quality Management is when management and labor agree to. . . ." "A computer
virus is where . . . ."
Avoid circular definitions (repeating the defined term within the predicate, the
definition itself): "A computer virus is a virus that destroys or disrupts software .
. . ."
Avoid using a too narrow definition, one that would unduly limit the scope of
your paper: "Reggae music is sung on the Caribbean island of Jamaica. . . ."

14

Remember: A definition essay is writing that explains what a term means. When writing a
definition essay, remember to tell readers what term is being defined, to present a clear and
basic definition, and to use facts, examples, or anecdotes that readers will understand.

I.

A sample of Definition essay:

What is a Yankee?
To most of the world, a Yankee is an American, anybody who lives in the United States.
It is not always a pleasant connotation; in fact, "Yankee, go home!" calls up images of angry
Latin American mobs protesting the oppression of American imperialist policies.
To most Americans, though, the word Yankee means either the pin-striped New York
baseball team or the Northern forces in the American Civil War, the soldiers from north of the
Mason-Dixon Line. In time, though, the idea that the word Yankee suggests has shrunk
geographically until it is on the verge of extinction.
Perhaps the most famous Yankee of all (no offense to the musical Damn Yankees!
intended) has star billing in Mark Twain's novel Connecticut Yankee in King Arthur's Court. I
have lived most of my life, now, in that southern New England state, and I can assure you
there are precious few real Yankees around. Real Yankees might have lived in Connecticut at
one time, but now they are from another place and perhaps another time. As television and
other forms of mass media invade our homes and tend to diminish regional differences, to
make Americans more and more homogeneous, the Yankee might more homogeneous, the
Yankee might be one of the first genuine American characters to disappear.
A neighbor of mine claims he knows what a real Yankee is all about. Years ago, he
says, he lived next door to one. It seems his plumbing was acting up and he'd actually
removed the toilet from the floor and taken it out into the backyard to do some surgery on it.
Now he knew that his neighbor, who happened to be a professional plumber as well as the
putative Yankee, was well aware of the fact that he was struggling to fix his toilet and he
knew that his neighbor was home, doing nothing in particular that day, probably watching
from the kitchen window. But would he come over and offer to help? No way. But when my
friend finally gave up and went over and asked for assistance, the plumber-neighbor not only
agreed to help, he did so gleefully. He spent the entire afternoon finding and fixing the
problem and helping to return the toilet to its proper place. And wouldn't accept a dime, of
course.
According to my friend, that's the first tenet of Yankee-ness. You must never offer help
because that makes the person to whom you have proffered assistance "beholden" to you. And
a Yankee must never be "beholden" to anyone. (That's how the word for this concept is said,
and so we must spell it that way, too.) To be beholden means that you owe something to
someone else. Now everyone in the world can owe something to the Yankee, but the Yankee
must never owe anyone else anything, and he can't really understand someone who would be

15

willing to be beholden. Thus he will not offer help oh, maybe in a real emergency, he
would be as good a Samaritan as anyone else until asked. When asked, it's another story.
You will get more help than you can imagine, help in great abundance, more than you could
ever deserve or pay back. So it's not that Yankees are stingy; on the contrary, a Yankee is
generous to a fault. But there is a sense of reserve that prohibits the true Yankee from offering
help before being asked. The sense of inviolate space is paramount: "Good fences make good
neighbors," says the neighbor in Robert Frost's poem, "Mending Wall," and the Yankee will
not cross the fence until asked.
Another friend of mine knows someone, a Yankee, a chap born so far north in Vermont
that he's nearly Canadian, who comes over to help with his taxes ever year. To re-pay him, my
friend must resort to trickery, leaving something on the doorstep in the middle of the night. To
offer anything else, up front, might tip the beholden scales in his favor and that would be
risky.
That's what I think defines this dying breed of the American Yankee: an extraordinary
sense of balance and reserve, a holding off and yet, behind all that reserve, a reservoir of
generosity and friendliness that can be nearly overwhelming.

Questions on the model:

1.

What is the thesis?

2.

How does the writer organize his definition of the Yankee?

3.

Does the writer give a dictionary definition for the Yankee?

4.

Is the word Yankee an abstract word?

5.

Does the writer support his definition with examples?

6.

List at least two examples that the writer illustrates to support his definition of the
Yankee?

7.

How many definitions does the writer provide for this term?

8.

Look at the paragraph divisions. Why does the author divide the body of his essay as
he does?

9.

What is the principle of organization followed in this essay?

10.

Is the essay unified? Coherent?

11.

Who is the audience?

12.

Is the conclusion appropriate and logical

13.

Write an outline of this essay.

16

Exercise1: The following is a definition of what a good student is.

A good student is not necessarily one that earns good grades or even one that does his
or her best; a good student is one that makes the teacher feel like a good teacher.
Write a definition essay on the characteristics of a good student. Use the preceded
definition as the thesis statement of you essay.

17

Exercise2: Using the preceding essay What is a Yankee as a sample, choose one of
the following topics then write a definition essay.
1)
2)
3)
4)

What is a good teacher?

What is a good parent?
What is a good lover?
What is justice?

18

I.

Cause and effect Essay

I. Definition:
The cause and effect essay explains the reasons of the event or interprets the
consequences of the event. The aim, then, is to explain the causes (reasons) or the effects
(results) of an event or situation.
e.g. Causes of air pollution (multiple factors leading to air pollution).
e.g. Effects of watching too much TV (many effects of a situation).
The cause and effect essay could be considered more professional than a descriptive or
narrative essay because it includes some elements of writing that the other types (mentioned
above) do not include. Accordingly, it is important that the tone of the author of this type of
essays should be reasonable, and that his presentation of the topic should be factual and
believable.
In developing a cause/effect essay, there may be several causes or effects of a situation.
Because the purpose of a cause and effect essay is to be as convincing as possible and to
convince readers to accept the cause/effect as plausible, it is advisable to focus only on those
causes or effects that help you in persuading you readers. For example, there may be more
than four causes of air pollution, the student has focus on the major causes and keep the
number of major points to 2 or 3, which form separate developmental paragraphs.

II. Planning a Cause, or Effect Essay

I. Introduction
1. In the introduction, your reader should be, first, provided with the necessary information of
the event or the phenomenon you are dealing with. he must understand what you are talking
about. The degree of explanation depends on the complexity of the issue. If it's a simple issue,
a writer might be able to explain it in the introduction. If it's a complex issue, a writer might
need a paragraph after the introduction which goes into more detail. You may have to prove
that a trend exists, for instance, before you can argue what its cause/effect is.
2. Because your aim is to persuade A convincing argument is necessary to persuade your
readers that the proposed causes or results are at least as plausible as their own. To present
such an argument, you have to use sources which state facts and evidence; moreover, you can
also use examples and anecdotes can also be used.
3. As it has been said earlier, in a cause/effect essay the tone should be more professional,
and more reasonable. Because a reasonable voice may help you in convincing your readers
about the trend you are supporting. Consider the following example:

19

It's obvious that the changes in our weather patterns are due to industry's refusal to
control their pollution. These slick business people have bought and paid for our
Congresspersons.
In this example, by saying "It's obvious," the writer has insulted the reader's intelligence in
advance. Then the writer goes on to name-calling ("slick") and a further insult of our elected
officials. It could all be true, but why should we accept it? Compare:
The changes in our weather patterns could certainly be due to a number of factors, in
particular, the heavy pollution created by our industry and the confusing and
contradictory information touted by industrial lobbyists on the one hand and
environmentalists on the other.
It's important to be fair and to keep your writing voice modulated, reasonable, and
professional. It can be playful, but it must be authoritative. You must not sound uncertain or
be insulting.
Copyright 1988 Jennifer Jordan-Henley
III. Organization of a Cause/Effect essay:
In organizing a cause/effect essay , you follow three patterns of organization:
1. Multiple causes-->effect
In this pattern, the organization is as follows:
I. Introduction:
Thesis statement: Air pollution is caused by the following factors: exhaust gases from
cars, uncontrolled factory releases, and burning of low-quality coal for heating.
II. Body
1.exhausts gases from cars
a. government does not have enough control
b. citizens are not conscientious
2. Uncontrolled factory gases
a. no regular checks on gases released
b. factories are inside the borders of residential areas
3.Burning of low-quality coal for heating
a. no governmental control
b. other forms of energy too expensive
II. Conclusion
In multiple causes>effect pattern of organization, each developmental paragraph is devoted to
one of the causes ( eg: causes of air pollution). Each cause is supported by two minor
supports. While writing, these major and minor ideas should be adequately explained and
exemplified as well.

20

2. Cause-->Multiple effects
In cause>multiple effects pattern, the effects of a certain situation are explained in
separate paragraphs. The following outline shows how this pattern could be organized.
Outline
I. Introduction
Thesis statement: Watching too much TV is one of the major sociological issues of this
century, which has many effects on the physiology and psychology of people.
II. Body
1. Eating disorders
A. TV meals
B. obesity
2. Communication problems
A. more violence
B. no interpersonal talks
III. Conclusion

Again, we have grouped related effects under two main points: physiological and
psychological. Then, we have supported each effect with two minor supports (A and B).
While writing, we should explain these major and minor supports by giving examples and/or
defining what we mean, as well.
1. Causal chain / Domino
Sometimes an event causes something to happen, and that situation leads to another
event, and it causes another event to happen. This is called the causal chain or domino effect.
The organization of the causal chain pattern could be best illustrated via the following outline.
e.g. Use of deodorants will bring the end of the world.

21

I. Introduction
Thesis statement: Using deodorants with chlorofluorocarbon gas will bring the end of world.
II. Body
1. Chlorofluorocarbon gases are contained in most deodorants and released by some
factories into the air.
2. This gas causes the ozone layer to become thinner and finally disappear in patches.
3. The unfiltered ultraviolet rays of the sun cause overheating in the poles of the earth, where
the icebergs start to melt.
4. The huge amount of water released from the poles leads to a rise in the sea-level.
5. The sea will cover the land and this will be the end of the world.
III. Conclusion
In this pattern of organization, each major point should be supported with examples,
statistics. In the preceding example, each major point should be supported with examples that
show that there are some factories and deodorants that release chlorofluorocarbons, that there
is a rise in the sea-level, etc.
IV. Transitions expressing Cause/Effect:
To explain reasons and results, we use following transitions:
As a result,
As a consequence,
Consequently,
So,
Since
As,
Because
One reason why...
One of the most important reasons why...
The main reasons why...
There are other reasons, too...
The use of transitions enables the piece of writing to be coherent; so that the reader may
fllow easily is easier for the reader to follow the writers ideas. But dont forget that an
overuse of transitions may harm the unity and the coherence of the essay. Hence, we should
be using transitions only when necessary.

22

IV. Sample of Cause/Effect essay

Read the following essay, and then answer the questions.
Upsetting the Balance of Nature
The members of living community exist together in a particular, balanced relationship, or
ecosystem. One animal species eats another animal species, which in turn eats another. Over
the years, a balance is worked out among the plants and animals in a community, and it
remains basically stable. It is like a huge puzzle with all of the pieces in their proper places.
However, at times this balance in nature is disturbed, resulting in a number of possibly
unforeseen effects. Perhaps a disease results in the near extinction of one species, leaving
another species with no natural predator. The result can be a terrific increase in that one
species population. This could further result in the devastation of a shared food supply,
which could in turn affect another species. It is possible for the disruption in the balance of
nature to have natural causes: disease, drought, fire. Sometimes, however, human beings
intervene in a natural environment, perhaps slightly and with good intentions. The result is the
same. The balance of nature becomes unbalanced and results in an entire chain reaction of an
foreseen and unwanted effects.
A good example of this occurred in the Antilles in the 1870s. sugar cane was a major
crop there, but rats were eating and nesting in the cane, causing a great deal of damage. The
mongoose, a one-half-foot-long mammal of the East Indies, was known to be an excellent rat
hunter. Several males and females were imported in 1872, and laws were established that
forbade the killing of them or their offspring. The mongoose flourished in the Antilles. After
ten years it had multiplied abundantly and had significantly reduced the rat population.
Consequently, damage to the cane fields was greatly reduced. It seemed that the scheme to
add another piece to the ecological puzzle in the Antilles had been successful.
However, that is not the end of the story. The influence of the mongoose did not stop
there. As the rat population decreased and the mongoose population increased, the mongoose
needed to enlarge its menu. It attacked young pigs and goats, game, poultry, and began to
destroy bananas, maize, and pineapples. Because the mongoose could not be hunted, its
number increased rapidly, and it became a terrible pest. All of the indigenous animals suffered
damage. The mongoose learned to enjoy the native birds, snakes, lizards, and turtles and their
eggs. Now, it was specifically these animals that kept that kept the local insect population in
check. There were in the ecosystem of the Antilles a number of beetles, borers, and other
insects that lived on and in the sugar cane. Until that time, they had not caused significant
damage to the cane because they were the local food of so many local animals that kept their
numbers down. However, as the birds, snakes, lizards, and turtles disappeared, the insect
population began to increase. With no natural predators to keep them in check, the insect
began to do more and more damage to the cane of fields.
Finally, the people of the Antilles realized that the introduction of the mongoose had
caused a finely and delicately balanced system to go awry. The law against killing the
mongoose was rescinded, and the mongoose population was reduced. Gradually, the different

23

members of the plant and animal community came back into balance with each other and
equilibrium was reestablished. However, the human members of the community would not
soon forget that a single change in an ecosystem can cause a chain reaction that results in a
completely unforeseen and sometimes unwanted effects.
Adapted from Karl Von Frisch, Biology: the Science of Life
(New York: Harper and Row, 1964)

Questions on the modal:

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.

What is the writers purpose in analyzing this topic?

What is the thesis statement is it directly stated, or is it implied?
What is the incident in the Antilles an example of?
What is the pattern of organization used by the writer?
Is the relationship among the causes and effects clearly and logically presented?
Is this causal chain logical?
What leads to the disaster in the Antilles?
List the different results that come as a reaction from the human interference in the
Antilles ecosystem?
9. Does the writer seem to be serious about this topic?
10. Does the conclusion logically follow?
11. Make an outline of this essay.

Exercise 2: Choose one of the outlines that are presented above, and then write a cause and
effect essay. Use the essay Upsetting the Balance of Nature as a modal while developing
your essay.

Exercise 3: choose one of the following topics and then write a cause and effect essay.
Choose the pattern of organization you will use in you essay.
1) Watching TV does more harm than benefits discuss this statement.
2) Write an essay in which you describe the causes of one of the following geological
events:
A-Earthquakes
B-Volcanic eruptions
C-Erosion
3) Explain the principle of supply and demand and the effects that changes in supply and
demand can have on prices.

24

The Argumentative Essay

It seems so easy to write an argumentative essay because we might think if one has an
opinion, one can argue it effectively. However, these people are surprised when, others don't
agree with them because their logic seems so correct. A writer of argumentation should not
forget that his primary purpose in an argument is to win it. Meaning that, he should convince
his readers to accept his argument, and refutes and concedes his opponents argument.
An argumentative essay, then, attempts to convince or persuade the reader. The subject of
an argumentative essay should be an opinion that can be argued logically and supported by
evidence. For example, consider the following topic: smoking cigarettes. If we write an
argumentative essay on this topic we should first express an opinion that you will later
logically persuade your readers to accept it. Because of the bad effects of smoking on the
health of the smoker and the non-smoker, you think that the production and the sale of
cigarettes should be made illegal. Your attitude towards smoking is the production and the
sale of cigarettes should be made illegal. Hence, in your essay you will support this opinion
with strong arguments that are based on evidence so that you can easily persuade your readers
to accept this opinion, and at the same time let them reject objectively your opponents
arguments.

1. Characteristics of Argumentative essay:

1. Choose adequately the issue you will raise in your essay. It is advised to pick a welldefined, controversial issue. You have to make your readers understand what the issue is and
what is at stake. After stating your thesis, you will need to discuss the issue in depth so that
your reader will understand the problem fully.
2. In an argumentative essay, the writer should state his position clearly right at the beginning
of his essay. This means that you should state in your thesis sentence what your position is.
Avoid showing your position by using the first pronoun. For example, you do not need to say:
"I believe that we should financially support the health centers." Using the first person
weakens your argument. Say "Funding for the health centers is important for the poor social
class in Algeria to keep a balance between the high and low social classes."
3. As the main purpose of the writer in an argumentative essay is to persuade his readers to
follow his position, he has to rely on convincing arguments. In this type of essay, you should
not merely assert an opinion; but rather, present an argument, and that argument must be
backed up by data that persuades readers that the opinion is valid. This data consists of facts,
statistics, and the testimony of others through personal interviews and questionnaires or
through articles and books, and examples.
4. Like the cause and effect essay, a reasonable tone is important in the argumentative essay.
Because you are defending a position, and at the same time you want your readers accept your
position; your tone should be reasonable, professional, and trustworthy.

25

2. The Thesis Statement of an Argumentative Essay:

As it has been already noted, an argumentative essay main purpose is to change the readers
mind by convincing him to agree with the writers point of view, or opinion. Therefore, the
thesis statement of the argumentative essay; should take a side of an issues (either for, or
against), and at the same time proposes an action to be taken; that is why the thesis statement
of this type of essays is often expressed with the modal should.
Eg: youngsters under the age of 18 should not be allowed to have a driving license.

Practice: study the following statement, and say whether they can be accepted as
argumentative thesis.

The building codes in Las Vegas, Nevada, are inadequate.

Drinking alcohol does more harm.
College students should have complete freedom to choose their own courses.
The production and the sale of alcohol should be made illegal.
This university has more students than any other university in the city.
This university should have a football team.

3. Refuting and Conceding the Opposition

The writer of an argumentative essay should refute apposing arguments. Since in this
type of essays we have two sides to an issue, and since the writer of the essay is representing
one side which he is defending and trying to persuade his readers to accept, logically he
should be against the other side and tries to prove that the opponents is wrong, or at least
prove that the points he is representing are more significant than those of the other side.
To refute then means to prove that something is wrong of course by arguments. When
refuting, you will study the opponents reasons, and objectively destroy them by strong
arguments this will favor your side.
By conceding, however, we mean that when your opponents arguments are valid, you
will try to concede them, or agree that they are valid, and then go to argue your points.
Study the following example:
The first paragraph sets an argument, the second paragraph both concedes valid points and
refutes the main arguments.

Paragraph 1:

26

One reason people over 75 should not be allowed to drive is that they are a hazard on the
road. By that age, most peoples vision and hearing have deteriorated; thus, they cannot see
cars, pedestrians, and traffic signs as well as they could in their youth. In addition, they have
slower reaction times. This is particularly problematic because while swerve suddenly to
avoid a collision. These physical and mental impairments lead to a lot of accidents. In fact, if
we compare on a per-mile basis the elderly with other age groups of drivers, it turns out that
the elderly are involved in 25 accidents per 100 drivers. This is second only to group aged 24
and under.

Paragraph 2: now the writer is going to refute this point and at the same time concedes the
valid points.
My opponents argue that people over 75 should not be allowed to drive because they are
hazard on the road. While it is true that the accident rate per mile driven is high for the
elderly, the fact is that the elderly do not drive as much as those in other age groups;
consequently, the actual number of accident in this age group is the lowest among all the
younger age groups. Moreover, while it is also true that that their abilities to see, hear, and
react are not as sharp as they were when they were younger, this does not necessarily have to
make them hazardous on the road. In fact, elderly drivers can be trained to compensate for
their deficiencies by taking special drivers education courses designed for them.

Practice: the following are some points that your apponents use as an argument for letting
Marijuana smoking be legalized by the government.
The government does not have the right to tell us what we can or cannot consume.
It is useful as a medicine.
Many people already use it.
Now write a paragraph that refutes those points. If you need to concede a valid point, do so.

2. Organizing an Argumentative essay

There are different ways in organizing an argumentative essay, the following are the two
mostly used patterns.

27

Pattern 1:
Paragraph one: Introduction
Introduce the issue/problem and your thesis statement
Paragraph two: Background information
It is optional. Some topics requires from the writer to give additional information
such as defining terms, or explaining whatever helps the audience understand the
issue.
Paragraph three: reason 1
You will have one reason per paragraph. 2 to 4 reasons are
Typical for an argumentative essay
Paragraph four: reason 2
Paragraph five: reason 3
Paragraph six: reason 4
Paragraph seven: Refutation
Refute your opponents most important reason.
Paragraph eight: Conclusion
Here you can summarize, demand action, suggest a solution, or predict an
outcome.
Pattern 2:
Paragraph one: Introduction
Introduce the issue/problem and your thesis statement
Paragraph two:
Same as pattern 1
Paragraph three:
Opponents argument one with your refutation. You have to start your paragraph
with a short summary of your opponents argument and spend most of the
paragraph refuting it.
Paragraph four: Opponents argument 2 with your refutation.
Paragraph five: Opponents argument 3 with your refutation.
Paragraph six: Opponents argument 4 with your refutation. .
Paragraph eight: Conclusion
Same as pattern 1

28

3. Sample of argumentative Essay:

Read the following essay the answer the questions

Science: Who needs it?

At our school, all students are required to take a minimum of six courses in natural
sciences: three in biological sciences and three in physical sciences, regardless of the
students major. Students majoring in humanities often have to struggle to get through these
demanding courses and their grade point averages usually suffer as a result. It has been
suggested that the requirements be modified, reducing the number of natural science courses
required so that students can take more courses directly related to their majors. As humanities
major, I admit this would make college life a lot easier for me, but I still oppose the measure
because natural science courses with a crucial part of our education.
Students majoring in humanities usually object to taking such science courses because
they claim the courses are irrelevant to their majors. what good will physics do me when I
am teaching Spanish? a friend of mine asked. It is true that physics, chemistry, biology, and
the like may not have application to most careers in humanities, but this objection ignores one
of the key issues of a university education. A university is not simply a training facility; it is
an institution of higher learning where students are educated, not merely trained. Even the
term university implies that it is a place to obtain a general knowledge base; a university
education means the student has been educated in many subjects. Since a part of our universal
knowledge is science, it is and logically should be a part of the university curriculum.
Humanities students might accept this argument and agree that they should take some
natural science, but not as many courses as are now required. They might suggest a onesemester course in physical science, along with perhaps one semester of math for non-majors.
This, they argue, would expose them sufficiently to the universe of science. If the point of a
university education were merely to expose students to a variety of subjects, then I might
agree. But a university education implies more than mere exposure. After all, people can be
exposed to subjects by watching television. Again, the purpose of going to a university is to
get an education. What does that mean? It means more than just training and exposure; it
means that students learn enough to become critical thinkers in the various disciplines. It
means that they should gain enough understanding of the sciences, humanities, social
sciences, and the arts to be able to discuss issues in these areas intelligently and to be able to
question other peoples views rather than just accept what people tell them.
One or two semesters of general science cannot sufficiently educate students in this
field. What one learns in natural science courses is more than mere factual information. One

29

learns to think critically, to approach problems logically, to use reasoning. And this takes
time. It takes work. It takes studying different areas of science and applying the general
principles in laboratory situations.
Developing a critical ability in science is important, but why? In addition to providing
the student with a universe of knowledge, an understanding of science is vital in our highly
technological society. We are all confronted with issues involving nuclear waste, chemical
pollutants, medical advances, exploration in space and so forth. In order to make intelligent
decisions-in fact, even to be involved in the decision-making process- people need to have an
understanding of these issues that goes beyond mere exposure-. Otherwise, the uneducated
become mere puppets who, out of ignorance, can but nod in agreement with anyone professes
expertise.
Science courses then provide us not only with knowledge that is crucial for intelligent
functioning in our society, but they also provide us with the opportunity to develop our
critical, logical reasoning skills. Although these courses are difficult for the non-science
majors, they are a necessary part of a university education.
From: Refining Composition Skills, p: 292-293

Questions:
1) What is the issue discussed by the writer?
2) What is the thesis statement?
3) What are the writers main arguments?
4) Which pattern of organization does the writer follow?
5) Where does the refutation begin in the essay? What is the first point that the writer
refutes?
6) Does the writer refute all possible objections to the thesis? Can you think of any
objections someone can make?
7) Does the writer concede any points? Which ones?
8) Is the argument convincing? Why, or why not?
9) Does the conclusion logically follow?
10) Make an outline of this essay?

Exercise: using the previous essay Science: Who Needs It? as a model, choose one of the
following topics, and then write an argumentative essay.

30

1) Should all companies require on-the-job drug testing? do you agree, or disagree.
2) All people are created equal, and the goal of society should be to make sure that
everyone has equal opportunity to life. Do you agree, or disagree with this statement.
3) The production and the sale of cigarettes should be made illegal. Do you agree, or
disagree with this statement.

Part Two
I. How to Write Formal Letters
1. Layout of a Formal Letter
The example letter below shows you a general layout for a formal letter. Pass your mouse
over the different areas of it to find out more information

6
7
1. your address
2. address to the person to whom you are writing

31

3. the date
4. salutation
5. the main text of your letter
6. singing off
7. your name
2. Rules for Writing Formal Letters in English
In English there are a number of conventions that should be used when writing a formal
or business letter. Furthermore, you try to write as simply and as clearly as possible, and not
to make the letter longer than necessary. Remember not to use informal language like
contractions.

1. Addresses:
a) Your Address: the return address should be written in the top right-hand corner of the
letter.
b) The Address of the person you are writing to: the inside address should be written on
the left, starting below your address.

2. Date: The date can be written on the right or the left on the line after the address you are
writing to. Write the month as a word.

3. Salutation or greeting:
a) Dear Sir or Madam,
If you do not know the name of the person you are writing to, use this. It is always advisable
to try to find out a name.
b) Dear Mr Jenkins,
If you know the name, use the title (Mr, Mrs, Miss or Ms, Dr, etc.) and the surname only. If
you are writing to a woman and do not know if she uses Mrs or Miss, you can use Ms, which
is for married and single women.
4. Ending a letter:
a) Yours Faithfully (If you do not know the name of the person, end the letter this way).
b) Yours Sincerely (If you know the name of the person, end the letter this way).
c) Your signature
Sign your name, then print it underneath the signature. If you think the person you are writing
to might not know whether you are male of female, put you title in brackets after your name.

32

5. Content of a Formal Letter

First paragraph: it should be short and state the purpose of the letter- to make an enquiry,
complain, request something, etc.
The paragraph or paragraphs in the middle of the letter should contain the relevant
information behind the writing of the letter. Most letters in English are not very long, so keep
the information to the essentials and concentrate on organising it in a clear and logical manner
rather than expanding too much.
Last Paragraph
The last paragraph of a formal letter should state what action you expect the recipient to taketo refund, send you information, etc.

6- Signing off
Just under the content of your letter, you have to sign off your letter to show that your letter
has come to its end. You can off your letter in two ways:
a- If you do not know the name of the person, end the letter this way:
Yours Faithfully,
b- If you use the name of the person, end the letter this way:
Yours Sincerely,

7- Your name
Among the requirement of letter writing is to end the layout of the letter with the senders
name. Just under your signature, write your name.

3. Examples of letters:
A Covering Letter
A covering letter is the one that accompanies your CV when you are applying for a job.
The following is a plan of a covering letter.

33

Opening Paragraph
Briefly identify yourself and the position you are applying for. Add how you found out about the
vacancy.
Paragraph 2
Give the reasons why you are interested in working for the company and why you wish to be
considered for that particular post. State your relevant qualifications and experience, as well as
your personal qualities that make you a suitable candidate.
Paragraph 3
Inform them that you have enclosed your current CV and add any further information that you
think could help your case.
Closing Paragraph
Give your availability for interview, thank them for their consideration, restate your interest and
close the letter.

Exercise: Using the previous plan, write a covering letter that will accompany your CV for
the job you are applying for.

A Letter of Enquiry
A letter of enquiry is when you are approaching a company speculatively, that is you are
making an approach without their having advertised or announced a vacancy.

Exercise: You have applied for a job in a well known company in your town; but you did
not receive any answer. Using your own words write a letter of enquiry for this company. Use
the following outline

34

Opening Paragraph
Introduce yourself briefly and give your reason for writing. Let them know of the kind of
position you are seeking, why you are interested and how you heard about them.
Paragraph 2
Show why their company in particular interests you, mention your qualifications and
experience along with any further details that might make them interested in seeing you.
Paragraph 3
Refer to your enclosed CV and draw their attention to any particularly important points
you would like them to focus on in it.
Closing Paragraph
Thank them, explain your availability for interview and restate your enthusiasm for their
company and desire to be considered for posts that might as yet be unavailable.
Signing off

Abbreviations Used in Letter Writing

The following abbreviations are widely used in letters:
1.
asap = as soon as possible
2.
cc = carbon copy (when you send a copy of a letter to more than one person,
you use this abbreviation to let them know)
3.
enc. = enclosure (when you include other papers with your letter)
4.
pp = per procurationem (A Latin phrase meaning that you are signing the letter
on somebody else's behalf; if they are not there to sign it themselves, etc)
5.
ps = postscript (when you want to add something after you've finished and
signed it)
6.
pto (informal) = please turn over (to make sure that the other person knows the
letter continues on the other side of the page)
7.
RSVP = please reply

35

II.Summarizing and Paraphrasing

Students are often confused between these two terms: paraphrasing and summarizing.
Sometimes they think that they summarize but in fact they are paraphrasing. The two tasks are
not the same, each of them requires a given steps to be followed.
1. Paraphrasing Texts
As you produce your own work, sometimes you may find that you often have reason to
paraphrase. What is paraphrasing? To paraphrase is to restate the thoughts or the ideas of
someone in your own words. While it is acceptable, indeed necessary, to use the ideas of
others as the basis for your own analysis, it is similarly necessary to paraphrase accurately,
noting your sources.

2. Summarizing Texts
A summary of a passage is shorter and more direct than a paraphrase. It states the thesis
and focuses on the main points of authors argument. A summary then is shorter than the
paraphrase because it does not restate all the ideas of the author but rather its focus is on the
primary point or opinion expressed in the passage.

Practice:
Here is an original passage from "Infection in the Sentence," Gilbert and Gubar (1957). You
will see how this passage is paraphrased, and then summarized.

Original passage:
"Surrounded as she is by images of disease, traditions of disease, and invitations both to
disease and to dis-ease, it is no wonder that the woman writer has held many mirrors up to the
discomforts of her own nature. As we shall see, the notion that 'Infection in the sentence
breeds' has been so central a truth for literary women that the great artistic achievements of
nineteenth-century novelists and poets from Austen and Shelley to Dickinson and Barrett
Browning are often both literally and figuratively concerned with disease, as if to emphasize
the effort with which health and wholeness were won from the infectious 'vapors' of despair
and fragmentation" (Gilbert and Gubar 57).
1. Here is a paraphrase of this passage:
According to Gilbert and Gubar, the nineteenth-century female author was
inevitably caught up in constricting images and thoughts of gender-specific

36

illnesses, generated by society. As a result, the sentences and verses she penned
were often dominated by images of disease and poor health, as if to emphasize
the difficulty of maintaining health and wholeness in a culture which insisted
upon her physical and psychological weakness (57).
2. Here is a summary of the same passage:
Gilbert and Gubar claim that the nineteenth-century female author focused on images
of infection and illness because she was surrounded by these images in everyday life (57).

3. Characteristics of a paraphrase and a summary:

Whereas a paraphrase preserves the logical relationships between ideas present

in the original source (no key ideas are omitted, and the meaning of the original
passage is not interpreted or expanded upon); in a summary, however, the focus is
only on the main idea of the passage.

A summary, like a paraphrase, should preserve the logical relationships

between ideas present in the original source, and should refrain from interpretation.

When paraphrasing and summarizing, it is important to maintain the distinction

between the language used by the source and your own language. Search for
substitute words wherever possible. Substitute word choices or expressions ought to
be accurate.

Avoid using more than three words consecutively from the original source in
your paraphrase or in your summary. If then, it should be marked as a quotation.

Since the words of a summary or a paraphrase are yours, they do not have to be
enclosed by quotation marks. And because the ideas are not yours, you need to cite
the source from where this paraphrase or summary has been derived. Since there, both
summaries and paraphrases should be documented with a parenthetical reference.

37

Bibliography
T.Johnston and J.Gonzales (1987), The Writers Advice Book, Ginn Press,
Massachusetts
A.Hogue (1995), first Steps to Academic Writing, Addison Wesley Longman
A. Oshima and A.Hogue (1997), Introduction to Academic Writing, 2nd Edition,
Addison Wesley Longman
R.Small, M.K.Rutten and J.R Kozyrev, (2000), Refining Composition Skills, Heinle
and Heinle
J.F Trimmer, (1995), Writing with a Purpose, Houghton Miffin Company

Webb sites:
Guide to Different Kinds of Essays in
http://www.depts.gallaud.edu/englishworks/writing/e
Sample Essays for Advanced Students in:
http://www.swadulted.com/workshops/eslcourse
Paraphrasing and Summarizing in: http://www.lib.usm.edu/legacy/plag/paraphrasing
Lets share our Essays in: http://www.sharingouressays.blogspot.com/

38

Part two: Grammar

39

ESSON ONE
Reported speech
I.

Definition

We can report what someone has said in two different manners. When we repeat exactly
the speakers words, we are using the first type which is called in grammar Direct speech.
When we report someones speech with some modifications, we are using what is referred to
in grammar as Indirect speech or Reported speech. The following examples are going to make
things clearer:
Jim I learn English at the university.
1) Jim says: I learn English at the university.
2) Jim says (that) he learns English at the university.
3) Jim said (that) he learnt English at the university.
If we examine the first sentence, we remark that we have repeated the exact words uttered by
Jim. When reading the sentence, we notice that it is put between quotation marks. No change
has occurred in the sentence. This type of speech is called direct speech.
If we study the second and the third sentence, we may notice three basic changes: the
introduction of the word that, a change in the pronoun and a change in the verb tense. This
type of speech is named indirect speech
Remark1 The word that is not obligatory. We may say:
Jim says he learns English at the university.
Jim said he learnt English at the university.
Remark2 The pronoun used in the direct speech (I) has become (he) in the indirect speech.
Remark3 Says and said are called introductory verbs. With says in the present simple tense
we have kept the same tense of the verb (I learn in the present simple remains he learns in the
present simple). With said in the simple past tense we have modified the tense of the verb ( I
learn in the present simple becomes he learnt in the simple past). As a conclusion we may say
that when the introductory verb is in the present simple, the present perfect or the future
simple, we keep the same tense of the verb in the sentence. When the introductory verb is in
the simple past tense or the past perfect, we change the tense of the verb in the sentence.

II.

Use
1.

Use of tell and say

When we use say, we are not obliged to mention to whom we are talking, but with tell we
mention the indirect object (to whom we are talking). Lets compare say and tell in the
following examples:
She said that she lived in a small flat.
She told me that she lived in a small flat.
We say something. We do not say someone something. As it can be clarified with these
examples:
She said she was going to be late. (Correct)
She said me she was going to be late. (Incorrect)
We tell someone something. We do not tell something. As it can be explained in these
sentences:

40

He told me he was happy. (Correct)

He told he was happy. (Incorrect)
Remark4 If we add the preposition to to the verb say, we can say:
He said to me that he was happy.
2.
Time and tense
We often move the tense of a verb one step back in reported speech because the original
words happened before the reported speech. Lets explain the following point in the table
below:
ACTUAL WORDS
REPORTED SPEECH
Present simple
Past simple
I live in a small flat, she said.
She said that she lived in a small flat
Present continuous
Past continuous
I am leaving on Tuesday, she said
She said she was leaving on Tuesday.
Past simple - Present perfect
Past perfect
I learnt a lot, he said.
He said that he had learnt a lot.
Mr Jackson has left, he said.
He said that Mr Jackson had left.
Will may can
Would- might- could
I will help you, she said.
She said that she would help me.
Am is are going to
Was were going to
We are going to be late, they said.
They said that they were going to be late.
Remark5 If what we report is still true , it is not necessary to change the tense of the verb in
the sentence.
Diamonds are more expensive than pearls, he said.
He said that diamonds are more expensive than pearls.(correct)
He said that diamonds were more expensive than pearls. (Correct)
Remark6 Modals such as could, would, should, might, must, ought to ,neednt dont
change. This can be better clarified in the following sentences:
Mary could perform the role, he said.
He said that Mary could perform the role.

3.

Time and place expressions

ACTUAL WORDS

REPORTED WORDS

Today
Now
Yesterday
Days ago
Last week
Next year
Tomorrow
Here
This
These

That day
Then
The day before- the previous day
Days before
The week before- the previous week
The following year
The next day-the following day
There
That
Those

41

4.

Reporting statements

When we report someones speech, we have to pay attention to different elements such as
who is reporting the speech, and to whom he is reporting that speech. This may have an effect
on the pronouns used and the tense of the verb. When reporting statements, the tense of the
introductory verb is very important as well as time and place expressions. The following
examples are going to clarify the point:
-John:Sandy is here.
John said that Sandy was there.
-Richard: I am going to ride my bike today.
Richard told us that he was going to ride his bike that day.

5.

Reporting orders

When reporting positive orders, we use the introductory verb followed by to plus
the infinitive. We can see it in the following sentences:
-Peter: Clean the black shoes.
Peter told me to clean the black shoes.
-John: Help Peters sister.
John ordered me to help Peters sister.
When reporting negative orders, we use the introductory verb followed by not to plus
the infinitive. We can see it in the following examples:
-Father: Dont play football in the garden, children.
Father reminded the children not to play football in the garden.
-Jim: Dont touch my keys.
Jim ordered me not to touch his keys.
6.
Reporting requests
There are different ways to make requests. We may say
-Sarah: Please wait a minute, Tom.
Sarah: Will you wait a minute, please?
Sarah: Tom could you wait a minute, please?
We can report all of these requests using to plus the infinitive:
-Sarah asked Tom to wait a minute.

7.

Reporting questions

When reporting auxiliary questions, we turn the question into a statement starting with if
or whether as in the following example:
Do you like sports, he said.
He asked if I liked sports
He asked whether I liked sports.
Remark7 Note that when reporting auxiliary questions, we do not put be or an auxiliary
before the subject.
When reporting WH questions, we turn the question into a statement starting with the WH
word as in the following example:
Where does Mary live? he said

42

He asked where Mary lived.

Why has Jane gone? he said
He wanted to know why Jane had gone.
Remark8 We can use wonder, demand or want to know to report questions.

III.

Practice

Exercise 1 Complete the following with said or told

1) She .she wasnt feeling very well.
2) Alex..me that he would buy the tickets
3) They ..that the train was going to be late
4) She .him that she was very angry with him
5) Who you that I was leaving?
6) She.that she had four sisters
7) Hehim that he could help him
Exercise 2 Report the following orders
1)
Do your homework here, Ann, he said.
2)

Dont forget your keys, mum told Jim.

3)

Be ready for the meeting, said the headmaster.

4)

Dont make noise the baby is sleeping.Jane said.

5)

Go home Paul, now, mother said.

6)

Dont paint this room today. said the boss.

Exercise 3 Turn the following statements into indirect speech.

1) Mother said: The children are calm today.
2) Pupils are leaving their classroom noisily, said the teacher.
3) Many animals lived in the forest years ago, he said.
4) Mum will travel to the town next week., She said.
5) I have finished my homework, Paul said.
6) A lot of visitors are going to come here in the afternoon. he said.

Exercise 4 Turn the following questions and requests into indirect speech.
1)
Do you play sports? he asked.
2)

Where have you been last night? he asked.

3)

Will you come tomorrow? she said.

4)

Could you help me, please? he said.

5)

Is this her favourite TV programme? she asked.

43

6)

Does Mary have a driving permit? the policeman said.

Exercise 5 Turn the following into direct speech.

1)

She asked if they had visited that country years before.

2)

I asked him where he worked.

3)

They wanted to know whether I spoke English well.

4)

Mum told the children to be calm during the trip.

5)

She said that she was having a bath.

6)

Sara told tom not to laugh.

Exercise 6 Correct any mistakes in the following

1)
They said me they have been waiting for a long time.
2)

He told that he had had a wonderful holiday.

3)

I asked him what did he do.

4)

He asked me when did the film start.

5)

She said last night she isnt going to come to the party.

6)

He was telling that youre thinking to change your job.

7)

I asked him was he free on Friday.

8)

She said me to not go abroad.

Lesson two

44

Phrasal verbs
Learners often identify phrasal verbs as one of the most important and difficult features of
the English language. They often fail to understand the meaning of phrasal verbs and phrasal
verb expressions. They avoid using the phrasal verbs and their expressions in their writings
because they lack certainty about the meaning of those verbs. They sometimes try to classify
them into categories and sometimes try to lean them as individual elements of the language
they occur in.

I. Definition
A phrasal verb is a verb followed by a preposition or an adverb( also called a particle). In
some grammar books, phrasal verbs are named two-part verbs or multi-part verbs. The
particle which follows the verb changes the meaning of the phrasal verb from the original one
as we can see in the following examples:
The sportsman is running. (He is moving quickly)
If we add a particle such as into to the verb run, we obtain a new verb with a new meaning:
I run into my teacher in the market last Friday.
In this case the meaning of the verb becomes I met my teacher in the
market.
Remark1 The context in which we use the phrasal verb also influences its meaning. The
following examples are going to make things clearer:
The hill dropped off near the river. (decline gradually)
While doing his homework he dropped off. (fall asleep)
Would you drop this off at the airport? (Stop and give something to someone)

II. Types of phrasal verbs

Phrasal verbs can be classified into two major groups. The first category is called
intransitive phrasal verbs and the second one transitive phrasal verbs. Lets examine each of
them at a time:
1- Intransitive phrasal verbs They are those verbs which are not followed by a direct
object as in the examples below:
I think I need to take my car to the mechanic because its acting up again.
(function improperly)
Her story doesnt add up.(make sense)
Jane never backs down. She always has arguments. (Stop defending her opinion)
Everybody just looked on as the two men fought. (Observe as spectators)
I am afraid Professor Johnson has passed on. (Die)
2-Transitive phrasal verbs They are those verbs which are followed by a direct object.
According to the position of the direct object, we can divide this type into three subcategories which are respectively separable transitive phrasal verbs, inseparable transitive
phrasal verbs and verbs of both positions. Lets study them in a more detailed manner.
a)
Separable phrasal verbs In this group , the particle can be separated from the
original verb so that a noun or a pronoun can occur.
She put on the hat
She put the hat on

45

Here are other examples of separable phrasal verbs.

-Do you take me for an idiot? (consider)
-You need to turn your essays in next week. (submit)
-Did you see your sister off at the airport? (say goodbye)
-My partner in crime sold me out for a reduced jail sentence. (tell on someone)
b) Inseparable phrasal verbs In this group, the particle cannot be separated from the
original verb; it comes directly after the verb as it is the case in the following example:
She always gets around the rules. (correct)
She always gets the rules around. (incorrect)
Here are other examples of the inseparable phrasal verbs.
-Sam backed out of the agreement at the last second. (not keep the promise)
-I couldnt do without a car in California. (manage without something)
-Jenifer passed on the invitation to join us for dinner. (not accept)
-We run out of milk this morning, so we need to go to the store. (not have anymore of
something)
-I take after my father. (resemble)
c) Verbs of both positions In some transitive phrasal verbs, the particle can take both
positions; it can be directly after the original verb or can be separated from the original verb.
The following examples explain better this point:
I looked up the number in the phonebook
I looked the number up in the phonebook.
Remark2 If the direct object is a pronoun, it must be put between the verb and the particle.
I looked it up in the phonebook. (correct)
I looked up it. (incorrect)
Here are some examples of both position phrasal verbs.
-You made many mistakes, so I want you to do the report over. (repeat)
-I finally got my sisters birthday present off yesterday. (send)
-Would you mind taking down my messages while Im on vacation? (write down)
-The car alarm woke me up at six this morning. (awaken someone)
III. Practice

Exercise 1 Match the items on the right to the items on the left
Blow up
Break up
Get up
Give up
Go away
Get into
Look for
Put off
Send back
Talk about
Think over
Turn up
Walk about

Abandon
Leave
Discuss
Consider
disintegrate
remove
rise
stroll
postpone
return
comfort
educate
seek

Exercise 2 Match items on the right to items on the left

46

1) Ask after
2) Ask around
3) Ask for
4) Ask in
5) Ask out
6) Ask around

a) To invite someone for a date.

b) To invite someone into your house.
c) Invite
d) Enquire about someones health
e) To provoke a negative reaction
f) Ask a number of people for information of help

Exercise 3 Complete the first part of the phrasal verb from the following verbs (get
give- hurry- pick- stand- tidy- wake). Use each verb only once.
1) Jane and I want to ...............up smoking.
2) Could you ...............me up at six oclock.
3) We must .............up or we will miss the bus.
4) Can you.............me up at the station.
5)I usually have to......... up at six.
6) I must................ up my room today.
7) In many countries, the pupils have to ..............up when the teacher enters the room.

Exercise 4 Fill in the blanks using the following words (after- around- away- downfor- into- out- over- through- up).
1) While you are hiking in the forest, you need to look...........for rattlesnakes.
2) If you dont know his phone number, you can look it..........in the phonebook.
3) The police are going to look .................the recent robberies in the neighbourhood.
4) While he was looking..........the papers, he noticed a couple of spelling mistakes.
5) If you look .......the telescope, you can see the rings around Saturn.
6) Sandy is going to look............ the children while we are at the party.
7) When there is an eclipse, you should look........ from the sun
8) I lost my keys. Can you help me to look...............them.
9) The lost child stood there in the middle of the store looking...........trying to find his parents.
10) She always looks .......... on people who disagree with her.

Exercise 5 Use the following verbs(believe fill- get- look- put- switch- take- turnthrow- try) and the following prepositions(away- down- for- in- off- on- out) and form
meaningful sentences.
1) Quick! .............. The bus. Its ready to leave.
2) I dont know where my book is. I have to ............it.
3) Its dark inside. Can you ..............the light please?
4)....................the form, please.
5) I need some new clothes. Why dont you.............these jeans?
6) Its warm inside................your coat.
7) This pencil is really old. You can ............it...........
8) The firemen were able to ................the fire
9) Its so loud here. Can you ................the radio.
10) Does your little brother ..................ghosts?

Lesson three

47

Types of verbs
People often think of verbs as doing words. While many verbs are used to describe actions
(e.g. cook, paint, cut),we also use verbs to express other meanings such as existence (e.g. be,
become, exist), mental conditions and processes(e.g. believe, deduce, enjoy)and
relationships(e.g. depend, determine). In terms of meaning the importance of the verb varies
considerably. Consequently, learners need to understand various features of verbs in order to
be able to use them in the appropriate manner.
I. Types of verbs
Before you begin to work with any English verb, you should know that English verbs are
different. They belong to distinct categories.

1)Dynamic verbs- Stative verbs- Mixed verbs

a) Dynamic verbs
The majority of the English verbs are dynamic verbs. They represent physical actions which
you can see somebody performing. They can be used in all tenses . They show continued or
progressive action on the part of the subject. They have duration; they occur over time. Some
examples of these verbs are to run, to eat , to fly, to hit to play to melt
The bird flies in the sky.
The policeman ran after the thief yesterday.
We eat three meals during one day.
She plays tennis .
The snow melts in spring.
When one boxer is hitting the other, brain damage can result.

b) Stative verbs
This second group of verbs occupies a smaller portion in the totality of the English verbs.
While the first group refers to what you can see somebody doing the second represents what
you cannot see somebody doing. The verbs that belong to this category are rarely used in the
progressive form. This group includes:
-Abstract verbs Such as to be, to want, to cost, to seem, to exist
My son wants to succeed in his studies.
You seem tired.
We exist to live not to survive
-Possession verbs Such as to belong, to possess, to own
My friend owns two cars.
Im proud because I belong to this humble family
-Emotion verbs Such as to love, to hate, to fear, to envy
Boys love practicing sports.
I hate noisy, crowded places
Children fear darkness.

b)Mixed verbs
This group is represented by the smallest portion of the English verbs. They can be both
dynamic verbs and stative verbs with different meanings. Here are some examples: to appear,
to feel, to have, to look, to see, to think, to smell
-Donna appears confused. (seems)
Donna is appearing at the Jazz club. (give a performance)
-I have a dollar now. (possess)

48

I am having fun now. (experiencing fun)

-I hear a nice music. (hear with my ears)
I am hearing voices. (hear in my mind)
-Nancy looks tired. (seems)
Nancy is looking at the pictures. (observing)

2)Main verbs- Auxiliary verbs- Modal verb

a) Main verbs
The main verb is the verb which expresses the main action or the main state of being of the
subject. Here are some examples
This man is the boss.
They play tennis very well.

b)Auxiliary verbs
The auxiliary verb is the verb which is used with the main verb to give information. The verb
to be is a verb which is used with the past participle to form the passive voice(e.g. the door
was opened) or with the present participle to form the progressive form aspect(e.g. I am riding
my bike). To have is used with the past participle to form the perfect aspect (e.g. Peter has
written the letter.). Here are other examples:
The baby is crying
Police are helped by the citizens to find the thief.
Pupils have obtained interesting marks in their exam.

c) Modal verbs
There are nine modal verbs: can, could, may, might, will, would, shall, should and must.
They are not conjugated in the infinitive. They do not appear as participles. They do never
function as main verb. Here are some examples:
I can help you.
Its rainy. She could arrive late

3)Regular verbs- Irregular verbs

a)Regular verbs
A regular verb is a verb whose conjugation obeys the typical grammatical inflections of the
language it belongs to. The simplest form of regularity involves a single class and a single
principal part as a set of rules to produce different forms of the verb. Lets examine a regular
verb (to talk): all regular verbs in English have five forms
a) Infinitive (talk)
b) Third person singular (talks)
c) Past tense (talked)
d) Past participle (talked)
e) Gerund (present participle) (talking)

b)Irregular verbs
An irregular verb is a verb whose conjugation does not obey the typical grammatical
inflections of the language it belongs to. The different forms of this verb cannot be deduced
from a single form. Lets examine an irregular verb (to think)
a) Infinitive (think)
b) Third person singular (thinks)
c) Past tense (thought)

49

d) Past participle (thought)

e) Gerund (present participle) (thinking)

4) Finite verbs Non- finite verbs

a) Finite verbs
A finite verb is a verb which is inflected for person and for tense according to the rules of the
language it belongs to. Finite verbs can form independent clauses and stand by their own.
Here are some examples:
He makes a cake
She finished her work yesterday
Open the door
b)Non- finite verbs
A non-finite verb is a verb which is not limited by the subject and which does not obey rules
of inflection according to tense, aspect, mood, number and gender. It does not serve as a main
verb. Here are some examples:
Made in Germany, these computers are well-known

5) Transitive verbs- Intransitive verbs- Linking verbs

a)Transitive verbs
In syntax, a transitive verb is a verb that requires a subject and one or more objects. Those
transitive verbs which need one object are called monotransitive verbs. Here are some
examples:
Harry sees Adam.
I lifted the bag.
Father punished Jim.
Transitive verbs that are able to take more than one object such as a direct and an indirect
object are called ditransitive verbs. Here are some examples
Mary lent her book to Jane.
She gave you money.

b) Intransitive verbs
An intransitive verb doesnt require an object. In more technical terms, an intransitive verb
has only one argument, its subject. Here are some examples:
Harry will sleep until sunrise.
You complain too much.
His son died last year.
Verbs which can be used in a transitive and an in transitive way are called ambitransitive
verbs.
I am eating.(intransitive)
I am eating an apple.(transitive)

c) Linking verbs
A linking verb is a verb which is followed by a noun or an adjective that refer to the subject of
the verb.
She looks tired.
She felt embarrassed.

6) Impersonal verbs

50

The impersonal verb is the verb that cannot take a true subject because it does not represent an
action, occurrence, or state of being of any specific person, place, or thing. In English, an
impersonal verb always takes an impersonal pronoun. It is the pronoun it. Here are some
examples
It rains a lot in winter.
It snowed yesterday morning.

7) Catenative verbs
A catenative verb is a verb that can be directly followed by another verb such as the infinitive
(to plus stem) or the gerund (stem plus ing).here are some examples
He deserves to win the cup.
She likes reading novels.
II. Practice

Exercise 1 Find the regular verb in each line

1) read-feel-play-see
2) listen-do-go-make
3) like-write-forget-eat
4)watch-be-have-meet
5)put-buy-cook-teach

Exercise 2 Put in the missing form

1).......... broke.............
2).........-...........-forgotten
3) Choose............-..............
4)...........drew..................
5) Buy............-..................
6)............-.............-flown
7) Know.............-................
8)...........paid...................

Exercise 3 Is the underlined verb a main verb or an auxiliary verb

1) I will have the soup.
2) The police are investigating the incident.
3) Where does your brother work?
4) They have decided to advertise your job.
5) It is very peaceful here.

Exercise 4 Decide whether each verb is stative or dynamic

Read-paint- believe-smell-remember-jump-want

Exercise 5 In each of the following, indicate the verb type

1) The burglar disappeared with the cash.
a- transitive
b- intransitive c-linking verb d-auxiliary verb
2) He would tell me if he thought we were in danger.
a- transitive
b- intransitive c-linking verb d-auxiliary verb
3) His ability to concentrate is legendary.

51

a- transitive
b- intransitive c-linking verb d-auxiliary verb
4) Her brother likes bananas, but she likes peaches.
a- transitive
b- intransitive c-linking verb d-auxiliary verb
5) Dennis became impatient at the end.
a- transitive
b- intransitive c-linking verb d-auxiliary verb
6) After the Chef completed the demonstration, she left the students to clean the kitchen.
a- transitive
b- intransitive c-linking verb d-auxiliary verb

Exercise 6 In each section indicate the finite and the non-finite verb.
1) Paul runs to work everyday.
2) They have run away together
3) Tim gave Paul a menacing look.
4) Kate was watching TV when the phone rang.
5) We found him smoking behind the shed.

Exercise 7 Correct the mistakes in each section

1) Mohammed owns two different houses. He likes to live in his house by the sea when the
weather is good, but in winter he is preferring to live in the city.
2) I dont understand stative and dynamic verbs. They seem very confusing. I am hating
them because they are driving me crazy.

Lesson four

52

Ellipsis
I. Definition
Our main objective when speaking and writing is to provide the necessary information to
convey what we want to express, and this involves leaving out words and phrases. This
leaving out of words and phrases is called in grammar Ellipsis. Ellipsis occurs in all
languages, but the kind of words we can omit varies from one language to another. Ellipsis is
often used in informal speech, as in a conversation between two friends especially when the
meaning is clear.

II. Kinds of ellipsis

Ellipsis can be divided into two distinct kinds: Situational ellipsis and Textual ellipsis. Lets
examine each kind at a time:
1) Situational ellipsis
This type of ellipsis occurs mainly in speaking. From its name, we may deduce that the
situation or the context of the speech plays an important role in identifying what is missing.
Here is an example
A: What time is it?
B: Dont know. ([I] dont know)
Answers to questions represent the clearest and simplest examples of situational ellipsis as in
the following examples
e.g. A: Could you help me ?
B: Possibly. ( [I could] possibly [ help you])
e.g. A: When are you coming back?
B: Tuesday. ([We are coming back on] Tuesday)
Remark1 The information which has been left out in the examples in the different sections of
this lesson are between square brackets ([........]).
Lets study the following examples:
e.g. A:You OK now?[Are] you OK now?
B: Cant grumble. Better than this time last year.([I]cant grumble. [Im]better than [I
was]this time last year.)
A: Your leg? ([Was the problem] your leg?)
B: Stuck here with my leg .Missed all the parties, Christmas parties. ([I was] stuck here
with my leg. ( I) missed all the parties,( that is the) Christmas parties.)
We remark that words which have been omitted in the previous questions and answers of the
conversation are mainly grammatical words such as articles, pronouns, prepositions, auxiliary
verbs and be used as complement verb.
Patterns of use
-In informal conversations we can often leave out the subject at the beginning of what we
say:
Didnt phone yesterday (I is omitted)
-In informal conversations subject and auxiliary verb can be left out:
ready ( are you is omitted)
finished( have you)
-Sometimes a determiner and the dummy subject there (is/are) can be left out:
Any tea left( is there is omitted)

53

- Have you and do you can be omitted in questions in ellipsis that occurs with verbs such as,
see, hear, and think in questions and in replies.
Seen Matt lately? (have you is omitted)
Think hell ring? (do you is omitted)
- Before questions such as Do you want....? and Would you like........? Do you and Would
you can be dropped:
Want another coffee?(Do you is omitted)
- When we use ellipsis with the verbs of loving, hating, hoping, asking, and wanting, plus
another verb in the infinitive form, we repeat to in the replies:
A: Do you want to come with me?
B: Yes, Id love to.
- To and so are used instead of the whole infinitive of the verb if the meaning is clear,
particularly in fixed phrases such as hope so , love to.
2) Textual ellipsis
This type of ellipsis may occur both in speaking and writing.
a) After And and But
Lets study the following examples:
1) You ought to clean your teeth and [you ought to] brush your hair.
2) Nick wanted a strawberry ice cream and Chris [wanted] a chocolate [ice cream]
3) I ordered a dozen crates, but they only brought ten [crates].
What we remark from the examples above is that after and and but subjects, verbs, articles
and nouns are left out if they are already specified in the preceding clause.
b) Adverbial and relative clauses
In adverbial or relative clauses, the subject and to be, when it is used as an auxiliary verb, are
ellipted from the sentence. Here are some examples:
-When matching colours, you should take both items out of the shop and compare them in
natural light. (When [you are] matching colours...)
- The police are interviewing a man seen just after the robbery. (The police are
interviewing a man [who was] seen........).
-I happened to catch your radio programme while driving home.( while[I was] driving
home.)
Remark 2 The fuller versions (sentences which do not contain ellipsis) are more likely be
used in more formal contexts of English than in informal conversations. They are not more or
less correct than the other versions:
Fine thanks. (correct)
Im fine, thanks. (correct)

Practice
Exercise 1 List the words which you think may be added in a more formal context
A: Did you knock on the door?
B: I did. Nobody at home. (what may be added in this reply)
A: Seen Mike lately? (what may be added in this question)
B:Yes, I saw him last night actually.

Exercise 2 Show how the situation helps you to find the missing words
A: Drink?
B: Lemonade.

54

A: Big glass.?
B: No, small one.

Exercise 3 Rewrite the following conversation with ellipsis

A: I didnt see you yesterday.
B: You probably didnt want to see me.
A: I looked for you every where.
B: You didnt look for me hard enough.

Exercise 4 Choose the right answer

1) Is she French?
2) Will you be ready?
a) She may.
a) I might.
b) She may be.
b) I might be.
3) Is Paola ill?
4) Have you rung Liza about the party?
a) She must.
a) No, but Julia might.
b) She must be.
b) No, but Julia might.
Exercise 5Find the missing elements relying on the context and put them in the places
which are indicated in the passage
There are three ways of dealing with the problem. One (.............) is to find a bland
menu that children eat happily and (.............) grown-ups (..........) grudgingly. The
second (.................) is to cook whatever you feel like eating and (.............) let the
children fend for themselves.
Exercise6 Complete the replies to the following questions using the verbs given.
1) A: Will Joe be at the party?
(hope)
B: Yes.................................

2) A: Are you buying those shoes?

(want)

B: Yes.................................before they all go in the sales.

3) A: Is Winston bringing some music?

(asked)

B: Well,.................... him ......................

4) A: Are you coming with us?

(love)

B: Yes, Id................................

55

Lesson five
Substitution
I. Definition
In grammar, the term Substitution refers to the words we use (such as so, one, do, did, yes,
no...) to indicate that something has been left out and identify what type of data it is. Of
course, the use of such words obeys the rules of the language they occur in.
The clearest and simplest examples of substitution in the English language are the words Yes
and No. Both can substitute long sentences or sequences of sentences, as we can see in the
following examples:
-A): Have you ever thought of trying to get a job abroad?
B):No.([I have never thought of trying to get a job abroad.])
In the first example, the short grammatical word (no) replaces all the sentence (I have never
thought of trying to get a job abroad)
-A) Has your father signed your permission for the excursion?
B) Yes.([He has signed the permission for the excursion.])
In the second example, the short grammatical word (yes) refers to the whole sentence (He has
signed the permission for the excursion)

II. Patterns of use

Lets study how we can use substitution:
1)Replacing adverbials of place and time
In the English language, we often find in the sentences expressions of place and time. To
avoid repetition we use words like here, there, and over there to replace details of place ,and
words such as then, and at that time to substitute details of time. Things can become clearer
with the examples below:
She invited me to her house, but I wouldnt go there.
In this example, there replaces to her house
A lot of rich people have already visited tropical islands, but many
poor people
have never been there.
In this example, there refers to tropical island.
She invited me last night, but I just couldnt spare the time then.
In this sentence, then replaces last night.
2)Replacing longer stretches of text
In substitution, we use the terms this and that to refer to ideas or information which are
expressed over several clauses or which cant be precisely related to a specific part of the
sentence. Lets explain this pint with the following example:
Weve had a few unexpected problems. That /this is why Ive called another meeting.
Remark1
-We use this and that to point to or indicate real objects:
This refers to what is near to us, as in the following example:
This is where I live
That is used to refer to what is far from us, as in the sentence:
That is where father died.
-We use this to precise new, key information like in:

56

This is really what I wanted to say.

-We use this to show sympathy and ownership towards something
This is my own opinion.
-We use that to disassociate ourselves from something in particular:
Thats rubbish.
2) Replacing predicates
Before we start talking about the manner we use substitution to replace a predicate, lets
first say what the predicate is. It is everything that follows the subject. In order to replace the
predicate, we use auxiliary verbs, modal verbs, combinations of auxiliary verbs and forms of
the verb be. Here are some examples:
Shed like to take a few days off work but just cant. (modal can)
Have you got money? No, I havent.( auxiliary have)
Have you been drinking? No, I havent been. (combination of auxiliaries).
Remark2 If the predicate contains a verb in the present simple tense or in the past simple
tense, we use the auxiliaries do, does, or did. Here are some examples:
Sue didnt notice something unusual but everyone did. (notice something unusual)
3)Replacing infinitive clauses ,that noun clauses and noun clauses derived from
questions
-We use to and not to to replace infinitive clauses as in:
I invited them to come but they didnt want to. [come]
-We use so or not to to replace that noun clauses after think and hope as in the example:
A: Is she coming round?
B: I think so/ I dont think so/ I hope (I think/ hope[that she isnt coming round])
-We use the question word to replace noun clauses derived from questions as in:
They said theyd ring but Ive no idea when.[theyll ring]
3)Using pronouns and possessive adjectives to replace nouns and noun phrases
-We use subject pronouns (I, you, he , she, it, we, they), object pronouns(me, you, him, her, it,
us, them, one, ones), possessive adjectives (my, your, his, her, its, our, their) and possessive
pronouns (mine, yours, his, hers, its, ours, theirs) to avoid repetition of clear information.
Here are some examples in a short passage:
The Peter and Jane said they were leaving the town. [Peter and Jane]
The dog swallowed its food. [of the dog]
Dont put on the red dress but the blue one. [dress]
Remark3 We also use demonstratives (this, that, theses, those) and quantifiers (a few, a little,
much, many, a lot, any) in substitution.
He offered me some cake, but I didnt want any. [cake]
Hes got a few books, but Ive got a lot. [of books]
4) Expressing similarity, agreement, and disagreement
-We use so to express similarity with affirmative statements as in:
A): My brother can stand on his head.
B): So can the Prime Minister. [Stand on his head]
-We use neither or nor followed by an auxiliary or a form of be to express similarity with
negative statements as in:
A): Im not staying in.
B): Neither/nor am I. [Staying in]

57

Remark3 When we express similarity with something stated in the past simple or the simple
present we use do, does or did. As in:
A): I like ABBA.
B): So does Liza. [she likes Abba]
A): I ate an apple.
B): So did I. [ate an apple]
5) Comparative structures
In general, we leave out information in comparative structures.
Paris is big but London is bigger [than Paris]
We also use pronouns to avoid repetition of action.
I can run faster than them.

III. Practice
Exercise1 What do the underlined words substitute?
The old man said he was going to take his cat to the vet and ask her if she could look
after him while he was in hospital, but then he asked me if you could possibly look after it
with yours.
Exercise2 In the following extracts, examples of substitution have been singled out. In

each case explain and specify what information is implied

This extract is from an article written by a film critic:
Heres a useful rule of thumb: never trust those (1) usually comedians, entertainers and the
like- who say, I love people. And heres another (2): never trust film critics who say: I
love movies.
...
What keeps a film critic going and enjoying his job is optimism. Each film, you fervently
hope, will be the one (3) that makes up all the dross you saw last week.

Exercise3 The following is part of a text from an elementary coursebook, where it is

used as a source of examples of future tenses and prepositions of time. It includes
several examples of substitution.
(Jane and Bill are talking on Monday April 19th, at nine oclock in the morning)
Jane:Is everything all right?
Bill:Yes, Ithink so. I m picking up the visas on Wednesday morning and the tickets in the
afternoon, and Im getting the travellers cheques from the bank tomorrow.
Jane:Oh, good. Dont forget that the children are going to stay with Mother on the 22ndyoure driving them.
Bill:Oh, yes how long for?
Jane:Just for two days. Back on Friday night.
Bill: That isnt long.
Jane:Darling- you know its Johns birthday on the 24th.
Bill: So it is. We must have him fhome for his birthday. What are we giving him?
Jane:A bike.
Bill: Oh yes, thats right. When are you going to do the packing?
Jane:At the weekend, at the last possible moment. Youre going to help Ihope

58

Bill: Oh yes. Yes, of course.

-Identify the following features
1) Identify a substitution of a that noun clause.
2) What pronouns are used to substitute John and the children?
3) The word that occurs twice in the text. What does it stand for in each case?

59

Bibliography
1) Carter ,R ., Hugue , R .,& Mc Carthy , M .,(2006) Exploring Grammar in Context
.Cambridge, Uk:Cambridge University Press.
2) Coe , N .,Harrison , M .,&Paterson ,K .,(2007) Oxford Practice Grammar .Oxford, UK
:Oxford University Press.
3) Nettle, M .,Hopkins , D .,(2003) Developing Grammar in Context .Cambridge, UK:
Cambridge University Press.
4) Parrott, M., (2007) Grammar for English language Teaching. Cambridge, UK / Cambridge
University Press .
5) http://a4es/.org/q/h/9901/tm-reported1.html
6) http://www.englishpage.com/verbpage/types.html
7) http://www.englishpage.com/prepositions/phrasaldictionary.html
8) Htpp:en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ellipsis
9) Htpp:en.wikipedia.org/wiki/substitution

60

61

Democratic and Popular Republic of Algeria

Ministry of Higher Education and Scientific Research
-Teacher Training School in Humanities Constantine

An LMD Distance Traing Course for Middle School Teachers

Fourth Semester

Prepared by: Miss.Aida

Abdessemed

Amina Haddad &

2008-2009

62

63

Chapter One
Aspects of Connected Speech
When people communicate, they make use of language, either in its written or spoken
form. When produced orally, a language may completely differ from its written form, since
native speakers, when speaking in a rapid colloquial way with few gaps and without pausing,
dont always confine to the rules of grammar. The result is a fast rhythmic speech referred to
as connected speech which carries different processes like assimilation, elision, liaison and
.juncture

Assimilation
Assimilation is a typical sound change process by which a sound is influenced by an
adjacent one and so it changes to another one. It occurs mainly in rapid speech and less
common in slow one. A common example of assimilation would be "don't be silly" where the
/n/ and /t/ in "don't" become /m/ and /p/, where said naturally in many accents and
discourse styles ("dombe silly").Some contributing factors in such observed phonemic
changes are the phonological patterns of the language, the discourse styles and accent.
There are four configurations found in assimilations: the increase in phonetic similarity may
be between adjacent segments, or between segments separated by one or more intervening
segments; and the changes may be in reference to a preceding segment, or to a following one.
Although all four occur, assimilation to an adjacent segment is more frequent than to a nonadjacent one.
If a sound changes with reference to a following segment, it is traditionally called "regressive
assimilation"; changes with reference to a preceding segment are traditionally called
"progressive". Many find these terms confusing, as they seem to mean the opposite of the
intended meaning. Accordingly, a variety of alternative terms have arisen. Regressive
assimilation is also known as right-to-left or anticipatory assimilation. Progressive
assimilation is also known as left-to-right or perseveratory or preservative or lag assimilation.
Very occasionally two sounds (invariably adjacent) may influence one another in reciprocal
assimilation. When such a change results in a single segment with some of the features of
both components, it is known as coalescence or fusion. Some authorities distinguish between
partial and complete assimilation, i.e., between
connected speech:

Speech would be much easier to understand if it was spoken with a gap between every
word. Babies and profoundly deaf people are often spoken to in this way, and until recently computers that can recognise
speech also required this. But in natural speech there are few gaps, and we can observe many processes that result in
differences between isolated words and the same words occurring in connected speech: examples are assimilation and

64

elision. The study of connected speech also involves looking at the process of reduction in weak syllables, at rhythm and at
prosodic phenomena such as intonation and stress.
Alveolar: descriptive of sounds with a place of articulation behind the upper front teeth, against the alveolar ridge like
/tdsznl/

assimilatory changes in which there remains some phonetic difference between the segments
involved, and those in which all differences are obliterated. There is no theoretical advantage
to such a classification, as one of the following examples will show.

: Regressive ( right -to -left, anticipatory) assimilation

This is the most common type of assimilation by far, it occurs when a sound
influences one which precedes it. It is examplified by the behaviour of thes plural ending in
English, which is pronounced with a voiced /z/ after a voiced consonant (e.g. dogs /dz/)
.(/but with a voiceless /s/ after voiceless consonant (e.g, cats/ k t s

:Progressive (left -to -right or preservative) assimilation

Tolerably common, it occurs when a sound influences a following sound.The most
familiar case of progressive assimilation in English is that alveolar consonants (e.g, lish is that
alveolar consonants (e.g, /tdzn/) when followed by non- alveolar consonants: assimilation
resultes in a change of place of articulation from alveolar to a different place. The example of
this shop where the word this has the sound /s/ at the end if it is pronounced on its own(in
isolation), but when followed by / / in the word shop it often changes in rapid
speech (through assimilation) to / /, giving the pronunciation / p/.
Another example is football (where foot /ft/ and ball /b:l/combine to
produce

/fpb:l/)and

fr:kkek/).

fruit-cake

(fruit/fr:t/and

cake /Kek/

=/

Reciprocal (Fusion or coalicence) assimilation:

In many cases, sounds appear to influence each other mutually,like in vision
Assimiliation may resulte in the neighbouring segments becoming identical, this is complete
.(assimilation such as in illegible ( in+ legible) and (sub+pose
In other cases, only some features of phenomes assimilate, e.g, voicing or place of articulation
:which is partial assimilation
.Voicing: The pronunciation of absurd as apsurd or absurd
(/Devoicing: bats (bat + the plura morpheme s, which is underlyingly /z

65

Place of articulation: impossible (in+ possible), incomplete (in which n represents the velar
.(nasal

Common types of assimilation

:Assimilation is traditionally classified into three main types
:Place of Articulation-1
It is the most commonest and frequent type of assimilation.It refers to changes in the place of
articulation of a sound (usually a consonant). A well-known case is that of English word-final
alveolar consonants such as /tdsz/: if a word ending in one of these consonants and is
followed by a word whose initial consonant has a different place of articulation, the wordfinal alveolar consonant is likely to change so that it has the same place of articulation. Thus
the word that / t/ may be followed by boy /b/ and become
p/ (thus that boy p b//), or it may be followed by girl and become / k/
. /g l

Example of common assimilation of place

/ t / changes to / p / before / m / / b / or / p /
basket maker

mixed bag

best man

mixed blessing

cat burglar

mixed marriage

cigarette paper

mixed metaphor

circuit board

pocket money

coconut butter

post mortem

court martial

pot plant

direct method

private property

dust bowl

put back

fast motion

put by

first base

right pair

flight plan

secret police

66

foot brake

set point

front bench

set back

front man

set piece

fruit machine

sheet metal

Great Britain

sit back

harvest moon

soft porn

hatchet man

split pea

hit man

split personality

hot metal

street piano

hot money

sweet basil

last post

sweet pea

Left Bank

sweet pepper

light bulb

sweet potato

light music

test ban

light meter

test match

light middleweight

test paper

market price

that man

midnight blue

unit price

mint bush

wet blanket

private bill

white bag

private member

white birch

private patient

white meat

private parts

white paper

67

/ d / changes to / b / before / m / / b / or / p /
bad pain

good cook

blood bank

good morning

blood bath

grand master

blood brother

ground plan

blood poisoning

head boy

blood pressure

hold back

blood pudding

lord mayor

broad bean

mud bath

card punch

mud pie

closed book

Old Bailey

command module

old boy

command post

old man

custard pie

old maid

custard powder

old moon

dead beat

Oxford blue

food poisoning

red bag

food processor

second mate

gold plate

sound barrier

gold medal

stand by

gold mine

united party

good man

word blindness

68

/ n / changes to / m / before / m / / b / or / p /
action planning

iron man

American plan

on me

brown paper

one pair

brown bear

open book

chicken breast

open market

Common Market

open prison

con man

pen pal

cotton belt

pin money

cotton picker

queen bee

down payment

queen mother

fan belt

question mark

fan mail

roman mile

Foreign minister

sun bath

Foreign mission

sun blind

garden party

tin plate

green belt

town planning

green bean

venetian blind

hen party

virgin birth

human being

wine box

in blue

wine bar

iron maiden

69

/t / changes to / k / before / k / or /g /
cigarette card

short cut

credit card

smart card

cut glass

street credibility

fat girl

street cry

first class

that cake

flat cap

/ d / changes to / g / before / k / or / g /
bad girl

hard cash

bird call

hard copy

closed game

hard core

cold call

hard court

cold cream

highland cattle

field glasses

red carpet

good cook

sand castle

Grand Canyon

second class

ground control

second coming

ground cover

second cousin

had come

slide guitar

had gone

/ n / changes to // before / k / or / g /
action group

open court

70

common good

roman calendar

common ground

roman candle

garden cress

roman catholic

golden gate

tin can

golden goose

tone control

human capital

town clerk

in camera

town crier

iron curtain

s / changes to / / before / / or / j / followed by a rounded /

vowel sound
bus shelter

nice yacht

dress shop

space shuttle

nice shoes

z / changes to // before / / or / j / followed by a rounded /

vowel sound
cheese shop

where's yours?

these sheep

rose show

/ / changes to / s / before / s/
bath salts

earth science

bath seat

fifth set

birth certificate

fourth season

both sexes

fourth summer

both sides

north-south divide

71

:Manner of articulation
In this type of assimilation one sound changes the manner of its articulation to become
similar in manner to a neighbouring sound. Clear examples of this type are not easy to find;
generally, they involve a change from a stronger consonant (one making a more substantial
obstruction to the flow of air) to a weaker one( one which makes less obstruction to the
airflow), and are typical of rapid speech. An English example could be a rapid pronunciation
of Get some of that soap, where instead of the expected normal pronunciation, the speaker
.says/, with /s/ replacing /t/ in two words.Ges some of thas soup

:Assimilation of voicing
Assimilation of voice is also found but only in a limited way. It may take the form of a
voiced segment becoming voiceless as a consequence of being adjacent to a voiceless
segment; alternatively, a voiceless segment may become voiced. This can be explained in
relation to the vibration of the vocal cords which are not something that can be switched on
and off very swiftly. As a result, consonant clusters tend to be either all voiced or all
voiceless. In words like cats/k ts/,dogs/ dz/, kissed/kst/ and sneezed/sn izd/ where the
final consonant of the word determines wether the suffix(plural sand d being voiced or
voiceless. In the case of the suffixes for plural nouns, for the third person singular in the
present simple, for regular verbs in the simple and for the genitive, the application of this rule
is predictable, with only a few exceptions( e.g, child children). In other words, the rule
concerning the suffixes s and z implies that when a verb carries a third person singular s
suffix, or a noun carries a s plural suffix or an s possessive suffix, that suffix will be
pronounced as /s/ if the preceding consonant is voiceless(fortis) and as /z/ if the preceding
consonant is voiced(lenis). However, assimilation of voicing can radically change the sound
:of several other common constructions as follows
:Have to-1
Have to hv
tu/
labiodental,
fricative,
/voiced/v
Has to

/hz t u /

hft/(labiodental,/
fricatives, voiceless /f/
becomes when followed by a
voiceless
(/consonant /t
/hst/

!I have to go

/a hft gu/

/Used to: here assimilation has taken place twice, first on the /d/ and then on the /z -2
Used to
ju:zd tu:/ becomes/
/ju:st/
/: I used to live near you
/ a ju:st l v n ju

:Supposed to -3

72

/:Supposed to /s p zd t
/s p st/
/You were supposed to leave ! /j u:w s pu st li:v

:Suffixes -4
/s/
/Plural
/Verbs(3rd sing)
/Possessive s

cats /kts
jumps/dmps
Pats/pts

/z/
dogs/ dz
/runs /rnz
Pams
//pmz

: Exercise 1
Identify the different assimilations in the following
Coconut butter
old man
Court martial
good boy
Command module
old boy
Command post
first class
In camera
town crier
Common Market
pot plant
Con man
pen pal
Cold call
hard court
Open prison
highland cattle
Field glasses
red carpet
? Rose show
Wheres yours
Both sexes
post mortem
Dress shop
space shuttle
Ground cover
second cousin
Fast motion
cold cream
Custard pie
fourth summer
Cotton belt
pin money
Down payment
queen mother
Private parts
white paper
Had come
put by
Human capital
old maid
Fifth sense
question mark
Town clerk
slide guitar

73

Chapter Two
Elision
Elision is a process where one or more phonemes are dropped within a word or
phrase, usually in order to simplify the pronunciation. Elision is normally unintentional, but
it may be deliberate.It is easy to find examples of elision, but very difficult to state rules that
govern which sounds may be elided and which may not. (Elision itself is often a precursor to
or occurs in conjunction with assimilation). It may occur for vowels, consonants or a whole
syllable, although it is much more common for consonants. Where it occurs for vowels, we

74

have extreme cases of vowel reduction or weakening to the point that the vowel is no longer
pronounced at all, such as in words like police, correct or suppose being realised as [pli:s],
[kkt] or [spz]. In rare cases, such as in some realisations of the word perhaps, both
consonant and vowel elision may even occur at the same time, e.g. yielding [paps]. In
English, this is called a contraction, such as can't from cannot . Contraction differs from
elision in that contractions are set forms that have morphologized, but elision is not.
Examples of elision in English :
kftb/
/l
/ff/
:fifth
/hm/
:him
lbrtr/
:laboratory
/i
tmprt/
:temperature
/
vdtb/
:vegetable
/l

/kftbl/

:comfortable

/f/
/m/
lbrtri/ (American English), /lbrtri/ (British/
(English
/tmpt/, /tmprt/
/vdtbl/

Common cases of elision in English

H-Dropping
As we have already heard, the dropping of initial <h> is a feature that is very common in
many accents of (especially English or English-influenced) English. Unstressed pronouns as
in give her/give him, [gv:]/[gvm] or tell her/tell him, [tl:]/[tlm] , or forms of the
auxiliary have as in would have, [wdv], should have, [dv], etc. exihibit h-dropping
even in the standard reference accents.

Cluster Reduction
When two or more consonants, often of a similar nature, come together, there is a
tendency in English to simplify such a cluster by eliding one of them. The longer the cluster,
the more of a chance there is of elision. Cluster reduction can occur in between as well as
inside words and mainly involves the deletion of voiceless oral plosives where it would
otherwise be more difficult to produce two plosives in a row as this would require two closure
phases. If a reduction occurs inside a word, it may also lead to a reduction in the number of
syllables, which become mono-syllabic, like in the following examples :
word/combination
asked

no elision
[:skt]

elision
[:st]

lecture

[lkt]

[ lk]

75

desktop

[dsk tp]

[ds tp]

hard disk

[h:d dsk]

[h: dsk]

kept quiet

[kpt kwa t]

[kp kwa t]

kept calling

[kpt ko:l]

[kp ko:l]

kept talking

[kpt to:k]

[kp to:k]

at least twice

[tli:st twas]

[tli:s twas]

straight towards

[stet two:dz]

[ste two:dz]

next to

[nkst t]

[nks t]

want to

[wnt t]

[wn t]

seemed not to notice

[si:md ntt n ts]

[si:m nt n ts]

for the first time

[f f:st tam]

[f f:s tam]

The elided form of a word or phrase may become a standard alternative for the full form, if used often enough
The omission of a word from a phrase or sentence is not elision but ellipsis or, more accurately, elliptical
construction
An example of deliberate elision occurs in Latin poetry as a stylistic device

Loss of weak vowel after p, t, k:

In english a short, unstressed vowel occuring between voiceless consonants or in general
after p, t, k may disappear. This is the case, for example, with the first syllable of potato

76

/ptet/, which becomes /ptet/, the second syllable of

bicycle /baskl/ which becomes / baskl/.

/n,l,r/ after weak vowel become syllabic:

Elision also occurs when a vowel occurs between an obstruent
consonant and a sonorant one. This process leads to syllabic consonants,
as in tonight/tnat/ instead of /tnat/. Sudden /sdn/ instead of /sdn/,
awful/:fl/instead of /:fl/ and correct/krekt/ instead of /krekt/. In these
examples, avowel is only heard in the second syllable in slow, careful
speech.

Avoidance of a complex consonant cluster:

Elision of consonants in English happens most commonly when a
speaker simplifies a complex consonant cluster: acts becomes /ks/
rather than /kts/, twelfth night becomes /twel nat/ or /twelf nat/
rather than /twelf nat/. It seems much less likely that any of the other
consonants could be left out: the /l/ and the /n/ seem to be
unelidable.Consonant elision can also be defined as the delition of the
second consonant in a final consonant cluster as a result of assimilation
with the initial consonant in the following words(e.g, /d/ is deleted in and
_mouth, and_hides, freindly,used_to) , or / / in in_the, on_the).

Loss of final v in of before consonants :

This is very commonin English, and examples of these include lots of
them/lts m/ and waste of money /west mn/.

: Exercise1
Here is an incomplete list of words, showing for each at least two pronunciations, ranging
from the stressed, careful pronunciation (on the left) to the most unstressed and casual (on the
right). Complete the list providing either the careful pronunciation or the casual one.
Sometimes more than one realization in casual speech is possible.The first two words are
.done as examples
1.
You
2.

Did

3.

He

4.

Him

5.

Them

6.

Our

77

7.

Of

8.

To

9.

For

10.

Out

11.

Am

12.

Is

13.

Are

14.

Have

15.

Will

16.

Would

17.

While

18.

Because

19.

how

78

Chapter Three
Liaison
Liaison is a French word which refers to English word Linking or joining
together sounds. In general, this is not something that speakers need to do anything active
about-since we produce the phonemes that belong to the words we are using in a more or less
continuous stream , and the listener recognizes them (or most of them) and recieves the
message . However, phoneticians have felt it necessary in some cases to draw attention to the
.way the end of one word is joined on to the beginning of the following word
In French, for example, words that start with a vowel sound get special treatment.
French likes to have a consonant cover of a vowel.For example, when a word which ends
with a normally silent consonant , like t,s,d, and p, followed by a word starting with a vowel
sound, this normally silent consonant will sound. The normally silent sound of sis going to
./be pronounced as z and the normally silent t is pronounced as a /t
: Examples from French
No Liaison
Liason occurs
Next word begins with a
Next word begins
consonant
with a vowel
Les parents
Les coles
Les grands parents
Les grands enfants
Liaison with s
Dans deux minutes
Dans un instant
Nous voyageons
Nous arrivons
Cest plus fort
Cest vous
Liaison with t
Ils sont gentils
Ils sont tudiants
Un petit garon
Un petit enfant
Table 01 : Liaison/ Linking in French language
: /Linking /r
In English, liaison also is known as Linking, or joining together of sounds. The
.linking R is a phonological phenomenon of most (but not all) dialects of English
In general, this is not something that speakers need to do anything actively about. We
produce phonemes that belong to the words we are using in a more or less continuous stream,
and the listener recognizes them (or most of them) and recieves the message. However,
phoneticians have felt it necessary in some cases to draw attention to the way the end of one
word is joined on to the beginning of the following word. In English, the best-known case of
liaison is the linking r : there are many words in English (car, here, tyre) which in a rhotic
accent such as General American or Scots, would be pronounced with a final/r/ but which in ,
end in a vowel when they are produced before a pause or a consonant.When they are followed
.(/ by a vowel, RP speakers pronounce /r/ at the end(e.g the car is/ e k r z

79

It is said that this is done to link the words without sliding the two vowels together
(though it is difficult to see how such a statement could stand as an explanation of the
phenomenon- lots of languages do run vowels together). Another aspect of liaison in English
is the movement of a single consonant at the end of an unstressed word to the beginning of the
next if that is strongly stressed : a well-known example is not at all, where the /t/ of at
.becomes initial (and therefore strongly aspireted) in the final syllable for many RP speakers
Rhotic Language : Descriptive of varieties of English pronunciation in which the /r/
phoneme is found in all phonological contexts. In RP, /r/ is only found before vowels (as in
red, around), but never before consonants or before a pause. In rhotic accents, on the other
hand, /r/ may occur before consonants (as in cart) and before a pause (as in car).While RP is
non-rhotic, many accents of the British Isles are Rhotic, including those of most of the South
and West of England, much of Wales and all of Scotland and Ireland. Most speakers of
American English speak with a rhotic accent, but there are non-rhotic areas including the
.Boston area, lower class New York and the Deep South
In all non-rhotic dialects, the phoneme /r/ is ordinarily deleted at the end of a word (so
spa ris pronounced the same as spa). But in a dialect that possesses liking R (like RP), if the
next word begins with a vowel, the/r/ will reemerge. Thus r in here would not be
pronounced here they are, but it would be pronounced in here I am. In other words, in a
dialect with linking R, [r] is retained only if it is followed by a vowel, including across word
.(boundaries (i.e, when the vowel is the first sound of the next word

/ Intrusive /r
Intrusive /r/, or the insertion of an r-sound where historically there was not any and
present day spelling does not contain an <r> .That is to say that an r which does not exist in
spelling is produced in speaking , (to add an /r / at the end of a word which ends with a vowel
or glide when the next word in the sentence begins also with a vowel ).(e.g. the idea[r] of
aidir v/ or l[aw] and order /l:r n :d/). Intrusive r also occurs within words/
.before certain suffixes, such as draw[r]ing
. linking /r/ and intrusive /r/ - both often jointly referred to as /r/-liaison

Exercises
: Exercise 1
.Transcribe the following marking linking R and intrusive R when found
1. The Irish champion does no more participate in formula A races.
2. Only four eggs out of four hundred were broking during the trip.
3. The princes divorce have been a major media event.
4. I have no idea about the disputes cause.
5. Camela and Charles got married after thirty yaers of love misfortune.
6. I saw a nice film yesterday.
7. The customer ordered only vodka and orange.
8. Paula Abdul has been taking part in America Idole for several years.

80

Received Pronunciation (RP)

RP was for many years the accent of British English usually chosen
for the purposes of description and teaching, in spite of the fact that it is only spoken by a small minority of the
population; it is also known as the "public school" accent, and as "BBC pronunciation". There are clear historical
reasons for the adoption of RP as the model accent: in the first half of this century virtually any English person
qualified to teach in a university and write textbooks would have been educated at private schools: RP was (and to
a considerable extent still is) mainly the accent of the privately educated. It would therefore have been a bizarre
decision at that time to choose to teach any other accent to foreign learners. It survived as the model enter various
reasons: one was its widespread use in "prestige" broadcasting, such as news-Peter Roach

: Exercice 2
Give a narrow (allophonic) transcription of the following text, marking assimilation, elision
: /and linking /r
: One thing was certain, that the white kitten had had nothing to do with it
it was the black kittens fault entirly. For the white kitten had been havingIts face washed by the old cat for the last quarter of an hour (and bearing it
pretty well, considering) ; so you see that it couldnt have had any hand in
.The mischief
(Lewis Carroll,Through the Looking Glass )

81

Chapter Four
Juncture
Juncture refers to the phonetic boundary features which may demarcate grammatical units
morphemes, words, or clauses, i.e., pauses or any other features that mark the difference
between the first word and the next one. The most obvious juncture feature is silence but in
connected speech this feature is not as common as the use of various modifications to the
.beginnings and endings of grammatical units
It is the way one sound is closely attached to its neighbours: for example, / k / and / t / are
more closely linked in the word 'acting' than in 'black tie', and / t / and / r / are more closely
.'linked in 'nitrate' than in 'night rate
Confusion might result when words or utterances which do not have the same meaning are
pronounced in the same way. Fortunately, there are many phonetic signals which may make
:differences in juncture and avoid confusion
.My turn [m a t n ], might earn [ m at n ] /t/ is aspirated in the first example
My train[m a tre n ] might rain[ mat ren] /r/ is voiceless in the first example
.following /t/ in train
All the time after today [ :l t am ft t de] /t/ in time is aspirated and all that Im
.after today[ :l t am ft t de ] /t/ in time is unaspirated
He lies [h laz]( clear l initial inlies) heal eyes [h laz] (dark l final in heal) Using the
symbol + to indicate this juncture, the transcription of 'car track' and 'cart rack' would be /k
./ r +trk / and / k t+rk
There was at one time discussion of whether spaces between words should be abolished in the
phonetic transcription of connected speech except where there was an observable silence;
juncture symbols could have replaced spaces where there was phonetic evidence for them.
Since the position of juncture (or word boundary) can cause a perceptual difference, and
therefore potential misunderstanding, it is usually recommended that learners of English
should practise making and recognising such differences, using pairs like 'pea stalks/peace
talks' and 'great ape/grey tapeExercice : Transcribe the following pairs marking the junctual
.features
Singer
finger
Wineglass
wingless
Homestead
hampstead
Kittenish
Catnip
Coddling
codling
(Tarry (adj)
tarry (verb

82

Holiest
Mustering
Lawful

least
string
chalfont

Chapter Five
Weak forms
When we talk about weak forms in the phonetics of English, this regards a series of
words which have one pronunciation (strong), when isolated, and an other (weak) when not
stressed within a phrase, e.g
(Isolated :
a car / k r
/ (remember symbolizes stress
Connected Speech : I bought a car
Weak forms
Weak forms are usually distinguished by a change in vowel quality from a border
position on the vawel quadrilateral to a central position. The vowel in a weak for mis usually
the schwa/ /. But it is also possible to identify two other vowels in English said to be weak
vowels : The front, close //and the back, close , rounded/ u/. Weak forms
appear in weak, unstressed syllables( that is, syllables which have as peak
one of the vowels/ u/ or a syllabic consonant like [r,][n,][l,]. They are
prononced more quikly and at lower volume in comparison to the stressed
syllables they are not also central to changes in Intonation. There is still no
agreement about whether to consider contractions as weak forms or not.
While some people consider contracted forms as a type of weak forms,
other regard the two forms as distanct ones. What is sure is that both are
characteristics of informal speech and which may be considered as
aspects of reduced forms (in addition to assimilation, elision) usually
unintentially adopted by native speakers for the purpose of simplification
.of speaking and comprehension processes
: There is a logical explanation behind the occurance of weak forms
They are present in words which are necessary to constract a phrase, yet
at the same time do not communicate a large quantity of information ; in
other words, they are not content words. For example in the following
sentence : I went to the hotel and booked a room for two nights for my
father and his best freind The most important words, those that are
central to the message, can be emphasized if we eliminate the words that
? are not emphasized, can we still understand the message
Went
hotel
booked room
two nights
father
best freind
Perhaps it is difficult to be certain but it is possible to predict what the
missing words might be. The words which we emphasized would be the
stress, while many of those which we eliminated would become weak
forms, simply because they are less important in the conveniance of the
: message. Look at the sentence at transcription
a went t u tel n bukt ru :m f tu : n ats f m a f r n /
/hz best frend

83

You will notice that most of the unstressed words are pronounced with the sound // :
prepositions such as to and for, articles, an and the, and conjunction and
.as well as auxilary verbs frequently have weak forms
In short, almost all words that have both strong and weak forms are
.function words

: Strong forms
There are some simple rules for the use of the strong forms of those weak
: form words

Many weak form words have strong forms when they occur at the end of a
sentence ,e .g, the word of in : I am fond of chips / am f nd v tps /
has a weak form but in chips are what Iam fond of , It has a strong form / tps
/wt am f nd v

When a weak form word is being contrasted with an other word as in the
letters from him not to him / ltz fr m m nt ttu : m /

Whan a weak form word is given stress for the purpose of emphasis as in you
must give me more money / ju m st g vm m : m n /
A very important aspect of the dynamics of English pronunciation is that many very
common words have not only a strong or full pronunciation (which are used when the word is
said in isolation), but also one or more weak forms which are used when the word occurs in
certain contexts. Words which have weak forms are, for the most part, function words such as
conjunctions (e.g. 'and', 'but', 'or'), articles (e.g. 'a', 'an', 'the'), pronouns (e.g. 'she', 'he', 'her',
'him'), prepositions (e.g. 'for', 'to', 'at') and some auxiliary and modal verbs (e.g. 'do', 'must',
'should'). Generally the strong form of such words is used when the word is being quoted (e.g.
the word 'and' is given its strong form in the sentence "We use the word and to join clauses"),
when it is being contrasted (e.g. 'for' in "There are arguments for and against") and when it is
at the end of a sentence (e.g. 'from' in "Where did you get it from"). Often the pronunciation
of a weak-form word is so different from its strong form that if it were heard in isolation it
.would be impossible to recognize it : for example, and of can become /f/ or /v/ in of course
Common weak-form words in English

84

Strong form
a
the
And
that
but
his
your
him

Weakform

(Example (weak form

Read a book
Eat an apple
Shut the door
Wait for the end

before consonants
n before vowels
i

before
consonants
before vowels
nd
n
Men and women are free
n( before t, d s, z,,t
We ate fish
(
t (always
t The prize is the thing that
strong
when
annoys me
(adjective
bt
bt
Its good but expensive
z
h iz
Take his name
before
: j j
Take your time
consonants
On your own
jr before vowels
h m m (even when
Leave him alone

(final in a sentence
for

( f : ( r f

them
us

em
s

at

from

fr :m

of

to
shall

Do
does
Am
are
Was
Were
Have
Has
had
would
can

before
consonants
fr before vowels
m
s (even when final
(in a sentence
t( exept when final
in a sentence and in
(emphasis
frm

v before voiced
sounds
f before voiceless
sounds
:t u
t u before vowels
t before consonants

( , l(syllabic l
m st
m before
consonants
ms before vowels

d z
m

d before
consonants
d u before vowels
m
before consonants
r before vowels

(w ( r w

h v
h z
h d
/w u d/
kn/in/questions, short
answers,
emphatic
affirmatives
k
n(t)/
in/-

Tea for two

Thanks for asking
Leave them there
Write us a letter
They invited all of us
I will see you at lunch

I am home from work

The world of politics
Most of all
Time to eat
Try to stop smoking
We shall need to hury
You mast try hard
You must eat more
? Why do they like it
? Why do all the cars stop
When does it arrive
? Why am I here
Here are the planets
The coats are in there

w z He was here a minute ago

before
The papers were late
consonants
The questions were easy
w r before vowels
v,v I dont think the dogs
z have/ had been fed this
d
morning

w d, d, d
k n

She would teel him

They can wait
85

Bibliography
Books
Gimson.A.G. 1978. An Introduction to the Pronunciation of English-(1
Oconnor.J.D.1973. Phonetics-(2
Roach.P.1992 ; Introducing Phonetics-(3
Articles and Websites

86

Harzer .2002 . Liaison in English-(1

http: // michael harzer. English pronunciation./ac/staff /23456
English, a. and n." The Oxford English Dictionary. 2nd ed. 1989. OED" -(2
Online. Oxford University Press. 6 September 2007
http: // dictionary.oed.com/cgi/entry/50075365
International Congress of Phonetic Sciences, Tallinn (pp. -(3
447450), 5. Tallinn: Academy of Sciences of
Nespor, M. (1990). On the rhythm parameter in phonology. In -(4
I. Rocca, Logical issues in language acquisition
Peter Roach .2002 .A LITTLE ENCYCLOPAEDIA OF PHONETICS-(5
/http://www.personal.reading.ac.uk/~llsroach/peter
Roach, P. (1982). On the distinction between stress-timed and syllable--( 6
,(.timed languages. In D. Crystal (Ed
(http/B44 A.D. Patel, J.R. Daniele / Cognition 87 (2003) B35B4

87

Part Two : Listening & Speaking

Lecture 1: Economy
Brian talks about his countrys economy

I) Listening Comprehension
Listen once to the conversation. Then answer the following questions ( A, B, and C).
.Listen once again to check your answer

88

.A) Main Points: Answer the following questions about the interview
?What is helping the Canadian economy (1
a) Primary industries
b) Secondary industries
c) Foreign investment

?What is said about Canada's resources (3

.a) There is still a lot
.b) There is not much left
c) Consumption is decreasing

?What does Brian discuss (2

a) Inflation
b) Currencies
c) Wages

?What resource still has a large supply (4

a) Oil
b) Timber
c) Coal

.B) Phrase Match: Match the phrases on the left with the example on the right
amazingly
primary industries
how come
consumption
complicated

- why (1
- very, incredibly (2
- farming, mining, fishing, etc (3
- difficult to understand (4
- to buy, use, or deplete (5

.C) Unscramble: Put the mixed up sentences in the correct order

? | now | so | dollar | Why | the | is | strong | Canadian (1
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------? | resources | left | still | there | a | Are | lot | natural | of (2
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------? | are | What | the | industries | primary | your | of | economy (3
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------? | big | for | a | What | market | is | country | your (4
D) Put the PHRASES in the spaces. You may listen again to the conversation to check
your answers
gone down
decreasing quite
reasons behind
as much
amazingly strong
cut them down
my understanding

89

informed in the spaces

I think
.Fanny: Hey, Brian, you know, recently I heard that the Canadian dollar is very strong
.Brian: It is. It's been ________________ in the last few months
?Fanny: What happened? I mean, how come
...Brian: It went up. The ________________ why the Canadian dollar is strong
.Fanny: Yeah
Brian: Very good question. Without getting too complicated, ________________ is the
Canadian dollar is linked to a lot of primary industries, so things like, say like, oil or mining
or timber from like forests and right now I think there's a high demand for those kind of
products, so because of that it's pushed the Canadian dollar up. But also I think many other
.currencies have ________________ a bit, like the American dollar has dropped a lot
.Fanny: Really. OK
.Brian: I don't follow the currency markets too closely
.Fanny: OK, I see
Brian: But I think because the American dollar has gone down as well, that means that, you
know, it doesn't take ________________ Canadian money to equal the American money now,
.so I think those are probably two of the reasons why it's been strong
Fanny: I see. I know that Canada is a country which is really rich in the natural resources, but
?are there still a lot of natural resources left now
Brian: That's another good question. I think
.that there are still quite a lot of resources
.Fanny: Oh, nice
.Brian: Which is, you know, is good but some of them are ________________ a bit
.Fanny: I think so, because of consumption
...Brian: It's too
.Fanny: Too big
.Brian: Right
.Fanny: Yeah
Brian: And we export a lot of our resources too, so, you know, the Unites States is always
taking a lot of our resources so that's like a huge market right, but I think there's still lots of oil
but maybe the... some of the trees, you know, they ________________ pretty fast and they
.take a long time to grow back, so you have to watch out there
Fanny: OK, I think that's a very reason for
.the strong Canadian dollar
Brian: It could be but you probably should ask an economist. Maybe they can tell you a bit
.more ________________ than I can
Put the PHRASES in the spaces

?II) Discussion: What do you think

A) Write the number of the question being answered in the box
Discussion
Is your economy strong (1
?now

Tia - Singapore
Singapore is a small island
country, so we do not really

Thomas - England
Yes, I think think people
waste

90

What are the main (2

?industries of your country
Does your country have (3
?primary industries

Do you think people (4

?consume to much
Do you follow the news (5
?about the economy

have any primary industries

like forestry or farming or
mining.
The
Singapore
economy is based more on
skilled
professions like
management
and
engineering. For this reason,
there are many headquarters
of
big
companies
in
Singapore and you can see
all the tall office buildings
.when you come here
Jason - The Unites
States
Things are not that good now
in my country. Recently we
have had a housing crisis.
You may have heard about it
in the news. It is called the
subprime housing crisis and
it refers to people getting
loans they can not repay. As
a result the housing market
is really bad and that affects
other
industries
like
construction and real estate. I
.hope things get better soon

too much and that as a whole

we consume too much. There
is a lot of waste in the world
that we can easily stop. For
one, people use too many
bags when they shop.
Recently, in my country, we
started charging for shopping
bags in some places. I think
this is a good idea and a great
.start
Neno - Indonesia
I do not follow the economic
news too much, but I do
check the news every day so
I know when there is a big
event. I never worry about it
though. I think the media
always makes things worse
than they really are. Things
go up and down. That is a
part of life. I think there are
other things to worry
.about than making money

ES in the spaces
B) You are representing your country in an international economic symposium. Write a
:brief expos about your countrys economy. You may explain such issues as

Your present countrys economic position

Your national currency
The main sources of income
The primary resources of your countrys economy
Foreign investment
Level of consumption
Your countrys economic difficulties, if any
Etc.

___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________

91

___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
.C) Present your expos to your classmates. Argue for your opinions

Lecture 2: Jessica Tandy

I) Pre-listening

Do you know who the woman on the pictures is?

Could you tell what was she known for?
Does Driving Miss Daisy tell you something?

92

II) Listening Comprehension

As you listen to the story of Jessica Tandy, answer the following questions ( try to provide
(answers for parts A, B, C at the same time

A) Choose one or more answers

1)

Jessica Tandy Performed in

More Than 75 movies
More than 25 movies
More than 35 movies

2)
he actress is best known for winning an Academy Award in 1989 for her part in
he play "The Fourposter"
he television movie "Foxfire"
he movie ''Driving Miss Daisy.
3)
he was the
Oldest Prettiest -

T
T
T
T
S

- Smallest

person to have won the Academy award.

4) Her father died when she was

- Twelve years old.
- Seven years old
- Nine years old
5) She attended an acting school in nineteen when she was
- Eight years old
- Eighteen years old
- Nineteen years old
6) Pictures of Jessica Tandy do suggest that she was
- Plain

93

- Pretty
- Different
7) For her performance in the play, "A Streetcar Named Desire, she won her first
- Academy award
- Tony award
- Amy award
8) J. T. played Gertrude in
- "Hamlet
- "The Three Sisters,"
- "Death of a Salesman."
9) When she won the Academy Award for "Driving Miss Daisy.", Tandy was
- Amazed
- Surprised
- Chocked
10) Jessica Tandy and Hume Cronyn were married
- For fifty-two years.
- Forty two years
- Twenty years
11) As she got older, Jessica Tandy suffered from
- Stage fright
- Cancer
- Diabetes
12) She married actor Jack Hawkins in
- 1922
- 1932
- 1942

B) Phrase Match: Match the phrases on the left with the ones on the right
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)

Performance
Award
Movie
Plain looking
Stage show

- not looking pretty

- play
- prize
- acting
- film

C) Provide full answers

1)

Give the names of three plays Jessica Tandy perfumed in

a)
-------------------------------b)
--------------------------------c)
---------------------------------

2)

What were the names of Jessica Tandys two husbands?

a)
-------------------------------b)
---------------------------------

94

3)
4)

Who is the writer of A streetcar named desire?

----------------------------------What are four plays Jessica Tandy and Hume Cronyn appeared in together?
a)
b)
c)
d)

--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

III) Post listening Discussion

Write a brief bibliographical account about your favourite actor /
actress.
Present it to your classmates explaining the reasons for choice

Lectures 3-4-5
From AMERICAN MOSAIC )
(in VOA Special English

95

Lecture 3: Ramadan in America

I) Pre-listening
Describe the two pictures below
What kind of culture do they imply?
What ceremony or activity does picture one reflect?
What links can you make with picture two?

II) While listening :

Listen to part one of the record
A) Choose the appropriate answer(s) as you listen to the record.
1) The first food Muslims eat to break Ramadan in America is:
- Milk
- Meat
- Dates
2) Ramadan is the
- hardest
month in Islam
- Holiest
- Hottest
3) Muslims fast in Ramadan because
- They fear punishment
- To show obedience and respect to god
- They are on a special diet
4) The Koran is
- Holy book in Islam
- The word of Mohamed
- The word of god or Allah
B ) Main points:

96

1.
2.
3.
4.

Why is Ramadan considered as the holiest month in Islam,

What does the Koran include according to Mohamed Adan?
When does Ramadan end?
When does Adans family do after eating Ramadans meal?

III) Post listening discussion

How would you spend Ramadan in your country, town, or village? Conduct an
interview with your classmates about their daily activities during Ramadan. do
they spend it in the same way Muslims in America do?
Have you ever spend Ramadan or any of the most important celebrations far
from home? How would you spend one of these events in a foreign place?

Lecture 4: Alaska Purchase

I) Listening Comprehension
A) Fill in the spaces as you listen to speaker
1.
2.
3.
4.

Alaska is situated----------------------------------America paid ------------------------------- to get Alaska

The Alaskan Statehood Act was approved in ----------------------The name Alaska came from ----------------------------------------

B) Phrase Match
1) Purchase
1) Frozen land
1) Deal
1) Treaty

- icy
- formal agreement
- buying something
- agreement

II) Post-listening discussion

Do you know that America has a vast territory and includes 50 states? How about your
country? Choose an American state, region, town or territory. Compare and contrast it
with a region of your choice in your country.
Discuss your comparison with your classmates. Provide arguments for the similarities
and / or differences you might have signalled.

Lecture 5: Wynton and Willie

I) Listening Activity

97

Fill in the spaces with appropriate phrases as you listen to the passage about the two
famous jazz players.
Last year, two -------------------of country music and jazz -------------------for two days of
concerts in New York City. Willie Nelson is a singer, ------------------- and guitarist. Wynton
Marsalis is a -------------------and composer. He is also the artistic director of Jazz at
-------------------. Their music was recorded for an album released this summer called
-------------------Shirley Griffith has our story.
That's Willie Nelson and Wynton Marsalis -------------------the Duke Ellington song "Don't
-------------------Much Anymore."
"Two Men With the Blues" was number twenty in its -------------------on Billboard
magazine's Top Two Hundred album chart. That is the highest a Willie Nelson album has ever
reached in its first week. And it is the highest ever for an album by Wynton Marsalis.
Here they are with Willie Nelson's song ------------------So far, the -------------------old Nelson and -------------------old Marsalis have been too busy
to go on tour together. But they plan -------------------the stage again in New York this
February as part of the seventieth anniversary of Blue Note Records.

II) Post-listening discussion

Jazz is a very famous music in America. In fact, it has become a universal

musical genre. Do like this kind of music? How far is it appreciated in your country,
region or town? What other universal music genres are being listened too there?

What are the local musical genres common to your country, region, town or
village? What kind do you personally prefer? Why?

Compare and contrast a local musical genre with a universal or foreign one of
your choice. Share your opinions with classmates.

Lecture 6: Reef World

I) Pre-listening Discussion

What is your favourite sport?

Do you practice any outdoor activity?
Do you leave in or have you ever visited a costal region?
Have you tried to explore the underwater world?

98

If you the occasion to do so, would you do it? Why?

What does the picture below represent to you?

II) While Listening

.Rebecca talks about the Great Barrier Reef and scuba diving
.A) Main Points: Answer the following questions about the interview
?What does she say about the Great Barrier Reef (1
.a) She's been there often
.b) She scuba dived there twice
.c) She has been there once
?How do Todd and Rebecca feel about scuba diving (2
.a) They both love it
.b) They both dislike it
.c) They disagree about it
._______ The Great Barrier Reef is suffering from coral (3
a) breaking
b) stealing
c) bleaching
?What is also suffering (4

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a) The tourism industry

b) The marine life
c) The merchant marines
.B) Phrase Match: Match the phrases on the left with the example on the right
The unknown .1
Breathing apparatus .2
I can relate .3
I cant get past going underwater .4
It cant be brought back .5

it will never return ___

oxygen machine ___
space; the jungle; the ocean ___
Ive had a similar experience ___
Im too afraid ___

:C) Unscramble

Put the mixed up sentences in the correct order.

? the Great Barrier Reef have to been you ever .1

----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------? like why dont you so scuba diving .2
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------? is true that the Great Barrier Reef is it being damaged .3
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------? life marine still is there a lot of .4
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Can you remember how Rebecca answered the above questions?

D) Bits and Pieces

(Put the PHRASES in the spaces (Some will be used more than once
that is the
rather than having
you also lose
probably about
not being able
I was certified

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so I didnt
just being confined
everybody else
I went with my
Todd: So, Rebecca, in Australia you have the Great Barrier Reef. Now have you been to the
?Great Barrier Reef
Rebecca: Yes, I have once, _____________ two years ago. There's the main part of the Great
Barrier Reef and then there's a little island, and we went to the island because I don't like
.scuba diving, _____________ go to the main part
?Todd: So, you don't like scuba diving. Why
Rebecca: I think it's the unknown, under the water, and _____________ and having this
.breathing apparatus on you
Todd: Right. Well, you know what, I can relate because _____________ to be a diver because
.all my friends were divers and I didn't enjoy it that much either
Rebecca: Yeah. Like, it looks great underwater when you see it on TV and it would be
awesome to see it, but yeah, I just can't get past the going underwater and _____________ to
.breathe properly
Todd: Right. Right. Actually, I think for me was _____________ friends and they were so
excited about it and then when you would go under water, you're in pairs. You have a buddy
.and it seemed like you were kind of in line in an amusement park or something, you know
.Rebecca: Really
Todd: Yeah, like everybody kind of has to go around and you look around and you see all
these other divers and... but I was the only person that felt this way. _____________ loves
diving and the photography so. But actually, is it true the Barrier Reef is being damaged? It's
?actually not as beautiful as used to be
Rebecca: Yeah. It's... The name of it is coral bleaching, and the coral is actually turning
white, now _____________ the colors it has, so that's been happening for a few years I think
.and it's getting worse and worse
?Todd: Oh, so basically the coral is losing it's beautiful color
.Rebecca: Yeah, yeah, basically, just dies and can't be brought back
Todd: Well, what about, like you know, the marine life, like you know fish and stuff like that?
?Is that still abundant

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Rebecca: I assume that would probably go down as well once the coral starts to die off
because _____________ food source and their housing for the fish so with the loss of the
.Great Barrier Reef _____________ all the beautiful fish and marine life down there too
.Todd: That's too bad
elllo.org

?III) Post-Listening Discussion : What do you think

A) Write the number of the question being answered in the box

What do you know about .1

?Australia and Australians
Have you ever been scuba .2
?diving
Rebecca and Todd didnt .3
like scuba diving, do you
think you would like it more
?than them

Do you like watching .4

nature shows on TV? Why or
?why not
Besides scuba diving, do .5
you do any other outdoor
?sports
What environmental .6
?problems worry you

Jae Thailand
If I went scuba diving, Im
sure I would hate it. I went
snorkeling once and even
though I didnt see a single
fish, I was terrified. Every
time I brushed against
seaweed I thought I was
going to be stung by a
jellyfish or swallowed up by
a shark. Plus, I had a really
hard time with the breathing
equipment. I guess Im just a
.wimp
Andy - USA
I used to watch the
Discovery channel all the
time but now that I have a
fast internet
connection
those days are gone. Now,
most of the time I watch
videos on YouTube or chat
with my friends on MySpace.
Now, instead of learning
about nature and science, I
waste my time watching
amateur videos about stupid
stuff. No wonder my grades
!are terrible

Mita - Indonesia
Even though Ive never been
to
the land down under, there
are a
lot of Aussies that visit
Indonesia. First of all, they
are giant. Second, tattoos
must be in fashion there
because all of the Australians
I have met have at least one.
Third, in Indonesia we try to
stay out of the sun but
Aussies cant get enough of
.it. We are opposites
Matt and Jenn USA
Matt: Have you ever been
?camping
.Jenn: Only once
Matt: Thats it? Why havent
you gone more? You didnt
?like it
Jenn: Actually, I loved it but
my
.friends arent into it
Matt: You should go with us.
Were planning a trip next
.week
Jenn: Really? That would be
.cool

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B) Write a dialogue about one of the discussion questions. Act it out with your
partner(s). Exchange opinions as you you deal with the other questions chosen by your
classmates
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
C) Improve your speaking skills
You can improve your ability to talk with native English speakers if you start a conversation
about a common topic. Outdoor sports is a very popular topic with native English speakers.
Not everyone loves outdoor sports like scuba diving, snow boarding, mountain biking, and
surfing but everyone has an opinion. It is also a great opportunity for you to share your
.opinions and stories about outdoor sports
The following is a survey about some of the most common outdoor sports among native
speakers. Conduct the survey with as many people as you can. Compare those sports with the
ones common among the people of your country, town or village. Write a report of your
.results that you expose before your class. Discuss and compare your results
Survey
?Have you ever been scuba diving

?Have you ever been camping

.What is scuba diving? Ive never heard of it

.Nope, Ive never been and I dont want to
.Nope, Ive never been but Id love to
.Yeah, Ive been once
.Yeah, Ive been a couple of times
.Yeah, Im really into it. I go all the time

.What is camping? Ive never heard of it

.Nope, Ive never been and I dont want to
.Nope, Ive never been but Id love to
.Yeah, Ive been once
.Yeah, Ive been a couple of times
.Yeah, Im really into it. I go all the time

?Have you ever been skiing

?Have you ever been caving

.What is skiing? Ive never heard of it

.What is caving? Ive never heard of it

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.Nope, Ive never been and I dont want to

.Nope, Ive never been but Id love to
.Yeah, Ive been once
.Yeah, Ive been a couple of times
.Yeah, Im really into it. I go all the time

.Nope, Ive never been and I dont want to

.Nope, Ive never been but Id love to
.Yeah, Ive been once
.Yeah, Ive been a couple of times
.Yeah, Im really into it. I go all the time

?Have you ever tried free running

?Have you ever tried storm chasing

.What is free running? Ive never heard of it

.Nope, Ive never been and I dont want to
.Nope, Ive never been but Id love to
.Yeah, Ive been once
.Yeah, Ive been a couple of times
.Yeah, Im really into it. I go all the time

What is storm chasing? Ive never heard of

.it
.Nope, Ive never been and I dont want to
.Nope, Ive never been but Id love to
.Yeah, Ive been once
.Yeah, Ive been a couple of times
.Yeah, Im really into it. I go all the time

?Have you ever tried bungee jumping

?Have you ever tried skydiving
What is bungee jumping? Ive never heard
.of it
.Nope, Ive never been and I dont want to
.Nope, Ive never been but Id love to
.Yeah, Ive been once
.Yeah, Ive been a couple of times
.Yeah, Im really into it. I go all the time

.What is camping? Ive never heard of it

.Nope, Ive never been and I dont want to
.Nope, Ive never been but Id love to
.Yeah, Ive been once
.Yeah, Ive been a couple of times
.Yeah, Im really into it. I go all the time

:Bibliography
: Material for the listening and speaking course has been selected from the following websites
http://www.elllo.org/english/0851/T887-Brian-Economy.htm
http://www.bartleby.com/85/1.html
http://www.elllo.org/english/0851/T886-Diego-Tacos.htm
http://www.elllo.org/english/0851/T876-Reb-Reef.htm

104

105

Peoples Democratic Republic of Algeria

Ministry of Higher Education and Scientific Research
Teacher Training School in humanities, Constantine
106

Department of Distant Training

A distant course for middle school teachers

4th semester

Prepared by: A/ Benyahia

September 2008

107

Grimms Fairy Tales

108

1.

The Little Peasant

2.

Hans in Luck

3.

The Fisherman and His Wife

4.

The four clever Brothers

5.

Mother Holle

THE LITTLE PEASANT

There was a certain village wherein no one lived but really rich peasants, and just one
poor one, whom they called the little peasant. He had not even so much as a cow, and still less
money to buy one, and yet he and his wife did so wish to have one. One day he said to her:
Listen, I have a good idea, there is our gossip the carpenter, he shall make us a wooden calf,
and paint it brown, so that it looks like any other, and in time it will certainly get big and be a
cow. the woman also liked the idea, and their gossip the carpenter cut and planed the calf,
.and painted it as it ought to be, and made it with its head hanging down as if it were eating
Next morning when the cows were being driven out, the little peasant called the cowherd in and said: Look, I have a little calf there, but it is still small and has to be carried. The
cow-herd said: All right, and took it in his arms and carried it to the pasture, and set it
among the grass. The little calf always remained standing like one which was eating, and the
cow-herd said: It will soon run by itself, just look how it eats already! At night when he was
going to drive the herd home again, he said to the calf: If you can stand there and eat your
fill, you can also go on your four legs; I dont care to drag you home again in my arms. But

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the little peasant stood at his door, and waited for his little calf, and when the cow-herd drove
the cows through the village, and the calf was missing, he inquired where it was. The cowherd answered: It is still standing out there eating. It would not stop and come with us. But
the little peasant said: Oh, but I must have my beast back again. Then they went back to the
meadow together, but someone had stolen the calf, and it was gone. The cow-herd said: It
must have run away. The peasant, however, said: Dont tell me that, and led the cow-herd
before the mayor, who for his carelessness condemned him to give the peasant a cow for the
.calf which had run away
And now the little peasant and his wife had the cow for which they had so long wished,
and they were heartily glad, but they had no food for it, and could give it nothing to eat, so it
soon had to be killed. They salted the flesh, and the peasant went into the town and wanted to
sell the skin there, so that he might buy a new calf with the proceeds. On the way he passed
by a mill, and there sat a raven with broken wings, and out of pity he took him and wrapped
him in the skin. But as the weather grew so bad and there was a storm of rain and wind, he
could go no farther, and turned back to the mill and begged for shelter. The millers wife was
alone in the house, and said to the peasant: Lay yourself on the straw there, and gave him a
slice of bread and cheese. The peasant ate it, and lay down with his skin beside him, and the
woman thought: He is tired and has gone to sleep. In the meantime came the parson; the
millers wife received him well, and said: My husband is out, so we will have a feast. The
peasant listened, and when he heard them talk about feasting he was vexed that he had been
forced to make shift with a slice of bread and cheese. Then the woman served up four
.different things, roast meat, salad, cakes, and wine
Just as they were about to sit down and eat, there was a knocking outside. The woman
said: Oh, heavens! It is my husband! she quickly hid the roast meat inside the tiled stove, the
wine under the pillow, the salad on the bed, the cakes under it, and the parson in the closet on
the porch. Then she opened the door for her husband, and said: Thank heaven, you are back
again! There is such a storm, it looks as if the world were coming to an end. The miller saw
the peasant lying on the straw, and asked, What is that fellow doing there? Ah, said the
wife, the poor knave came in the storm and rain, and begged for shelter, so I gave him a bit

110

of bread and cheese, and showed him where the straw was. The man said: I have no
objection, but be quick and get me something to eat. The woman said: But I have nothing
but bread and cheese. I am contented with anything, replied the husband, so far as I am
concerned, bread and cheese will do, and looked at the peasant and said: Come and eat some
more with me. The peasant did not require to be invited twice, but got up and ate. After this
the miller saw the skin in which the raven was, lying on the ground, and asked: What have
you there? The peasant answered: I have a soothsayer inside it. Can he foretell anything to
me? said the miller. Why not? answered the peasant: but he only says four things, and the
fifth he keeps to himself. The miller was curious, and said: Let him foretell something for
once. Then the peasant pinched the ravens head, so that he croaked and made a noise like
krr, krr. The miller said: What did he say? The peasant answered: In the first place, he says
that there is some wine hidden under the pillow. Bless me! cried the miller, and went there
and found the wine. Now go on, said he. The peasant made the raven croak again, and said:
In the second place, he says that there is some roast meat in the tiled stove. Upon my
word! cried the miller, and went thither, and found the roast meat. The peasant made the
raven prophesy still more, and said: Thirdly, he says that there is some salad on the bed.
That would be a fine thing! cried the miller, and went there and found the salad. At last the
peasant pinched the raven once more till he croaked, and said: Fourthly, he says that there are
some cakes under the bed. That would be a fine thing! cried the miller, and looked there,
.and found the cakes
And now the two sat down to the table together, but the millers wife was frightened to
death, and went to bed and took all the keys with her. The miller would have liked much to
know the fifth, but the little peasant said: First, we will quickly eat the four things, for the
fifth is something bad. So they ate, and after that they bargained how much the miller was to
give for the fifth prophecy, until they agreed on three hundred talers. Then the peasant once
more pinched the ravens head till he croaked loudly. The miller asked: What did he say?
The peasant replied: He says that the Devil is hiding outside there in the closet on the porch.
The miller said: The Devil must go out, and opened the house-door; then the woman was
forced to give up the keys, and the peasant unlocked the closet. The parson ran out as fast as
he could, and the miller said: It was true; I saw the black rascal with my own eyes. The

111

peasant, however, made off next morning by daybreak with the three hundred talers. At home
the small peasant gradually launched out; he built a beautiful house, and the peasants said:
The small peasant has certainly been to the place where golden snow falls, and people carry
the gold home in shovels. Then the small peasant was brought before the mayor, and bidden
to say from whence his wealth came. He answered: I sold my cows skin in the town, for
three hundred talers. When the peasants heard that, they too wished to enjoy this great profit,
and ran home, killed all their cows, and stripped off their skins in order to sell them in the
town to the greatest advantage. The mayor, however, said: But my servant must go first.
When she came to the merchant in the town, he did not give her more than two talers for a
skin, and when the others came, he did not give them so much, and said: What can I do with
?all these skins
Then the peasants were vexed that the small peasant should have thus outwitted them,
wanted to take vengeance on him, and accused him of this treachery before the major. The
innocent little peasant was unanimously sentenced to death, and was to be rolled into the
water, in a barrel pierced full of holes. He was led forth, and a priest was brought who was to
say a mass for his soul. The others were all obliged to retire to a distance, and when the
peasant looked at the priest, he recognized the man who had been with the millers wife. He
said to him: I set you free from the closet, set me free from the barrel. At this same moment
up came, with a flock of sheep, the very shepherd whom the peasant knew had long been
wishing to be mayor, so he cried with all his might: No, I will not do it; if the whole world
insists on it, I will not do it! The shepherd earing that, came up to him, and asked: What are
you about? What is it that you will not do? The peasant said: They want to make me mayor,
if I will but put myself in the barrel, but I will not do it. The shepherd said: If nothing more
than that is needful in order to be mayor, I would get into the barrel at once. The peasant
said: If you will get in, you will be mayor. The shepherd was willing, and got in, and the
peasant shut the top down on him; then he took the shepherds flock for himself, and drove it
away. The parson went to the crowd, and declared that the mass had been said. Then they
came and rolled the barrel towards the water. When the barrel began to roll, the shepherd
cried: I am quite willing to be mayor. They believed no otherwise than that it was the

112

peasant who was saying this, and answered: That is what we intend, but first you shall look
.about you a little down below there, and they rolled the barrel down into the water
After that the peasants went home, and as they were entering the village, the small
peasant also came quietly in, driving a flock of sheep and looking quite contented. Then the
peasants were astonished, and said: Peasant, from whence do you come? Have you come out
of the water? Yes, truly, replied the peasant, I sank deep, deep down, until at last I got to
the bottom; I pushed the bottom out of the barrel, and crept out, and there were pretty
meadows on which a number of lambs were feeding, and from thence I brought this flock
away with me. Said the peasants: Are there any more there? Oh, yes, said he, more than I
could want. Then the peasants made up their minds that they too would fetch some sheep for
themselves, a flock apiece, but the mayor said: I come first. So they went to the water
together, and just then there were some of the small fleecy clouds in the blue sky, which are
called little lambs, and they were reflected in the water, whereupon the peasants cried: We
already see the sheep down below! The mayor pressed forward and said: I will go down
first, and look about me, and if things promise well Ill call you. So he jumped in; splash!
Went the water; it sounded as if he were calling them, and the whole crowd plunged in after
him as one man. Then the entire village was dead, and the small peasant, as sole heir, became
.a rich man

HANS IN LUCK
Some men are born to good luck: all they do or try to do comes right all that falls to
them is so much gainall their geese are swansall their cards are trumpstoss them which
way you will, they will always, like poor puss, alight upon their legs, and only move on so

113

much the faster. The world may very likely not always think of them as they think of
?themselves, but what care they for the world? what can it know about the matter
One of these lucky beings was neighbour Hans. Seven long years he had worked hard
for his master. At last he said, Master, my time is up; I must go home and see my poor
mother once more: so pray pay me my wages and let me go. And the master said, You have
been a faithful and good servant, Hans, so your pay shall be handsome. Then he gave him a
.lump of silver as big as his head
Hans took out his pocket- handkerchief, put the piece of silver into it, threw it over his
shoulder, and jogged off on his road homewards. As he went lazily on, dragging one foot after
another, a man came in sight, trotting gaily along on a capital horse. Ah! said Hans aloud,
what a fine thing it is to ride on horseback! There he sits as easy and happy as if he was at
home, in the chair by his fireside; he trips against no stones, saves shoe-leather, and gets on he
hardly knows how. Hans did not speak so softly but the horseman heard it all, and said,
Well, friend, why do you go on foot then? Ah! said he, I have this load to carry: to be sure
it is silver, but it is so heavy that I cant hold up my head, and you must know it hurts my
shoulder sadly. What do you say of making an exchange? said the horseman. I will give
you my horse, and you shall give me the silver; which will save you a great deal of trouble in
carrying such a heavy load about with you. With all my heart, said Hans: but as you are so
kind to me, I must tell you one thingyou will have a weary task to draw that silver about
with you. However, the horseman got off, took the silver, helped Hans up, gave him the
bridle into one hand and the whip into the other, and said, When you want to go very fast,
!smack your lips loudly together, and cry Jip
Hans was delighted as he sat on the horse, drew himself up, squared his elbows, turned
out his toes, cracked his whip, and rode merrily off, one minute whistling a merry tune, and
another singing, No care and no sorrow, A fig for the morrow! Well laugh and be merry,
!Sing neigh down derry

114

After a time he thought he should like to go a little faster, so he smacked his lips and
cried Jip! Away went the horse full gallop; and before Hans knew what he was about, he
was thrown off, and lay on his back by the roadside. His horse would have ran off, if a
shepherd who was coming by, driving a cow, had not stopped it. Hans soon came to himself,
and got upon his legs again, sadly vexed, and said to the shepherd, This riding is no joke,
when a man has the luck to get upon a beast like this that stumbles and flings him off as if it
would break his neck. However, Im off now once for all: I like your cow now a great deal
better than this smart beast that played me this trick, and has spoiled my best coat, you see, in
this puddle; which, by the by, smells not very like a nosegay. One can walk along at ones
leisure behind that cowkeep good company, and have milk, butter, and cheese, every day,
into the bargain. What would I give to have such a prize! Well, said the shepherd, if you
are so fond of her, I will change my cow for your horse; I like to do good to my neighbours,
even though I lose by it myself. Done! said Hans, merrily. What a noble heart that good
,man has! thought he. Then the shepherd jumped upon the horse
.wished Hans and the cow good morning, and away he rode
Hans brushed his coat, wiped his face and hands, rested a while, and then drove off his
cow quietly, and thought his bargain a very lucky one. If I have only a piece of bread (and I
certainly shall always be able to get that), I can, whenever I like, eat my butter and cheese
with it; and when I am thirsty I can milk my cow and drink the milk: and what can I wish for
more? When he came to an inn, he halted, ate up all his bread, and gave away his last penny
for a glass of beer. When he had rested himself he set off again, driving his cow towards his
mothers village. But the heat grew greater as soon as noon came on, till at last, as he found
himself on a wide heath that would take him more than an hour to cross, he began to be so hot
and parched that his tongue clave to the roof of his mouth. I can find a cure for this, thought
he; now I will milk my cow and quench my thirst: so he tied her to the stump of a tree, and
held his leathern cap to milk into; but not a drop was to be had. Who would have thought that
this cow, which was to bring him milk and butter and cheese, was all that time utterly dry?
.Hans had not thought of looking to that

115

While he was trying his luck in milking, and managing the matter very clumsily, the
uneasy beast began to think him very troublesome; and at last gave him such a kick on the
head as knocked him down; and there he lay a long while senseless. Luckily a butcher soon
came by, driving a pig in a wheelbarrow. What is the matter with you, my man? said the
butcher, as he helped him up. Hans told him what had happened, how he was dry, and wanted
to milk his cow, but found the cow was dry too. Then the butcher gave him a flask of ale,
saying, There, drink and refresh yourself; your cow will give you no milk: dont you see she
is an old beast, good for nothing but the slaughter-house? Alas, alas! said Hans, who
would have thought it? What a shame to take my horse, and give me only a dry cow! If I kill
her, what will she be good for? I hate cow-beef; it is not tender enough for me. If it were a pig
now like that fat gentleman you are driving along at his easeone could do something with
it; it would at any rate make sausages. Well, said the butcher, I dont like to say no, when
one is asked to do a kind, neighbourly thing. To please you I will change, and give you my
fine fat pig for the cow. Heaven reward you for your kindness and self-denial! said Hans, as
he gave the butcher the cow; and taking the pig off the wheel-barrow, drove it away, holding
.it by the string that was tied to its leg
So on he jogged, and all seemed now to go right with him: he had met with some
misfortunes, to be sure; but he was now well repaid for all. How could it be otherwise with
?such a travelling companion as he had at last got
The next man he met was a countryman carrying a fine white goose. The countryman
stopped to ask what was oclock; this led to further chat; and Hans told him all his luck, how
he had so many good bargains, and how all the world went gay and smiling with him. The
countryman than began to tell his tale, and said he was going to take the goose to a
christening. Feel, said he, how heavy it is, and yet it is only eight weeks old. Whoever
roasts and eats it will find plenty of fat upon it, it has lived so well! Youre right, said Hans,
as he weighed it in his hand; but if you talk of fat, my pig is no trifle. Meantime the
countryman began to look grave, and shook his head. Hark ye! said he, my worthy friend,
you seem a good sort of fellow, so I cant help doing you a kind turn. Your pig may get you
into a scrape. In the village I just came from, the squire has had a pig stolen out of his sty. I

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was dreadfully afraid when I saw you that you had got the squires pig. If you have, and they
catch you, it will be a bad job for you. The least they will do will be to throw you into the
?horse-pond. Can you swim
Poor Hans was sadly frightened. Good man, cried he, pray get me out of this scrape. I
know nothing of where the pig was either bred or born; but he may have been the squires for
aught I can tell: you know this country better than I do, take my pig and give me the goose. I
ought to have something into the bargain, said the countryman; give a fat goose for a pig,
indeed! Tis not everyone would do so much for you as that. However, I will not be hard upon
you, as you are in trouble. Then he took the string in his hand, and drove off the pig by a side
path; while Hans went on the way homewards free from care. After all, thought he, that
chap is pretty well taken in. I dont care whose pig it is, but wherever it came from it has been
a very good friend to me. I have much the best of the bargain. First there will be a capital
roast; then the fat will find me in goose-grease for six months; and then there are all the
beautiful white feathers. I will put them into my pillow, and then I am sure I shall sleep
soundly without rocking. How happy my mother will be! Talk of a pig, indeed! Give me a
.fine fat goose
As he came to the next village, he saw a scissor-grinder with his wheel, working and
singing, Oer hill and oer dale So happy I roam, Work light and live well, All the world is
?my home; Then who so blythe, so merry as I
Hans stood looking on for a while, and at last said, You must be well off, master
grinder! you seem so happy at your work. Yes, said the other, mine is a golden trade; a
good grinder never puts his hand into his pocket without finding money in itbut where did
you get that beautiful goose? I did not buy it, I gave a pig for it. And where did you get the
pig? I gave a cow for it. And the cow? I gave a horse for it. And the horse? I gave a
lump of silver as big as my head for it. And the silver? Oh! I worked hard for that seven
long years. You have thriven well in the world hitherto, said the grinder, now if you could
find money in your pocket whenever you put your hand in it, your fortune would be made.
Very true: but how is that to be managed? How? Why, you must turn grinder like myself,

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said the other; you only want a grindstone; the rest will come of itself. Here is one that is but
little the worse for wear: I would not ask more than the value of your goose for itwill you
buy? How can you ask? said Hans; I should be the happiest man in the world, if I could
have money whenever I put my hand in my pocket: what could I want more? theres the
goose. Now, said the grinder, as he gave him a common rough stone that lay by his side,
this is a most capital stone; do but work it well enough, and you can make an old nail cut
.with it
Hans took the stone, and went his way with a light heart: his eyes sparkled for joy, and
he said to himself, Surely I must have been born in a lucky hour; everything I could want or
wish for comes of itself. People are so kind; they seem really to think I do them a favour in
.letting them make me rich, and giving me good bargains
Meantime he began to be tired, and hungry too, for he had given away his last penny in
.his joy at getting the cow
At last he could go no farther, for the stone tired him sadly: and he dragged himself to
the side of a river, that he might take a drink of water, and rest a while. So he laid the stone
carefully by his side on the bank: but, as he stooped down to drink, he forgot it, pushed it a
.little, and down it rolled, plump into the stream
For a while he watched it sinking in the deep clear water; then sprang up and danced for
joy, and again fell upon his knees and thanked Heaven, with tears in his eyes, for its kindness
in taking away his only plague, the ugly heavy stone. How happy am I! cried he; nobody
was ever so lucky as I. Then up he got with a light heart, free from all his troubles, and
walked on till he reached his mothers house, and told her how very easy the road to good
.luck was

THE FISHERMAN AND HIS

WIFE

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There was once a fisherman who lived with his wife in a pigsty, close by the seaside.
The fisherman used to go out all day long a-fishing; and one day, as he sat on the shore with
his rod, looking at the sparkling waves and watching his line, all on a sudden his float was
dragged away deep into the water: and in drawing it up he pulled out a great fish. But the fish
said, Pray let me live! I am not a real fish; I am an enchanted prince: put me in the water
again, and let me go! Oh, ho! said the man, you need not make so many words about the
matter; I will have nothing to do with a fish that can talk: so swim away, sir, as soon as you
please! Then he put him back into the water, and the fish darted straight down to the bottom,
.and left a long streak of blood behind him on the wave
When the fisherman went home to his wife in the pigsty, he told her how he had caught
a great fish, and how it had told him it was an enchanted prince, and how, on hearing it speak,
he had let it go again. Did not you ask it for anything? said the wife, we live very
wretchedly here, in this nasty dirty pigsty; do go back and tell the fish we want a snug little
.cottage
The fisherman did not much like the business: however, he went to the seashore; and
when he came back there the water looked all yellow and green. And he stood at the waters
:edge, and said
!O man of the sea
!Hearken to me
My wife Ilsabill
,Will have her own will
!And hath sent me to beg a boon of thee
Then the fish came swimming to him, and said, Well, what is her will? What does your
wife want? Ah! said the fisherman, she says that when I had caught you, I ought to have
asked you for something before I let you go; she does not like living any longer in the pigsty,
and wants a snug little cottage. Go home, then, said the fish; she is in the cottage already!
So the man went home, and saw his wife standing at the door of a nice trim little cottage.
Come in, come in! said she; is not this much better than the filthy pigsty we had? And

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there was a parlour, and a bedchamber, and a kitchen; and behind the cottage there was a little
garden, planted with all sorts of flowers and fruits; and there was a courtyard behind, full of
ducks and chickens. Ah! said the fisherman, how happily we shall live now! We will try
.to do so, at least, said his wife
Everything went right for a week or two, and then Dame Ilsabill said, Husband, there is
not near room enough for us in this cottage; the courtyard and the garden are a great deal too
small; I should like to have a large stone castle to live in: go to the fish again and tell him to
give us a castle. Wife, said the fisherman, I dont like to go to him again, for perhaps he
will be angry; we ought to be easy with this pretty cottage to live in. Nonsense! said the
!wife; he will do it very willingly, I know; go along and try
The fisherman went, but his heart was very heavy: and when he came to the sea, it
looked blue and gloomy, though it was very calm; and he went close to the edge of the
:waves, and said
!O man of the sea
!Hearken to me
,My wife Ilsabill Will have her own will
!And hath sent me to beg a boon of thee
Well, what does she want now? said the fish. Ah! said the man, dolefully, my wife
wants to live in a stone castle. Go home, then, said the fish; she is standing at the gate of it
already. So away went the fisherman, and found his wife standing before the gate of a great
castle. See, said she, is not this grand? With that they went into the castle together, and
found a great many servants there, and the rooms all richly furnished, and full of golden
chairs and tables; and behind the castle was a garden, and around it was a park half a mile
long, full of sheep, and goats, and hares, and deer; and in the courtyard were stables and cowhouses. Well, said the man, now we will live cheerful and happy in this beautiful castle for
the rest of our lives. Perhaps we may, said the wife; but let us sleep upon it, before we
.make up our minds to that. So they went to bed

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The next morning when Dame Ilsabill awoke it was broad daylight, and she jogged the
fisherman with her elbow, and said, Get up, husband, and bestir yourself, for we must be
king of all the land. Wife, wife, said the man, why should we wish to be the king? I will
not be king. Then I will, said she. But, wife, said the fisherman, how can you be king
the fish cannot make you a king? Husband, said she, say no more about it, but go and try! I
will be king. So the man went away quite sorrowful to think that his wife should want to be
king. This time the sea looked a dark grey colour, and was overspread with curling waves and
:the ridges of foam as he cried out
!O man of the sea
!Hearken to me
My wife Ilsabill
,Will have her own will
!And hath sent me to beg a boon of thee
Well, what would she have now? said the fish. Alas! said the poor man, my wife
.wants to be king. Go home, said the fish; she is king already
Then the fisherman went home; and as he came close to the palace he saw a troop of
soldiers, and heard the sound of drums and trumpets. And when he went in he saw his wife
sitting on a throne of gold and diamonds, with a golden crown upon her head; and on each
side of her stood six fair maidens, each a head taller than the other. Well, wife, said the
fisherman, are you king? Yes, said she, I am king. And when he had looked at her for a
long time, he said, Ah, wife! what a fine thing it is to be king! Now we shall never have
anything more to wish for as long as we live. I dont know how that may be, said she;
never is a long time. I am king, it is true; but I begin to be tired of that, and I think I should
like to be emperor. Alas, wife! why should you wish to be emperor? said the fisherman.
Husband, said she, go to the fish! I say I will be emperor. Ah, wife! replied the
fisherman, the fish cannot make an emperor, I am sure, and I should not like to ask him for
!such a thing. I am king, said Ilsabill, and you are my slave; so go at once

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So the fisherman was forced to go; and he muttered as he went along, This will come to
no good, it is too much to ask; the fish will be tired at last, and then we shall be sorry for what
we have done. He soon came to the seashore; and the water was quite black and muddy, and
a mighty whirlwind blew over the waves and rolled them about, but he went as near as he
:could to the waters brink, and said
!O man of the sea
!Hearken to me
My wife Ilsabill
,Will have her own will
!And hath sent me to beg a boon of thee
What would she have now? said the fish. Ah! said the fisherman, she wants to be
.emperor. Go home, said the fish; she is emperor already
So he went home again; and as he came near he saw his wife Ilsabill sitting on a very
lofty throne made of solid gold, with a great crown on her head full two yards high; and on
each side of her stood her guards and attendants in a row, each one smaller than the other,
from the tallest giant down to a little dwarf no bigger than my finger. And before her stood
princes, and dukes, and earls: and the fisherman went up to her and said, Wife, are you
emperor? Yes, said she, I am emperor. Ah! said the man, as he gazed upon her, what a
fine thing it is to be emperor! Husband, said she, why should we stop at being emperor? I
will be pope next. O wife, wife! said he, how can you be pope? there is but one pope at a
time in Christendom. Husband, said she, I will be pope this very day. But, replied the
husband, the fish cannot make you pope. What nonsense! said she; if he can make an
.emperor, he can make a pope: go and try him
So the fisherman went. But when he came to the shore the wind was raging and the sea
was tossed up and down in boiling waves, and the ships were in trouble, and rolled fearfully
upon the tops of the billows. In the middle of the heavens there was a little piece of blue sky,

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but towards the south all was red, as if a dreadful storm was rising. At this sight the fisherman
was dreadfully frightened, and he trembled so that his knees knocked together: but still he
:went down near to the shore, and said
!O man of the sea
!Hearken to me
My wife Ilsabill
,Will have her own will
!And hath sent me to beg a boon of thee
What does she want now? said the fish. Ah! said the fisherman, my wife wants to be
.pope. Go home, said the fish; she is pope already
Then the fisherman went home, and found Ilsabill sitting on a throne that was two miles
high. And she had three great crowns on her head, and around her stood all the pomp and
power of the Church. And on each side of her were two rows of burning lights, of all sizes,
the greatest as large as the highest and biggest tower in the world, and the least no larger than
a small rushlight. Wife, said the fisherman, as he looked at all this greatness, are you
pope? Yes, said she, I am pope. Well, wife, replied he, it is a grand thing to be pope;
and now you must be easy, for you can be nothing greater. I will think about that, said the
wife. Then they went to bed: but Dame Ilsabill could not sleep all night for thinking what she
should be next. At last, as she was dropping asleep, morning broke, and the sun rose. Ha!
thought she, as she woke up and looked at it through the window, after all I cannot prevent
the sun rising. At this thought she was very angry, and wakened her husband, and said,
Husband, go to the fish and tell him I must be lord of the sun and moon. The fisherman was
half asleep, but the thought frightened him so much that he started and fell out of bed. Alas,
wife! said he, cannot you be easy with being pope? No, said she, I am very uneasy as
!long as the sun and moon rise without my leave. Go to the fish at once
Then the man went shivering with fear; and as he was going down to the shore a
dreadful storm arose, so that the trees and the very rocks shook. And all the heavens became

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black with stormy clouds, and the lightnings played, and the thunders rolled; and you might
have seen in the sea great black waves, swelling up like mountains with crowns of white foam
:upon their heads. And the fisherman crept towards the sea, and cried out, as well as he could
!O man of the sea
!Hearken to me
My wife Ilsabill
,Will have her own will
!And hath sent me to beg a boon of thee
What does she want now? said the fish. Ah! said he, she wants to be lord of the sun
.and moon. Go home, said the fish, to your pigsty again
.And there they live to this very day

THE FOUR CLEVER

BROTHERS
Dear children, said a poor man to his four sons, I have nothing to give you; you must
go out into the wide world and try your luck. Begin by learning some craft or another, and see

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how you can get on. So the four brothers took their walking-sticks in their hands, and their
little bundles on their shoulders, and after bidding their father goodbye, went all out at the
gate together. When they had got on some way they came to four crossways, each leading to a
different country. Then the eldest said, Here we must part; but this day four years we will
.come back to this spot, and in the meantime each must try what he can do for himself
So each brother went his way; and as the eldest was hastening on a man met him, and
asked him where he was going, and what he wanted. I am going to try my luck in the world,
and should like to begin by learning some art or trade, answered he. Then, said the man, go
with me, and I will teach you to become the cunningest thief that ever was. No, said the
other, that is not an honest calling, and what can one look to earn by it in the end but the
gallows? Oh! said the man, you need not fear the gallows; for I will only teach you to steal
what will be fair game: I meddle with nothing but what no one else can get or care anything
about, and where no one can find you out. So the young man agreed to follow his trade, and
he soon showed himself so clever, that nothing could escape him that he had once set his
.mind upon
The second brother also met a man, who, when he found out what he was setting out
upon, asked him what craft he meant to follow. I do not know yet, said he. Then come with
me, and be a star-gazer. It is a noble art, for nothing can be hidden from you, when once you
understand the stars. The plan pleased him much, and he soon became such a skilful stargazer, that when he had served out his time, and wanted to leave his master, he gave him a
glass, and said, With this you can see all that is passing in the sky and on earth, and nothing
.can be hidden from you
The third brother met a huntsman, who took him with him, and taught him so well all
that belonged to hunting, that he became very clever in the craft of the woods; and when he
left his master he gave him a bow, and said, Whatever you shoot at with this bow you will be
.sure to hit

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The youngest brother likewise met a man who asked him what he wished to do. Would
not you like, said he,to be a tailor? Oh, no! said the young man; sitting cross-legged from
morning to night, working backwards and forwards with a needle and goose, will never suit
me. Oh! answered the man, that is not my sort of tailoring; come with me, and you will
learn quite another kind of craft from that. Not knowing what better to do, he came into the
plan, and learnt tailoring from the beginning; and when he left his master, he gave him a
needle, and said, You can sew anything with this, be it as soft as an egg or as hard as steel;
.and the joint will be so fine that no seam will be seen
After the space of four years, at the time agreed upon, the four brothers met at the four
cross-roads; and having welcomed each other, set off towards their fathers home, where they
.told him all that had happened to them, and how each had learned some craft
Then, one day, as they were sitting before the house under a very high tree, the father
said, I should like to try what each of you can do in this way. So he looked up, and said to
the second son, At the top of this tree there is a haffinchs nest; tell me how many eggs there
are in it. The star-gazer took his glass, looked up, and said, Five. Now, said the father to
the eldest son, take away the eggs without letting the bird that is sitting upon them and
hatching them know anything of what you are doing. So the cunning thief climbed up the
tree, and brought away to his father the five eggs from under the bird; and it never saw or felt
what he was doing, but kept sitting on at its ease. Then the father took the eggs, and put one
on each corner of the table, and the fifth in the middle, and said to the huntsman, Cut all the
eggs in two pieces at one shot. The huntsman took up his bow, and at one shot struck all the
.five eggs as his father wished
Now comes your turn, said he to the young tailor; sew the eggs and the young birds in
them together again, so neatly that the shot shall have done them no harm. Then the tailor
took his needle, and sewed the eggs as he was told; and when he had done, the thief was sent
to take them back to the nest, and put them under the bird without its knowing it. Then she
went on sitting, and hatched them: and in a few days they crawled out, and had only a little
.red streak across their necks, where the tailor had sewn them together

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Well done, sons! said the old man; you have made good use of your time, and learnt
something worth the knowing; but I am sure I do not know which ought to have the prize. Oh,
!that a time might soon come for you to turn your skill to some account
Not long after this there was a great bustle in the country; for the kings daughter had
been carried off by a mighty dragon, and the king mourned over his loss day and night, and
made it known that whoever brought her back to him should have her for a wife. Then the
four brothers said to each other, Here is a chance for us; let us try what we can do. And they
agreed to see whether they could not set the princess free. I will soon find out where she is,
however, said the star-gazer, as he looked through his glass; and he soon cried out, I see her
afar off, sitting upon a rock in the sea, and I can spy the dragon close by, guarding her. Then
he went to the king, and asked for a ship for himself and his brothers; and they sailed together
over the sea, till they came to the right place. There they found the princess sitting, as the stargazer had said, on the rock; and the dragon was lying asleep, with his head upon her lap. I
dare not shoot at him, said the huntsman, for I should kill the beautiful young lady also.
Then I will try my skill, said the thief, and went and stole her away from under the dragon,
.so quietly and gently that the beast did not know it, but went on snoring
Then away they hastened with her full of joy in their boat towards the ship; but soon
came the dragon roaring behind them through the air; for he awoke and missed the princess.
But when he got over the boat, and wanted to pounce upon them and carry off the princess,
the huntsman took up his bow and shot him straight through the heart so that he fell down
dead. They were still not safe; for he was such a great beast that in his fall he overset the boat,
and they had to swim in the open sea upon a few planks. So the tailor took his needle, and
with a few large stitches put some of the planks together; and he sat down upon these, and
sailed about and gathered up all pieces of the boat; and then tacked them together so quickly
.that the boat was soon ready, and they then reached the ship and got home safe
When they had brought home the princess to her father, there was great rejoicing; and
he said to the four brothers, One of you shall marry her, but you must settle amongst

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yourselves which it is to be. Then there arose a quarrel between them; and the star-gazer said,
If I had not found the princess out, all your skill would have been of no use; therefore she
ought to be mine. Your seeing her would have been of no use, said the thief, if I had not
taken her away from the dragon; therefore she ought to be mine. No, she is mine, said the
huntsman; for if I had not killed the dragon, he would, after all, have torn you and the
princess into pieces. And if I had not sewn the boat together again, said the tailor, you
would all have been drowned, therefore she is mine. Then the king put in a word, and said,
Each of you is right; and as all cannot have the young lady, the best way is for neither of you
to have her: for the truth is, there is somebody she likes a great deal better. But to make up for
your loss, I will give each of you, as a reward for his skill, half a kingdom. So the brothers
agreed that this plan would be much better than either quarrelling or marrying a lady who had
no mind to have them. And the king then gave to each half a kingdom, as he had said; and
they lived very happily the rest of their days, and took good care of their father; and
somebody took better care of the young lady, than to let either the dragon or one of the
.craftsmen have her again

MOTHER HOLLE

Once upon a time there was a widow who had two daughters; one of them was beautiful
and industrious, the other ugly and lazy. The mother, however, loved the ugly and lazy one
best, because she was her own daughter, and so the other, who was only her stepdaughter, was

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made to do all the work of the house, and was quite the Cinderella of the family. Her
stepmother sent her out every day to sit by the well in the high road, there to spin until she
made her fingers bleed. Now it chanced one day that some blood fell on to the spindle, and as
the girl stopped over the well to wash it off, the spindle suddenly sprang out of her hand and
fell into the well. She ran home crying to tell of her misfortune, but her stepmother spoke
harshly to her, and after giving her a violent scolding, said unkindly, As you have let the
.spindle fall into the well you may go yourself and fetch it out
The girl went back to the well not knowing what to do, and at last in her distress she
.jumped into the water after the spindle
She remembered nothing more until she awoke and found herself in a beautiful
.meadow, full of sunshine, and with countless flowers blooming in every direction
She walked over the meadow, and presently she came upon a bakers oven full of bread,
and the loaves cried out to her, Take us out, take us out, or alas! we shall be burnt to a cinder;
.we were baked through long ago. So she took the bread-shovel and drew them all out
She went on a little farther, till she came to a free full of apples. Shake me, shake me, I
pray, cried the tree; my apples, one and all, are ripe. So she shook the tree, and the apples
came falling down upon her like rain; but she continued shaking until there was not a single
apple left upon it. Then she carefully gathered the apples together in a heap and walked on
.again
The next thing she came to was a little house, and there she saw an old woman looking out,
with such large teeth, that she was terrified, and turned to run away. But the old woman called
after her, What are you afraid of, dear child? Stay with me; if you will do the work of my
house properly for me, I will make you very happy. You must be very careful, however, to
make my bed in the right way, for I wish you always to shake it thoroughly, so that the
feathers fly about; then they say, down there in the world, that it is snowing; for I am Mother

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Holle. The old woman spoke so kindly, that the girl summoned up courage and agreed to
.enter into her service
She took care to do everything according to the old womans bidding and every time she
made the bed she shook it with all her might, so that the feathers flew about like so many
snowflakes. The old woman was as good as her word: she never spoke angrily to her, and
.gave her roast and boiled meats every day
So she stayed on with Mother Holle for some time, and then she began to grow nhappy.
She could not at first tell why she felt sad, but she became conscious at last of great longing to
go home; then she knew she was homesick, although she was a thousand times better off with
Mother Holle than with her mother and sister. After waiting awhile, she went to Mother Holle
and said, I am so homesick, that I cannot stay with you any longer, for although I am so
.happy here, I must return to my own people
Then Mother Holle said, I am pleased that you should want to go back to your own
.people, and as you have served me so well and faithfully, I will take you home myself
Thereupon she led the girl by the hand up to a broad gateway. The gate was opened, and
as the girl passed through, a shower of gold fell upon her, and the gold clung to her, so that
.she was covered with it from head to foot
That is a reward for your industry, said Mother Holle, and as she spoke she handed her
.the spindle which she had dropped into the well
The gate was then closed, and the girl found herself back in the old world close to her
mothers house. As she entered the courtyard, the cock who was perched on the well, called
:out
!Cock-a-doodle-doo
.Your golden daughters come back to you

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Then she went in to her mother and sister, and as she was so richly covered with gold,
they gave her a warm welcome. She related to them all that had happened, and when the
mother heard how she had come by her great riches, she thought she should like her ugly, lazy
daughter to go and try her fortune. So she made the sister go and sit by the well and spin, and
the girl pricked her finger and thrust her hand into a thorn-bush, so that she might drop some
.blood on to the spindle; then she threw it into the well, and jumped in herself
Like her sister she awoke in the beautiful meadow, and walked over it till she came to
the oven. Take us out, take us out, or alas! we shall be burnt to a cinder; we were baked
through long ago, cried the loaves as before. But the lazy girl answered, Do you think I am
.going to dirty my hands for you? and walked on
Presently she came to the apple-tree. Shake me, shake me, I pray; my apples, one and
all, are ripe, it cried. But she only answered, A nice thing to ask me to do, one of the apples
.might fall on my head, and passed on
At last she came to Mother Holles house, and as she had heard all about the large teeth
from her sister, she was not afraid of them, and engaged herself without delay to the old
.woman
The first day she was very obedient and industrious, and exerted herself to please
Mother Holle, for she thought of the gold she should get in return. The next day, however, she
began to dawdle over her work, and the third day she was more idle still; then she began to lie
in bed in the mornings and refused to get up. Worse still, she neglected to make the old
womans bed properly, and forgot to shake it so that the feathers might fly about. So Mother
Holle very soon got tired of her, and told her she might go. The lazy girl was delighted at this,
and thought to herself, The gold will soon be mine. Mother Holle led her, as she had led her
sister, to the broad gateway; but as she was passing through, instead of the shower of gold, a
.great bucketful of pitch came pouring over her

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.That is in return for your services, said the old woman, and she shut the gate
So the lazy girl had to go home covered with pitch, and the cock on the well called out as she
:saw her
!Cock-a-doodle-doo
.Your dirty daughters come back to you
But, try what she would, she could not get the pitch off and it stuck to her as long as she
.lived

List of references

a.

Margaret Baudoin et. al. (1994). Reders Choice. 3rd.ed. The University of

Michigan Press.
b.

Jean-Luc Bordron et.al. (2003) Going Places 2de. Les ditions Didier, Paris.

c.

Jean-Luc Bordron et.al. (2005) Going Places Tle. Les ditions Didier, Paris.

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d.

The Brothers Grimm. Grimms' Fairy Tales. Planet PDF.

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Rpublique Dmocratique Populaire Algrienne

Ministre de lenseignement suprieur et de la recherche scientifique

Ecole Normale Suprieure des Lettres et Sciences Humaines Constantine

Distant Cours

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LMD S4

Linguistics

Prepared by
Soulef Boulmerka
Charge de cours ENS Constantine

2008-2009

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Preview
,Dear Student
This course introduces an important field in linguistics which is
sociolinguitics . It deals with the realtionships between language and society.It
also provides examples of the different linguistic variation : dialect, diglossia,
pidgin, and the relation between language variation and ethnicity,
nationalism, social status, social solidarity, sex,...etc

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I.SOCIOLINGUISTICS
I.1. Sociolinguistics and Linguistics
In general terms, sociolinguistics may be defined as the study of language in relation
to society. It has become a thriving area within linguistics since 1960s, and the father of
.sociolinguistics is claimed to be William Labov
William Labov (born December 4, 1927) is a professor in the linguistics)
department of the University of Pennsylvania. He is widely regarded as the founder of
the discipline of variationist sociolinguistics and pursues research in sociolinguistics,
.(language change, and dialectology

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Sociolinguistics studies issues like accents, dialects, language change, age, gender,
etchnicity, social context, pidgins and creoles, language planning,code-switching and code.(mixing etc. (Bloomer&Trott:1988

I.2. SOME USEFUL DEFINITIONS

I.2.1. Definition of Society
A society is a grouping of individuals, which is characterized by common interests and
may have distinctive culture and institutions. In a society, members can be from a different
ethnic group. A "Society" may refer to a particular people, such as the Nuer (The Nuer are a
confederation of tribes located in Southern Sudan and western Ethiopia. Collectively,
the Nuer form one of the largest ethnic groups in East Africa. They are a pastoral
peoplewho rely on cattle for almost every aspect of their daily lives) to nation state, such
as Switzerland, or to a broader cultural group, such as a Western society. Society can also
refer to an organized group of people associated together for religious, benevolent, cultural,
scientific, political, patriotic, or other purpose.

I.2.2.Definition of Social class

It refers to the hierarchical distinctions between individuals or groups in societies or cultures.
Anthropologists, historians and sociologists identify class as universal, although what
determines class varies widely from one society to another. Even within a society, different
people or groups may have very different ideas about what makes one "high" or "low" in the
hierarchy. The most basic class distinction between the two groups is between the powerful
and the powerless. Social classes with more power usually subordinate classes with less
power, while attempting to cement their own power positions in society. Social classes with a
great deal of power are usually viewed as elites, at least within their own societies.
In the simplest societies, power is closely linked to the ability to assert one's status through
physical strength; thus age, gender, and physical health are often common delineators of class
in rudimentary tribes.
As societies expand and become more complex, economic power replaces physical power as
the defender of the class status quo, so that one's class is determined largely by:
-Occupation ( profession) ,education ( teaching and learnng specific skills) , qualifications
(professional certification, trade certification, or professional designation (often called simply
certification or qualification) that assure that the person is qualified to perform a job or task.

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income:personal, household and per capita ,wealth or net worth, including the ownership of land, property, means of production
Those who can attain a position of power in a society will often adopt distinctive lifestyles to
emphasize their prestige and to further rank themselves within the powerful class. Often the
adoption of these stylistic traits are as important as one's wealth in determining class status, at
least at the higher levels:
costume and groomingmanners and cultural refinement. For example, there is a notion of high and low classes witha distinction between bourgeois tastes and sensitivities and the working class tastes and
.sensitivities
political standing vis--vis the church, government, and/or social clubs, as well as the use ofhonorary titles
reputation of honor or disgracelanguage : the distinction between elaborate code, which is seen as a criterion for "upper-"class", and the restricted code, which is associated with "lower classes
Finally, fluid notions such as race can have widely varying degrees of influence on class
standing. Having characteristics of a particular ethnic group may improve one's class status in
many societies. However, what is considered "racially superior" in one society can often be
exactly the opposite in another.

I.2.3. Speech community is a concept in sociolinguistics that describes a more or less

discrete group of people who use language in a unique and mutually accepted way among
themselves.Speech communities can be members of a profession with a specialized jargon
distinct social groups like high school students , or even tight-knit groups like families and
friends. In addition, online and other mediated communities, such as many internet forums ,
often constitute speech communities. Members of speech communities will often develop
slang or jargon to serve the group's special purposes and priorities.

I.3 Varieties of Language

Dear student. Before we review various aspects of language variation in more detail, I want
to make sure you have got some basic terms and concepts down:

I.3.1. SOME IMPORTANT TERMINOLOGY

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1-Language variety: This is a general term that may be used at a number of levels. So, we
can use the term to distinguish between English and French, but we can also use the term to
distinguish between two varieties of English, such as New York City English vs. Appalachian
English

2-Internal Variation: the property of languages having different ways of expressing the
same meaning. Importantly, this refers to within language, not across language, differences.
An example of internal variation in English is "GIVE" vs. "GIVES".

3-Dialect: This is a complex and often misunderstood concept. For linguists, a dialect is the
collection of attributes (phonetic, phonological, syntactic, morphological, semantic) that make
one group of speakers noticeably different from another group of speakers of the same

language.
I .3.2 COMMON SOURCES OF MISUNDERSTANDING
1- DIALECT is NOT a negative term for linguists. Very often, for example, we hear
people refer to non-standard varieties of English as "dialects", usually to say something bad
about the non-standard variety (and thus about the people who speak it). But, the term dialect
refers to ANY variety of a language. Thus, by definition, we all speak a dialect of our native
language.

2- DIALECT is NOT synonymous with accent. Accent is only a part of dialectal variation.
Non-linguists often think accents define a dialect (or that accents alone identify people as
non-native or foreign language speakers). Also, non-linguists tend to think that it's always the
"other" people that have "an accent". So, what is "accent"?
3- ACCENT: This term refers to phonological variation, i.e. variation in pronunciation Thus,
if we talk about a Southern Accent, we're talking about a generalized property of English
pronunciation in the Southern part of the US. But, Southern dialects have more than particular
phonological properties .A person is said to have an Oxford accent when we find in his
speech certain phonological characteristics related to English spoken in that town. The term
accent is also used to refer to some ,foreign, non native features in the speech of a personusually a foreigner speaking a second language. Accent is thus about pronunciation, while
dialect is a broader term encompassing syntactic, morphological, and semantic properties as
well.
A final note on accent. WE ALL HAVE ONE! There is no such thing as a person who speaks
without an accent.
In sum, a dialect is a particular variety of a language, and we all have a dialect. Accent refers
to the phonology of a given dialect. Since we all have a dialect, we all have an accent.

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.A language, say English, is really a collection of dialectsA dialect is a particular variety of a language that differs noticeably from the variety or.varieties of the same language spoken by another group or groups of people
.(Dialects themselves are collections of idiolects (and thus so are languagesI.3.3. Standard and Non-Standard Dialects
A standard dialect (also known as a standardized dialect or "standard language") is a dialect
that is supported by institutions. Such institutional support may include government
recognition or designation; presentation as being the "correct" form of a language in schools;
published grammars, dictionaries, and textbooks that set forth a "correct" spoken and written
form; and an extensive formal literature that employs that dialect (prose, poetry, non-fiction,
etc.). There may be multiple standard dialects associated with a language. For example,
Standard British EnglishBritish English (BrE, BE, en-GB) is the broad term used to
distinguish the forms of the English language used in the United Kingdom from forms used
elsewhere in the Anglophone world. British English encompasses the varieties of English
used within the UK, including those in England; Scotland, Northern Ireland, and Wales. Some
may also use the term more widely, to include other forms such as Hiberno-English (spoken
in Ireland.
In daily circumstances, most Britons the majority of whom speak English as either a first
or a second language consider that they just speak "English", rather than "British English"
specifically; the term "British English" is used only when necessary to distinguish it from
other forms of English
Standard British English and Standard Indian English may all be said to be standard dialects
of the English language.
A nonstandard dialect, like a standard dialect, has a complete vocabulary, grammar, and
syntax, but is not the beneficiary of institutional support.

I.3.4. Regional Dialect

A regional dialect is not a distinct language but a variety of a language spoken in a
particular area of a country. Some regional dialects have been given traditional names
which mark them out as being significantly different from standard varieties spoken in the
same place. Some examples are 'Hillbilly English' (from the Appalachians in the USA)
and 'Geordie' (from Newcastle upon Tyne in the UK). For example the differences
between American and British English are on many levels: Pronunciation e.g. Am E /
Kar/ and Br E / ka/ for car ; Lexis-e.g.AmE gas and BRE petrol; morphology AmE
dove and BrE dived as the past form of dive ; and syntax e.g. AmE I dont have a car
.and BrE I have not a car

I.3.5. Minority Dialect

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Sometimes members of a particular minority ethnic group have their own variety which
they use as a marker of identity, usually alongside a standard variety. This is called a
minority dialect. Examples are African American Vernacular English in the USA, London
.Jamaican in Britain, and Aboriginal English in Australia

I.3.6. Indigenized variety

Indigenized varieties are spoken mainly as second languages in ex-colonies with multilingual
populations. The differences from the standard variety may be linked to English proficiency,
or may be part of a range of varieties used to express identity. For example, 'Singlish' (spoken
in Singapore) is a variety very different from standard English, and there are many other
varieties of English used in India.

I.3.7. Social Varieties

Another kind of language variation is linked to the different social classes in the
society( speech community). Members within the same speech community have differences in
their linguistic behaviour determined by the social group or social class they belong to.
Factors such religion ,cultural background education, profession place of residence , financial
wealth and others ( see social class above ???? ) determine peoples social position and
differentiation end thus the way they speak.

I.3.8 Variation According to the Use of Language

1-Registers (or diatypes): the specialised vocabulary and/or grammar of certain activities or
professions ( professional language) .A register is a subset of a language used for a particular
purpose or in a particular social setting. For example, an English speaker may adhere more
closely to prescribed grammar , pronounce words ending in -ing with a velar nasal (e.g.
"walking", not "walkin'") and refrain from using the word "ain't " when speaking in a formal
setting, but the same person could violate all of these prescriptions in an informal setting.
The term was first used by the linguist Thomas Bertram Reid in 1956, and brought into
general currency in the 1960s by a group of linguists who wanted to distinguish between
variations in language according to the user (defined by variables such as social background,
geography, sex and age), and variations according to use, "in the sense that each speaker has a
range of varieties and chooses between them at different times" (Halliday et al, 1964). The
focus is on the way language is used in particular situations, such as legalese or motherese,
(Baby talk, motherese, parentese or child-directed speech is a non-standard form of
speech used by adults in talking to toddlers and infants. It is usually delivered with a "cooing"
pattern of intonation different from that of normal adult speech: high in pitch, with many
glissando variations that are more pronounced than those of normal speech. Baby talk is also
characterized by the shortening and simplifying of words ) and the language of a biology
research lab.

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Halliday (1964) identifies three variables that determine register: field (the subject matter of
the discourse), tenor (the participants and their relationships) and mode (the channel of
communication, e.g. spoken or written). Any or all of the elements of language may vary in
different registers vocabulary , syntax, phonology, morphology, pragmatic rules or
different paralinguistic features such as pitch, volume and intonation in spoken English, or
size and speed of sign production in a sign language. Registers often also have non-linguistic
prescriptions such as appropriate dress codes, body language, and proximity of speakers to
one another

2-Stylistics is the study of varieties of language whose properties position that language in
context. For example, the language of advertising, politics, religion, individual authors, etc.,
or the language of a period in time, all belong in a particular situation. In other words, they all
have place.
Stylistics also attempts to establish principles capable of explaining the particular choices
made by individuals and social groups in their use of language, such as socialisation, the
production and reception of meaning , critical discourse analysis and literary criticism.
Other features of stylistics include the use of dialogue, including regional accents and
peoples dialects , descriptive language, the use of grammar , such as the active voice or
passive voice, the distribution of sentence lengths, the use of particular language registers, etc.

I.3.9. Other Examples of Language Varieties

Idiolect: An idiolect is simply the technical term we use to refer to the variety of-1
language spoken by each individual speaker of the language. Just as there is variation among
groups of speakers of a language, there is variation from speaker to speaker. No two speakers
of a language speak identically. Each speaks her or his own particular variety of that
.language. Each thus speaks her or his own idiolect

Idiom is a term neutral to the dialectlanguage distinction and is used to refer to the-2
studied communicative system (that could be called either a dialect or a language) when its
status with respect to this distinction is irrelevant (thus it is a synonym to language the more
;(general sense

sociolects: varieties spoken by socially defined speech communities . It is associated-3

with a particular social class
. Standard language :standardized for education and public performance-4

Ethnolects: for an ethnic group-5

Ecolect: an idiolect adopted by a household-6

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Note:Varieties such as dialects, idiolects, and sociolects can be distinguished not only by
their vocabulary, but also by differences in grammar, phonology and prosody.

(I.4. Varieties in Contact ( Mixture of Varieties

Whenever two languages or two language varieties exist in the same speech community side
by side, many important matters related to their functions ,their relation to each other, to their
seperation or mixture evolve; which involve the topics of diglossia, bilingualism, code
.switching, pidgins and creoles

I.4.1. Diglossia

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diglossia is a situation where, in a given society, there are two (often) closely-related
languages, one of high prestige, which is generally used by the government and in formal
texts, and one of low prestige, which is usually the spoken vernacular tongue. (Vernacular
refers to the native language of a country or locality. it is used to describe local languages as
opposed to linguae francae( lingua franca is any language widely used beyond the
population of its native speakers ), official standards or global languages. It is sometimes
applied to nonstandard dialects of a global language.For instance: in Western Europe up until
the 17th century, most scholarly work was written in Latin, so works written in a native
language (such as Italian or German) were said to be in the vernacular) The high-prestige
language tends to be the more formalised, and its forms and vocabulary often 'filter down' into
the vernacular, though often in a Fergusson in 1959 who gave it the folowing defintion
diglossia is a relatively stable language situation in which,in addition to the primary dialects
of the language ( which may include a standard or regional standards), there is a very
divergent, highly codified ( often grammatically more complex) variety , the vehicle of a large
and respected body of written literature, either of an earlier period or in another speech
community, which is learnrd largely by formal education and is used for most written and
formal spoken purposes, but is not used by any sector of the community for ordinary
conversation
There are few cases of the diglossic situation in the world. We may find it in Switzerland
( standard German and Swiss German), in Haiti ( Standard French and Haitian creole). The
best example of diglossia is the linguistic situation in the Arab world. In each Arab- speaking
community, there are two varieties of Arabic in use:Standard Arabic and a spoken
colloquial.In each diglossic situation there is a High variety ( Standard Arabic)and a Low
variety (Spoken colloquial).

I.4.2 Bilingualism and Multigualism

The term bilingualism( sometimes also referred to as multigualism) can refer to
phenomena regarding an individual speaker who uses two or more languages, a community of
speakers where two or more languages are used, or between speakers of different languages.
Multilingual speakers outnumber monolingual speakers(monoglottism from(Greek monos,
"alone, solitary", + glotta, "tongue, language") or, more commonly, monolingualism or
unilingualism is the condition of being able to speak only a single language

I.4. 2.1. Multilingualism within an Individual

A multilingual person, in the broadest definition, is anyone who can communicate in more
than one language, be it active (through speaking and writing) or passive (through listening
and reading). More specifically, the terms bilingual and trilingual are used to describe
comparable situations in which two or three languages are involved, respectively.

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Multilingualism could be rigidly defined as being native-like in two or more languages. It

could also be loosely defined as being less than native-like but still able to communicate in
two or more languages.
Multilingual speakers have acquired and maintained at least one language during childhood,
the so-called first language (L1). First languages (sometimes also referred to as mother
tongue) are acquired without formal education, by mechanisms heavily disputed. Children
acquiring two first languages since birth are called simultaneous bilinguals. Even in the case
of simultaneous bilinguals one language usually dominates over the other. This kind of
bilingualism is most likely to occur when a child is raised by bilingual parents in a
predominantly monolingual environment.

I.4.3. Distinction between Bilingualism and Diglossia

It is important to note that "diglossia" and "bilingualism/multilingualism" refer to different,
although similar, sociolinguistic situations. Diglossia is the term usually applied to the
sociolinguistic situation in much of the Arabic-speaking world. In these countries, there are
two FORMS OF THE SAME LANGUAGE (conventionally called "High" and "Low") that
are used in different situations. The "High" form (called "Modern Standard Arabic") is
normally used in FORMAL situations, such as writing, political speeches, university lectures,
television news, etc. The "Low" form (referred to as "dialects," ) is used in INFORMAL
situations, such as conversations, etc. It is useful to think of the language situation as it
applies to Arabic as being on a continuum. At one end of this continuum is the "High" form,
i.e., Modern Standard Arabic, and at the other lies the "Low" form, i.e., the various dialects. A
person's place on this continuum would most likely be somewhere between these two poles,
for it is unlikely that they would use pure Modern Standard or a colloquial in a given setting.
The choice on which form, or code, to use would depend on many factors, including speaker,
conversation, topic, and setting.
On the other hand, bilingualism is the term more conventionally used to describe the
sociolinguistic situation in Belgium and Switzerland (multilingualism for Switzerland's 4
languages). The key difference is that in a bilingual situation certain INDIVIDUALS
(communities, etc.) will use Language A, while other INDIVIDUALS (communities, etc.)
will use Language B, but EVERYONE will use the SAME LANGUAGE for all situations -writing, job interviews, dinner table chats, etc. That's the IDEAL. In practice, it gets much
messier, and it is best to think of these terms as representing ends of a continuum--actual
societies fit somewhere along connecting these two poles. In the American Southwest, for
instance, Spanish and English coexist in a situation of bilingualism, but there are some
important diglossic elements: in many cases English is used for high-prestige, formal contexts
of speech, while Spanish is used primarily in the home, in conversations among good friends,
etc. Spanish thus becomes the "Low" form and English the "High" form.

(I.4.4. Code Switching (Code Mixing

Speakers of more than one language (e.g., bilinguals) are known for their ability to
code-switch or mix their languages during communication. This phenomenon occurs when

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bilinguals substitute a word or phrase from one language with a phrase or word from another
language. To illustrate, consider the sentence, (1) I want a motorcycle VERDE. In this
sentence, the English word green is replaced with its Spanish equivalent. A noteworthy
aspect of sentence (1) above is that the Spanish adjective verde follows a grammatical rule
that is observed by most bilingual speakers that code-switch. Thus, according to the specific
grammatical rule-governing sentence (1) above, sentence (2) I want a VERDE motorcycle
would be incorrect because language switching can occur between an adjective and a noun,
only if the adjective is placed according to the rules of the language of the adjective. In this
case, the adjective is in Spanish; therefore, the adjective must follow the Spanish grammatical
.rule that states that the noun must precede the adjective
Traditionally, code-switching has been viewed as a strategy to compensate for diminished
language proficiency. The premise behind this theory is that bilinguals code-switch because
they do not know either language completely. This argument is also known as semilingualism, which underscores the notion that bilinguals almost speak both languages
correctly. However, one concern with this account is that the notion of language proficiency is
not clearly defined. It is not clear whether reading and writing language skills should take
precedence over spoken language. This reliance on reading and writing is problematic
because most bilinguals receive their formal education in one language, whereas a majority of
their social interactions take place in the other language. So, when their reading and writing
abilities are tested in both languages, the language in which bilinguals received more formal
.education will usually fare better
Recent developments in psycholinguistic research has focused on how code-switching is a
natural product of the interaction of the bilinguals two languages. Early researchers viewed
code-switching as evidence that the bilinguals two languages were organized in separate and
distinct mental dictionaries. For example, a general finding throughout the literature is that
bilinguals take longer to read and comprehend sentences containing code-switched words as
compared to monolingual sentences. Apparently, this time consuming process is due to a
mental switch mechanism that determines which of the bilinguals two mental dictionaries
are on or off during the course of language comprehension. This mental switch is
responsible for selecting the appropriate mental dictionary to be employed during the
comprehension of a sentence. Thus, for a Spanish-English bilingual speaking English, the
English linguistic system is turned on, whereas the Spanish linguistic system remains off.
However, if during the course of comprehending a sentence, a Spanish code-switched word is
encountered, the mental switch must disable the English linguistic system, and enable the
.Spanish linguistic system
Another current view suggests that language dominance (i.e., which language is used
more frequently) plays an important role in code-switching. For example, Spanish-English
bilinguals report more linguistic interference (code-switching) when they communicate in
Spanish, their first-language, and little or no code-switching when they communicate in
English, their second-language. In other words, these bilinguals code-switch more when they
communicate in Spanish than when they use English. Empirical research supports these
observations. Psycholinguistic evidence also suggests that bilinguals retrieve English codeswitched words faster when they listen to Spanish sentences, whereas they are slower to
retrieve Spanish code-switched words as they listen to English sentences. More interestingly,
evidence also shows that code-switched words are actually retrieved faster than monolingual
words, but only if the code-switched word is in English, and the language of communication

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is Spanish. These results suggest a reliance on the bilinguals second-language as opposed to

their first-language. How are these results explained? The general idea behind this view is that
after a certain level of fluency and frequent use of the second-language, a language shift
occurs in which the second-language behaves as if it were the bilinguals first-language. In
other words, the second-language becomes more readily accessible and bilinguals come to
rely on it more. Thus, regardless of which language the bilingual learned first, the more active
(dominant) language determines which mental dictionary is going to be accessed faster. This
argument is reasonable since most bilinguals in the US, whose first-language is Spanish,
obtain their formal education in English. Likewise, many of their everyday interactions
involve the second-language. As a result, words and concepts in English, the secondlanguage, become more accessible than words in Spanish, the first-language. Thus, code.switching is not the same for both languages. Rather, it depends on language dominance
In short, code-switching may be indicative of difficulties in retrieval (access) affected by a
combination of closely-related factors such as language use (i.e., how often the first-language
is used) and word frequency (i.e., how much a particular word is used in the language).
Finally, the notion that people code-switch as a strategy in order to be better understood and
.to enhance the listeners comprehension is another plausible alternative

I.4.5 .Borrowing
There is a difference between code-switching and borrowing though on the surface they
seem to include the use of foreign words in a conversation that is conducted in another
language .The difference lies in the existence and the use of one or more language system in
the mind of the speaker. Borrowing usually occurs when the speaker is unable to find or
ignores an appropriate equivalent for the borrowed word in the first language. The borrowed
elements are usually single words and are modified so as to conform to the first language
rules. In code switching, however, speakers switch codes not because they do not know an
item/s in one of the codes; rather they do for necessary social considerations. Code switching
occurs completely i.e. in phonetics, morphology, grammar and vocabulary. There is no
.adjustment or change to the rules of the other code

I.4.6. Pidgin
Pidgin is a new language which develops in situations where speakers of different languages
need to communicate but don't share a common language. The vocabulary of a pidgin comes
mainly from one particular language (called the 'lexifier'). An early 'pre-pidgin' is quite
restricted in use and variable in structure. But the later 'stable pidgin' develops its own
grammatical rules which are quite different from those of the lexifier.
Once a stable pidgin has emerged, it is generally learned as a second language and used for
communication among people who speak different languages. (Nigerian Pidgin)

I.4.6.1. Reasons for the Development of Pidgins

In the nineteenth century, when slaves from Africa were brought over to North America
to work on the plantations, they were separated from the people of their community and

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mixed with people of various other communities, therefore they were unable to communicate
with each other. The strategy behind this was so they couldn't come up with a plot to escape
back to their land. Therefore, in order to finally communicate with their peers on the
plantations, and with their bosses, they needed to form a language in which they could
communicate. Pidgins also arose because of colonization. Prominent languages such as
French, Spanish, Portuguese, English, and Dutch were the languages of the colonizers. They
.travelled, and set up ports in coastal towns where shipping and trading routes were accessible
The superstrate ( lexifier) language from the Papua New Guinea Creole example above is
English. The other minority languages that contribute to the pidgin are called the substrate
languages.

I.4.7. CREOLE
When children start learning a pidgin as their first language and it becomes the mother tongue
of a community, it is called a creole. Like a pidgin, a creole is a distinct language which has
taken most of its vocabulary from another language, the lexifier, but has its own unique
grammatical rules. Unlike a pidgin, however, a creole is not restricted in use, and is like any
other language in its full range of functions. Examples are Gullah, Jamaican Creole and
Hawaii Creole English.
Note that the words 'pidgin' and 'creole' are technical terms used by linguists, and not
necessarily by speakers of the language. For example, speakers of Jamaican Creole call their
language 'Patwa' (from patois) and speakers of Hawaii Creole English call theirs 'Pidgin.'

I.5. Language and Social Interaction

I.5.1. Speech Functions
One particular side of the relation between language and society is that of the use of language
in the interaction between individuals in a community. This social interaction requires some
necessary functions and rules reflected in the ways people use speech.
Speech has functions. We speak to communicate some information. This informative or
referential function is one of the basic functions of speech. We may also use speech to report

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feelings and attitudes. This is its expressive function . We may speak to cause or prevent
overt actions ; this is the directive function. These three functions are the basic ones though
identifying just these three is an oversimplification. Several other uses of language deserve
mention. The phatic function refers to the expressions of sympathy like " how are you?
and fantastic as well as street corner and elevator talk conversations.The poetic
function of speech refers to the use of aesthetic features, such as poems ,rhymes , etcThe
metalinguistic function refers to the use of language

I.5.2. Solidarity and Power

The type of relationship the speaker has with the addressee determines the choice of one
linguistic form than another. Among the social relationships between the speaker and the
interlocutors can be defined in terms of power and solidarity.

Power refers to the unequal relation between people one of them being superior, the other a
subordinate. e.g. teacher-pupil- father-son-officer- soldier. Solidarity on the other hand,
concerns the extent of the social distance between people- how close they are, how intimate
they are, how much they share in social characteristics. The variety in social relations
determines the choice of language and linguistic forms. For example a teacher usually tends to
use the imperative with his pupils, whereas people of equal status will use the declarative and
the interrogative and strangers will tend to use polite formula.

I.5.3. Forms of Address

The type of relationship the speaker has with the addressee determines again the form of
address in speech situations. A person can be addressed by different titles ( Mr or Dr,or Pr
Brown) or by his first name John. Again the concepts of power and solidarity discussed
above interfere. Mr or Dr Brown is used when there is low solidarity between the speaker and
the addressee i.e. when the addressee is superior. In case there is high solidarity between the
speaker and Mr Brown , then the first name John is used. In French tu is used in situations
of high solidarity and vous is used in between strangers and cases of low solidarity.

I.5.4. Language and Social Inequality

In the view of modern linguistics all languages are equal. There is no language that is better,
more beautiful or more expressive and cultured than another. There is no bad or ugly
language. All languages are complex and serve the communicative needs of their
communities. However, many people do not agree with this view and attribute judgments to
one language /s or language variety.

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In this section, some issues of social inequality will be discussed.

I.5.4.1. Minority Languages

A minority language is a language spoken by a minority of the population of a country usually
ethnic distinct groups (minorities). Such people are termed "linguistic minorities".For
example , in Algeria , beside Arabic, there is Berber, and in Iraq there are Kurdish, Turkish,
and one or two dialects of Syriac beside Arabic.
The social status of these languages is different from that of the language of the majority
which is usually the official language and is a tool for for social, politiacl, and economic
advantage.
Historically, minority languages have been overlooked, and since language is emblematic for
national and ethnic identity, most of their native speakers were kept at their low satus socially
and politically. For political reasons , govenments have intervened in the affais of their
linguistic minorities by discourging the leaning and the teaching of such languages and even
sometimes the use of these languages.
Nowdays, humanistic attitudes have gained position . Govenments now encourage these
minority languages in education especially when they do not represent , as symbols of
national unity, any political threat to these governments .

I.5.5. Elaborated and Restricted Codes

Another linguistic disadvantage concerns the deficiency of the language of the lower social
classes. Basil Bernstein in 1971 makes a significant contribution to the study of
Communication with his sociolinguistic theory of language codes. As an educator, he was
interested in accounting for the relatively poor performance of working-class students in
language based subjects, when they were achieving scores as high as their middle-class
counterparts on mathematical topics. In his theory, Bernstein makes a direct correlation
between societal class and language. Within the broader category of language codes are
elaborated and restricted codes. These two codes (varieties) are different as far as the contexts
they are used in are concerned. They also differ linguistically.
The elaborated code is characterised by the use of syntactically complex sentences and
subordinate clauses, a high proportion of adjectives and adverbs, frequent use of the pronoun I
and complex use of prepositions and conjunctions Elaborated codes have a longer, more
complicated sentence structure that utilizes uncommon words and thoughts. In the elaborate
code there is no padding or filler, only complete, well laid out thoughts that require no
previous knowledge on the part of the listener, i.e., necessary details will be provided. The
restricted code is, however, distinguished by the employment of short and simple sentences,
which may not be formed, few conjunctions, and little subordination. The use of adjectives
and adverbs is limited. The restricted code is less formal with shorter phrases interjected into

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the middle or end of a thought to confirm understanding. For example, you know, you
know what I mean, right? and dont you think?
Bernstein makes a correlation between social class and the use of either elaborated or
restricted code. He reports that in the working class you are likely to find the use of the
restricted code, whereas in the middle class you find the use of both the restricted and
elaborated codes. His research argues that the working class have access only to restricted
codes, the ones they learned in the socialization process, where both the values and role
systems reinforce restricted codes. However, the middle class, being more geographically,
socially and culturally mobile has access to both the restricted codes and elaborate codes.
According to Bernstein (1971), a working class person communicates in restricted code as a
result of the conditions in which they were raised and the socialization process. The same is
true for the middle class person with the exception that they were exposed to the elaborate
code as well. Both groups use restricted code at some point, for as Atherton (2002) points out,
Everyone uses restricted code communication some of the time. It would be a very peculiar
and cold family which did not have its own language.

I.5.6 Language and Sex

Language mirrors the structure of the speech community and reflects the social and cultural
values that exist in that community. Among the latter is sexism. Language itself is not sexist,
but the speech community distinguishes between its members according to whether they are
males or females, and gives them different social roles which are going to be reflected in the
language of that community. In the following two sections how sexist social attitudes are
reflected in language and the ways men and women use language will be discussed.

I.5.6.1.Sexism in Language
Human civilisation has given unequal status to men and women which can be observed easily
in human language. Sexism in language is the use of language which devalues members of
one sex, almost invariably women, and thus fosters gender inequality.
It discriminates against women by rendering them invisible or trivializing them at the same
time that it perpetuates notions of male supremacy. For example English has manly courage
and masculine charm, but feminine hands and women tears. Some nouns that refer to
professions reflect the distribution of roles that has been, historically prevalent. Rector,
chancellor, worker and doctor, and similar terms, are interpreted to refer to a man because
these were professions that only men did. Similarly, typist and nurse are interpreted to refer to
a woman.

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The following table shows the differentiation patterns in English as a result of the sexism in
the society and the increasingly more neutral terms that replacing the old sexist ones.
Current Usage
man
mankind, men
humankind,humanity,

Alternative
human being, human, person, individual
human beings, humans,
people, human human species, society,
men and women workers, wage earners

working men, workmen

man on the street
forefather
layman
non professional
manhood

average person, ordinary person, the common tao

ancestor
layperson,nonspecialist,
adulthood, maturity

to a man
without exception
one man show
fathers
manpower
labor force
brotherhood of man
early man
beings
statemanship
man-made
old masters
masterful

everyone, unanimously,
one person show solo exhibit founding
founders
human resources, staff, personnel,
the family of humanity, the unity of people or
of humankind human solidarity
early people, early men and women, early human
diplomacy
manufactured, synthetic, artificial
classic art/artists
domineering, very skillful

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I.5.6.2. Man Language and Woman Language

Study of human societies has indicated that the speech of women differs from that of men.
These differences are seen at all linguistic levels. At the level of vocabulary for example,
women do not use some taboo words that only males use. These words are sexual vocabulary,
swear words, words referring to body function, etcResearch has also revealed that in
Norwich , a town in England, women pronounce words like walking , cooking , singing, etc
with the standard variant of the variable ing more than men. In English women also use some
colour words that are not used by men such beige, mauve and lavender.
Women and men are treated differently by the society, which involves different behavioural
patterns from them since they play different roles in it. Women and men know these social
differences and behave accordingly so as not to be socially inept.

Bibliography
Bersteins ,B. (1964). Elaborated and restricted codes. In Grumperz
and Hymes ( ed). The Ethnography of Communication. Special issue of
American Anthropologist.
-

Downes, W. (1984) Language and Society. Fontana.

Ferguson,C.(1959). Diglossia. .Word.15:325-40

Fisluman J ( 1971) Sociolinguistics.: Newbury House.

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Fromkin,J and R Rodman ( 1993) . An Introduction to

Language.Holt, Rinchart and Winston.
-

Holmes, J (1992) An Introduction to Sociolinguistics,: Longman.

Hudson, R.( 1980) Sociolinguistics. C.U.P

Lyons , John( 1981) Language and Linguistics .C.U.P

Lyons ,John ( 1987) New Horizons in Linguistics, Vols 1&2

.Penguin
-

Trudgill, P ( 1974) Sociolinguistics. Penguin

Wardhaugh, R ( 1992). An Introduction to Sociolinguistics. ( 2 nd

edition)
.Blackwell

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Peoples Democratic Republic of Algeria

Ministry of Higher Education and Scientific Research
Teacher Training School of Constantine

156

Intended as a distance training course for Middle School Teachers

Fourth Semester

Designed by Soraya Mezhoud

157

Lesson One
Language teaching methods and approaches

Basic definitions .1
Technique', 'method' and 'approach' are terms which recur so often in the field of language'
.teaching that they need to be defined in order to draw a distinction between them

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Technique .1.1
This is what actually goes on in the classroom as an implementation of a method,
which in turn is an application of an approach. A technique refers to all the activities used by
the teacher and performed by the pupils in the classroom. For example, audio-visual aids such
as language labs, tape recorders, television set, slides, video recorders are techniques which
are used to achieve an immediate objective. Some techniques are used with a variety of
.methods such as imitation and repetition. Others, however, are specific to a given method
Method .1.2
This is the application of the principles underlying a particular approach. A method
consists of the use of a certain number of techniques in a systematic way in order to achieve
the aim of language teaching. A method includes the lesson plan, the syllabus, the textbook,
other teaching materials and the number of teaching periods. It also includes decisions made
about language teaching outside the classroom. All these components must be in harmony
.with the basic principles of the selected approach
A method is procedural in the sense that it shows accurately how a language should be
taught as it deals with the practical side of foreign language instruction. A method is more
.general than a technique and more specific than an approach
Approach .1.3
This term is relatively new compared to the term 'method'. An approach refers to the
principles or assumptions underlying the process of language teaching and learning. It is also
a set of correlative assumptions dealing with the nature of the language teaching and learning.
An approach is axiomatic. It describes the nature of the subject matter to be taught. It is also
considered a theory of applied linguistics, which seeks to explain the phenomenon of
.language learning in terms which assit the learner to achieve his goal
Technique, method and approach are interdependent. They are arranged in the form of
.'a hierarchy in which 'approach' is placed at the top followed by 'method' and then 'technique

Teaching methods and approaches .2

In language teaching, there are constant changes and developments of teaching
methods and approaches. This can be attributed to the different focuses on different types of
language skills either written or oral, to the realisation that a given method or approach carries
certain limitations which render it unable to meet the needs of the learners for real

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communication or to the development of the need for communication especially after the
Second World War. Each new method or approach is built on the limitations of the preceding
one. The following are the most common language teaching methods and approaches and
.their shortcomings

The Grammar-Translation Method / Approach .2.1

This method was originally used to teach classical languages, such as Latin and Greek,
which were not taught for everyday communication. But gradually, it was generalised to teach
modern languages such as French and English. It dominated the English language teaching
field in Algeria in the 1960's at all educational levels. This method is a way of studying a
language through detailed analysis of its grammar rules, followed by an application of this
.knowledge to the task of translating sentences into and out of the target language
The method was based on a prescription of the whole grammar of the language
according to the criterion of what is right and what is wrong in order to enable the learners to
master the general rules governing the written form of the language and to translate from and
.into the foreign language

Shortcomings
:This approach has been criticised on many grounds
a) This approach was not based on any explicit psycholinguistic or sociolinguistic theory.
Therefore, it did not concern itself with how learners learn the language or how they actually
.use it. Its main concern was purely linguistic
.b) Practical mastery of the language being learned or actual use of it were totally ignored
.c) The learners in that approach were completely passive
d) As the classroom technique consisted of giving definitions, rules, explanations and
exceptions in the mother tongue, the time necessary for practicing the foreign language is
.greatly reduced
e) The technique of giving definitions and rules is very boring and of little benefit to the
.learners
f) The method is a continuous process of memorisation of lists of unusable grammar rules,
vocabulary and of attempts to produce perfect translations of literary extracts. Therefore, the
focus is on form rather than meaning. Very often students cannot concentrate on the message
.as they are obliged to read word by word

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g) Although translation from time to time is helpful, it becomes harmful when it is taken as a
method of learning a language. The learner is thus implicitly admitting that he does not intend
to learn the foreign language or that it is impossible for him to learn it, since the only way for
.him to undertand it is through translation
h) As for the use of literary works by great authors for teaching a foreign language, it is
agreed on that one should be able to understand, speak and read adequately the language
.before one starts to read and appreciate literature written in that language

The Direct Method .2.2

This method was developed in order to overcome the shortcomings of the GrammarTranslation Method which was unhelpful to those who wanted to learn a foreign language for
communication. This method became popular during the early years of the Twentieth
Century. It is called 'Direct' because the teaching of the foreign language was done without
any resort to the mother tongue. It is based on the assumption that one should learn a foreign
language as one would learn one's mother tongue. This method was used in Algeria in the
1970's through the textbooks Andy In Algeria, Learn English With Us. 3me AM (1977) and
Madjid In England, Learn English With Us. 4me AM (1977). The main assumptions
:underlying this method are
a) Grammatical rules are not taught explicitly but are rather acquired unconsciously through
intensive listening and imitation. So memorisation of conjugations and rules of grammar is
.rejected as priority is given to speech and oral skills
b) Translation is considered a useles activity in foreign language learning. Thus dramatisation,
.demonstration and pointing at objects are used for teaching the meaning of difficult words
c) As the focus is put on speech and oral skills, reading and writing are postponed for months
until firm grounds in listening and speaknig are secured. However, advanced learners can read
.literary texts for pleasure and comprehension and not for grammatical analysis
.d) Pupils are also introduced to the foreign culture inductively
Many techniques and procedures are used for the sake of making this method more
effective such as question and answer exchanges between teacher and learners, vocabulary
teaching through demonstration, objects and pictures, and the 'mim-mem' technique which
consisted of the students imitating selected foreign language sentences, short dialogues,
.expressions and songs, and then memorising them

Shortcomings
a) In this method all the language activities are related to the classroom context, and not to
real life situations. Therefore, learners are not prepared to use the foreign language for

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communication as the teachers do not think of them using it outside the confines of the
classroom
b) It is time consuming because it is not easy to explain the meanings of the difficult words
.through pointing at objects and dramatisation, especially in the case of abstract words
c) It requires a highly competent teacher who is very fluent in the foreign language and a great
.number of class hours as most of the work is done in the classroom

(The Aural- Oral Approach (The Audio Lingual Method .2.3

After the Second World War, there emerged a wide-world interest in foreign
languages and an urgent need for international communication. As there was a general feeling
of discontent with the traditional methods, namely the Grammar-Translation Method and the
Direct Method whose validity and adaquacy, especially for teaching the spoken form of
language, were questioned, the necessity of developing a new teaching method which would
.cater for these shortcomings was felt
Developments in the fields of linguistics as well as experimentation in Educational
Technology and Psychology gave rise to the Aural-Oral Approach which was a reaction to the
Grammar Translation Method and a modification of the Direct Method. The Aural-Oral
Approach was used in Algeria through Succes With English Coursebouk I 1970 and Succes
.With English Coursebouk II 1971
The theory on which the approach is based implies the acquisition of oral language
skills through oral practice based on repetition and learning by analogy. The Aural-Oral
Approach is based on the belief that language is essentially acquired through habits and that
responses must be drilled until they become natural and automatic. This reflects a
.behaviourist view of language learning influenced by the psychologist Skinner
The method aims at developing listening and speaking first as the foundation on which
to build the skills of reading and writing. This means that before the learners are taught how
to read and write the language structures, they should first be brought to proficiency in oral
and aural use of these structures. The following are the assumptions on which this method is
:based
Langauge is speech not writing
Lnaguge is a set of habits. This principle means that language is acquired by imitation
and practice. Habits are established by stimulus, response and reinforcement.
Teach the language, not about the language. This means that we must teach the pupils
a set of habits, not a set of rules to enable them to talk in the language not to talk about the
language.
A language is what its native speakers say, not what someone thinks they ought to say,
we should deal with language as it is and not prescribe what other people say.

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Shortcomings
a)This method encouraged successful responses and manipulation of language and
disregarded meaning. So, pupils especially at the early stages of language instruction have to
repeat incomprehensible material to make the production of speech automatic and habitual. In
this way the method fails to prepare the learner to use the foreign language for meaningful
.communication
b) Mechanical drills and repetition can be effective in the early stages of language instruction
or for the teaching of certain aspects of language, but they are not necessarily conducive to
.real communication
c) The focus on mechanical repetition through the use of oral drills leads also to a complete
.negligence of creative use of language and cognition
d) Too much emphasis is put on speech at the expense of other language skills. However,
there is no reason why all language skills should not be taught simultaneoulsy instead of
.being introduced in a certain order, i.e., listening, speaking, reading and writing

The Situational Approach .2.4

This approach emerged and dominated the language teaching field in Britain during
the 1940's, 1950's and 1960's. It includes aspects of the Direct Method and of the emerging
field of language pedagogy. This method was used in Algeria through L.G. Alexander's
.Practice and Progress (1967). This textbook was used for the three secondary school years
:The characteristics of the Situational Approach are summarized as follows
The spoken language is primary.
All language material is practiced orally before being presented in written form (reading and
writing are taught only after an oral base in lexical and grammatical forms has been
established.
Only the target language should be used in the classroom.
Efforts are made to ensure that the most general and useful lexical items are presented.
Grammatical structures are graded from simple to complex.
New items (lexical and grammatical) are introduced and practiced situationally (e.g. at the
post-office, at the bank, at the dinner table)
Another important feature of this method is the presentation of sentences in
association with actions, mime, realia and visual aids (like the Direct Method). So the
structres of the language are presented and practiced by the use of physical demonstration of
notions and objects. Utterances are illustrated by simulation of actions, pictures and other real
.objects
In this method, the teacher occupies a central role, for he takes on the responsibility
for varying drills and tasks and choosing the appropriate situations to practice structures.

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Moreover, he acts as a model to be imitated by the pupils who are required to listen and
repeat. Active verbal interaction between the teacher and the pupils is of vital importance in
.this method. In fact language learning is seen to be the direct result of this interaction

Shortcomings
a) The situations that are created are pedagogic, bearing little resemblance to natural language
.use
b) Learners are not shown how the use of a sructure in a particular situation can be
.generalized to another situation
c) The situations are not graded, but selected at random to serve the purpose of the structures
.on which they are based
d) It is not possible to enumerate all the situations that the learners are likely to meet in
.reality

The Communicative Approach .2.5

It is generally referred to as the Functional-Notional Approach. It emerged in the early
1970's as a result of the work of the Council of Europe experts. The approach was primarly
designed to meet the needs of adult learners, tourists or people engaged in academic, cultural,
technical or economic activities. However, it can be traced back to the work of Chomsky in
the 1960's when he advanced the two notions of 'competence' and 'performance' as a reaction
to the prevalent audio-lingual method and its view on language learning. These two concepts
were later developed by Hymes into a 'communicative competence' which refers to the
.psychological, cultural and social rules which discipline the use of speech
The new concept of 'communicative competence' has been expanded by many writers.
They have proposed seven categories of communicative functions which are requesting and
giving information, expressing thought processes, expressing opinions, moral discipline and
evaluation, modifying people's bahaviour, expressing personal feelings and intracting socially.
Under each of these categories there are many notions. Other categories have also been
identified to facilitate interaction between speakers from the first lesson of leanrning the
.foreign language

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Principles and characteristics

:The basic principles underlying the communicative approach are as follows
a) Language aquisition is seen as a creative process, not as habit formation. The idea of
.language learning by a stimulus response process is rejected
b) Communicative competence implies knowledge of the grammatical system of the language
as well as performance. Such competence includes both the usage and use of the language.
Therefore, the approach does not deny the importance of mastring grammatical forms, so long
as they are taught as a means of carrying out meaningful communication. That is, grammar is
.taught as a language tool rather than a language aim
c) Unlike the audio-lingual method, the communicative approach gives priority to the
semantic content of language learning. That is, pupils learn the grammatical form through
.meaning, and not the other way round
d) One aspect of communication is the interaction between speakers. This approach provides
communicative functions (uses) and notions (semantic themes and language items). These
functions reflect more closely real life use of the language as they are usually connected with
.real life situations and with pupils' needs and interests
e) The approach sets realistic learning tasks and activities that create situations in which
questions must be asked, information recorded, knowledge exchanged, emotions and attitudes
.expressed, in which the student plays the roles of both participant and observer
f) Such procedures and techniques will help pupils, who become the centre of the learning
process, to develop their communicative competence as they provide them with the potential
ability and motivation to discover the answers for themselves in groups, pairs and
.individually
g) Since the primary aim of the approach is to prepare learners for meaningful
.communication, errors are tolerated
h) The teacher is no more the centre of the classroom activities. Instead, the focus is shifted to
the pupils and their interests, abilities and everyday life concens. In other words,
.communicative methodology is learner- centered

Shortcomings
In spite of the merits which characterize the Comunicative Approach, it has been
:subjected to many criticisms such as the following

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a) The approach relies extensively on the Functional-Notional syllabus which places heavy
demmands on the pupils. This is especially true at the first stages because of their lack of
.speaking rules and cultural insights
b) The various categories of language functions are overlapping and not systematically graded
like the structures of the language. This creates some confusion and makes it difficult to teach
.the functions properly
c) A major principle underlying the communicative approach is its emphasis on pupils' needs
and interests. This implies that every teacher should modify the syllabus to correspond to the
needs of his pupils. This is not possible to implement as it requires the teacher to write a
separate syllabus for each pupil in the class. Such a goal is very ambitious and impossible to
.realise
d) A major requirement for the successful application of the approach is the availability of a
classroom that can allow for group work activities or for pupil-pupil interaction and for
teaching aids and materials. Such a classroom is desirable but unfortunately not available in
.most schools

The Eclectic Method .2.6

In spite of the prolifiration of the theories of language teaching, no language teacher
applies exclusively any of the known teaching theories. Teachers often incorporate features of
different approaches in their particular methodology. Thus their teaching may be based on the
comminicative theory, but supplimented with a grading of words and grammatical forms and
structures so that the pupils can develop gradually and simultaneously both their
.communicative competence and knowledge of the language system
The eclectic method is therefore a framework involving procedures and techniques
drawn from various methods. It is useful in practical situations in the classroom. It is not
:based on a specific theory or discipline but there are some assumptions underlying it
a) Each one of the well known methods has its own features. There is no one method which is
comprehensive enough to meet the requirements of effective teaching and learning. All
methods have some strenghts and some weaknesses. Experienced teachers are very snestive to
the limitations of different methods, so they reject the weak points of each approach and
retain only those aspects that are applicable in the particular situations in which they find
.themselves
b) The frequent shifts of methodology have made teachers feel that it is better to have a
combination of elements from all of them. Methods may suplement one another especially
.when there is no one method which can fulfil all language goals and programme objectives
A major principle of eclecticism is that the teaching process should serve the pupils,
not a particular method. Hence teachers should choose the techniques or procedures that best
.fit the pupils' needs and the teaching-learning situation

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Humanistic approaches .3
The period from the 1950s to the 1980s has often been referred to as "The Age of
Methods," during which a number of quite detailed prescriptions for language teaching were
proposed. Situational Language Teaching evolved in the United Kingdom while a parallel
method, Audio-Lingualism, emerged in the United States. In the middle-methods period, a
variety of methods were proclaimed as successors to the then prevailing Situational Language
Teaching and Audio-Lingual methods. These alternatives were promoted under such titles as
Silent Way, Suggestopedia, Community Language Learning, and Total Physical Response.
They are frequently described as Humanistic Approaches because their designers are primarily
.concerned with the students' affect and with removing the psychological barriers to learning

The Silent Way .3.1

The Silent Way is an approach to language teaching designed to enable students to
become independent, autonomous and responsible learners. It is part of a more general
pedagogical approach to teaching and learning created by Caleb Gattegno. It is constructivist
in nature, leading students to develop their own conceptual models of all the aspects of the
language. The best way of achieving this is to help students to be experimental learners. The
Silent Way allows this.
The main objective of a teacher using the Silent Way is to optimize the way students
exchange their time for experience. This Gattegno considered to be the basic principle behind
all education: "Living a life is changing time into experience.

3.1.1. Origin of the Silent Way

The approach is called the Silent Way because the teacher remains mainly silent, to give
students the space they need to learn to talk. In this approach, it is assumed that the students'
previous experience of learning from their mother tongue will contribute to learning the new
foreign language. The acquisition of the mother tongue brings awareness of what language is
and this is retained in second language learning. The awareness of what language is includes
the use of non-verbal components of language such as intonation, melody, breathing,
inflection, the convention of writing, and the combinations of letters for different sounds.
Rods, pictures, objects or situations are aids used for linking sounds and meanings in the
Silent Way.

Materials .3.1.2
The materials usually associated with Silent Way are in fact a set of tools which allow
teachers to apply Gattegno's theory of learning and his pedagogical theory -the subordination
of teaching to learning- in the field of foreign language teaching. The tools invented by Caleb

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Gattegno are not the only possible set of tools for teachers working in this field. Others can
and indeed have been invented by teachers doing research in this area.
A. Sound / color chart: This is a wall chart on which can be seen a certain number of
rectangles of different colours printed on a black background. Each colour represents a
phoneme of the language being studied. By using a pointer to touch a series of rectangles, the
teacher, without saying anything himself, can get the students to produce any utterance in the
language if they know the correspondence between the colours and the sounds, even if they
do not know the language.
B. Fidel: This is an expanded version of the Sound/Colour chart. It groups together all the
possible spellings for each colour, thus for each phoneme.
C. A set of colored Cuisenaire rods: For low level language classes, the teacher may use
Cuisenaire rods. The rods allow the teacher to construct non ambiguous situations which are
directly perceptible by all. They are easy to manipulate and can be used symbolically. A green
rod standing on the table can also be Mr. Green. They lend themselves as well to the
construction of plans of houses and furniture, towns and cities, stations - However, the
most important aspect of using the rods is certainly the fact that when a situation is created in
front of the students, they know what the language to be used will mean before the words are
actually produced.
D. Word charts: These are charts of the same dimensions as the Sound/Colour chart and the
Fidel on which are printed the functional words of the language, written in colour. Obviously,
the colours are systematized, so that any one colour always represents the same phoneme,
whether it is on the Sound/Colour chart, the Fidel or the word charts. Since the words are
printed in colour, it is only necessary for someone to point to a word for the (other) students
to be able to read it, say it and write it.
E. A set of 10 wall pictures: These are designed to expand vocabulary for low level groups.
F. The pointer: This is one of the most important instruments in the teacher's arsenal because
it allows teaching to be based consciously and deliberately on the mental powers of the
students. It allows the teacher to link colours, graphemes or words together whilst maintaining
the ephemeral quality of the language. It is the students' mental activity which maintains the
different elements present within them and allows them to restitute what is being worked on
as a phonetic or linguistic unit having meaning.
Thus, each of the tools associated with Silent Way plays its part in allowing the teacher to
subordinate his teaching to the students' learning. The tools correspond to the theory and stem
directly from it.

The Teacher's Silence .3.1.3

Firstly, the teachers silence is a constant reminder that, in this approach, the teachers role is
not to transmit knowledge but to create situations in which the students can build linguistic

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know-hows: pronunciation, syntax, morphology... all the aspects that constitute being able to
speak a language.
Secondly, the teachers silence forces him to reflect constantly on his own clarity, and this
changes the preparation of his class completely. The teacher always has to try to find strictly
non-ambiguous means of presenting each situation.
Thirdly, the teacher's silence allows him to keep his students in direct contact with the
unknown. It is the teacher's silence which allows the lesson to become an improvisation
played between the students and himself jointly as they advance. For the class to take place at
all, the teacher has to stay with the students wherever they happen to be, following them in
their exploration and working on their errors and mistakes as they are produced.

Suggestopedia .3.2
Suggestopedia is one of the teaching methods developed by Bulgarian psychotherapist Georgi
Lozanov based on the study of Suggestology. The method has been used in different fields of
studies but mostly in the field of foreign languages learning. Lozanov claimed that by using
this method one can teach languages approximately three to five times as quickly as
conventional methods.
The theory applied positive suggestion in teaching when it was developed in the 1970s.
However, as improved, it has focused more on desuggestive learning and now is often
called desuggestopedia. The name of Suggestopedia is from the words suggestion and
pedagogy.

Purpose and Theory .3.2.1

The intended purpose of Suggestopedia was to enhance learning by lowering the affective
filter of learners. Lozanov claims that suggestopedia is a system for liberation, the
liberation from the preliminary negative concept regarding the difficulties in the process of
learning that is established throughout their life in the society. Desuggestopedia focuses
more on liberation as Lozanov describes desuggestive learning as free, without a mildest
pressure, liberation of previously suggested programs to restrict intelligence and spontaneous
acquisition of knowledge, skills and habits. The method implements this by working not
only on the conscious level of human mind but also on the subconscious level, the minds
reserves. Since it works on the reserves in human mind and brain, which are said to have
unlimited capacities, one can teach through this method more than other methods can teach in
the same amount of time.

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In Practice .3.2.2
Physical surroundings and atmosphere in classroom are the vital factors to make sure that "the
students feel comfortable and confident", and various techniques, including art and music, are
used by the trained teachers. The lesson of Suggestopedia consisted of three phases at first:
deciphering, concert session (memorization sance), and elaboration.
A. Deciphering: The teacher introduces the grammar and lexis of the content.
B. Concert session (active and passive): In the active session, the teacher reads the text at a
normal speed, sometimes intoning some words, and the students follow. In the passive
session, the students relax and listen to the teacher reading the text calmly. Music (PreClassical) is played background.
C. Elaboration: The students finish off what they have learned with dramas, songs, and
games.
Then it has developed into four phases as lots of experiments were done: introduction, concert
session, elaboration, and production.
A. Introduction: The teacher teaches the material in a playful manner instead of analyzing
lexis and grammar of the text in a directive manner.
B. Concert session (active and passive): In the active session, the teacher reads with intoning
as selected music is played. Occasionally, the students read the text together with the teacher,
and listen only to the music as the teacher pauses in particular moments. The passive session
is done more calmly.
C. Elaboration: The students sing classical songs and play games while the teacher acts
more like a consultant
D. Production: The students spontaneously speak and interact in the target language without
interruption or correction.

Teachers .3.2.3
Teachers should not act directive although this method is teacher-controlled rather than
students-controlled. For example, they should act as a real partner to the students,
participating in the activities such as games and songs naturally and genuinely. In the
concert session, they should fully include classical art into their behaviors. Although there are
many techniques that the teachers use, the factors such as communication in the spirit of
love, respect for man as a human being, the specific humanitarian way of applying
techniques etc. are crucial. The teachers need not only to know the techniques and
theoretical information but also to understand the theory and to acquire the practical
methodology completely because if they implement those techniques without complete
understandings and acquisition, they could not provide learners with successful results, or

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even could give a negative impact on their learning. Therefore the teacher has to be trained in
the course that is taught by the certified trainers.
Here are the most important factors for teachers to acquire, described by Lozanov.
1. Covering a huge bulk of learning material.
2. Structuring the material in the suggestopaedic way; global-partial partial-global, and
global in the part part in the global, related to the golden proportion.
3. As a professional, on the one hand, and a personality, on the other hand, the teacher should
be highly prestigious, reliable and credible.
4. The teacher should have, not play, a hundred percent of expectancy in positive results
(because the teacher is already experienced even from the time of teacher training course).
5. The teacher should love his/her students (of course, not sentimentally but as human beings)
and teach them with personal participation through games, songs, a classical type of arts and
pleasure.

Side Effects .3.2.4

Lozanov claims that the effect of the method is not only in language learning. There seem to
be confirmed favorable side effects on health, the social and psychological relations, and the
subsequent success in other subjects.

3.3. Total Physical Response

Total Physical Response (TPR) is a method developed by Dr. James J. Asher, a professor of
psychology at San Jos State University, to aid learning second languages. The method relies
on the assumption that when learning a second or foreign language, that language is
internalized through a process of codebreaking similar to first language development and that
the process allows for a long period of listening and developing comprehension prior to
production. Students respond to commands that require physical movement.

Theoretical assumption .3.3.1

According to Asher, TPR is based on the assumption that the human brain has a biological
program for acquiring any natural language on earth - including the sign language of the deaf.
The process is visible when we observe how infants internalize their first language.
It looks to the way that children learn their native language. Communication between parents
and their children combines both verbal and physical aspects. The child responds physically

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to the speech of their parent. The responses of the child are in turn positively reinforced by the
speech of the parent. For many months the child absorbs the language without being able to
speak. It is during this period that the internalization and codebreaking occurs. After this stage
the child is able to reproduce the language spontaneously. With TPR the language teacher
tries to mimic this process in class.

Classroom usage .3.3.2

In the classroom the teacher and students take on roles similar to that of the parent and child
respectively. Students must respond physically to the words of the teacher. The activity may
be a simple game or may involve more complex grammar and more detailed scenarios.
TPR can be used to practice and teach various things. It is well suited to teaching classroom
language and other vocabulary connected with actions. It can be used to teach imperatives and
various tenses and aspects. It is also useful for story-telling.
Because of its participatory approach, TPR may also be a useful alternative teaching strategy
for students with dyslexia or related learning disabilities, who typically experience difficulty
learning foreign languages with traditional classroom instruction.

3.3.3. Advantages
According to its proponents, it has a number of advantages: Students will enjoy getting up out
of their chairs and moving around. Simple TPR activities do not require a great deal of
preparation on the part of the teacher. TPR is aptitude-free, working well with a mixed ability
class, and with students having various disabilities. It is good for kinsthetic learners who
need to be active in the class. Class size need not be a problem, and it works effectively for
children and adults.

3.3.4. Disadvantages
However, it is recognized that TPR is most useful for beginners, though it can be used at
higher levels where preparation becomes an issue for the teacher. It does not give students the
opportunity to express their own thoughts in a creative way. It can be a challenge for shy
students.

3.4. Community Language Learning

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Community Language Learning (also called Counseling Language Learning) was

created by Charles A Curran, a Jesuit priest and professor of psychology, and Paul La Forge.
Inspired by the humanistic psychology of Carl Rogers, it aimed to remove the anxiety from
learning by changing the relationship between the teacher and student. In CLL, the teacher
who is known not as the teacher but as the knower, the one who knows the language is
seen as being in the same relationship to the student as the counsellor is to a client : the client
has a problem (in this case not knowing the language) which is currently creating confusion
and causing problems. The counsellors role is not to tell the client what to do, but to
.helphimor her explore and resolve the problem while retaining personal autonomy

Lesson progression .3.4.1

The approach (at least in the beginning stages) is based around a set technique, within
which the students are free to determine content. A typical CLL lesson using this technique
:would have the following stages
Stage One Investment: The students sit in a circle with a tape recorder in the middle. The
knower is outside the circle. The first student who wants to say something calls the knower
over, and quietly says what he/she wants to say in his/her own language. The knower repeats
this in English, using a non-threatening and encouraging tone of voice. The student has the
chance to repeat and practise the utterance, with help if necessary from the knower, before
finally recording it on the tape. Another student who wishes to reply then repeats the process.
.This continues until a full conversation has been recorded
Stage Two Analysis: Between one session and the next (or possibly immediately, on the
board) the knower transcribes the complete conversation, and the students then listen again to
the tape while following the transcript. They then have the chance to ask for any explanation
.they want, and if they wish, to ask for practice activities on specific points
Stage Three Reflection: The students then have the chance to reflect on the whole
experience, and to decide how useful it was, if they could have done things differently and so
on. Again, the knowers job is not to tell them where they went wrong but to help them
.discover for themselves how they could have made the session maximally useful

Stages of development .3.4.2

The learner is seen as passing through five psychological stages as learning
:progresses, which Curran likens to progressing from childhood to adulthood
Birth: the learners know nothing of the target language, and are completely dependent on .1
.the knower for everything they want to say

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Self: the learners start to get an idea of how the language works and to use it for .2
themselves, but still seek the knowers help. They may, for instance tell the knower what they
want to say directly in the target language, looking to the knower only for confirmation or
.correction
Separate Existence: they start to use the language without referring to the knower, and .3
.may even be resentful of his/her attempts to help
Adolescence: learners continue to express themselves independently, but may be aware of .4
.gaps in their knowledge, and start to turn back to the knower
Independence: learners can continue their learning independently. They no longer need the .5
.knower, and may start to act as counsellors for less advanced students

Lesson Two
The Competency-Based Approach
Definitions .1
Competency: It is a 'know-how-to-act' process is the result of the integration of a set of
.resources: capacities, skills and knowledge, which are efficiently used in similar situations

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 A competency acquired in school is valuable only if it enables the learner to solve

problem situations outside the classroom.
It is the outcome of a learning which is meaningful to the learner and which is directly
related to his motivation.
Capacity: It is a 'know-how-to-do' process which integrates intellectual, mental, strategic,
socio-affective and psychological skills as well as knowledge (content of different
.(disciplines
Skill: It is a 'know-how-to-do' process which integrates knowledge of the contents of
different disciplines. There are intellectual, mental, strategic, socio-affective and
.psychological skills
Knowledge: It is a content such as data, facts, concepts , rules, laws, strategies and
.principles related to each discipline

Reasons for adopting a competency-based approach .2

The adoption of a competency-based approach is based on world-wide research that
highlights the importance of the links between learning and context of use, thus help the
learners make learning meaningful.
Since the emphasis is on the learner's social and personal development, the aim of this
approach is to make him reinvest his knowledge when performing tasks at school level as
well as at social and professional level.
The programme based on that approach has been conceived with the purpose of
ensuring viable (workable, feasible) learning.

Objectives .3
Although the competency-based approach is a novelty, its objectives are not new.
Actually, educationalists have always been interested in developing general 'know-how'
processes and in fixing knowledge acquired in class. This approach enables the learner to
develop his capacity to think and act according to a vision of the world that he will construct
.gradually

View of learning .4

Centered on the development of competencies, learning is favoured in complex

and meaningful situations.

The programme determines learning that will call upon intellectual procedures and
attitudes such as respect for differences, co-operation and team work.

Communication in this programme is a priority that takes into consideration the

latest developments in the field of second/foreign language teaching, the Communicative
Approach and cognitive psychology.

This programme is learner-centered and focuses on the construction of the

learner's knowledge. It aims at developing competences that are as essential for the
learner of the new century. These competences are the ability to interact orally, the
ability to process oral and written texts and the ability to write texts.

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Pedagogical implications .5
1Making school acquisition viable and sustainable: The school must help the
learner give sense to knowledge acquired in class and teach him how to make
beneficial and relevant use of it.
2Developing the teaching process of the learner: The emphasis put on the
development of competencies makes it impossible to focus exclusively on acquiring
disciplinary knowledge. It also enhances the development of thinking processes
necessary for assimilating them and using them in real life.
3Presenting learning contents in relation to the needs of the learners: The learner
must grasp the usefulness of the resources he develops in relation to the problems he
meets in everyday life. This approach makes it possible to link the development of
personal resources and the meaningful situations which call for these resources.
4Choosing a personalized pedagogy: To facilitate the development of the
learner's competences, it will be necessary to rely on the resources he already
possesses: intellectual, social and affective that have to be exploited, developed and
enriched. To achieve this aim, various pedagogical approaches will be preferred,
keeping individual differences in mind

Characteristics of the approach .6

6.1.
It is action-oriented in that it directs language learning to the acquisition of
know-how capacities in the form of functions and skills. These will allow the learner to
become an effective /competent language user in real-life situations outside the classroom.
6.2.
It is a problem solving approach in that it places learners in situations that
check/test their capacity to overcome obstacles and problems. Languages are learned more
effectively and lastingly when they are used to solve problems through hypothesis testing.
Problems make the learners think and they learn by thinking. They word their thinking in
English while solving the problems.
6.3.
It is social-constructivist in that it regards learning as occurring through
social interaction with other people. In other words leaning is not conceived of as the
transmission of predetermined knowledge and know-how to be reproduced in-vitro (i.e.
only within the pages of the copybook or the walls of the classroom), but as a creative use
of newly-constructed knowledge through the process of social interaction with other
learners.

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6.4.
Finally and most importantly, the Competency-Based Approach is a cognitive
approach. It is indebted to Blooms taxonomy (Taxonomy of Educational Objectives).
Bloom has claimed that all educational objectives can be classified as cognitive (related
to information) and affective (related to attitudes, values and emotions) or
psychomotor (related to bodily movements). He said that cognitive objectives form a
hierarchy by which the learner must achieve lower order objectives before s/he can
achieve higher ones.
Higher order
Evaluation
6
Synthesis
5
Analysis
4
Application
3
Comprehension
2
Knowledge
1

Learner sets a value on the new information

Learner builds new knowledge from diverse elements
Learner analyses information by separating information into parts for
better understanding
Learner applies knowledge to new situations
Learner understands information
Learner recalls knowledge

Lower order
Blooms hierarchical model of cognitive thinking is illustrated in the importance that the
Competency Based Approach gives to the mobilization of knowledge and skills, their
gradual integration at higher levels (from level 1 to level 2 in the table above), their
application to new situations of learning or use, the generation of new knowledge and skills
and finally the evaluation of the process and product of thinking. This is the ideal route
towards the acquisition of the competency of know-how-to-act. For instance, a learner will
need to know a principle before s/he can apply it. S/he should be able to cut it into smaller
fragments and relate it to other principles (analysis) before s/he can summarize it and draw
.conclusions, and thus evaluate it
The affective domain is equally important in the achievement of competency. Bloom
:organizes the learners affections in a hierarchical order illustrated in the table below
Higher order
Internalizing values
Organization
Valuing
Responding
Receiving

Learner makes hi/her own consistent system

Learner organizes infromation
Learner attaches values to particular objects and behaviours
Learner participates actively in classroom activities
Learner shows willingness to attend to classroom activities

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Lower order
The importance the affective domain appears more clearly in the adoption of the pedagogy of
the project. The realization of the project together with the psychomotor domain lead to the
.internalization of such values as autonomy, creativity, initiative and responsibility

Comparing and contrasting CBA to previous approaches .7

CBA

Learners are active partners in

the learning process; they are
responsible and productive.

Previous approaches

The teacher is a fountain of

knowledge who spoonfeeds the
learners.

Learners deduce meaning

Learners research information

for project outside the classroom.

Most interaction is learner to

learner through pair and small group
work

Learners have greater

responsibility in deciding what they
will do and how they will do it.

Assessment is shared between

teacher and learner. That is, there is
more self- and peer-assessment. That
assessment is for the product/the
result and for the process: how that
result was obtained.

The teacher gives little

opportunity to learners to determine
meaning.

Use of English is restricted to

classroom interaction between teacher
and learners.

Most interaction is teacher to

learner and vice-versa.

The teacher decides what

learners will do and how they will do
it.

The teacher is the one who

assesses and that assessment focuses
on the product; what learners produce

Learners acquire skills to use

and apply knowledge about language,
not only language skills but also

Learners learn about language;

social skills, research skills, critical
they acquire knowledge about
thinking and decision making skills,
language, but not skills to use it.
computer skills.
What is project work, and how does it fit in the Competency-Based Approach .8
One of the most distinctive features of the competency-Based Approach is integration
of project work as part of learning strategy. This approach seeks to make the attainment of
objectives visible, i.e., concrete through the realization of projects in selected domains of

178

instruction. In fact, fixing specific learning competencies will remain a far reaching dream (as
in the case of the traditional objective-based approaches) if the outcome is not visible and
.measurable
Project work makes learning more meaningful. It also makes co-operative learning a
concrete reality and opens up entirely new avenues for action, interaction and the construction
of new knowledge. In short, it is only through carrying out project work that the basic
.principles of the Competency-Based Approach can be made concrete
The advantages of doing projects .9

Projects encourage cooperation and sharing

They promote learner independence
Project is topic-based
It involves research/questionnaire
They lead to a presentation
They involve different skills
They may be very creative and include artwork
They cater for different learning styles and personalities
They require the use of all language skills

Bibliography
Arab, (ed.) ; (2005) At The Crossroads, Secondary Education; First Year, Algiers. The
National Authority for School Publications.
Celce-Murcia. M, (1991) Teaching English as a second or Foreign Language.
Language. Boston,
Heinle and Heinle Publishers.
El-Keilani. N, T.Mutawa (1989) Methods of Teaching English to Arab Pupils. Longman
Group. U.K. Limited.

179

Gueddouj, C (2004) Introducing the Competency-Based Approach, GSD Summer

University, Ain Timouchent.
Harmer, J. (2001) The Practice of English Language Teaching ; England, Pearson
Education Limited.
Hayane, O. Lenseignement de la Langue Anglaise en Algrie depuis 1962.
1962. Office des
Publications Universitaires.
Mackey, R. (1965) Language Teaching Analysis.
Analysis. London .Longman
Richards. J. C, T.S. Rogers (1989) Approaches and Methods In Langauge Teaching: A
Description and Analysis. Cambridge University Press.
Rivers, W.M. (1971) Teaching Foreign Language Skills.
Skills. University of Chicago Press.
Wilkins. D (1979) Notional syllabuses. Oxford University Press.

180

Peoples Democratic Republic of Algeria

Ecole Normale Suprieure Lettres et Sciences Humaines Constantine

Department of Distance Training

181

A Distance Training Course

Semester Four
Compiled by:

Amina. HADDAD

Academic Year: 2007 - 2008

182

Introduction to educational psychology

Psychology has been defined as the scientific study of animal and human behaviour and
covers all kinds of pursuits from making dogs salivate at the sound of a bell to a study of the

183

growth of then intelligent behaviour in humans. The term behaviour on the one hand includes
all those aspects of human activity which we can observe. It also involves personal experience
.which can only be studied by asking individuals to express their feelings and thoughts
The study of animal and human behaviour can take different forms. As such, a set of
broad disciplines emerged within the science of psychology which focused on particular areas
of interest. Physiological psychology, for instance, studies the animals and humans body
structures and their influence on behaviour. That is to say, it is concerned with the biological
basis of behaviour. On the other hand, social psychology, which involves the study of social
institutions and their impact on the behaviour of individuals, concentrates on the external
factors which influence man. It studies how peoples thoughts, feelings and actions are
affected by other people. Another broad filed of psychological interest, developmental
psychology, deals with the physical, emotional, and intellectual characteristics and
development of youngsters from the prenatal stage onwards. In other words, it considers how
people grow and change throughout their life span.
Out of these interconnected areas, a number of applied fields developed which draw on
the findings of physiological, social and developmental psychology such as clinical
psychology (which is concerned with the diagnosis, study and treatment of abnormal
behaviour and which provides useful criteria for defining the attributes of normal mental life),
occupational psychology ( or the study of such problems as vocational development and job
satisfaction), industrial psychology (the study of machine simulation of human functions such
as appear in George the automatic pilot in aircraft) and educational psychology.

Definition of educational psychology

Educational psychology has been defined in many different ways. An academic
definition would put forward that educational psychology is the study of learners, learning
and teaching. For students who are or expect to be teachers, however, it is more than this. It is
the accumulated knowledge, wisdom, and seat-of-the-pants theory that every teacher should
to intelligently solve the daily problems of teaching. Psychological education cannot teachers
tell teachers what to do, but it can give them the principles to use in making a good decision.
It is also seen as the application of psychology to education by focusing on the
development, evaluation and application theories and principles of learning and instruction
that enhance lifelong learning. In other words, educational psychology has attempted to apply
the findings of physiological, social and child development to lead to a better understanding
of learning processes. It seeks to discover, by studying the mental physical and emotional
behaviour of children and adults, the factors which influence the quality and quantity of
learning. Ideally, it offers to replace common sense or trial and error notions of learning and
teaching with a variety of hypotheses regarding learning environments derived from
systematic studies of individuals in those environments. As such, the application of
psychology in education provides means of appraising individual childrens (learners)

184

similarities and differences when attempting to create more efficient learning environments
for them.
Today, educational psychology is a distinct discipline from other branches of
psychology with its own theories, research problems and techniques. Its primary goal is the
understanding and improvement of education.

Chapter One: Adolescence

Part One: Aspects of Adolescent Development
I- The physical development
Adolescents experience a growth spurt which involves rapid growth of bones and
muscles. This begins in girls around the ages of 9-12 and in boys around the ages of 11-14.
Sexual maturation (puberty) also begins at this time.
Puberty is a period of rapid skeletal and sexual maturation. It is not a single, sudden
event, but rather it is a gradual process. It is hard to pinpoint the beginning and end of
puberty, however menarche (first menstruation) for girls, or the first few whiskers for boys
can mark its appearance.
Puberty is characterized by the onset of hormonal activity which is under the influence
of the central nervous system, especially the hypothalamus and the pituitary gland, both of
which are located at the base of the brain. Puberty can be broken into three major time periods
or phases. These are:
This is the time before age thirteen in boys
and before eleven in girls. Its duration for
boys is approximately a year and a quarter,
and for girls it is slightly shorter.
This period contains the most noticeable
growth spurt. It occurs between ages thirteen
and fifteen for males and between eleven and
fourteen in females.
Lasts for a year and a half in girls and is
somewhat shorter in the case of boys.

Pre pubertal

Pubertal

Post pubertal

Table 01: Phases of puberty

During puberty, most adolescents will experience:

Oilier skin and some acne.

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Increased sweating especially under arms.

Growth of pubic and underarm hair, and facial and chest hair in boys.

Changes in body proportions: The different parts of the body grow at different
rates and reach their maximum development at different times.

Masturbation and fantasies about sexual intimacy.

In boys, enlargement of testicles, erection, first ejaculation, wet dreams,

deepening voice.

In girls, breast budding, increased vaginal lubrication and the beginning of

menstrual cycle.
The table below displays approximately the age at which of the above changes take place in
both boys girls.

(Ages are averages Much individual variation occurs )

FEMALES

MALES

Increased hormone, Productio/enlargement of Hormone increases- 10 years

internal sex organs- 9 years
Breast " budding " 10 years

Pubic hair/ penis growth 12 years

Pubic hair growth 11 years

First ejaculation 13 years

Weight spurt begins 11 years

Weight spurt begins 13 years

Height spurt begins 12 years

Height spurt begins 14 yeras

Menarche ( 1 st menstruation ) -12 years

Voice lowers- the voice becomes gradually

deeper with the growth of larynx- 15 years

First Ovulation 13 years

Facial hair appears 16 years

Final pubic hair growth / full breast growth- Full adult height 21 years
15/16
Full adult height- 18 years
Table 02: Major Physical changes during Puberty
The physical changes of early adolescence often lead to:

New responses from others

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In response to these physical changes, young adolescents begin to be treated in a new

way by those around them. They may no longer be seen as just children, but as sexual beings
to be protected or targeted. They face society's expectations for how young men women
should behave.

New concern with physical appearance and body image:

Along with physical changes, there are psychological changes teenagers go through
during puberty. One of major developmental tasks of adolescents is to accept their changed
body as a symbol of their changed self. Adolescents must adjust to the normal physical
changes that accompany puberty and they need to accept their size and shape as the physique
they will generally have for the remainder of their life.
Both adolescent boys and girls are known to spend hours concerned with their physical
appearance want to fit in with their peers yet achieve their own unique style as well.
Because of these physical changes, there is a drastic increase in the young persons,
preoccupation with their body. Many adolescents, in fact, experience dissatisfaction with their
changing bodies. For example, shortness in boys and tallness in girls may cause genuine
concern.
Obesity is also commonly a sensitive issue in adolescents of either sex. Weight gain
which is a natural part of puberty can be distressing in a culture that glorifies being thin. In
response, some adolescents begin to diet obsessively. In the USA, for example, statistics
reveal that about 20 % of all females aged 12-18 engage in unhealthy dieting behaviours.
Some of these adolescents develop eating disorders such as anorexia nervosa or bulimia.
Acne, another affliction common during puberty, almost universally causes emotional
difficulties, because acne is readily visible , it often serves as a focus for displaced guilt or
concerns about sexuality or " dirtiness " as though it somehow betrays one's secret thoughts
and activities.
Because adolescents tend to experience anxiety in unusually intense ways, it is
important for parents, teachers, and other adults to be responsive to the concerns of teens and
to reassure them that in the end- all will be okay!

II. The Cognitive development

II. 1. Overview of Piaget's theory of cognitive development
Jean Piaget (1836-1980) , the Swiss biologist, psychologist and theorist was one of the
most outstanding researchers in the area of developmental psychology, and his view of how
children's minds work and develop has been enormously influential, particularly in
educational theory. Initially, Piaget was a developmental biologist who devoted his life to
closely observing and recording the intellectual abilities of infants, children and adolescents.
He was mainly interested in the biological influences on "how we do" abstract symbolic
reasoning ".

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While working on an IQ (intelligence coefficient) test, Piaget noticed that young

children's answers were different from older children. This suggested that the younger ones
were not dumber but, instead, answered the questions differently than their older peers
because they thought differently. His particular explanation was based on the role of
maturation in children's increasing capacity to understand their world: they cannot undertake
certain tasks until they are psychologically mature enough to do so. Thus, he proposes that
children's thinking does not develop entirely smoothly, but rather through stages. There are
two major aspects in Piaget's theory: the process of coming to know and the stages we move
through as we gradually acquire this ability.

II. 1. a. The Process of Cognitive Development: The Assimilation Accommodation

Model
For Piaget, there are two essential processes which underlie all learning, adaptation to
the environment and organization of experience by means of action, memory, perception and
other kinds of mental activities. As a biologist, Piaget was interested in how an organism
adapts to its environment which he calls intelligence. Intelligence for him is a matter of action
upon the world. Children do not acquire concepts through passive observation, adult teaching,
external reinforces, or the proper use of language. They acquire, or in Piaget's terms
construct, such concepts through their own actions.
Behaviour, adaptation to the environment, is controlled through mental organisation
called schemes that the individual uses to represent the world and designate action .This
adaptation is driven by a biological to obtain balance between schemes and the environment.
Piaget hypothesized that infants are born with schemes operating at birth that he called
reflexes" and innate tendencies to exercise these reflexes and to organize their actions. It is a
way to respond to the environment in a need to adapt to the environment in order to survive.
In other animals, these reflexes control bahaviour throughout life. However, in human beings
as the infant uses these reflexes to adapt to the environment, these reflexes are quickly with
replaced with constructed schemes.
Once developed, the schemes of action are applied to every new object, and every new
situation. The process of incorporating new objects or experiences into existing schemes is
called by Piaget assimilation. The clatter refers to the process of using or transforming the
environment so that it can be placed in preexisting cognitive structures. Put differently, it is
the process by which a person takes material into their mind from the environment which may
mean changing the evidence of their senses to make it fit the organism's tendency to alter
aspects of the environment to make them fit into its current structures. This process might be
described as one of interpretation . The intellectual system interprets new events by fitting
them into what it already understands.
At the same time, the system itself changes as a function of the new experience with it
must cope. Such alterations of the organism to fit with the environment constitute the second

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component of the adaptation process. So, complementary to the process of assimilation is the
process of seeking new successful modes of behaviour when the environment does not
respond to the schemes already learned by the child. The process of modifying schemes to
solve problems arising from new experiences within the environment, or the one of changing
cognitive structures to accept something from the environment is called accommodation.
Both of these processes are used simultaneously and alternately throughout life vas the
person increasingly adapts to the environment in a more complex manner. As schemes
throughout life as the person increasingly adapts to the environment in a more complex
manner. As schemes become more increasingly complex (responsible for more complex
behaviours), they are termed structures. As one's structures become more complex, they are
organized in a hierarchical manner.
II. 1. b. Stages of intellectual development in children and adolescents
The stages of intellectual development formulated by Piaget appear to be related to major
developments in brain growth. The human brain is not fully developed until late adolescence
or in the case of males sometimes early adulthood.
Developmental stage &
Approximate Age

Characteristic Behaviour

Sensory Motor Stage (0-24 months : Infancy)

During this stage, intelligence is demonstrated through motor activity without the use symbols.
Knowledge of the world is limited (but developing) because it is based on physical interactions
experiences. The infant recognizes himself as an agent of action and begins to act intentionally
(eg, he pulls a string to set mobile in motion or shakes a rattle to make noise). Object
permanence is also achieved during this period; he realizes that objects continue to exist even
when on longer present to sense. The stage may be further divided into sub- stages:
Reflexive Stage (0-2 months)
Primary Circular
( 2-4 months)

- Simple reflex activity such as grasping, sucking.

Reactions - Reflexive behaviours occur in stereotyped repetition such as

opening and closing fingers repetitively.

Secondary Circular Reactions - Repetition of change actions to reproduce interesting

(4-8 months)
consequences such as kicking one's feet to more a mobile
suspended over the crib.
Coordination
Reactions

of

Secondary - Responses become coordinated into more complex

sequences.
- Actions take on an " intentional" character such as the infant
reaches behind

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(12-18 months )

- A screen to obtain a hidden object ( object permanence )

Tertiary Circular
(12-18 months)

Reactions - Discovery of new to produce the same consequence or obtain

the same goal such as the infant may pull a pillow toward him
in an attempt to get a toy resting on it.

Invention of new Means - Evidence of internal representational system.

Through Mental Combination - Symbolizing the problem-solving sequence before actually
(18-24 months)
responding.
- Deferred imitation .Development of some symbolic
abilities(language)

The Preoperational Stage (2-7 years: Toddler and Early Childhood)

In this period, which has tow sub-stages, intelligence is demonstrated through the use of
symbols, language use matures and memory and imagination are developed. However, thinking
is done in non logical, nonreversible manner. The preoperational child is egocentric (has
difficulty taking the viewpoint of others) and classifies objects by a single feature. This stage
includes tow phases:
Preoperational
years)

Phase

(2-4 - Increased use of verbal representation, but speech is

egocentric.
- The beginnings of symbolic rather than simple motor play.
- Transductive reasoning.
- Can think about something without the object being present
by use of language.

Intuitive Phase (4-7 years)

- Speech becomes more social, less egocentric.

- The child has an intuitive grasp of logical concepts in some
areas.
- However, there is still a tendency to focus attention on one
aspect of an object while ignoring others.
- Concepts formed are crude and irreversible.
- Easy to believe in magical increase, decrease, disappearance.
- Reality not firm.
- Perceptions dominate judgment.
- In moral-ethical realm, the child is not able to show
principles underlying best behaviour.
- Rules of a game not develop, only uses simple do's and don'ts
imposed by authority.

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Stage of Concrete Operations (7-11 years: Elementary and early adolescence)

Intelligence is demonstrated through logical and systematic manipulation of symbols related to
concrete objects. Operational thinking develops (mental actions that are reversible).
During this stage, the child is able to:
- Comprehend the principles of seven types of conservation: number, length, liquid, mass,
weight, area, volume.
- Perform multiple classification tasks ( classifies objects according to several features)
- Evidence for organized, logical thought.
- Order objects in a logical sequence.
- Less transductive and less egocentric thought.
- Perform concrete problem-solving.
- Some reversibility now possible (quantities moved can be restored such as arithmetic: 3+4=7
and 7-4= 3 etc.)
- Class logic-finding bases to sort unlike objects into logical groups where previously it was on
superficial perceived attribute such as color. Categorical labels such as "number" or animal"
now available.

Stage of Formal Operations (11-15 years: Adolescence and adulthood)

Intelligence is demonstrated though the logical use of symbols related to abstract concepts. Early
in this period, there is a return to egocentric. The formal stage individual is concerned with the
hypothetical, the future, and ideological problem.
- Thought becomes more abstract, incorporating the principles of logic.
- The ability to generate abstract propositions, multiple hypotheses and their possible outcomes
is evident.
- Thinking becomes less tied to concrete reality.
- Formal logical systems can be acquired. Can handle proportions, algebraic manipulation, other
purely abstract processes. If a+b = x then x = a-b. if ma/ca = IQ = 1.00 then Ma = CA.
- Propositional logic, as if then steps. Can use aids such as axioms to transcend human limits
on comprehension.
Table 03: Piaget's Stages of Cognitive Development
II. 2- The cognitive changes during adolescence
In his theoretical framework, Piaget placed adolescents in the cognitive stage he called formal
operational thought. In between ages 11 and 15 Piaget believed that thought became more
abstract than a child, more idealistic, and more logical. This dramatic shift in thinking from

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concrete to abstract thinking gives adolescents a whole new set of mental tools. Indeed, most
adults recognize that teens have better thinking skills than children. These advances in
thinking can be divided into several areas:

Developing advanced reasoning skills: Advanced reasoning skills include the

ability to think about multiple options and possibilities. It includes a more logical
thought process and the ability to think about things hypothetically. It involves asking
and answering the question, " what if..?.

Developing abstract thinking skill: Abstract thinking means thinking about

things that cannot be seen, heard, or touched . Examples include things like faith, trust,
beliefs and spirituality.

Developing the ability to thinking in a process known as "meta-cognition":

Meta-cognition allows individuals to think about how they feel and what they are
thinking. It involves being able to think about how one is perceived by others. It can
also be used to develop strategies, also known as mnemonic devices, for improving
learning.
II. 3. The Behavioural and Psychological Changes
Thanks to these skills, most adolescents will be able to analyze situations logically in terms of
cause and effect. They can appreciate hypothetical situations. This gives them the ability to
think about the future, evaluate alternatives, and set personal goal. The adolescents can rely
on an internal power of judgment instead of having to rely systematically on experience. They
can engage in introspection and mature decision making.
As a result of their growing cognitive abilities, most developing adolescents will exhibit some
behaviours at home, school, etc. For example, they:

Become more independent.

Take on increased responsibilities, such as summer jobs, or household chores.

Shift their school focus from play-centered activities to academics.

Begin to consider future careers and occupations.

Look to peers and media for information and advice.

Begin to develop a social conscience: become concerned about social issues

such as racism, human rights and poverty.

Develop a sense of values and ethical behaviour: recognise the value of traits
such as honesty, helpfulness, caring for others.

Teens demonstrate a heightened level of self-consciousness. Teens tend to

believe that everyone is as concerned with their thoughts and behaviours as they are.
This leads teens to believe that they have an "imaginary audience" of people who are
always watching them.

Adolescents tend to believe that no one else has ever experienced similar
feelings and emotions. They may become overly dramatic in describing things that are
upsetting to them. They may say things like youll never understand, or "my life is
ruined!"

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Teens tend to exhibit the "it can't happen to me" syndrome also known as a
"personal fable". This belief causes teens to take unnecessary risks like driving (I
won't crash this car ) , or smoking (I can't possibly get cancer ) .

III- The Moral Development of Adolescents

III. 1. Definition
Any attempt for a definition of moral development must take into consideration the fact that:
a.
Moral development is not something neither easily defined nor measured since
both "moral" and development" are complex concepts. In, Mc Farland (1971)
proposes that moral development means at least:
1.
An increasing individual capacity to recognize different
interests and claims in a human situation.
2.
To weigh these up in some rationale and not purely
selfish manner.
3.
And to act in accordance with the decision that meets
these requirements most closely.
b.
As all development is influenced by certain circumstances, moral development
depends on :
1.
Socially and culturally inherited moral principles which
differ from one society to another.
2.
A socially and culturally transmitted code of rationality
which provides a means of sustaining and revising them.
3.
And various educational measures to uphold practical
allegiance to the principles, and the social and legal sanction
against their infringement.
In this way, all societies try to make it moral, even if the specific content of their moral codes
may differ, or their success in obtaining conformity to them may vary. This means that many
of the problems of adolescents' moral development are problems about the characteristics of
society's current ideals, the merits and demerits of these ideals, and the relative effectiveness
of various patterns of moral education or social and legal sanction.
II. 2. Moral development during adolescence
It is not easy at all to study moral behaviour in a way that allows valid psychological
generalization, but there are some classic studies that provide some insights into the issue.
Hartshorne and may (1928) 2 tested a large number of youth between 11and 16 with various
paper-and pencil test of honesty which gave them opportunities of cheating without, as they
were mistakenly led to believe, being found out. It was concluded that resistance to the
temptation of dishonesty was determined more by the situation than by the individual's
general character. Moreover, honesty did not seem to vary with age but with intelligent. It
seems that the more intelligent pupils may either have less need to cheat or do shrewdly
suspect the likelihood of being found out.

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In another study carried out on a sample of 300 English people aged 12 to 16, (1968)
proposes that intelligence is important in respect of general level of moral judgment, but that
social class differences are slight.
To find out whether moral judgment could be improved by training, Bradburn (1964)
concludes after a comparative investigation that both the teacher and a certain atmosphere
within the school can have a certain effect on improving moral development. Teachers who
use praise and encouragement help the moral development of their learners; teachers who
punish all time hinder learners' moral development while the forbidding one hinders it.
In another study, the Eppels ( 1966) attempted to analyse adolescents' moral attitudes
and opinions using tests on 250 working boys and girls, aged between 15 and 18. Examples of
these tests are:
- Sentence completion ( If I had may way.; It's wrong to; ect), investigating attitudes to
(a) personal relations, (b) concepts of justice, (c) responsibility, (d) goals and aspirations, and
(e) authority and independence.
- Moral beliefs- inviting free comment on statements like, A person who has stolen only a few
times is not really dishonest; or, when you accept a job you should complete it regardless of
what makes it difficult to do so.
- An essay on The person I would like to be like"
The Eppels concluded that the young felt that adults had a false and hostile stereotype of the
young. Results show that youth have serious concerns with moral problems and that adults
may influence adolescents' moral development by examples not by prescriptions, and only if
they show a very high tolerance of frustration, not expecting dramatic victories.
To conclude:
We still are not sure about how moral rules are transmitted on to children and youth, whether
By conditioning.
Reward and punishment.
Verbal authority.
Imitation.
Suggestion.
Learning" by experience "
Or rational instruction .
III.3. Lawrence Kohlberg's theory of moral development:

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L. Kohlberg (1927-1987) is a stage theorist and constructivist whose work began with Piaget's
research as a foundation. He used Piaget's theories of cognitive development in order to
describe the process of moral development. Kohlberg described three levels of moral
development, with each level containing two stages. A brief overview of three levels and their
stages is provided below.
Level 1: Pre-conventional Morality (characteristic of children through approximately
age 9)
At this level, children respond primarily and social requirements to avoid punishment and
receive rewards. The stages are:

Stage 1: Punishment-obedience Orientation

The physical consequences of an action determine whether it is good or bad. Children follow
rules essentially to avoid punishment.
Stage 2: Instrumental Relativist Orientation
Actions are considered to be "right" if they are instrumental in satisfying a child's own needs
or involve an exchange (two people doing things for one another)
Level 2: Conventional Morality (characteristic of individuals from approximately age 9
to 20 years old)
Stage 3: Good Boy-Nice Girl Orientation
The young person believes that the right action is that which is likely to please or impress
others.
Stage 4: Law and Order Orientation
At this stage, young people see fixed rules as something that are established and obeyed to
maintain the social order.
Level 3: Post conventional morality (usually reached after age 20 and by a relatively
small percentage of adults)
Stage 5: Social Contract Orientation
Rules are seen as necessary to maintain the social order and as something that should be based
on mutual agreement rather than blind obedience to authority.
Stage 6: Universal Ethical Principle Orientation

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Moral decisions should be made in terms of universally applicable ethical principles, and
these should reflect fundamental principles of fairness and justice.

IV. The Social Development of Adolescence

IV. 1. Definition of Socialisation
The term is generally used to describe the process during which an individual acquires
the knowledge, values, facility with language, social skills and social skills and social
sensibility that enables him or to become integrated into and behave adaptively within a
society. This conception of applies to persons of all ages because socialization is a life-long
experience. However, the term is dominantly used in respect to the child's (and youth)
becomes inculcated with the society's values and with his own social roles.
Socialisation is also be commonly identified as the process by which the mature
members of a society, such as parents and teachers, influence the beliefs and behaviours of
children, enabling them to fully participate in and contribute to the society.
VI. 2. Major Socialising Agents
Socialisation involves all the influences people have on one another through the whole
life span .Five major groups are known to be the shapers development throughout the human
life span. These are 1) the family in which we are children (family of our origin), 2) the
family in which we are spouses and parents, 3) our peers,4) the school we attend , and 5) our
places of work. Other shapers of development can be the schools our children attend, the
families our children from, the mass-media, etc.
So, social development is the adolescents' growth in confidence, independence, and
positive feelings about themselves but also the way they interact with others. Thus, social
development takes place in the context of all their relationships, particularly with their peers,
families and teachers. Another key feature of adolescents' social development is work.
VI. 2. a. Peers/ The peer group
One of the greatest social changes for adolescents is the new importance of their peers.
During childhood, the family is the center of child's life. During adolescence, the peer group
often begins to replace the family as the teen's primary social focus.
Peer group are often established because of distinctions in dress, appearance, attitudes,
hobbies, interests, and other characteristics that may appear profound or trivial to outsiders.
Teens spend much more time with their peers during adolescence, with popularity being a
strong motivation for many of them. Young adolescents are very concerned with being
accepted by a peer group and pressure is strong during this age. Cliques become visible,
groups and crowds become gradually more heterogeneous and heterosexual, and dating
becomes important. Youth organizations can have an important influence on adolescents
which could be negative or positive.

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Those adolescents who, for various reasons, find themselves without a peer group may
develop intense feelings of being different and alienated, Although these feelings often have
little permanent effect, they may worsen any potential for dysfunctional or antisocial
behaviour. At the other extreme, the peer group assumes too much importance for some
adolescents. Gang membership and behaviour are more common when the home and social
environments are unable to counterbalance the often dysfunctional demands of the peer. The
peer group can have two kinds of influence:
a.
Negative influence can be seen through smoking, drinking alcohol, stealing,
driving, engaging in sexual intercourses or anything negative that the individual does
not want to do, but does it just because their "group" is doing it.
b.
Positive role of peer group: Peer group assume an importance to adolescents
because they provide validation for the adolescent's tentative choices and support in
stressful situations.

It gives some relief from family and the other "generations" of the
family which put a pressure on the youth.

Allows adolescents to gain independence from their families.

By identifying with peers, adolescents start to develop moral judgment

and values, and to explore how they differ from their parents ( 6) . It allows
discussion and action on an equal footing while there is authority at home and
no (or little) discussion or action is permitted within it.
Young (early) adolescents (9-13) are very concerned with being accepted by a peer group.
This great desire to belong can influence some to engage in activities that they normally
would not consider. Group identity often overrides personal identity. Through adolescence the
individual is not necessarily their own individual, but an individual with the identity of their
group. By middle adolescence, the intensity of involvement with a peer group gradually gives
way to more intimate friendships and romances.
Social
group

Peers

Early Adolescence

Middle Adolescence

(9-13)

(14-16)
(17-19)

Peer groups

Serious
gradually give way
intimate
to
one-on-one
relationships
friendships
and
begin to develop.
romances.

Peer group
tends to be gender
mixed.

Dating
begins.

Center of
social world shifts
from family to
friends.

Peer group
tends to be samesex.

Strong
desire to conform to
and be accepted by
a peer group.

Less
conformity

Late Adolescence

and

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Family

more tolerance of
individual
differences.

Increasing conflict between adolescents Family influence in

balance
with
peer
and their parents.
influence.

Family closeness most important

protective factor against high-risk behavior.

Table 4: Some Key Features of Adolescent Social Development (American Psychological

Association, 2002)
VI. 2. b. Family
The structure and role the family may play on individuals' socialisation differ from one
culture to another. Speaking about the family types, in many societies and cultures the family
complexity increases as one moves from a nuclear" family to a joint or a "stem" family
structure. This implies that both the number of social roles a person has to learn, and the
complexity of the accommodation he has to make, increase across the three structures. For
example, the joint " and " stem " family, but not the " nuclear " one, provide care for the
older generation.
The issue of the generation boundaries, which evokes the clarity of the expectation,
obligations and behaviours of the members of each generation such as grandparents, parents
and grandchildren, is a critical one in all three family structures. If the boundaries are firm
within a family, each individual can carry on his tasks competently and with few intrusions
from other family members. When the boundaries are not firm, however, role confusion may
result. Generational boundaries would be put under pressure whenever several generations
reside in the same household with no clear cultural norms concerning their behaviours.
In addition, the family structure in modern area has been significantly altered in many
societies, particularly the western ones, a fact which may has significantly the family's
relationship, influence and role with youth. Speaking about the American context, for
instance, about 72 % of women with school-aged children are employed, 25 % of children
live in single-parents homes and a not less important number of homes has both parents work.
In addition, divorce rate is the highest in the world (7).
Generally , adolescent's new desire for independence leads to increasing conflicts
between adolescents and their parents. This is the major characteristic of most teenagers,
especially during early adolescence. However, minor conflicts and bickering are considered to
be normal as teens and their parents adjust to their changing relationship by the middle and
late adolescence. In fact, there is a greater transfer of control within the family from the
parents to the adolescent, but there is still the boundary of co-regulation . Adolescents begin
to push for autonomy and responsibility which can puzzle and anger parents, and often causes
some conflict. This push for autonomy by the adolescent is a process, though they continue to

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keep some strong attachments to their parents. The best change then, is a gradual one wherein
the parent relinquishes control step by step, and retains a secure attachments or connectedness
to the teen, which will promote more competent relationships for the adolescent later in life.
So though the relationship between adolescents and their parents is changed by the
adolescent's social development, the shift in the adolescent's social world from family to peers
does not lessen the importance of the family in the adolescent's life. Family closeness has
been confirmed as the most important protective factor against certain high-risk behaviours
such as smoking, alcohol and drug use, and early initiation if sexual intercourse. Indeed, the
family represents the social and emotional anchor; it is a socializing agent that gives the youth
social evidence.

VI. 2. c. Teachers
With new social issues (changes in family structures, high rate of divorce, the power of
the peer relationship), teachers today are dealing with issues that once stayed outside the
walls of the school. The first task of teachers is to educate learners experiencing crucial issues
of physical and social development.
Teachers are sometimes the best source of help for students facing emotional,
interpersonal problems. When teenagers have chaotic and unpredictable home lives, they need
a caring, firm structure but not punitively; respect learners and show genuine concern. The
teacher may be available to talk about personal problems without requiring that their learners
do so.
VI. 2. d. Community characteristics
The characteristics of an adolescent's community can also have a great impact on his or her
social development. Communities include features such as:

Neighborhood socioeconomic status.

Support networks for families in low socioeconomic status neighborhoods.
School.
Religious organizations
The media.
People who live in the community.

VI. 2. e. Work

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Freud (1856-1939) once summed up the function of man as to love (physically) and to
work. Men and women make families, but they must also make a living to feed their families
and make regular activity not only to fill their life between youth and age but also to give
themselves social identity and significance.
At one point of the development of individuals, the youth face transition from the
dependency of childhood to the independence of adulthood. This transition may be
symbolized by the shift from school to work; a transition that is faced at different ages, and in
different ways by different ways by different classes of adolescents.
i. Early school leavers
The great proportion who leave school as soon as they can are suddenly switched at 16,
sometimes earlier, from the specialized and protected world of school to the differentdemanding world of young adult employment in industry, commerce, etc. They enter the
world of work before they have really completed adolescents' development. They might be
further handicapped by shorter education and fewer vocational guideposts.
ii. Late school leavers
Other youth take up employment at 18 while college and university students first earn a
permanent living between 21 and 26. There are problems about what might be considered the
protracted adolescence of students, but they have advantages of prolonged education and
well-marked routes to specific and desirable careers which are not enjoyed by those entering
work at 16.
iii. What do adolescents think of work / education?
Carter (1962; quoted in Mc Farland, 1972) studied a sample of 200 Shefield boys and
girls who left school for work at the age of 15. Several interviews with those people revealed
that school did not mean much to most of them, but whether it did or did not, all were glad to
enter the larger world of work. Even after a year's experience of the realities of employment,
they still valued their work for the status and income it gave them. The possible childorientation of schools was not a virtue but a defect for those people who saw themselves as
youths or young adults, not children. So, they were glad to escape from school
authoritarianism, punishment or ridicule for mistakes, and exaltation of the "beautiful and
spiritual" world described by school in a world that was really ugly and materialistic. Actual
work was better than vague talk about purpose in life. But it was not work itself that mattered
but the status it conferred. Getting on with work mates and having a supervisor who was
human, fair and tolerant were equally important.
Wilmott (1969; ibid) studied a group (246) of adolescent boys aged between 14 and 20
living in east London. The boys criticized school for its remoteness from their lives, or the
impracticality of its offerings, or the lack of specific vocational relevance. Schools were
sometimes felt to demand too much, or to offer too little, or to be alien from the local
community.

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The Government Social Survey made a study of young School Leavers (1968; ibid) for
the School Council (1966). Pupils, parents and teachers from 149 schools in England and
Wales were interviewed about what they expected from school. Early School Leavers and
parents put a great emphasis on career objectives and money management while teachers put
relatively more stress on personality development. However, most of the parents, pupils and
teachers agreed on the fact that developing independence, learning about right and wrong,
behaving confidently, making the most of oneself and speaking well were all important.
To Conclude:
The significance of adult status, a reasonably satisfying job, the peer group and the
family stand out clearly as important aspects of the social and emotional development of
adolescents. The family is a social and emotional anchor. The peer group gives relief from the
family's older generation pressures and allows discussions and action on an equal footing. A
job may give personal satisfactions of its own, but also raises one's status in the family and
among peers and gives more money for enjoyment and self-development through leisure
activities.

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Part Two: Approaches to Adolescence1

I. Biological Views of Adolescence
A strictly biological view of adolescence would emphasize this period as one of
physical and sexual maturation during which important growth changes take place in the
individual's body. Any biological definition would outline in detail these physical, sexual and
physiological changes; their reasons (when known); and their consequences. The biological
view would also emphasize biogenetic factors as the primary cause of any behavioral and
psychological change in the adolescent. According to this approach, growth and behaviour are
under the control of internal maturational forces, leaving little room for environmental
influences. Development occurs in an almost inevitable, universal pattern regardless of any
sociocultural environment.
I. 1. Hall and Recapitulation Theory
One of the most influential exponents of a biological theory was G. Stanly Hall (18461924), the first Ph. D in the United States and the founder of the child-study movement in
North America. He was the first to advance a psychology of adolescence in his two-volume
treatise on the subject.
According to Hall, during its development each human organism relieves each of the
stages that occurred in the human evolutionary development. He outlined the major stages:
a.
infancy (first four years), during which the child reenacts the animal stage of
development;
b.
childhood (five to seven) which corresponds to the cave-dwelling and the
hunting-fishing epoch of human history (because this is a time the child plays hide and
seek, cowboys and Indians, and uses toy weapons);
c.
youth (eight to twelve), the pre-adolescence stage of development during
which the child recapitulates the life of savagery, but is predisposed to learn, to read,
write, draw, manipulate numbers, and to learn languages, manual training, music and
other subjects through routine practice and discipline;
d.
and puberty (thirteen to twenty four), the period of adolescence.
Hall described adolescence as the period corresponding to the time when the human race
was in a turbulent, transitional stage; a time of great " storm and stress". Like some theorists
today, Hall said that puberty is a time of great upset, emotional maladjustment, and instability
in which the adolescent's mood oscillate between energy and indifference, gaiety and
1

The present chapter presents readings extracted from H.S.N.Mc Farland, Psychological Theory and
Educational Practice, Human Development, Learning and Measurement, Routelidge and Kegan, Paul, London,
1971

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depression, or egotism and bashfulness. The end of adolescence marks a new birth in which
higher, more completely human traits are born, a time corresponding to modern civilization.
Hall's views exerted a marked influence upon the study of adolescence for many years.
Because the theory held that development was controlled from within, parents were cautioned
not to interfere but to let the child pass from one stage to the other. Such a view was
comforting to parents who found their children difficult at one stage; they always had the
hope that the next stage would be better. One difficulty was the serious, abnormal
disturbances at adolescence were sometimes accepted as normal.
Hall's view of adolescence has since been severely criticized on a number of points,
a.
His biological, genetic explanation of behaviour allows no room for the role of
environment
b.
He felt that behaviour at each stage is universal, unchangeable, and
predisposed by biological drives, a tenet since refused by cultural anthropologists;
c.
He felt parents must be permissive and tolerate socially unacceptable behaviour
during the various stages of development; and
d.
He overemphasized adolescence as an inevitable period of "storm and stress ",
a point that also has been refuted by demonstrations that adolescence in some cultures
is not at all stormy.
In spite of criticism of his theory, hall's influence is still felt in some circles today.

I. 2. Arnold Gesell: Spiral Growth Patterns

Gesell (1880-1961) is known for observations of human development from birth to
adolescence that he and his staff made at the Yale Clinic of Child Development and later at
the Gesell Institute of Child Development. His best known books are Infant and Child in the
Culture of Today, The first five years of life, The Child from five to ten, and Youth: The years
from ten to sixteen.
Gesell was interested mainly in the behavioural manifestations of development and
personality. He observed the actions and behaviour of children and youth at different ages and
constructed descriptive summaries of growth gradients grouped in stages and cycles of
development. In his summary he described what he felt were the norms of behaviour in their
chronological sequence. A few of the characteristics of adolescents from ten to sixteen years
of age, as described by Gesell, are summarized below.
The Ten-Year-Old:

In a state of equilibrium and balance.

Recognizes authority, accepts life as it comes,

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Is confident and obedient,

Fond of home and friends of same sex.
Joins groups and organizations,
Has strong sense of fairness.
Careless in appearance. Near and of childhood.

The Eleven-Year-Old :

Marks dawn of adolescence,

beginning of biological changes that cause physiological changes: moodiness,

impulsiveness, anger, enthusiasm, negativism, quarreling with siblings, and rebellion
against parents.
The Twelve-Year-Old :

Much of turbulence of eleven-year-old has disappeared .

Becomes more reasonable, tolerant, positive, companionable, sociable and

enthusiastic, trying to grow up,

Be more independent from parents.

Influenced more by peers, aware of appearance,

Wants to wear what crowd wears.

Antagonism toward opposite sex fading, plays kissing games and parties.
The Thirteen-Year-Old

Becomes introspective, reflective, sensitive to criticism, overly conscientious,

more critical of parents.

Body changes affect posture, motor coordination, voice, facial expressions.

Mood fluctuates from despair to self-acceptance. Fewer but closer friends.

The Fourteen-Year-Old

Introversion now replaced by extroversion,

characterized by energy, exuberance, a degree of self-assurance, sociability,

interest in own and other personalities.

Bases friendship on similar interests and personality traits.

Frequent identification with heroes.

The Fifteen-Year-Old

Large individual differences, difficult to describe.

Rising spirit of independence, desire for freedom, increased tensions, and

conflicts with parents and school personal can lead to defiance, behaviour problems,
delinquency.

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Some perfectionist tendencies, beginning of self-control.

The Sixteen-Year-Old

Prototype of pre-adult, self aware, more independent, self confident, more

balanced and integrated personality, more self-control, thoughts more oriented toward
future.

Cheerful, friendly, outgoing , and well-adjusted.

Boy-girl companionship on a nonromantic basis.

Several explanations, implication and criticisms need to be added for an understanding
of Gesell's theory. It is essentially a biologically oriented theory, for maturation is mediated
by genes and biology that determine the order of appearance of behavioural traits and
developmental trends. Gesell once said of young children that there is no evidence that
practice and exercise can hasten the actual appearance of activities like climbing and tower
building because the time of appearance is fundamentally determined by the ripeness of
neural structures. Thus, abilities and skill appear without the influence of special training or
practice.
This concept implies a sort of biological determinism that prevents parents and teachers
from doing any thing to influence development. Because maturation is regarded as a natural
ripening process, it is assumed that time alone will solve the minor problems that arise in
raising children. Difficulties and deviations will be outgrown, so parents are advised against
emotional methods of discipline and are encouraged to combine self-regulation with
development guidance. This means the school curriculum should be founded on a psychology
of development rather than a psychology of learning, with the laws of learning reformulated
in terms of the biology and physiology of development. Thus, teachers should take their cues
from children, from the maturational level that determines the suitability of a particular kind
of learning. For example, because fifteen-year-olds crave independence and rebel against
school, many want to leave school and home and are susceptible to peer-group influences; for
these Gesell suggests participation in community experiences to integrate the need for
independence with growth in knowledge.
Gesell did try to allow for individual differences, accepting that each child is born
unique, with his or her own "genetic factors of individual constitution and innate maturation
sequences". Furthermore, Gesell accepted what he called " acculturation " , the influence of
the environment of the home, school and total culture, but he emphasized that " acculturation
can never transcend maturation" because maturation is of primary importance. In spite of
accepting individual differences and the influence of environment on individual development,
he nevertheless considered many of the principles, trends and sequences to be universal
among humans. This concept partly contradicts the findings of cultural anthropology and
social educational psychology which emphasize significant, culturally determined individual
differences.
Gesell did not see adolescence as necessarily turbulent, erratic and troublesome as did
Hall. Rather, he considered it a ripening process, a transitional period between childhood and

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adulthood with many differences, reversals, and contradictions from year to year, or even
within the same year. He tried to emphasize that changes are gradual and overlap from one
level to the next, but his description often indicates profound and sudden changes from age to
the next. Thus, twelve-year-olds enjoy a short period of interest in girls and participate in
kissing games even though they weren't at all interested at age eleven and won't be at thirteen
Gesell did emphasize that development is not only upward, but also spiral, characterized
by both upward and downward gradient that cause some repetition at different ages. Thus,
freckles are evident at both sixteen and twelve. Both the eleven and fifteen year old are
rebellious and quarrelsome, whereas the twelve and sixteen year old are fairly stable. Children
may develop along a particular course until they reach a certain level. Then, they revert to
earlier forms of behaviour before they are able to surpass their previous performance.
One of the chief criticisms of Gesell's work is the sample he studied. He drew his
conclusions from a selected population segment in one geographic area of the United States
from boys and girls of favorable socioeconomic status, of a high to superior level of school
population in New Haven, Connecticut. He contended that such a homogeneous sample
would not lead to false generalizations because he was seeking basic human sequences and
directions of development that were related to biological and maturational factors common to
all children. However, even when only physical factors are considered, children differ so
greatly in the level and timing of growth that it is difficult to establish norms for any age
level. To do so is to make parents feel that if their children do not fit the so-called norm, then
something is wrong with them.
II.

Sociopsychonalytical views of adolescence: Erik Eriksons Ego Identity

Erikson (b 1902) modified Freud's theory of psychosexual development as a result of findings

of modern sociopsychology and anthropology and described eight tasks of human
development. The confrontation with each task produces conflicts, with two possible
outcomes. If the conflict during that stage is successfully resolved, a positive quality is built
into the personality and further development takes place. If the conflict persists or is
unsatisfactory resolved, the ego is damaged because a negative quality is incorporated into it.
Therefore, according to Erikson, the overall task of the individual is to acquire a positive ego
identity as he or she moves from one stage to the next.
II. 1. Stages of human development

Infancy: achieving trust versus mistrust (birth- 12 year)

Early childhood: achieving autonomy versus shame and doubt (2-3)
Play age: achieving initiative versus guilt (4-5)
School age: achieving industry versus inferiority (6-11)
Adolescence : achieving identity versus identity diffusion (12-18)
6- Young adult: achieving intimacy versus isolation.
Adulthood: achieving generality versus stagnation (mature age)
Mature age: achieving ego integrity versus disgust, despair (old age)

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II. 2. Development during Adolescence

Because this chapter is concerned only with adolescence period, discussion will be
limited to the adolescence task of establishing ego identity. Erikson emphasizes several
aspects of this process. Identity formation neither begins nor ends with adolescence. It is a
lifelong process, largely unconscious to the individual. Its roots go back in childhood to the
experience of mutuality between the mothering adult and the mothered children. As children
reach out to their first love objects, they begin to find self-realization coupled with mutual
recognition. Their identity formations continue through a process of selection and assimilation
of childhood identifications which in turn depend upon parental, peer, and society's
identification of them as important persons. The community both molds and gives recognition
to newly emerging individuals. The individual in the multiplicity of successive and tentative
identifications begins early to build up expectations of what it will be like to be older and
what it will feel like to have been younger- expectations which become part of an identity as
they are, step by step, verified in decisive experiences of psychological fitness.
II. 3. Tasks of identity formation during adolescence
Erikson emphasizes that adolescence is a normative crisis, a normal phase of increased
conflict, characterized by a fluctuation of ego strength. The experimenting individual becomes
the victim of an identity consciousness that is the basis for the self consciousness of youth.
It is during this time that the individual must establish a sense of personal identity and avoid
the dangers of role diffusion and identity diffusion. To establish identity requires individual
effort in evaluating personal assets and liabilities and in learning how to use these in working
to achieve a clearer concept of who one is and what one wants to be and become. Erikson
feels that during adolescence there must be an integration of all converging identity elements
and a resolution of conflict that he divided into seven major parts. The seven parts of the
conflict are:
II. 3. a. Temporal Perspective Versus Time Confusion
This means gaining a sense of time and of continuity of life so that one can coordinate
the past and the future and gain some concepts of how long it takes to achieve one's life plans.
It means learning to estimate and allocate one's time. Research has shown that a true sense of
time does not develop until relatively late adolescence around fifteen or sixteen.
II. 3. b. Self- Certainty Vs Self-Consciousness
This means developing self-confidence based upon past experiences so that one believes
in oneself and feels that one has a reasonable chance of accomplishing future aims. To do this
adolescents go through a period of increasing self- awareness, especially in relation to their
physical self-image and social relationships. When development follows a relatively normal
course, individuals acquire confidence in themselves and their abilities . They begin to
anticipate and welcome growing up. They develop confidence in their ability to cope in the
present and in anticipation of future success.

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II. 3. c. Role Experimentation Vs Role Fixation

Adolescents have an opportunity to try out the different roles they play in society. They
can experiment with many different personality characteristics, with a variety of ways of
talking and acting, with different ideas, philosophies, or with different types of relationships.
Identity comes through opportunities for such experimentation. Those who have adopted too
much inner restraint and guilt, who have lost initiative, or who prematurely experience role
fixation never really find out who they are.
II. 3. d. Apprenticeship Vs Work Analysis
Similarly, the adolescent has an opportunity to explore and try out different occupations
before deciding on a vocation. Once entered, one's job plays a large part in determining
identity. Furthermore, a negative self- image in the form of inferiority feelings (developed
during stages prior to adolescence) can prevent one form of mastering the necessary energy to
succeed at school or on the job. Erikson is quite critical of the schools for the mutilation of
spontaneity and the destruction of the joy of learning and the pleasure of creating. Other
authors have emphasized the importance of socioeconomic and family background and sex
role socialization in influencing achievement motivation.
II. 3. e. Sexual Polarization Vs Bisexual Confusion
Adolescents continue to attempt to define what it means to be "male" and "female".
Erikson feels it is important that adolescents develop a clear identification with one sex or the
other for future heterosexual intimacy and as a basis of firm identity. Furthermore, he
emphasizes that for a community to function properly, men and women must be willing to
assume their "proper roles"; sexual polarization, then is necessary. Much of present-day
analysis ( and some criticism) of Erikson relates to his emphasis on the need for sexual
polarization.
II. 3. f. Leadership And Followership Vs Authority Confusion
As adolescents expand their social horizons through education, work, apprenticeship,
social groups, and new friends and contacts, they begin to learn to take leadership
responsibilities as well as how to follow others. But at the same time they discover there are
competing claims on their allegiance. The state, employer, sweetheart, parents and friends all
make demands with the result that adolescents experience confusion in relation to authority.
To whom should they listen? Whom should they follow? To whom should they give their
primary allegiance? Sorting out the answers requires an experience of personal values and
priorities.
II. 3. g. Ideological Commitment Vs Confusion of Values
This conflict is closely related to all the others because construction of an ideology
guides other aspects of behaviour. Erikson refers to this struggle as the "search for fidelity".

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Erikson emphasizes that individual need something to believe in, to join, to follow, something
to which to relate and devote oneself.
If the individual is able to resolve the seven conflicts, a firm identity emerges. The crisis
is past when he or she no longer has to question at every moment his or her own identity,
when he or she has subordinated childhood identity and found a new self-identification.
Erikson acknowledges that finding an acceptable identity is much more difficult during
a period of rapid social change because the older generation is no longer able to provide
adequate role models for the younger generation. Under these circumstances, adolescents may
reject parental models and turn to their peers to discover who they are. Peer example,
influence and opinion become all important. Adolescents go through a period of compulsive
group conformity as a means of testing group expectations and how they themselves fit in.
The peer group, the clique, and the gang help individuals find their own identities in a social
context for they provide role models and direct feedback about themselves.
One interesting aspect of Erikson's theory is his concept of adolescence as psychosocial
moratorium, a societally sanctioned intermediary period between childhood and adulthood
during which the individual through free role experimentation may find a niche in some
section of society.
Adolescence vary in different societies , but that near the end of adolescence a failure to
establish identity results in deep suffering for the adolescent because of a diffusion of roles.
Such role diffusion may be responsible for the appearance of previously latent psychological
disturbances. Erikson comments: "many late adolescents, if faced with continuing diffusion,
would rather be nobody or somebody bad, or indeed dead.than be not quite somebody".
Erikson emphasizes that whereas the identity crisis is most pronounced in adolescence, a
redefinition of one's ego-identity may also take place at other periods of life: when
individuals leave home, get their first job, marry, become parents, get divorced, change
occupations, become unemployed, become seriously ill, are widowed, or retire. The extent to
which individuals are able to cope with these other changes in identity is determined partly by
the success with which they have first mastered the adolescent identity crisis.
Since Erikson first introduced his theory, numerous research studies have validated,
further clarified, or questioned his ideas. The following are some of the highlights of this
research.

Identity has many components. It includes physical, sexual, social, vocational,

moral, ideological, and psychological characteristics that make up the total self. Thus,
individuals may be identified by their physical appearance and traits; by their gender
as well as their sex roles; by their social characteristics, social relationships, and
membership in groups; by their vocations and work; by their religious and political
affiliations and ideologies; and by the characteristics of their psychological adjustment
and extent of their personality synthesis. Identity may be described in terms of the

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total concept of the self. It is personal because it is a sense of " I-ness" , but it is also
social for it includes "we-ness", or one's collective identity.

The individual who has developed a positive ego identity is one: " Who is
confident of his/her sexual identity, who ahs acquired a sense of basic trust and
industry, well-adjusted psychologically, has a more integrated personality, uses
defenses in adapting positive manner, and perceives physical, moral, personal, family
and social self more positively. The adolescent who has achieved an identity is also
more self-acceptant and more perceptive of his/her acts . If one plots these measures
on a clinical profile, it is readily evident that the high-identity adolescent appears to a
more adaptive and a better-adjusted individual psychologically."

Adolescents who have a positive identity have developed a sense of being all
right accepting themselves. Furthermore, identity development is associated with
development intimacy. Adolescents are attracted to those with identity statuses similar
to themselves. Identity achievement also helps in developing committed relationships:
intimacy alters identity-it helps people grow.

Those with low identities seem to reject their physical selves and are confused
about their sexual identities and sex roles . They are less acceptant of themselves and
their behavior. They perceive themselves as undesirable persons of low moral worth,
and are dissatisfies with their moral values and ideologies. The low identity adolescent
may have conflict over vocational orientation may exhibit general anxiety or neurotic
tendencies and lack of personality integration.

III. Sociological Views of Adolescence

In studying adolescence, the sociologist focuses on the social environment as the determinant
of the adolescent development. The sociologist recognizes the existence of biological
intrapersonal psychological processes, but chooses to study the interaction between the
adolescent and society.
III. 1. Allison Davis: Socialized Anxiety
Allison Davis defines socialization as the process by which individuals learn and adopt
the ways, beliefs, values, and norms of their culture and make them part of their personalities.
Davis sees the process of maturation during adolescence as the process of becoming
socialized.
According to Davis, each society defines the goals, values, and behaviors it desires of its
members. Socially acceptable behaviour is rewarded; unacceptable behaviour is punished.
Repeated punishment for unacceptable behaviour induces what Davis calls "socialized
anxiety" which becomes the negative motivation for socialization to take place. Once
socialized anxiety has been induced in children, they seek to show behaviour that minimizes
it. If socialized anxiety is too strong, it can have an inhibiting or disorganizing effect. If

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socialized anxiety is too weak, the attainment of maturation is not likely either; therefore, it is
important that a correct amount is present.
Davis emphasizes that middle class and working (lower) class cultures expect different
things of their adolescents. Middle class cultures emphasize prestige, social position, success,
status, and morality. These expectations give rise to some socialized anxiety in their
adolescents than that is evident in lower class adolescent. The socialized anxiety that is
generated in turn motivates the middle class youngster to strive even more for socially
desirable goals.
Lower class cultures do not put so much emphasis on long-term goal, success, status,
and postponement of short-tem pleasures like sex expression. Low socioeconomic status
adolescents do not develop the kind of socialized anxiety that motivates them to succeed,
according to middle class standards. They see no point in postponing many sexual or
recreational pleasures for they do not expect to receive the rewards of middle class culture
anyhow.
Davis views are important because they emphasize that society influences what
adolescents are, what their problems are, and what they become. The sociological view alone,
however, does not explain why youth from even the poorest families sometimes succeed
according to middle class standards. Davis view must be considered alongside the view of
other disciplines.
III. 2. Albert Bandura And Richards H. Waters: "Social Learning Theory"
Social learning
environmental factors
Walters (1915-19687)
adolescence than have
work.

theory is concerned with the relationship between social and

and their influence on behaviour. Because Bandura (b. 1925) and
have been more concerned with the application of that theory to
other social learning theorists, the major focus here will be on their

Modeling

Bandura and Walters emphasise that children learn through observing the behaviour of
others and imitating their pattern. This process of observing and imitating is referred to as
modeling. Modeling then becomes a socialization process by which habitual responsepatterns develop. As children grow they imitate different models from their social
environment. Young children imitate the language, gestures, mannerisms, habits, and basic
attitudes and values of parents. School-age children may imitate some speech patterns or
mannerisms of teachers and repeat a teacher's ideas about social or political problems in
dinner conversations at home. As children grow older entertainment, heroes and peers become
increasingly important as models, especially in influencing verbal expressions, hairstyles,
clothing, music, food preferences, and basic social values. Imitation is important in learning

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such complex social behaviours as self-control, altruism, aggression, or sexual behaviour, or

in learning such motor skills as handwriting, driving a car, or operating a machine.

Aggression

Bandura shows also that when children watched unusually aggressive behaviour in a
real-life model or a model in a film or cartoon, many of children's responses were accurate
imitations of the aggressive acts of the real-life model or the person in the film. The cartoon
model elicited less precise imitation. Walters found similar results among high school
students, young women, and male hospital attendants. This research has led to much concern
about the effects on children and adolescents from watching aggressive behaviour on
television screens: "exposure to filmed aggression heightens aggressive actions"

Family role

Bandura and Welters showed that a number of factors in the home situation contribute
to effective socialization. One is early dependency of children on parents, so that children
desire approval and affection. If dependency behaviour is punished or frustrated by a lack of
affectional nurturance or by parental rejection, socialization is delayed or disrupted; hostility
or aggressive behavior may develop; and children experience less guilt and lack the capacity
to control aggressive feelings when aroused. In studies of adolescent aggression, Bandura and
Walters showed that aggressive boys were less dependent on their fathers, more rejected by
their fathers, and their fathers spent less time with them than did the fathers of less aggressive
boys.
Another home factor that contributes to socialization is the exertion of socialization
pressure in front of demands, restrictions, and limitations. In other words, discipline. The
parents of less aggressive sons limited the amount of aggression they would tolerate, used
more reasoning as a disciplinary method, and had higher expectations of the boys than did the
parents of aggressive sons. Aggressive sons were encouraged to show aggression outside the
home toward other children to stand up for their rights, to use their fists. The fathers of
aggressive boys seemed to get vicarious enjoyment from their sons' aggressive acts and were
more permissive of their sons' sexual behaviour. As a result these boys had greater sexual
experience then did other boys.
The parents of aggressive boys were also more punitive when the aggressive behaviour was
directed toward them. They used mores physical discipline, isolation, deprivation of
privileges, and less reasoning. The more the boys were punished physically at home for
aggressive behaviour, the more aggressive they became. Thus, they learned aggression by
modeling the behaviour of the punishing parent.

Reinforcement

Most social learning theorists emphasize the role of reinforcement including vicarious
reinforcement and self-enforcement. Vicarious reinforcement consists of the positive or
negative consequences that one observes in others experience. Observing that others are

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rewarded for aggressive behaviour increases the possibility that the observer will also show
aggression. For instance, children who watched a movie of Rocky the Villain and saw that
Rocky's aggression was rewarded were two times more likely to show aggressive behaviour
than a control group. When they observed Rocky being punished for aggression, they could
describe the aggression but did not perform it. It has also been observed that selfreinforcement was as effective as external reinforcement in influencing behaviour. Once the
performance of a desired response pattern, such as shooting and making basket with a
basketball, acquired a positive value, adolescents could administer their own reinforcement by
producing the baskets and feeling good afterward. Adolescents who set reasonable goal levels
of performance and reach that level feel proud and satisfied internally, and become
decreasingly dependent on parents, teachers, and bosses to give them rewards.
Bandura questions the stage-theory assumption that adolescence is inevitably a period of
"storm and stress, tension, rebellion" . He feels that the description of turmoil, anxiety, sexual
tensions, compulsive conformity, and acute identity crises applies to the actual behaviour of
only "the deviant ten percent of the adolescent population ". Current research tends to prove
Bandura correct; data indicate that "the rate of emotional disturbance for adolescents does not
differ significantly from the population at large".
Bandura feels that well-adjusted youths are more numerous than is commonly assumed,
and that they are the products of a warm, supportive preadolescence in which firmness and
socialization pressure in childhood slowly gave way to increasingly more freedom during
adolescence. According to Bandura, when marked changes occur in adolescence, they are due
to sudden changes in social training, family structure, peer-group expectation, or other
environmental factors, not to hormonal or other biological changes. Adolescence is not a
separate stage; human development is continuous from infancy to adulthood. The same
principles of learning that explain child development are applicable also to adolescent
development; only the models and the environmental influences change. External stimulus
conditions, rather than hidden, subconscious, internal dynamics, control normal as well as
deviant behavior.
The work of social learning theorists is of great importance in explaining human
behaviour. It is especially important in emphasizing that what adults do and the role models
they represent are far more important in influencing adolescent behaviour than what they say.
Teachers and parents can best encourage human decency, altruism, moral values, and social
conscience by exhibiting these virtues themselves.

IV. Anthropological Views of Adolescence

Introduction: Margaret Mead and Ruth Benedict

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Margaret Mead (1901-1978) made an empirical field study of a number of cultures,

showing contrasts between them and casting new light on the role of culture in personality
development and socialization. She is best known for two books that are relevant to the study
of adolescent development: Coming of Age in Samoa and Growing Up in new Guinea. The
former is particularly important, for it is devoted entirely to adolescence.
Ruth Benedict (1887-1948) is best known for her book Patterns of Culture. Her theory
of development is expounded from a cultural anthropological view point in the article
"Continuities and Discontinuities in Cultural Conditioning ".
The theories of these and other cultural anthropologists emphasize the importance of the
social environment in determining the personality development of the child. And because
social institutions, economic patterns, habits, mores, rituals, and religious beliefs vary from
society to society, culture is relative. The kinds of influences that mold the child depend on
the culture in which the child grows up.
The later writings of Mead and others have undergone some modification: they show
some recognition of universal aspects of development (incest taboos, for example) and more
acknowledgment of the biological role in human development. Today extreme positions are
generally disregarded by both geneticists and anthropologists. They agree that a composite
view that acknowledges both biogenetic factors and environmental forces comes closest to the
truth.
IV. 1. Cultural Continuity Vs Discontinuity
Anthropologists challenge the basic truths of all age and stage theories of child and
adolescent development. Mead discovered, for example, that Samoan children follow a
relatively continuous growth pattern, with no abrupt changes from one age to the other. They
are not expected to behave one way as children, another way as adolescents and yet another
way as adults. They never have to change abruptly their ways of thinking or acting. They do
not have to unlearn as adults what they learned as children. So adolescence does not represent
an abrupt change or transition from one pattern of behaviour to another.
This principle of continuity of cultural conditioning may be illustrated with three examples
suggested by Benedict and Mead:

First , the responsible roles of children in primitive societies are contrasted

with the no responsible roles of children in Western culture. Children in primitive
societies learn responsibility quite early. Play and work often involve the same
activity. For example, By "playing" with a bow and arrow, a boy learns to hunt. His
adult hunting "work" is a continuation of his youthful hunting "play". In contrast,
children in Western culture must assume drastically different roles as they grow up.
They shift from no responsible play to responsible work and must do it rather
suddenly.

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Second, the submissive role of children in Western culture is contrasted with
the dominant role of children in primitive society. Children in Western culture must
drop their childhood submission and adopt its opposite, dominance, as they become
adults. Mead showed that the Samoan child is not taught submission as a child and
then suddenly expected to become dominant upon reaching adulthood. On the
contrary, the six- or seven-year- old Samoan girl dominates her younger siblings and
in turn is dominated by older ones. The older she gets, the more she dominates and
disciplines others and the fewer there are to dominate her; the parents never try to
dominate her. When she becomes an adult, she does not experience the dominancesubmission conflict of the adolescent in Western society.

Third, the similarity of sex roles of children and adults in primitive cultures is
contrasted with the dissimilar sex roles of children and adults in Western culture.
Mead indicates that the Samoan girl experiences no real discontinuity of sex roles as
she as she passes from childhood to adulthood. She has the opportunity to experiment
and become familiar with sex with almost no taboos (except against incest). Therefore,
by the time adulthood is reached. She is able to assume a sexual role in marriage very
easily. By contrast, in Western culture infant sexuality is denied and adolescent
sexuality is expressed; sex is considered evil and dangerous. When adolescents mature
sexually, they must unlearn these earlier attitudes and taboos and become sexually
responsive adults.

IV. 2. Strom and Stress Vs Cultural Conditioning

In showing the continuity of development of children in some cultures in contrast to the
discontinuity of development of children in Western culture, anthropologists and some
psychologists cast doubt upon the universality of ages and stages of growth of children in all
cultures. Only those societies that emphasize discontinuity of behaviour (one type of
behaviour as a child, another as an adult) are those described as "age-grade societies".
Anthropologists challenge the inevitability of the storm and stress of adolescence by
minimizing the disturbance of physical changes and by emphasizing the interpretation given
to those changes. Menstruation is a case in point. One tribe may teach that the menstruating
girl is danger to the tribe ( she may scare the game or dry up the well); another tribe may
consider her condition a blessing (she could increase the food supply or the priest could
obtain a blessing by touching her). A girl taught that menstruation is a positive good will react
and act differently from a girl who is taught that it is a "curse". Therefore, the stress and
strains and strains of pubescent physical changes may be the result of certain cultural
interpretations of those changes and not due to any inherent biological tendencies.

Iv. 3. Cross-cultural Views on Parent Adolescent Relation

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Anthropologists describe many conditions in Western culture that create a generation

gap, but they deny the inevitability of gap. Rapidity of social change, pluralistic value
systems, and modern technology make the world appear too complex and too unpredictable to
adolescents to provide them with a stable frame of reference. Further-more, early
physiological puberty and the need for prolonged education allow many years for the
development and assimilation of a peer-group culture in which adolescent values, customs,
and mores may be in conflict with those in the adult world. Mead thinks that close family ties
should be loosened to give adolescents more freedom to make their own choices and live their
own lives by requiring less conformity and less dependency and by tolerating individual
differences within the family. She feels that adolescent-parent conflict and tension can be
minimized.
Mead feels also that youths can be accepted into adult society at younger ages. Gainful
employment, even part time, would promote greater financial independence. Parenthood
should be postponed, but not necessarily sex or marriage. Adolescents should be given a
greater voice in the social and political life of the community.

V. A Social Cognition View of Adolescence

V. 1. Social Cognition
Social cognition can be defined as "how people think about other people and about
themselves," or how people come to know their social world .It is concerned with the
processes by which children and adolescents conceptualise and learn to understand others:
their thoughts, their emotions, their social behavior, and their general point of view. Implied
in the concept of social cognition is an ability to make inferences about other people's
capabilities, attributes, expectations, and potential reactions.
The question arises as to whether social knowledge and physical knowledge are gained
in the same way. Certainly, much of both are acquired through observation, trial and error,
exploration, direct first-hand experience, and discovery. But gaining social knowledge is more
difficult. Physical knowledge is objective and factual. Social knowledge may be quite
arbitrary, determined by a specific social situation, as by social, cultural, and even subcultural definitions, requirements, and expectations.
What is the relationship between other cognitive abilities, such as intellectual problemsolving skills, or moral problem-solving skills, and social problem-solving skills? The person
who has superior intellectual problem-solving skills does not necessarily have superior social
problem-solving skills. An intellectually superior person may be socially inept, indicating that
cognitive abilities involved in interpersonal relationships are not the same as those measured
by a conventional IQ test. Social problem-solving skills may be learned or taught, separate
from intellectual abilities. There is some evidence, however, that persons who show superior
ability in moral reasoning also show superior ability in social cognition.

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V.2. Robert Selman: Role Taking

Social cognition cannot be perceived as one uniform, theoretical construct. There are actually
a variety of mini-theories and constructions. One of the most useful is that of Robert Selman
who has advanced a stage theory of social cognition outlining predictable stages in social-role
taking. He describes his role-taking concept as a form of social cognition intermediate
between logical and moral thought. To Selman social role taking is the ability to understand
the self and others as subjects, to react to others as like the self, and to react to the self's
behaviour from the other's point of view. Such an ability involves self-knowledge,
perspective, empathy, moral reasoning, and interpersonal problem solving, and increases with
age into adolescence and into adulthood. Selman identifies five stages or developmental levels
of social-role taking. They are:
Stage 0: Egocentric undifferentiated stage of social perspective taking (age 3 to6).
At the egocentric undifferentiated stage of social perspective taking, children cannot
make a clear distinction between their own interpretation of a social situation and another
point of view. Nor can they understand that their own perception may not be the correct or
true perspective. The child at this stage does not distinguish clearly between the physical and
psychological attributes of another person. This confusion between subjective psychological
and objective physical characteristics leads to difficulties in differentiating feeling from
behaviour, and it also interferes with the ability to distinguish intentional and intentional
behaviour. While children understand that each person can have different feeling, they do not
yet have the ability to determine how the thoughts and feelings of others might differ from
their own. Thus, a girl may give her mother jelly beans for her birthday, not just because she
herself likes jelly beans, or because she thinks her mother might like jelly beans, but because
she views jelly beans as "things that are liked ", without differentiating between her own point
of view and those of others.
Stage 1: Differential or subjective perspective-taking stage, or the socialinformational
role-taking stage (approximately age 5 to 9)
Children at this stage begin to realise that another person can have cognitive or social
perspectives different from their own. One's subjective experiences are differentiated from the
experiences of others; however, the judgment of another person is still based on physical
observations. An awareness develops that others can interpret the same social situation
differently. Children understand that another person may feel or think differently because that
person is in a different social situation or has access to different information. However,
children are still unable to evaluate accurately what the other person's perspective looks like.
In other words, they cannot maintain their own perspective and simultaneously assume the
perspective of another.
Stage 2, self-reflective thinking of reciprocal perspective taking (age 7 to 12).
The preadolescent at stage 2 realises not only that other people have their own social
perspective because they think or feel differently, but in addition, the preadolescent also

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becomes aware that the other person thinks about his or her thinking and can take the subject's
role. Thus, the change from stage1 to stage 2 is the ability to mentally leave oneself and to
take the perspective of another individual. Individuals can now become capable of making
inferences about the perspectives of others; they can reflect about their own behaviour and
their own motivation as seen from the perspective of another person.
This ability introduces an awareness that no single individual's social perspective is
necessarily correct or valid in an absolute sense. Another person's point of view may be as
correct as one's own. However, the mutual role-taking ability that develops is only a two-way
reciprocity; it is sequential but not yet simultaneous or mutual. The preadolescent thinks only
within a two-person frame I think- you think and cannot take a more general third person
perspective.
Stage 3: The third person or mutual perspective taking stage (age 10 to 15)
The third-person perspective allows the adolescent to abstractly step outside an
interpersonal interaction and simultaneously and mutually coordinate and consider the
perspectives (and their interaction) of self and others. The emerging concept of mutual roletaking implies that adolescents can step outside of their own perspective and outside the
partner's perspective and assume the perspective of a neutral third person. Furthermore, the
ability to distinguish between one's own point of view and a more generalised perspective that
might be taken by an "average" member of the group emerges. Friendship now is viewed not
as a process of reciprocal back-scratching but as a series of interactions over an extended
period of time. Conflicts are seen as emerging possibly from different personality
characteristics.
Stage 4: In depth and social perspective-taking stage (adolescence to adulthood).
There are two distinguishing features of adolescents' conception of other people. First,
they become aware that motives, actions, thoughts, and feelings are shaped by psychological
factors. This notion of psychological determinants now included the idea of the unconscious
processes, although adolescents may not express this awareness in psychological terminology,
Second, they begin to appreciate the fact that a personality is a system of traits, beliefs,
values, and attitudes with its own developmental history.
During adolescence the individual may move to still higher and more abstract level of
interpersonal perspective-a societal perspective. The adolescent can conceptualize that each
person can consider the shared point of view of the "generalized other" that is, the social
system-which, in turn makes possible the accurate communication with an understanding of
other people. Further, the idea of law and morality as a social system depends on the concept
of consensual group perspective. At this level, the adolescent can abstract multiple mutual
(generalized other) perspectives to a social, legal, or moral perspective in which all can share
The progression through these five stages is assessed, analyzed, and described primarily
in terms of four social domains as follows:

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1.
2.
3.
4.

Individual concepts
Friendship concepts
Peer group concepts
Parent-child concepts

Under each of these four social domains there are between four and seven issues, or subtopics,
or a total of twenty-two that make up the practical concepts for assessing cognition. The
following table shows the issues or subtopics under reach domain.

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Table: Issues of interpersonal understanding related to concepts of the individual, close

friendships, peer-group organizations, and parent-child relations. (Selman,1980; cited in Mc
Farland, 1971)

Chapter Two: Motivation and learning

I. Definition of motivation
Any definition and discussion is complicated since this concept is composed of many
different and overlapping factors such as interest, curiosity, need or desire to achieve More
than this, the term motivation seems to be meaningful only in relation to a particular action,
i.e., it only makes sense when we talk about being motivated to do something.
Motivation is a hypothetical concept used to explain the initiation, direction, intensity,
and persistence of goal-oriented behaviour. In other words, motivation is an internal state that
arouses, directs, and maintains behaviour. As such when we study of motivation, we focus on
how and why people initiate actions directed toward specific goals, how intensively they are
involved in the activity, how persistent they are in their attempts to achieve these goals, and
what they are thinking and feeling along the way.
When analysing the reasons why people choose to act in certain ways, it becomes clear
that these reasons for our actions fall into different types. Sometimes we do something
because the act of doing it is enjoyable in itself. At other times, we engage in an activity not
because we are particularly interested in the activity itself, but because performing it will help
us to obtain something else that we want. Consequently, some explanations of motivation rely
on internal, personal factors such as needs, interests and curiosity. Other explanations relay on
external, environmental factors such as rewards, punishment, social pressure and so on. This
difference in explanations had led to a classic distinction in motivation between intrinsic and
extrinsic motivation
I.1. Intrinsic motivation
Intrinsic motivation is the natural tendency to seek out and conquer challenges as we
pursue our personal interests and exercise capabilities. It is motivation to do something when
we do not have to. When we are intrinsically motivated, we do not need incentives or

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punishments because the activity itself is rewarding. When the experience of doing something
generates interest and enjoyment, and the reason for performing the activity lies within the
activity itself, then the motivation is likely to be intrinsic.

I. 2. Extrinsic motivation
When the only reason for performing an act is to gain something outside the activity
itself, such as pleasing the teacher, passing an exam, obtaining financial reward or any other
reason that has very little to do with the task itself, the motivation is likely to be extrinsic.
Here, we are not interested in the activity itself; we care only about what it will gain us.
Psychologists argue that it is impossible to say that a behaviour is either intrinsically or
extrinsically motivated just by looking at it. The essential difference between the two types of
motivation is the persons reason for acting, that is, whether the locus of causality for the
action (the location of the cause) is internal or external-inside or outside the person. One can
detect these kinds of motivation by asking the question: Would I do this even if no reward or
punishment followed? We can illustrate this when considering different actions that we
perform in our day-to-day lives, such going to work, reading newspapers, driving within a
speed limit, listening to music, studying, etc. When asking and answering the above question
about such actions, one may deduce that some of these actions are intrinsically motivating
while some others are extrinsically motivating.
In reality, however, this distinction is not that clear-cut. Some of our actions may be
prompted by a mixture of both intrinsic and extrinsic motivation reasons.

II. Approaches to motivation

Motivation is a vast and complicated subject that generated many theories. Some
theories were developed through work with animals in laboratories. Others are based on
research with humans in situations that used games and puzzles. Some theories grow out of
the work done in clinical or industrial psychology. In general, most of theory and research on
human motivation have been developed by psychologists within one of three major theoretical
frameworks: behaviourism, cognitive psychology and humanism.
II. 1. Behavioural Approaches to Motivation
The behaviouristic theories see that all our actions have their roots in our efforts to
satisfy organic need, such as food, water, air, pain avoidance, etc. Indeed, the behaviouristic
point of view begins with the fact that infants are born with primary biological drives such as
hunger that motivate behaviour. Certain behaviour patterns become established through basic
conditioning processes because they are associated with the satisfaction of primary drives.
Through this satisfaction, these behaviour patterns eventually acquire motivating powers of
their own and begin to function as secondary drives ( such as dependence, social affiliation or
aggression), so that behaviour that satisfies these secondary drives is reinforced and thus

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repeated. Children who get attention and social reward for clowning, for example, are likely
to become class clowns, even though better alternatives may be available to them. Different
reinforcement histories will lead to different interests and ultimately to different abilities. A
person who is consistently rewarded for playing piano, for instance, and develops a strong
interest in doing so will, in time, outperform others with similar talent that is not comparably
reinforced.
In education, according to the behavioural view, an understanding of leaners motivation
begins with a careful analysis of the incentives and rewards present in the classroom. A
reward is an attractive object or event supplied as a consequence of a particular behaviour. A
learner may get bonus points for his homework, for instance. An incentive is an object or an
event that encourages or discourages behaviour. The promise of bonus points, for instance,
was an incentive to the learner who did his homework. Actually receiving the points was a
reward.
If we are consistently reinforced for certain behaviours, we may develop habits or
tendencies to act in certain ways. For example, if a learner is repeatedly rewarded with
affection, money praise or privileges for his scoring ration in basketball, but receives little
recognition for studying, he will probably work longer and harder in his sports class,
perfecting his basketball than on understanding mathematics or English.
II.2. Cognitive Approaches to Motivation
Cognitive theories of motivation emphasise that how people think about what is
happening to them is as important a determinant of subsequent behaviour as the objective
reality of what takes place. Our reaction to test score, for example, is based in part on what we
have come to expect due to our pas performance and on our perceptions of how hard we
worked, how fair the test was, and so on.
An essential claim of the cognitive view is that people do not respond to external events
or physical conditions like hunger, but rather to their interpretations of these events. Within
the cognitive perspective, people are seen as active and curious, searching for information to
solve personally relevant problems. Consequently, the cognitive theories emphasise intrinsic
motivation.
Cognitive theorists believe that behaviour is determined by our thinking, not simply by
whether we have been rewarded or punished for the behaviour in the past. In other words, the
factor that is of central importance is that of choice; that is, people have choice over the way
they behave and therefore, have control over their actions. To make an informed choice, we
need to be aware of the outcomes of what we decide to do. This enables us to set goals for
ourselves, and we then act in certain ways in order to achieve these goals. As such, from a
cognitive point of view, motivation is concerned with such issues as why people decide to act
in certain ways and what factors influence the choices they make. It also involves decisions as
to the amount of effort people are prepared to expend in attempting to achieve their goals. The
role of the teacher thus becomes one of helping and enabling learners to make suitable
decisions.

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In short, cognitive view of motivation centres around individuals making decisions

about their own actions as opposed to being at the mercy of external factors over which they
have no control.

Attribution theory

Bernard Weiners attribution theory is an outstanding cognitive theory. According to

the attribution theory, we try to make sense of our behaviour and the behaviour of others by
searching for explanations and causes. For example, to understand our success and failure,
especially unexpected ones, we all ask Why? A learner asks Why did fail in my exam? or
Why did I do so well in this test? They may attribute their success and failure to ability,
effort, mood, knowledge, luck, help, interest, clarity of instructions, the interference of others,
unfair policies, and so on. To understand the others success or failure, we also make
attributions- for instance, that the others are smart, lucky or work hard. Attribution theories of
motivation describe how the individuals explanations, justifications, and excuses about self
and others influence motivation.
II.3. Humanistic Approaches to Motivation
In the 1940s proponents of the humanistic psychology argued that the predominant
schools then like the behaviourist one did not adequately explain why people act as they do.
Humanistic explanations of motivation emphasise such intrinsic sources of motivation sa the
persons needs for self-actualisation, self-determination, etc. so, from the humanistic
perspective, to motivate means to encourage peoples inner resources their sense of
competence, self-esteem, autonomy, and self-actualisation. Abraham Maslows theory is a
very influential humanistic explanation of motivation

Maslows Hierarchy

Maslow suggested in 1970 that humans have a hierarchy of needs ranging from lowerlevel needs for survival and safety to higher-level needs for intellectual achievement and
finally self-actualisation. Self-actualisation is Maslows term for self-fulfilment, the
realisation of personal potential. Each of the lower needs must be met before the next higher
need can be addressed. Maslow claims that unless lower needs are satisfied, higher needs may
not even be appreciated, let alone motivate behaviour.
Maslows hierarchy of needs is arranged in the following order of priority
1. Physiological ( or survival) needs (sleep, thirst)
2. Safety needs (freedom from danger, anxiety, or psychological threat)
3. Love ( or belonging) needs (acceptance from parents, teachers and peers)
4. Esteem needs ( mastery experiences, confidence in ones ability)

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5. Needs for self-actualisation ( creative self-expression, attempt to satisfy ones

curiosity)

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Maslow called the four lower-level needs (for survival, safety, belonging, and then selfesteem) deficiency needs. When these needs are satisfied, the motivation for fulfilling them
decreases. He labelled the other higher-level needs (intellectual achievement, aesthetic
appreciation, and finally the realisation of personal potential) being needs. When they are met,
a persons motivation does not cease; instead, it increases to seek further fulfilment. Unlike
the deficiency needs, these being needs can never be completely filled.
The implications of Maslows theory to education are more than obvious. A learner who
comes to class hungry or tired is unlikely to become engrossed in academic activities.
Similarly, a learner who has suffered humiliating failure will not become autonomous learner
until he is convinced that the teacher will support his efforts and that he will make errors
without blame or shame. In addition, it seems clear that the well-rested, psychologically
secure learner, for example, may seek to master academic skills and even generate questions
to pursue independently, but the exhausted learner will have little energy for such activity.
II. 4. Sociocultural Approaches to Motivation
Sociocultural views of motivation emphasise participation in communities of practice.
People engage in activities to maintain their identities and their interpersonal relations within
the community. Consequently, learners are motivated to learn if they are members of a
classroom or school community that values learning. Just as we learn to speak and dress and
conduct ourselves in restaurants, parties or shopping malls by being socialised watching and
learning from more capable members of our culture- we also learn to be students by watching
and learning from members of our community. In other words, we learn by the company we
keep.
The concept of identity is central to sociocultural views of motivation. When we see
ourselves as football players, writers, journalists, engineers, or psychologists we have an
identity within a group. Part of our socialisation is moving from legitimate peripheral
participation to central participation in that group. Legitimate peripheral participation means
that beginners are genuinely involved in the work of the group, even if their abilities are
undeveloped and their contributions are small. The novice weaver learns to dye wool before
spinning and weaving, and the novice teacher learns to tutor a learner before working with a
group. The identities of the novice and the expert are bound up in their participation in the
community. They are motivated to learn the values and practices of the community to keep
their community as community members.

III. Motivation to learn in school

III. 1. Definition
Teachers are concerned about developing a particular kind of motivation, motivation to
learn. Brophy, in 1988, describes learners motivation as his tendency to find academic
activities meaningful and worthwhile and to try to derive the intended academic benefits from
them. Motivation to learn involves more than wanting or intending to learn. It includes the
quality of the learners mental efforts. For example, reading the text 10 times may indicate

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persistence, but motivation to learn involves more thoughtful, active study strategies such as
summarising, elaborating the basic ideas, outlining in your words, and so on. So, motivation
to learn involves taking academic work seriously, trying to get the most from it, and applying
appropriate learning strategies in the process.

III. 2. Factors that influence learners motivation to learn

Carol Ames (1990, 1992) identifies six areas where teachers make decisions that can
influence learners motivation to learn: the nature of the task learners are asked to do, the
autonomy they are allowed in working, how they are recognised for their accomplishments,
grouping practices, evaluation procedures and the scheduling of time in the classroom.
III. 2. a. Tasks for learning
The academic tasks that teachers set affect learners motivation. When learners
encounter tasks that are related to their interests, stimulate their curiosity, or are related to
real-life situations, the learners are more likely to be motivated to learn. Tasks can be
interesting or boring, and they have different values for learners.
Tasks can have three kinds of value. Attainment value is the importance of doing well
on the task. It is tied to the needs of the learner (for example, the need to be competent, wellliked, etc) and the meaning of success to that person. For instance, if someone has a strong
need to appear smart and believes that a high grade on test shows you are smart, then the test
has a high attainment value for him. The second kind of values is intrinsic or interest value
which refers to the enjoyment one gets from the activity itself. Some people like the
experience of learning. Others enjoy hard physical effort or the challenge of solving puzzles.
Finally, tasks have utility value; that is they help us achieve a short or long-term goal.
III. 2. b. Supporting Autonomy
The second area where teachers can interfere involves how much choice and autonomy
learners are allowed. Choice in schools is not the norm. Children and adolescents spend
literally thousands of hours in schools where other people decide what will happen and where
raised hands are sometimes ignored, questions to teachers are fairly frequently brushed
aside, and permission to go somewhere else to do something else is quite routinely refused.
So, what can teachers do to support choice without creating chaos?
Like totally unguided discovery or aimless discussions, unstructured or unguided
choices can be counterproductive for learning. The alternative is bounded choice; that is,
giving learners a range of options that set valuable tasks for them but also allow them to
follow personal interests. The balance must be just right so that students are not bewildered by
too much choice or bored by too little
III. 2. c. Recognizing Accomplishment

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Recognition and reward in the classroom will support motivation to learn if recognition
is for personal progress rather than competitive victories. Praise and rewards should focus on
learners growing competence. At times, praise can have paradoxical effects when learners
use the teachers praise or criticism as cues about their capabilities.

III. 2. d. Grouping
Motivation can be greatly influenced by the ways we are related to other people who are
also involved in accomplishing a particular goal. And the ways learners relate to their peers
are influenced by the goal structure of the activities and tasks created by the teacher. There
are three such structures: cooperative, competitive, and individualistic. With cooperative goal
structures, learners believe that their goal is attainable only if other learners will also reach the
goal. In activities that have competitive goal structures however, learners believe they will
reach their goal if and only if other learners do not reach the goal. Finally, there are tasks that
have individualistic goal structure in which the learners believe that their attempt to reach the
goal is not related to other learners attempt to reach the goal. When a task involves complex
learning and problem-solving skills, cooperation leads to higher achievement than
competition, especially for learners with lower abilities.
III. 2. e. Evaluation
The greater the emphasis on competitive evaluation and grading, the more learners will
focus on performance goals rather than mastery. And low-achievement learners who have
little hope to of either performing well or mastering the task may want to get it over with.
How can teachers prevent learners from simply focusing on the grade or doing the work just
to get finished? The most obvious answer is to de-emphasise grades and emphasise learning
in the class. Learners need to understand the value of the work. Instead of saying: You will
need to know this for the test, tell your learners how the information will be useful in solving
problems they may want to solve. In short, the more competitive the grading, the more
learners set performance goals and focus on looking competent. When the focus is on
performing rather than learning, learners see the goal of classroom tasks as simply finishing,
especially if the work is difficult.
III. 2. f. Time
In order to foster motivation to learn, teachers should flexible in their use of time in the
classroom. More experienced teachers know that that here is too much work and not enough
time in the school day. Learners who are forced to move faster or slower than they should or
who are interrupted as they become involved in a project are not likely to develop persistence
for learning.

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Chapter Three: Teachers and Teaching

Introduction
Any study of the teacher starts with raising questions like: Who are teachers? Has their
background and personality to do with the fate of their profession? Are they trained? How are
they trained? Has this training an effect on their abilities and attitudes?
I. Effective Teaching
I. 1. Definition of teaching
According to the Cambridge International Dictionary of English, teaching is defined as the
process of giving knowledge, instruction or training to someone. Generally speaking,
teaching is frequently defined as the process of arranging conditions under which the leaner
changes his ways consciously in the direction of his own goals. It is often regarded as an art
rather than a science.
I. 2. Characteristics of good teaching
What makes a good teacher? Is it warmth, humour and the ability to care about people?
Is planning, hard work and self-discipline, what about leadership , enthusiasm, a contagious
love of learning, and speaking abilities, most people would agree that all of these qualities are
needed to make someone a good teacher. But these qualities are not enough.
Expert teachers have elaborate systems knowledge for understanding problems in
teaching. For example when, a beginning teacher is faced with learners wrong answers on a
particular test ( like a history or language test), all the wrong answers may seem about the
same wrong. For expert teachers, however, wrong answers are part of a rich system of
knowledge that could include how to recognize several types of wrong answers, the
misunderstanding or lack of information behind each mistake, the way to re-teach and correct
the misunderstanding. But what should teachers know that allow them to be successful?
Indeed, teachers need to possess a minimum professional knowledge and the ability to ba
aware of their own thinking. Consequently, they know:
Knowledge of the academic subject they teach

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The old joke which says Q: What do you need to teach a horse? A: more than the horse!
makes obvious the first thing a teacher must have is knowledge or skills that the learner does
not have. However, although knowledge of the subject matter is necessary, it is not enough.
Knowledge of how to transmit information and skills is at least as important as knowledge of
the information and the skills themselves. Every one may remember teachers who were
brilliant and thoroughly knowledgeable in their fields but who could not teach. For effective
teachers, subject matter is not a question of being a walking encyclopedia. Effective
teachers not only know their subjects, but they can also transmit their knowledge to learners.
Mastering the teaching skills
The link between what the teacher wants learners to learn and learners actual learning is
called instruction or pedagogy. Effective instruction is not a simple matter of one person with
more knowledge transmitting that knowledge to another. Rather, effective instruction
demands the use of many strategies. Indeed, the teachers needs to possess a set of strategies
that apply to all subjects; motivating learners, managing the classroom, assessing prior
knowledge, communicating ideas effectively, taking into account the characteristics of the
learners, assessing learning outcomes and reviewing information must be attended to at all
levels, in or out of schools. They apply as much to the training odf astraunots as to the
teaching of reading. How these tasks are accomplished, however, differs widely according to
ages of the learners, the objectives of instruction and other factors.
In addition to the above important elements of effective teaching, systematic research has
identified further areas of professional knowledge. In fact, effective or good teachers also
know:
The curriculum materials and programmes appropriate for their subject and grade level
Subject-specific knowledge for teaching special ways of teaching certain learners and
particular concepts, such as the best way to explain negative numbers to low ability
learners in mathematics.
The characteristics and cultural backgrounds of learners
The settings in which learners learn- pairs, small groups, teams, classes, schools, and the
community
The goals and the purposes of teaching
I. 3. A constructivist view of teaching
Brown and McInryre (1992; cited in Williams and Burden, 2000) report a study of the
opinions of 75 learners in a comprehensive school in the UK, aged 12-13 years as to what
made a good teacher. Then categories as representing elements of good teaching:
Creating a relaxed and enjoyable atmosphere in the classroom
Retaining control in the classroom

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 Presenting work in an interesting and motivating way

Providing conditions so learners understand the work
Making clear what learners are to do and achieve
Judging what can be expected of a learner
Helping learners with difficulties
Encouraging learners to raise their expectations of themselves
Developing personal, mature relationships with pupils
Demonstrating personal talent or knowledge.
However, although the writers could identify such elements of what they called
professional craft knowledge among teachers, they could draw no simple conclusions or
generalizations about how this highly complex knowledge could be transformed into
guidelines for action. As a matter of fact, teachers come in all shapes and sizes, with a wide
range of personalities, beliefs and ways of working,. They also come from different
backgrounds and belong to different cultures. It would be logical to expect them to work in
different ways that suit their personalities.
As a result, it seems fruitless to attempt to shape oneself into the model of a good
teacher. An inner exploration of oneself appears rather than a search for the outward
characteristics of the perfect teacher appears to be the radical solution. Such a vision of
teaching is provided by the constructivist approach to teaching.
In a constructivist perspective, teaching is not seen as the passing of a parcel of
objective knowledge, but as an attempt to share what the teacher himself finds meaningful.
The differences between teachers, therefore, are not simply a question of whether they are
good or bad, competent or incompetent because every teacher is unique. Teachers do not just
act as gateways for knowledge; they represent and even embody the curriculum. They convey
not just what they know but their position towards it. At the same time, teachers experience
engagement with their learners out of which further constructions emerge. Both the teacher
and the learners reshape their ways of understanding, their knowledge structures and the
meanings that they attribute to events and ideas as a result of this interactive process. They
also continually reconstruct their views of each other.

I. 4. Teachers as reflective practitioners

If teachers are to be effective in whatever approach they decide to take, they need to act
consistently in accordance with their expressed beliefs though this does not frequently occur
in any profession (not just the teaching one). In an attempt to improve teachers selfawareness, many educational theorists advocate for the notion of critical reflection. The
intention is to enable teachers to become reflective practitioners. A reflective practitioner is
one who subjects his everyday professional practice to ongoing critical reflection and makes
clear his own particular world view by means of such consideration.

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Reflective teachers are thoughtful and inventive. They think back over situations to
analyse what they did and why and to consider how they might improve learning for their
learners. Critical reflection can be fostered by asking a number of guiding questions:
What do my practices say about my assumptions, values and beliefs about teaching,
Where did these ideas come from,
What social practices are exposed in these ideas,
What views of power do they embody,
Whose interest seems to be served by my practices,
What is that acts to constrain my views of what is possible in teaching,
I. 5. Teachers as decision makers
The common belief today is that there is no formula for good teaching. Teaching
involves planning and preparation and then dozens of decisions every hour. Indeed, though
there are no simple answers to successful teaching, the theoretical principles and research
findings (particularly in educational psychology) provide a basis for planning and
implementing instruction. However, teaches have to act as independent decision makers and
apply these general concepts and principles in relation to their learners and educational
objectives.
Effective instructors know that the method of instruction used affects learning, so they
apply principles drawn from the study of learning, motivation, development and teaching to
tailor their approach the situation. Planning is probably the first step in decision taking. A
teaching plan is a guide of action, a set of decisions, and a small theory about how to produce
learning. Another example of decision making is the one about teaching strategies. Very often
teachers need to make decisions with minimal knowledge (will my students integrate ideas
better if I require them to prepare for a formal exam or if I assign a take-home exam on this
new topic that I am teaching for the first time,).
However, teachers do not always make decisions independently. Many decisions are
influenced by the behaviour of previous teachers or parents, learners peers, and school
policies. Some instructional decisions are not made in a conscious, deliberate way, often
because teachers simply do not see a problem. One teacher may see a learner as a pleasant,
capable, hard working whereas another teacher may realise that this learner is anxious and
excessively dependent on teachers, performing capably because he or she is a compulsive
worker and socially withdrawn, seldom engaging with peers. If teachers are unaware of such
problems, the decisions they will have to handle about that learner will be less than optimal.

II. Classroom management

One of the main tasks of a teacher is how to create social and physical environments for
learning; classroom management, then, is a crucial concern to any teacher who seeks to

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achieve effective teaching. The very nature of classes, teaching and learners makes good
management a critical ingredient for success. But is classroom management easily achived?
What are the special managerial demands of classes and the needs of learners of different
ages?
II. 1. The need for organisation
Classrooms are by nature multidimensional, full of simultaneous activities, fast-paced
and immediate, unpredictable public and affected by the history of learners and teachers
actions. The teacher (manager) must deal with all these elements every day.
Productive classroom activity requires learners cooperation. Even if some learners do
not participate, they must allow others to do so. Gaining learners cooperation means much
more than dealing effectively with misbehaviour. It means planning activities, having
materials ready, making appropriate behavioural and academic demands on learners, giving
clear signals, accomplishing transitions smoothly, foreseeing problems and stopping them
before they start, selecting and sequencing activities so that flow and interest are
maintained
Obviously maintaining cooperation is different for each age group. Young learners are
learning how to go to school and need to learn the general procedures of school. Others
need to know the specifics required for working in different subjects. Working with
adolescents requires teachers to understand the power of adolescent peer group.
II .2 The Goals of classroom management
Classroom management refers to the techniques used to maintain a healthy learning
environment, relatively free of behaviour problem. The aim of classroom management is to
maintain positive, productive learning environment. There are at least three main reasons for
working hard to manage classrooms:
1. More time for learning: Many minutes of the class time are lost each day through
interruptions, disruptions, late starts, and rough transitions. Thus one important goal of
classroom management is to expand the sheer number of minutes available on
learning. This sometimes called allocated time. However, simply making more time
for learning will not automatically lead to achievement. To be valuable, time must be
used effectively. Basically, learners learn more what they practise and think about.
Time spent actively involved in specific learning tasks is often called engaged time, or
sometimes time on task. Still, engaged time does not guarantee learning. Learners
might be struggling with material that is too difficult or using the wrong learning
strategies. When they are working with a high rate of success really learning and
understanding- we call the time spent academic learning time.
2. Access to learning: A second goal of class management is to increase academic
learning time by keeping learners actively engaged in worthwhile, appropriate learning
activities. In order to participate successfully in a given activity, learners must
understand the participation structure- the rules defining who can talk, what they can

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talk about and when, to whom, and how long they can talk. To reach the second goal
of classroom management giving all learners access to learning- the teacher must
make sure that every one knows how to participate in class activity. The key is
awareness.
3. Encourage self-management, self-control and responsibility by explaining the
procedures that describe how activities are to be accomplished in classrooms, though
they are seldom written. These procedures involve descriptions of how materials and
assignments be distributed and collected, under what conditions learners can leave the
room, how the grades will be determined, etc. in addition to procedures, there are rules
that specify expected and forbidden actions in the class. the rules

II .3. Maintaining a good environment for learning

Effective teachers maintain their management system by preventing problems and keeping
learners engaged in productive learning activities. How do they achieve this? Several
strategies may be applied ( some of them have already been discussed when describing
strategies to raise and keep learners motivation)
II.3.a. Engaging learners:
The format of the class affects learner involvement. In general, as teacher supervision
increases, learners engaged time also increases. When the tasks provides continuous cues for
the learners about what to do next, involvement will be greater. Activites with clear steps are
likely to be more absorbing because one stp leads naturally to the next. Making work
requirement clear and specific, providing needed materials and monitoring activities all add to
engagement.
II.3.b. Preventing misbehaviour
The ideal way to manage problems is to prevent them in the first place. To do so teachers
must take individual differences into account, maintain learners motivation and reinforce
positive behaviour. Jacob Kounin describes areas where successful problem preventers are
skilled

Withiness: The teacher must communicate to learners that he is aware of everything

that is happening in the classroom, that he is not missing anything. With-it teachers
seem to have eyes in their heads. They avoid becoming absorbed or interacting with
only a few learners because this encourages the class to wander. They are always
scanning the room, making eye contact with individual learners so that the latter
would know they are being monitored.

Overlapping: Keeping track and supervising several activities at the same time

Maintaining group focus: Keeping as many learners as possible involved in

appropriate class activities and avoid narrowing in on just one or two learners.

233

Movement management: Keeping lessons and the group moving at an appropriate

( and flexible) pace, with smooth transitions and variety.

II.3.c. Dealing with discipline problems

Being an effective teacher does not mean publicly correcting every minor infraction of the
rules. Researchers have identified seven levels of intervention in misbehaviour

make eye contact with, or move closer, to the offender

try verbal hints such as name dropping ( simply insert the learners name into the
lecture)

ask the learner if he is aware of the negative effect of the actions

if they are not performing a class activity, remind him of the procedure and have him
follow it correctly.

In a calm, unhostile way, ask the learner to state the correct rule or procedure and then
to follow it

Tell the learner in a clear assertive, and unhostile way to stop the misbehaviour

Offer a choice stop the behaviour or meet privately to work out the consequences,
for instance.

III.Educational Objectives: Blooms Taxonomy

III. 1. Introduction
One of the basic questions facing educators has always been "Where do we begin in seeking
to improve human thinking?" (Houghton, 2004). Fortunately we do not have to begin from
scratch in searching for answers to this complicated question. Some scholars believe that the
best way to begin is in defining the nature of thinking. Indeed, before we can make it better,
we need to know more of what it is.
In 1780, Abigail Adams stated, "Learning is not attained by chance; it must be sought for with
ardor and attended to with diligence" ( quotationspage.com, 2005). Learning, teaching,
identifying educational goals, and thinking are all complicated concepts interwoven in an
intricate web. Bloom was arduous, diligent, and patient while seeking to demystify these
concepts and untangle this web. He made "the improvement of student learning" the central
focus of his life's work.
III. 2. The Three Types of Learning
Following the 1948 Convention of the American Psychological Association, Benjamin Bloom
took a lead in formulating a classification of "the goals of the educational process". Bloom
headed a group of educational psychologists who developed a classification of levels of

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intellectual behaviour important in learning. This became a taxonomy including three

overlapping domains; the cognitive, psychomotor, and affective

Cognitive: mental skills (Knowledge)

Affective: growth in feelings or emotional areas (Attitude)
Psychomotor: manual or physical skills (Skills)

Since the work was produced by higher education, the words tend to be a
little bigger than we normally use. Domains can be thought of as
categories. Trainers often refer to these three domains as KSA
(Knowledge, Skills, and Attitude). This taxonomy of learning behaviours
can be thought of as "the goals of the training process." That is, after the
training session, the learner should have acquired new skills, knowledge,
and/or attitudes.
This compilation divides the three domains into subdivisions, starting from
the simplest behaviour to the most complex. The divisions outlined are not
absolutes and there are other systems or hierarchies that have been
devised in the educational and training world. However, Bloom's taxonomy
is easily understood and is probably the most widely applied one in use
today.
III. 2. a. Cognitive
The cognitive domain involves knowledge and the development of
intellectual skills. This includes the recall or recognition of specific facts,
procedural patterns, and concepts that serve in the development of
intellectual abilities and skills. There are six major categories sometimes
referred to as levels, which are listed in order below, starting from the
simplest behaviour to the most complex. The categories can be thought of
as degrees of difficulties. That is, the first one must be mastered before
.the next one can take place
Category

Example and Key Words

Knowledge: Recall data or Examples: Recite a policy. Quote prices from memory to a
.information customer. Knows the safety rules.
Key Words: defines, describes, identifies, knows, labels, lists,
matches, names, outlines, recalls, recognizes, reproduces, selects,
states.
Comprehension: Understand Examples: Rewrites the principles of test writing. Explain in
the meaning, translation, ones own words the steps for performing a complex task.
interpolation, and interpretation

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of instructions and problems. Translates an equation into a computer spreadsheet.

State a problem in one's own
.words Key Words: comprehends, converts, defends, distinguishes,
estimates, explains, extends, generalizes, gives Examples, infers,
interprets, paraphrases, predicts, rewrites, summarizes, translates.
Application: Use a concept in
a new situation or unprompted
use of an abstraction. Applies
what was learned in the
classroom into novel situations
in the work place.

Examples: Use a manual to calculate an employees vacation

time. Apply laws of statistics to evaluate the reliability of a
written test.

Analysis: Separates material or

concepts into component parts
so that its organizational
structure may be understood.
Distinguishes between facts
and inferences.

Examples: Troubleshoot a piece of equipment by using logical

deduction. Recognize logical fallacies in reasoning. Gathers
information from a department and selects the required tasks for
training.

Synthesis: Builds a structure or

pattern from diverse elements.
Put parts together to form a
whole, with emphasis on
creating a new meaning or
structure.

Examples: Write a company operations or process manual.

Design a machine to perform a specific task. Integrates training
from several sources to solve a problem. Revises and process to
improve the outcome.

Evaluation: Make judgments

about the value of ideas or
materials.

Examples: Select the most effective solution. Hire the most

qualified candidate. Explain and justify a new budget.

Key Words: applies, changes, computes, constructs,

demonstrates, discovers, manipulates, modifies, operates,
predicts, prepares, produces, relates, shows, solves, uses.

Key Words: analyzes, breaks down, compares,

contrasts, diagrams, deconstructs, differentiates, discriminates,
distinguishes, identifies, illustrates, infers, outlines, relates,
selects, separates.

Key Words: categorizes, combines, compiles, composes, creates,

devises, designs, explains, generates, modifies, organizes, plans,
rearranges, reconstructs, relates, reorganizes, revises, rewrites,
summarizes, tells, writes.

Key Words: appraises, compares, concludes, contrasts, criticizes,

critiques, defends, describes, discriminates, evaluates, explains,
interprets, justifies, relates, summarizes, supports.

III. 2. b. Affective
This domain includes the manner in which we deal with things emotionally,
such as feelings, values, appreciation, enthusiasms, motivations, and

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attitudes. In other words, the Affective domain consisted of behaviours corresponding

to: attitudes of awareness, interest, attention, concern, and responsibility, ability to listen and
respond in interactions with others, and ability to demonstrate those attitudinal characteristics
or values which are appropriate to the test situation and the field of study. This domain relates
to emotions, attitudes, appreciations, and values, such as enjoying, conserving, respecting, and
supporting. The five major categories are listed from the simplest behaviour
:to the most complex

Category
Receiving Phenomena: Awareness,
willingness to hear, selected attention.

Example and Key Words

Examples: Listen to others with respect. Listen
for and remember the name of newly introduced
people.
Key Words: asks, chooses, describes, follows,
gives, holds, identifies, locates, names, points to,
selects, sits, erects, replies, uses.

Responding to Phenomena: Active

participation on the part of the
learners. Attends and reacts to a particular
phenomenon. Learning outcomes may
emphasize compliance in responding,
willingness to respond, or satisfaction in
responding (motivation).

Examples: Participates in class discussions.

Gives a presentation. Questions new ideals,
concepts, models, etc. in order to fully understand
them. Know the safety rules and practices them.

Valuing: The worth or value a person

attaches to a particular object,
phenomenon, or behaviour. This ranges
from simple acceptance to the more
complex state of commitment. Valuing is
based on the internalization of a set of
specified values, while clues to these
values are expressed in the learners overt
behaviour and are often identifiable.

Examples: Demonstrates belief in the democratic

process. Is sensitive towards individual and
cultural differences (value diversity). Shows the
ability to solve problems. Proposes a plan to social
improvement and follows through with
commitment. Informs management on matters that
one feels strongly about.

Organization: Organizes values into

priorities by contrasting different values,
resolving conflicts between them, and

Examples: Recognizes the need for balance

between freedom and responsible
behaviour. Accepts responsibility for ones

Key Words: answers, assists, aids, complies,

conforms, discusses, greets, helps, labels,
performs, practices, presents, reads, recites,
reports, selects, tells, writes.

Key Words: completes, demonstrates,

differentiates, explains, follows, forms, initiates,
invites, joins, justifies, proposes, reads, reports,
selects, shares, studies, works.

237

creating an unique value system. The

emphasis is on comparing, relating, and
synthesizing values.

behaviour. Explains the role of systematic

planning in solving problems. Accepts
professional ethical standards. Creates a life plan
in harmony with abilities, interests, and beliefs.
Prioritizes time effectively to meet the needs of
the organization, family, and self.
Key Words: adheres, alters, arranges, combines,
compares, completes, defends, explains,
formulates, generalizes, identifies, integrates,
modifies, orders, organizes, prepares, relates,
synthesizes.

Internalizing values (characterization):

Has a value system that controls their
behaviour. The behaviour is pervasive,
consistent, predictable, and most
importantly, characteristic of the
learner. Instructional objectives are
concerned with the student's general
patterns of adjustment (personal, social,
emotional).

Examples: Shows self-reliance when working

independently. Cooperates in group
activities (displays teamwork). Uses an objective
approach in problem solving. Displays a
professional commitment to ethical practice on a
daily basis. Revises judgments and changes
behaviour in light of new evidence. Values people
for what they are, not how they look.
Key Words: acts, discriminates, displays,
influences, listens, modifies, performs, practices,
proposes, qualifies, questions, revises, serves,
solves, verifies.

III. 2. c. Psychomotor
The psychomotor domain includes physical movement, coordination, and
use of the motor-skill areas. Development of these skills requires practice
and is measured in terms of speed, precision, distance, procedures, or
techniques in execution. The seven major categories are listed from the
simplest behaviour to the most complex:
Although not part of the original work by Bloom, others went on to complete the definition of
psychomotor taxonomies. For example, Harrow (1972) proposed these six levels: Reflex
(objectives not usually written at this "low" level), Fundamental movements - applicable
mostly to young children (crawl, run, jump, reach, change direction), Perceptual abilities
(catch, write, balance, distinguish, manipulate), Physical abilities (stop, increase, move
quickly, change, react), Skilled movements (play, hit, swim, dive, use), and Non-discursive
communication (express, create, mime, design, interpret).

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Category

Example and Key Words

Perception: The ability to use sensory cues

to guide motor activity. This ranges from
sensory stimulation, through cue selection,
to translation.

Examples: Detects non-verbal communication

cues. Estimate where a ball will land after it is
thrown and then moving to the correct location to
catch the ball. Adjusts heat of stove to correct
temperature by smell and taste of food. Adjusts the
height of the forks on a forklift by comparing
where the forks are in relation to the pallet.
Key Words: chooses, describes, detects,
differentiates, distinguishes, identifies, isolates,
relates, selects.

Set: Readiness to act. It includes mental,

physical, and emotional sets. These three
sets are dispositions that predetermine a
persons response to different situations
(sometimes called mindsets).

Examples: Knows and acts upon a sequence of

steps in a manufacturing process. Recognize ones
abilities and limitations. Shows desire to learn a
new process (motivation). NOTE: This subdivision
of Psychomotor is closely related with the
"Responding to phenomena" subdivision of the
.Affective domain
Key Words: begins, displays, explains, moves,
proceeds, reacts, shows, states, volunteers.

Guided Response: The early stages in

learning a complex skill that includes
imitation and trial and error. Adequacy of
performance is achieved by practicing.

Examples: Performs a mathematical equation as

demonstrated. Follows instructions to build a
model. Responds hand-signals of instructor while
learning to operate a forklift.
Key Words: copies, traces, follows, react,
reproduce, responds

Mechanism: This is the intermediate stage

in learning a complex skill. Learned
responses have become habitual and the
movements can be performed with some
confidence and proficiency.

Examples: Use a personal computer. Repair a

leaking faucet. Drive a car.

Complex Overt Response: The skillful

performance of motor acts that involve
complex movement patterns. Proficiency is

Examples: Manoeuvres a car into a tight parallel

parking spot. Operates a computer quickly and
accurately. Displays competence while playing the

Key Words: assembles, calibrates, constructs,

dismantles, displays, fastens, fixes, grinds, heats,
manipulates, measures, mends, mixes, organizes,
sketches.

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indicated by a quick, accurate, and highly

coordinated performance, requiring a
minimum of energy. This category includes
performing without hesitation, and
automatic performance. For example,
players are often utter sounds of satisfaction
or expletives as soon as they hit a tennis
ball or throw a football, because they can
tell by the feel of the act what the result will
produce.

piano.

Adaptation: Skills are well developed and

the individual can modify movement
patterns to fit special requirements.

Examples: Responds effectively to unexpected

experiences. Modifies instruction to meet the
needs of the learners. Perform a task with a
machine that it was not originally intended to do
(machine is not damaged and there is no danger in
performing the new task).

Key Words: assembles, builds, calibrates,

constructs, dismantles, displays, fastens, fixes,
grinds, heats, manipulates, measures, mends,
mixes, organizes, sketches.
NOTE: The Key Words are the same as
Mechanism, but will have adverbs or adjectives
that indicate that the performance is quicker, better,
more accurate, etc.

Key Words: adapts, alters, changes, rearranges,

reorganizes, revises, varies.
Origination: Creating new movement
patterns to fit a particular situation or
specific problem. Learning outcomes
emphasize creativity based upon highly
developed skills.

Examples: Constructs a new theory. Develops a

new and comprehensive training programming.
Creates a new gymnastic routine.
Key Words: arranges, builds, combines,
composes, constructs, creates, designs, initiate,
makes, originates.

III.2. d. Other Psychomotor Domains

As mentioned earlier, the committee did not produce a compilation for the psychomotor
domain model, but others have. The one discussed above is by Simpson
(1972). There are two other popular versions:
Dave's 1975:
Imitation: Observing and patterning behavior after someone
else. Performance may be of low quality. Example: Copying a work
of art.

Manipulation: Being able to perform certain actions by

following instructions and practicing. Example: Creating work on
one's own, after taking lessons, or reading about it.

240

Precision: Refining, becoming more exact. Few errors are

apparent. Example: Working and reworking something, so it will be
"just right."

Articulation: Coordinating a series of actions, achieving

harmony and internal consistency. Example: Producing a video that
involves music, drama, color, sound, etc.

Naturalization: Having high level performance become

natural, without needing to think much about it. Examples: Michael
Jordan playing basketball, Nancy Lopez hitting a golf ball, etc.

Harrow's 1972:
Reflex movements - Reactions that are not learned.
Fundamental movements - Basic movements such as
walking, or grasping.

Perception - Response to stimuli such as visual, auditory,

kinesthetic, or tactile discrimination.

Physical abilities - Stamina that must be developed for

further development such as strength and agility.

Skilled movements - Advanced learned movements as one

would find in sports or acting.

No discursive communication - Effective body language,

such as gestures and facial expressions.

Bibliography
1)

Brown, H. Douglas, Language Learning and Teaching, Prentice Hall inc, 1987.

2)

Child, Denis Psychology and the Teacher, second edition, Holt, Rinehart and

Winston, 1980.
3)

W. N. Denbar, J. Jenkins, and J. Teylor, General Psychology, 1984

4)

Dobson, C. B., Hardy, M., Heys S. , Humphreys , A. and P. Humphreys

Understanding Psychology, 1982.

5)

Feldman, Robertm S., Undertanding Psychology (4th edition), McGraw-Hill

Inc,1990.
6)

Good, Thomas L. and Jere E. Brophy ,Educational Psychology: A Realistic

Approach, 4th edition, Longman, 1995.

7)

.Mc Farland, H.S.N., Psychological Theory and Educational Practice. Human

Development, Learning and Measurement, Routelidge and kegan Paul, London 1971

241

8)

McDonough, Steven H., Psychology in Language Teaching, 2nd edition,

English Language Book Society, Allen & Unwin, , LOndon, 1986

9)

Slavin, Robert, Educational Psychology: Theory and Practice, 7th edition,

Pearson Education, Inc, 2003

10)

Stones, e and S. Morris, Teaching Practice: Problems and Perspectives. A

reappraisal of the practical professional element in teacher preparation, Mathuen &

Co Ltd, London, 1972
11)

Williams, Marion and Robert L. Burden, Psychology for Language Teachers,

Cambridge University Press, 1997 ( 3rd printing 2000)

12)

Woolfolk, Anita, Educational Psychology, 9th edition, 2004, Pearson Education

13)

Zimbardo, Philip G., Psychology and Life , Scott Foresman and Company,

Glenview, Illinois. 1979

Online resources
Learning Domains or Bloom's Taxonomy.
Taxonomy. Online available at:
http://www.nwlink.com/~donclark/hrd/bloom.html

242

Rpublique Algrienne Dmocratique et Populaire

Ministre de l'Enseignement suprieur et de la Recherche Scientifique
Ecole Normale Suprieure des Lettres et Sciences Humaines
Constantine
Cours denseignement distance
LMD
U E. Droit
3eme Anne
Semestre IV

243

GENERALITES EN SCIENCES JURIDIQUES

Elabor par Mr A. ZOUITEN

2008-2009

244

CHAPITRE I : LES DIFFERENTS SENS DU MOT DROIT

Lorigine tymologique du vocable droit est rechercher dans la civilisation
grecque (-100 -800 ans A-JC). Il est driv du terme KANUN qui tait utilis pour exprimer
lallgorie (limage, ou le symbole) de la rgle de conduite.
Le vocable droit renvoie donc, depuis son origine, une ide de rectitude, cest-dire de droiture dans la conduite en socit ; il est utilis comme norme ou critre de mesure
de lcart que prennent les gens vis--vis des rgles quils ont voulues, pour la rgulation de
leurs rapports lintrieur du groupement dans lequel ils vivent. Leurs comportements
scartent du droit lorsquils ne sont pas conformes la rgle pose par le droit.
I : DEFINITION :
Le droit est un ensemble de normes hirarchises, gnrales et impersonnelles,
procdant de la loi, de la coutume, de la jurisprudence et dans une certaine mesure de la
doctrine des auteurs, qui a pour vocation de rgir la vie sociale et dont lautorit est garantie
par la puissance publique dtentrice du pouvoir lgitime.

245

Pour que lon puisse parler de droit, il faut quil existe une socit organise qui ne soit
pas une simple communaut dindividus, mais une entit ayant une existence autonome par
rapport celle de chacun de ses membres et ayant pour fonction la promotion dobjectifs
partags par tous : linstitution incarnant la collectivit dans son ensemble prend la forme de
lEtat qui dtient, selon la clbre formule du sociologue Max Weber le monopole de la
contrainte lgitime .ce modle vaut quelle que soit la forme de lEtat et sapplique aussi bien
aux cits du monde antique quaux dmocraties du monde contemporain.
De ce qui prcde, le droit constitue un phnomne minemment social. Il correspond
au fait que la socit tablit des rgles destines rgir son fonctionnement et par voie de
consquence, organiser les relations des personnes qui la composent. Cela permet de
comprendre que pour le juriste, le mot droit comporte deux dfinitions distinctes, mais
complmentaires.
En premier lieu, il est un ensemble de rgles destines la vie en socit et qui
sapplique toutes les personnes qui forment le corps social. Cela explique que les rgles sont
formules de manire gnrale et impersonnelle : la rgle concerne chacun et ne dsigne
personne en particulier. A titre dexemple : la rgle pose par lart.124 du code civil algrien
(C.C.A.) : Tout fait quelconque de lHomme qui cause autrui un dommage, oblige celui
par la faute duquel il est arriv le rparer . Ce texte dicte le principe qui a vocation
sappliquer tous et non quelquun de prcis.
En tant quil dsigne un ensemble de rgles gnrales et impersonnelles, le mot droit
correspond ce que lon appelle le droit objectif. Cette formule signifie quon envisage la
rgle de droit en elle-mme et par elle-mme abstraction faite de son application aux
personnes qui y sont soumises.
Cependant, lessence des rgles de droit est dorganiser la vie en socit et de rgir des
personnes quon appelle des sujets de droit.
De cela dcoule une seconde comprhension du mot droit qui voque lapplication de la rgle
de droit. Dans ce second sens, il est envisag de faon concrte et particulire en dsignant les
droits subjectifs. Ils correspondent aux prrogatives individuelles que les personnes prennent
du corps de rgles qui constitue le droit objectif.
Pour reprendre lexemple de lart.124 du code civil algrien cit plus haut, cest le droit pour
celui qui subi un dommage par la faute dun tiers de lui en rclamer rparation. De mme,
lorsque nous voquons notre proprit dune chose, cest le droit subjectif que nous voquons.
Un droit subjectif peut tre absolu ou relatif :
Les droits absolus s'appliquent l'gard de tout tiers (ex. : droit de proprit,
droit la vie). On dit qu'ils s'appliquent erga omnes donc opposable tous.

Les droits relatifs s'appliquent l'gard d'un ou plusieurs tiers dtermins (ex. :
droits dcoulant d'un contrat).

Ces deux significations du mot droit ne sont pas opposes lune lautre, elles sont
complmentaires, car les derniers (droits subjectifs) sont souvent prvus par le premier (droit
objectif) et ils le mettent souvent en uvre.

246

II : LES CARACTERES GENERAUX DE LA REGLE DE DROIT

De ce qui a prcd nous pouvons avancer lide que le droit sexprime par une unit de
valeur qui est la rgle de droit .Elle se distingue par des caractres gnraux et impersonnels
qui sont aussi les caractres de droit. La ncessit sociale du droit, son impersonnalit et son
abstraction et enfin, sa coercition (contrainte).
A- : LE DROIT COMME FAIT DE SOCIETE
Toute rgle de droit est cre pour organiser les rapports des individus dans la socit .Il
serait inimaginable de concevoir lexistence de rgles juridiques en dehors dun groupement
humain htrogne dans sa composante et dans les aspirations et les intrts de ses membres.
Les litiges apparaissent aussitt entre les membres de ce groupement sur la libert de chacun
dentre eux ou sur leur droit ou leur devoir .Il ny aurait point besoin de rgle ou de droit dans
un espace habit par un seul homme, ce dernier aurait une libert totale daction puisque
personne ne peut lui contester cette libert .Mais lhomme tant par dfinition un animal
social il ne peut vivre en autarcie.
En socit lhomme rentre en relation avec ses semblables, de cette relation dcoule une
comptition voir des conflits qui peuvent remettre en cause la cohsion sociale .Pour prvenir
la socit de ces dangers il tait ncessaire de mettre en place des rgles pour rgir les
comportements des individus en limitant leur libert absolue. Il est de la nature de ces rgles
dinterdire certains actes comme le vol, le meurtre etc. ou dinciter accomplir dautres
actes positifs comme lassistance personnes en danger ou le paiement des impts etc.
En plus de la ncessit sociale, la rgle de droit reprsente un systme de valeur.
Ce dernier vise organiser la socit dans son ensemble et les relations qui stablissent entre
les personnes qui la compose dans un but de cohsion sociale afin dassurer la quitude dans
la vie des gens. Seulement ce droit ne reprsente pas lui seul tout les systmes de valeurs: Il
en est dautre qui lui sont concurrents et qui se traduisent dans la morale et la religion. La
rgle morale tend la perfection de la personne et lpanouissement de la conscience .La
rgle religieuse veille au salut de ltre humain dans sa rencontre avec Dieu son crateur .Ses
perspectives sont assurment diffrentes de celles dans laquelle se place la rgle de droit qui
est ni une rgle de salut ni rgle de rencontre mais un facteur dordre un rgulateur de la vie
en socit.

B- CARACTERE GENERAL ET IMPERSONNEL DE LA REGLE DE DROIT

La rgle de droit concerne chacun et ne dsigne personne en particulier, on dit delle quelle a
un caractre gnral et impersonnel .Celui ci est dans la nature de la notion mme des rgles :
cest dire toute prescription qui prtend sappliquer un groupe dindividu, une rgle qui
ne visera quune personne dtermine ne serait rien dautre quune dcision individuelle, cest
le cas notamment des dcret ou arrts portant nomination dun fonctionnaire.

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La rgle de droit est impersonnelle et gnrale lorsquelle concerne une situation plus ou
moins dfinie .Cest le cas titre dexemple de la majorit que fixe larticle 40 du Code Civil
qui dispose : toute personne majeure jouissant de ses facults mentales et nayant pas t
interdite, est pleinement capable pour lexercice de ses droits civils. La majorit est fixe 19
ans rvolus. .
Toute personne appartenant la socit que la rgle de droit rgit, a vocation se voir
appliquer cette rgle ds lors quelle se trouve dans la situation vise. La rgle ne spuise pas
en tranchant un cas, tout au contraire sa vocation et de sappliquer une srie de cas qui se
rpte dans le temps, la rgle de droit implique une certaine permanence.
La gnralit de la rgle de droit se manifeste aussi dans le fait que, souvent, la rgle ne
sapplique qu une catgorie limit de personne : les salaris (droit de travail), les
propritaires pour certaine dispositions du droit civil, les locataires pour dautre dispositions
du droit civil, les conducteurs dautomobiles pour le code de la route, les agriculteurs, les
investisseursetc.
La rgle nen conserve pas moins sa gnralit en ce quelle a vocation sappliquer sur
toute personne appartenant la catgorie considre, et toute personne qui entre dans cette
catgorie sy trouve automatiquement soumise.
Aussi la rgle de droit est toujours impersonnelle dans sa formation et gnrale dans son
application.

C- LA REGLE DE DROIT EST UNE MESURE COERCITIVE

Il est dans la nature des rgles de comporter une sanction, cest une condition de leur respect,
si non de leur existence ; mais selon les rgles, la sanction varie.
La caractristique dcisive de la rgle de droit consiste en se quelle est rendue obligatoire et
sanctionn par lEtat.
Toute rgle morale, religieuse ou autre peut devenir juridique : il lui suffit pour cela dtre
rendue obligatoire et assortie de sanctions, et sanctionne par lEtat. Cest cette conscration
par lEtat qui en fait une rgle de droit.
En rgle gnrale la sanction de lautorit publique qui sattache la rgle de droit veut dire
quil est possible den exiger lexcution, au besoin en recourant un organe de la justice
institu par lEtat.
Les sanctions de linobservation de la rgle de droit sont varies et hirarchises en fonction
de leur gravit et du dommage qui en rsulte .Une gamme trs diversifie de sanctions est
organise par le droit .De faon sommaire, il est possible de regrouper les sanctions de la
rgle de droit autour de trois ides : Excution -Rparation- Punition.
On observera que ces trois thmes ne sont pas exclusifs lun de lautre, car il existe des
sanctions qui cumulent la fois lexcution de la rgle et la rparation des consquences de sa
violation initiale .Cette palette de sanction peut concerner les trois types fondamentaux de
contentieux: le contentieux civil, le contentieux pnal et le contentieux administratif.

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Lexcution est inhrente au caractre obligatoire de la rgle de droit, cependant il faut

remarquer que cette excution exige parfois une crcition .Lapplication de la rgle de droit
par le juge qui tranche le procs en est la parfaite illustration. Lorsque ce dernier ordonne la
saisie des biens du dbiteur qui ne veut pas payer sa dette le crancier fait saisir et vendre ses
biens pour se payer sur le produit de cette vente.
Les sanctions rparatrices sont assez frquentes et nous en distinguons deux sortes : la nullit
dabord. Cest la sanction la plus frquente de la violation de la rgle de droit loccasion
dun acte juridique cest dire un acte de volont qui est crateur dun fait de droit comme
par exemple un acte de vente .Lacte conclu en violation de la rgle est annul cest dire
que non seulement il disparat pour lavenir mais encore, tout les effets quil a pu dj
produire sont effacs .Ainsi si une vente a t consentie par une personne prive de sa
capacit de conclure un tel contrat (mineur par exemple )ce contrat peut tre annul ce qui
aura pour effet de restituer au vendeur la proprit de la chose vendue et de confrer
lacheteur le droit dobtenir le remboursement du prix.
En bref, la nullit a pour rsultat de faire comme si lacte contraire la rgle de droit navait
jamais exist. Les dommages intrts en suite, cest la sanction la plus habituelle de la
responsabilit civile, lorsquune personne cause un dommage autrui dans des conditions qui
engage sa responsabilit, parce quelle a commis une faute par exemple, elle est tenue de
rparer ce dommage le plus souvent en payant la victime des dommages intrts cest dire
une somme dargent dun montant gal au dommage caus.
Les sanctions punitives relve principalement du droit pnal, ce sont les peines qui
sanctionnent les actes de dlinquance, contravention, dlits ou crimes pour aller des plus
simples aux plus graves. Ces peines sont diverses dans leurs nature (amende, emprisonnement
et rclusion mais aussi privation du permis de conduire interdiction dexercer certaines
activits etc.) mais aussi dans leurs gravit : la dure de la privation de libert et le montant
de lamende augmente avec la gravit de linfraction commise. La notion de peine nest pas
exclusivement rserve au domaine pnal nous pouvons la retrouver dans certaine situations
relevant du droit civil, ou mme du droit administratif.

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CHAPITRE II : LA PERSONNALIT JURIDIQUE

L'aptitude la mise en uvre des rgles de droit est reconnue par principe aux tres humains. Ce
principe oppose nettement les tres humains, personnes physiques, aux choses : alors que les
premiers sont les animateurs de la vie juridique, les secondes n'en sont que l'objet. .Toutefois, les
tres humains ne sont pas les seuls tre admis avoir une activit juridique. Le droit reconnat
la mme aptitude certains groupements de personnes ou de biens qui sont des personnes
distinctes et autonomes : ce sont les personnes morales.

A- LA DUALITE DES SUJETS DE DROIT

1-

: LES PERSONNES PHYSIQUES

La personnalit se dfinit comme l'aptitude participer la vie juridique, en bnficiant de

droits subjectifs et en animant les situations juridiques. Ainsi, dfinie, elle est reconnue tous les
tres humains sans exception. Il y a l pourtant une conqute relativement rcente du droit
puisque, l'esclavage n'a t aboli que tardivement en France en 1848 et dans d'autres pays, bien
au-del, en 1888 au Brsil, et en 1965 en Arabie Saoudite.

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De plus, la mort civile, qui tait une sanction accompagnant certaines condamnations pnales, en
vertu de laquelle, celui qui en tait frapp ne pouvait plus acqurir de droits, n'a t abolie qu'en
1854. Aujourd'hui, la reconnaissance de la personnalit juridique des tres humains est donc
absolue et se confond avec l'existence de la personne.
Il convient de distinguer soigneusement la personnalit de la capacit juridique. Tandis que la
premire affirme une aptitude gnrale participer la vie juridique, la seconde prcise pour
chacun, les conditions de cette participation. Ainsi, la pleine capacit civile reconnue en
principe tous les majeurs saints d'esprit, habilite ceux-ci acqurir et exercer tous les
droits civils. Au contraire, les incapacits apportent des limitations de porte variable la
jouissance ou l'exercice des droits.
Les incapacits de jouissance correspondent la privation dune personne d'un droit. Elle ne
peut ni l'accomplir seule, ni par personne interpose. Les incapacits de jouissance sont
ncessairement spciales, c'est--dire, limites certains actes, car leur gnralisation aboutirait
dnier la personnalit juridique que la loi accorde tout le monde. Le plus souvent, il s'agit
d'une sanction prise contre cette personne, comme par exemple, le tuteur d'un incapable n'a pas
le droit d'acqurir les biens de son pupille.
Au contraire, les incapacits d'exercice sont plus frquentes. Dans ce cas, l'incapable possde les
mmes droits que tout autre individu, mais il ne peut les exercer seul. Leur accomplissement
ncessite la reprsentation ou l'assistance de l'incapable par une autre personne. L'incapacit
est alors une mesure qui consiste protger les intrts de l'incapable contre les effets de
ses propres actes.
Le rgime applicable l'incapable varie selon qu'il doit tre reprsent ou assist pour
l'accomplissement des actes de la vie juridique.
La reprsentation lgale ou administration lgale de la personne compltement ou
partiellement incapable du fait de son jeune ge, de sa dmence, de son imbcillit ou de sa
prodigalit se ralise par les rgimes prvus par les articles 81 135 de la loi n 84-11 du 9 juin
1984, modifie et complte portant code de la famille. Il s'agit des rgimes de la tutelle, de
l'interdiction, du disparu et de l'absent, du recueil lgal ou kafala. Dans ces rgimes de
reprsentation, l'incapacit est gnrale. Le tuteur agit au lieu et place de l'incapable. Tel est le
cas des majeurs placs sous ce rgime en regard de l'altration de leurs facults mentales.
La curatelle est un rgime dans lequel l'incapable est assist par une personne qui agit avec lui
et le conseille. L'incapable peut contracter, mais le curateur doit au pralable l'y autoriser.
a- : Le commencement de la personnalit
Le commencement de la personnalit juridique des personnes physiques dbute avec la
naissance d'un individu vivant et viable. Il y a donc un lien direct entre la personnalit et la
vie. Le problme du commencement de la vie et donc de la personnalit peut tre rsolu de
deux manires : soit on considre que la vie ne dbute qu'a la naissance, soit on s'attache
l'enclenchement du processus vital et l'on considre que le commencement de la vie concide
avec la conception.
D'une manire gnrale, le droit algrien, inspir du droit franais, lie la personnalit la
naissance. La jurisprudence franaise a depuis longtemps, admis le principe que l'enfant
conu est rput n ds lors qu'il y a va de son intrt. II rsulte de ceci qu'un enfant n viable et

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peu importe qu'il dcde peu aprs la naissance, peut recueillir des droits pendant la dure de la
gestation. C'est le cas notamment lorsque pendant celle-ci, une succession est ouverte et au
regard de laquelle il a qualit d'hritier. Le droit algrien a adopt la mme logique puisque
l'article 34 de la loi 84-11du 9 juin 1984 portant code de la famille code de la famille a
dispos dans ce sens :
L'enfant simplement conu n'a vocation hrditaire que s'il nat vivant et viable au moment
de l'ouverture de la succession. Est rput nat vivant tout enfant qui vagit ou donne un signe
apparent de vie.
La personnalit est donc lie la naissance. Il en rsulte que l'embryon, un foetus ne se voit pas
reconnatre l qualit de sujet de droit, de personne. L'interruption volontaire de grossesse est
tout a fait licite en France, cela corrobore l'affirmation prcdente.
b- : La fin de la personnalit
La fin de la personnalit concide avec la fin de la vie, mais aussi, par la disparition ou
l'absence. La fin de la personnalit par le dcs, la lumire des progrs de la science mdicale,
notamment la thanatologie (science de la mort), est devenue complexe cerner. Le critre de la
mort est devenu relativement difficile tablir : arrt cardiaque et respiratoire et c'est la premire
situation. Dans ce cas, le cadavre est froid, le constat de la mort peut tre tabli si les trois critres
cliniques suivants sont simultanment prsents : absence totale de conscience et d'activit motrice
spontane, abolition de tous les rflexes du tronc crbral et enfin, absence totale de ventilation
spontane. Le code de la sant publique franais pose tous ces pralables avant tout prlvement
d'organes.
La seconde solution, concerne la mort crbrale avec maintien sous respiration artificielle : dans
ce cas, le dcs est cliniquement constat la suite de l'arrt respiratoire et pour le prouver, il
faut que la personne soit soumise deux encphalogrammes et que ces derniers soient plats. La
loi algrienne n 90-17 du 31 juillet 1990 modifiant et compltant la loi n85-05 du 16 fvrier
1985 relative la protection et la promotion de la sant, sur cette question de la constatation
du dcs en vue du prlvement d'organes, n'est pas aussi prcise que la loi franaise. En
effet, l'article 164 modifi dispose que : Le prlvement de tissus et d'organes sur les
personnes dcdes aux fins de transplantation, ne peut se faire qu'aprs constatation mdicale et
lgale du dcs par la commission mdicale vise l'article 167 de la prsente loi et selon des
critres scientifiques dfinis par le ministre charg de la sant publique.
En plus du dcs, la fin de la personnalit peut se constater par la disparition dans des cas de
guerre ou de circonstances exceptionnelles telles, les naufrages ou les tremblements de terre etc.
Une telle disparition peut donner lieu dclaration judiciaire du dcs du disparu. L'article 113
du code de la famille prvoit une priode d'attente de quatre ans pour le temps de guerre et les
circonstances exceptionnelles. Pour le temps de paix, il habilite le juge fixer une priode
d'attente pass un dlai de quatre ans. Ce jugement marque la fin de la personnalit du disparu.
La fin de la personnalit peut galement s'effectuer par l'absence. L'article 110 du code la
famille assimile au disparu l'absent et le dfinit comme la personne qui est empch durant une
anne par des raisons de force majeure de rentrer son domicile ou de reprendre la gestion de
ses affaires. Un jugement dclaratif d'absence peut tre tabli. Il marque la fin de la personnalit
juridique de la personne considre

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2- LES PERSONNES MORALES

On dsigne sous l'appellation de personnes morales, des groupements trs varis de personnes
(Etat, communes, socits, associations, ordres professionnels ou syndicats etc.) ou de biens
(Fondations qui sont des affectations de biens des fins dtermines), qui ont vocation une
activit autonome distincte de celle des personnes qui les composent. Il a t beaucoup dbattu
de la question de savoir si la personnalit morale est un artifice juridique, une fiction ou si
elle est au contraire, la traduction d'une ralit dans la vie juridique.
La thorie de la fiction part du postulat que seul l'tre humain peut tre investi de droits; il est seul
avoir la qualit de personne juridique.
La thorie de la ralit juge qu'il est tout fait naturel que des groupements constitus pour la
dfense d'un intrt collectif et dots de structures propres permettre l'expression d'une
volont collective reprsentative de cet intrt. La thorie de la ralit a t consacre par le
droit positif puisque la personnalit morale appartient en principe tout groupement pourvu
d'une expression collective pour la dfense d'intrts licites, dignes d'tre juridiquement
reconnus et protgs.

B - : LES ATTRIBUTS DE LA PERSONNALITE JURIDIQUE

Les sujets de droit ou personnes juridiques doivent tre individualiss. Quatre lments
distincts concourent cette individualisation : la nationalit, le nom, le domicile et le
patrimoine.
1-

La nationalit

La nationalit correspond un souci d'identification des personnes dans la communaut

internationale. Elle se dfinit comme l'appartenance juridique et politique d'une personne la
population constitutive d'un Etat..
Sa consquence principale est de faire accder la personne physique considre au statut,
droits, liberts et devoirs que rserve l'Etat concern ses nationaux. La question de la
nationalit se pose tout autant pour les personnes morales.
En rgle gnrale, celle-ci dpend de la localisation de son sige social, c'est--dire de son
principal tablissement o se trouvent les organes de gestion de la personne morale.
2- Le nom
Le nom patronymique ou nom de famille individualise une famille et les membres de celle-ci
par rapport aux autres familles. Le prnom quant lui individualise une personne au sein
mme de sa famille. C'est une institution de police, car il est un lment d'ordre public. Le
nom est souvent acquis par voie de filiation, comme il peut l'tre par voie d'attribution de
l'autorit publique dans le cas de filiation inconnue. Le nom ainsi attribu est immuable et
obligatoire, ce qui signifie que nul ne peut le modifier dans le cadre de ses activits juridiques. Il
est par consquent incessible et imprescriptible. Le nom patronymique est un droit de la
personnalit qui confre son titulaire le droit de se dfendre contre les usurpations de son
nom De plus le principe d'immutabilit du nom n'est pas absolu, chacun peut demander

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changer son nom, condition de justifier d'un intrt lgitime Alors que le nom patronymique est
modifi par dcret, le prnom peut tre modifi par un jugement du tribunal Les personnes
morales sont galement individualises par une dnomination, le titre pour les associations, la
raison sociale ou dnomination commerciale pour les socits
3- Le domicile
Tout comme le nom, le domicile reprsente lui aussi une institution de police civile. Il
convient de le distinguer de la notion voisine de rsidence. Cette dernire dsigne le lieu o une
personne vit habituellement. Le domicile marque le lieu de rattachement gographique de la
personne au regard de la loi. Il est un point essentiel de centralisation de l'activit juridique de la
personne, ce dont tmoigne titre d'exemple, le principe pos en matire de procdure civile, de
la comptence territoriale du tribunal du domicile du dfendeur. Au domicile des personnes
physiques correspond le sige des personnes morales.

4- Le patrimoine
Le patrimoine est un ensemble de droits et d'obligations d'une personne qui comporte des
lments d'actif et des lments de passif pour former une universalit juridique. Le
patrimoine est li la personnalit des son titulaire.
Le patrimoine ne renferme que des rapports de droits pcuniaires, les droits extrapatrimoniaux
tels que les droits personnels restent en dehors du patrimoine. Le patrimoine est li la
personne car c'est le reflet de l'individu sur le terrain conomique. Seules les personnes physiques
et morales peuvent avoir un patrimoine. Ce dernier reste li la personne tant que dure la
personnalit. Enfin, une personne ne peut pas avoir plus d'un patrimoine- la rgle de lunicit
du patrimoine- un individu peut bien diviser son activit entre activit civile et activit
commerciale par exemple, il n'aura pas pour autant plusieurs patrimoines.

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CHAPITRE III : LA SPCIALISATION DES REGLES DE DROIT

Parce quelle vise organiser la socit, la rgle de droit ne doit pas se limiter lnonc de
quelques rgles vagues et gnrales. La loi doit prendre en considration le particularisme des
diffrentes situations de la vie sociale pour les soumettre des rgles adquates : le mariage et
les socits commerciales ne peuvent tre soumises au mme rgles de droit.
De plus et sous linfluence de facteur multiples,tels que le progrs des sciences et des
techniques,la complexit croissante de lconomie,lavnement du dirigisme tatiqueetc., la
diversification naturelle de la rgle de droit sest considrablement accrue au XX sicle pour
dboucher sur une vritable spcialisation du droit .Celle ci se manifeste tout dabord par une
distinction que lon prsente souvent comme fondamentale entre le droit priv et le droit
publique ensuite ,elle se traduit par une multitude de droit spciaux qui apparaissent comme
des subdivisions internes du droit.

A- LA DISTINCTION DROIT PRIVE DROIT PUBLIC

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La distinction droit priv droit public constitue selon beaucoup dauteurs la grande division
du droit .Elle voque lopposition de la collectivit lindividu, le droit priv envisageant
celui-ci tandis que le droit public prendrait en charge celle la .Pour rendre compte de la
distinction il faut recourir la diffrence dobjet et de finalit qui distingue les deux droits.
La diffrence dobjet se manifeste par le fait que le droit priv rglemente les rapports
conomiques ou autres qui stablissent entre particulier, quil sagisse de mariage, de contrat
de vente, de prt, dhritage ou dacquisition de nom ou de nationalit etc. Au contraire de
tout cela le droit public vise organiser lEtat et les collectivits publiques qui en dpendent
et rgir leurs actions entre elles et leurs actions avec les particuliers .Cependant il nest pas
rare que lactivit de ces collectivits soit soumise des rgles de droit priv.
La diffrence de finalit est caractrise par le fait que le droit public recherche la fois la
satisfaction de lintrt gnral et en mme temps lexercice de la puissance publique. Ce
critre tir de la puissance publique est dcisif dans le droit publique .Il est le droit propre
lEtat et aux collectivits publiques agissant en tant que puissance publique (PP), comme tel
elles sont investies dun pouvoir de commandement prminent quil est soustrait aux rgles
applicables aux particuliers .
Lide de Puissance Publique explique les diffrences indniables qui opposent le droit
publique et le droit priv ainsi, ladministration est autorise exercer directement ces droits
par le biais dun pouvoir daction doffice qui est une prrogative exorbitante du droit
commun, alors que les particuliers ne sont admis excuter leurs droit que sous contrle et
lautorisation du juge.

B- LES SUBDIVISIONS DU DROIT :

La classification des branches de droit se manifeste dans une trentaine de disciplines, chacune
delle est entendue comme un ensemble cohrent et autonome de rgles adaptes un secteur
dtermin dactivit. Nous attacherons une importance particulire au droit civil dans la
sphre du droit priv et au droit administratif dans la sphre du droit public, au regard du
poids et de limpact de ces deux disciplines dans leur domaine respectif.
B.1. Les subdivisions du droit public :
Les disciplines qui peuvent tre attaches au droit public sont nombreuses. Les plus
importantes entre elles sont constitues par le droit international public (D.I.P.), le droit
constitutionnel et le droit administratif.
B.1.1. Le droit international public :
LEtat entretient ncessairement des relations extrieures, pour celles-ci il existe un cas
particulier de rgles que lon dsigne par lappellation de droit international public (D.I.P.).
Celui-ci runit lensemble des rgles qui gouvernent les rapports inter tatiques dans le cadre
de conventions et traits internationaux, ainsi que celles qui dfinissent lorganisation, le

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fonctionnement et les comptences des organisations internationales. Parmi celles-ci

lOrganisation des Nations-Unis (O.N.U.), occupe une place prpondrante. La ralit de cette
branche du droit public est parfois conteste, cela tient leffectivit de la rgle du droit
international et en particulier sa sanction dont on a vu quelle est le critre dcisif du droit et
qui dans ce domaine est trs problmatique.
B.1.2. Le droit constitutionnel :
Il runit les rgles relatives lEtat et au pouvoir politique. Il sagit de lensemble des rgles
qui prsident lorganisation politique de lEtat et son fonctionnement. La substance propre
du droit constitutionnel se trouve dans la constitution et les diffrents textes qui sy attachent,
en plus de la dlimitation des diffrents pouvoirs de lEtat, lgislatif, excutif, judiciaire. La
constitution dfinit galement les liberts publiques et individuelles des citoyens, telles les
liberts de runions, la presse, circulation, etc.

B.1.3.LE DROIT ADMINISTRATIF:

Il regroupe les diverses rgles qui dfinissent et organisent les administrations et les services
publics, ainsi que celles qui prcisent les modes de fonctionnement et celles qui rgissent
leurs rapports avec les particuliers. Le droit administratif est fondamentalement le droit de la
puissance publique. Le droit administratif est le droit de lorganisation et de laction
administratives. Examinons ces deux points :

LORGANISATION ADMINISTRATIVE
Ladministration agit par lintermdiaire de personnes publiques. Leur comptence est parfois
gnrale et stend tout le territoire : cest le cas de lEtat, dont les services publics ont des
ramifications dans tout le pays. Leur comptence est parfois gnrale, mais limite une
portion du territoire seulement limage des wilayas et des communes. Parfois, leur
comptence est limite une entit bien dtermine o la comptence est spcialise ; cest le
cas des tablissements publics tels que les universits, les hpitaux, etc.
A-

Les rapports entre les personnes publiques :

Ces derniers sont organiss en droit administratif par les notions de centralisation et de
dcentralisation qui sont les fondements de lorganisation administrative de lEtat.
La centralisation consiste confier lEtat lexcution de toutes les tches sur tout le territoire
national. Toutes les activits administratives sont exerces exclusivement par les organes de
lEtat.

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La dcentralisation consiste confier aux autorits locales la satisfaction des besoins qui leur
sont propres. Les activits administratives sont exerces par des organes locaux bnficiant
dune large autonomie.
1-

La centralisation :

Cest le systme dorganisation qui rattache les services publics un mme centre, un centre
unique : lEtat.
a-

Consquences :

Envers lEtat, il assure son omnipotence, concentre sous une mme direction tous
les moyens daction et dexcution. Envers les collectivits locales, celles-ci nont
pas dexistence juridique autonome reconnue et elles constituent, tout au plus, de
simples dcoupages administratifs.
b-

Modalits :

La centralisation dans sa forme la plus absolue nexiste pas, car un Etat mme autoritaire, ne
peut supprimer les collectivits locales traditionnelles, et leurs organes dirigeants seront
toujours dans les mains de lEtat. De plus, mme dans un systme trs centralis, on ne peut
pas tout dcider partir de la capitale ; il est ncessaire davoir des agents ayant un pouvoir de
dcision et permettant de mieux tenir compte des ncessits locales. Cest le systme de la
dcentralisation, mais les agents restent soumis lautorit des organes centraux dont ils sont
les reprsentants (walis).
c-

Valeurs :

Les partisans de la centralisation estiment quelle assure la cohsion de lEtat, en liminant les
particularismes dangereux. Elle renforce lgalit des individus devant lEtat. Ses adversaires
pensent que le systme est trop rigide, quil encombre les organes centraux qui ne peuvent
statuer rapidement, il ne faciliterait pas ladaptation des dcisions aux circonstances locales,
enfin il ne favoriserait pas la participation dmocratique des citoyens.
2-

La dcentralisation :

Cest le systme dorganisation par lequel lEtat permet dautres personnes morales que
lui dassurer la gestion de certains services publics.
a-

Types :

On distingue la dcentralisation territoriale, reconnaissance de la personnalit

juridique des collectivits gographiquement dlimites, de la dcentralisation
par services, attribution de la personnalit morale certains services nettement
individualiss.
b-

Elments :
Existence daffaires propres la collectivit dcentralise ;
Existence dautorits propres, manations directes de la
collectivit, souvent lues par elle ;

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 Existence dun contrle, la dcentralisation ne signifie pas

souverainet et indpendance, mais seulement un certain contrle ;
le contrle de tutelle ;
c-

Valeurs :

Les partisans de la dcentralisation font valoir son aspect libral et dmocratique par la
participation des citoyens la gestion de leurs affaires, la meilleure connaissance et prise en
charge des intrts locaux.
Les adversaires de la dcentralisation font valoir largument de latteinte la cohsion de
lEtat, la prvalence des intrts locaux sur lintrt gnral.
B-

Les contrles administratifs :

1-

Le contrle hirarchique :

La hirarchie est une organisation du personnel dans laquelle chaque agent se trouve
subordonn un autre, lexception de lun dentre eux qui exerce son autorit sur tous les
autres, soit directement, soit en passant par des agents intermdiaires. Le contrle
hirarchique est le corollaire de la centralisation.
Le contrle sur les personnes :
Le suprieur hirarchique affecte les agents leurs postes, rpartit les tches, leur indique par
des circulaires ou instructions des ordres de services, la conduite tenir chacun dans son
poste, comme il exerce le pouvoir disciplinaire en infligeant des sanctions, le cas chant, ou
en proposant des promotions pour les agents qui viendraient le mriter.
Le contrle sur les actes :
Le suprieur hirarchique peut approuver lacte, lannuler, le suspendre ou le rformer. Ce
contrle porte aussi bien sur les lments de rgularit juridique de lacte que sur son
opportunit.
Il sexerce doffice en labsence de tout texte linstituant. Il peut tre mis en uvre
spontanment ou sur demande des particuliers (recours hirarchique)
Toutefois, lapplication stricte des rgles de comptence et la thorie des droits acquis limitent
parfois la possibilit du contrle hirarchique.
2-

Le contrle de tutelle :

Cest lensemble des pouvoirs de contrle accords par la loi une autorit suprieure sur les
agents des collectivits dcentralises et sur leurs actes, dans un but de protection de lintrt
gnral.
a-

Caractres gnraux :

Le pouvoir de tutelle est un pouvoir de contrle, comme le contrle hirarchique, mais il sen
distingue en ce quil porte sur les organes ou les actes dune autre personne morale. De mme
il nexiste que par la force de la loi, cest--dire lorsquun texte le prvoit expressment. Il ne
comporte pas le pouvoir de donner des directives ou des instructions. Enfin, il implique en

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faveur des personnes qui y sont soumises la possibilit dun recours par le moyen du recours
pour excs de pouvoir (R.E.P.).
Le pouvoir de tutelle sexerce dans lintrt gnral, car la diffrence de la tutelle du droit
civil qui vise protger les intrts de la personne sous tutelle, en droit administratif elle tend
protger les intrts gnraux principalement et accessoirement ceux de la personne morale
contrle. La tutelle du droit civil est organise sur la base de la reprsentation juridique, la
tutelle administrative ne constitue quun contrle gnralement a posteriori des actes de la
personne morale.
b-

Mcanismes :

Sur les personnes, le contrle ne porte pas le plus souvent sur leur dsignation, mais sur
lexercice de leurs fonctions. Il est moins rigoureux que le contrle hirarchique. La
diffrence est davantage de degr que de nature. Il sexerce par exemple sur les assembles
lues (APC, APW), sur les membres de ces assembles (dmission doffice des assembles, et
sur les autorits individuelles, comme la suppression ou la rvocation du prsident dAPC).
Sur les actes, le contrle de tutelle sexerce par le biais de procds trs varis. Le pouvoir de
substitution daction, lorsque lautorit sabstient daccomplir un acte rentrant dans ses
comptences, le pouvoir dapprobation, aprs dcision des autorits sous tutelle, le pouvoir
dautorisation, avant dcision des autorit sous tutelle, le pouvoir dannulation de la dcision
dj prise, et enfin le pouvoir de suppression de la dcision.
Tous ces contrles nexistent que lorsquun texte les prvoit explicitement et strictement dans
la limite de cas prvus par les textes : par exemple, il est impossible dannuler une dcision
lorsque le texte ne prvoit quun pouvoir de suspension.

LACTION ADMINISTRATIVE :
Elle vise la satisfaction des besoins dintrt gnral. Aussi le droit lui a donn des
moyens daction exorbitants que lon ne retrouve pas dans le droit priv. Ceux-ci vont
sexercer essentiellement par deux procds : lacte administratif unilatral (AAU) et le
contrat administratif. Si dans la langue courante, le terme dacte sert dsigner de simples
agissements matriels, dans le langage juridique il dsigne une dcision cratrice par ellemme dun effet de droit. Il a pour objet de provoquer une modification de lordonnancement
juridique. Un paiement est un acte matriel, mais il a pour consquences dteindre une dette,
il produit un effet de droit, cest donc un acte juridique.
1-

Lacte administratif unilatral :

Lacte administratif unilatral (A.A.U) ou dcision excutoire est lexpression

juridique dune volont unique exerce par lautorit investie dun service public, en vue
de produire des effets de droit vis--vis des administrs.

LA.A.U. est un acte dautorit et de contrainte.

Il est lexpression du pouvoir : il permet le commandement invitable dans toute socit,

mme si elle se veut dmocratique. Cest lexpression dune relation dautorit et de

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contrainte entre ladministration et les administrs. Ladministration a le privilge de

poser seule et dimposer une rgle de conduite qui prend la forme dune dcision
excutoire, cest--dire une dclaration de volont en vue de produire un effet de
droit, mise par une autorit administrative dans une forme qui entrane lexcution
doffice. selon Maurice Hauriou.
Le privilge de la dcision excutoire est une rgle fondamentale du droit public, ceci a
pour consquences dune part de dispenser ladministration de sadresser au juge pour
obtenir des administrs quils obissent ses prescriptions, cest le privilge du pralable ;
dautre part, face la rsistance des administrs, ladministration dispose de moyens de
contrainte, cest le privilge de lexcution force.

Un acte accompli pour les besoins du service public :

Dire que lacte administratif mane du pouvoir excutif, cest--dire des organes investis
du pouvoir de rglementer, ne suffit pas expliquer le phnomne de lA.A.U. Dune
part, parce que tous les actes produits par les autorits administratives ne sont pas tous
des A.A.U, ensuite parce que lacte administratif peut galement provenir dorganes
publics extrieurs ladministration proprement dite : cest le cas des assembles
parlementaires (dcision lgard des agents), cest le cas galement des juridictions
(notation et promotion des magistrats) et surtout, cest llment le plus original, ils
peuvent maner dorganes de droit priv parce quils sont investis dune mission de
service public. Ainsi constituent, des A.A.U pris pour lexcution dun service public :
-

Les rglements : tout rglement pris pour lorganisation ou

lexcution du service est un acte administratif (arrt du ministre de la sant
rglementant les visites) ;

Les actes individuels : tout acte individuel pris pour lexcution du

service public constitue un acte administratif et cela en labsence dune autorisation
lgislative ou administrative. Les prrogatives de puissance publique (P.P.P.)
permettent de reconnatre quun organisme est investi dun service public telle que la
reconnaissance du droit dexpropriation ou le droit de rquisition. Les caisses
dassurances sociales qui sont des personnes morales du droit priv se voient confier
la gestion dun service public. Les ordres de mdecins [arrt BOUGUEN (1943)] se
sont vus confier lorganisation et le contrle de lexercice de la profession mdicale
(mission de service public), et disposent de ce fait de P.P.P. ils peuvent tre conduits
prendre des actes administratifs.

Pour ce qui est des circulaires, on doit distinguer les circulaires

rglementaires des circulaires interprtatives, par exemple ; la rglementation
dfendant aux lves dun lyce de venir en classe dans une tenue dtermine, ou
celle imposant aux personnels mdical et paramdical le port de la blouse, sont des
mesures dordre intrieur et constituent des circulaires interprtatives. Cependant, le
juge franais a pris une dcision qui contredit cet esprit travers laffaire C.E. (conseil
dEtat) le 02/11/1992, laffaire dite KHEROUAA (le foulard islamique). Le C.E. se
dclare comptent pour contrler la lgalit du rglement intrieur du collge
interdisant le port de tout signe distinctif dordre religieux, politique, etc.

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2-

Le contrat administratif :

Cest un contrat dans lequel ladministration est dune manire ou dune autre, partie
prenante. Il est soumis des rgles spciales du droit administratif et relve de la
comptence de la juridiction administrative. Les principaux types de contrats passs par
ladministration sont la concession de service public, le march de travaux publics, les
marchs de fournitures et de services, le contrat demprunt public. Cependant,
ladministration peut passer galement des contrats qui relvent du droit priv, et la
comptence sera celle du juge ordinaire.
Selon la thorie administrativiste, uvre de la jurisprudence du conseil dEtat, deux
critres permettent de distinguer le contrat administratif. Les clauses exorbitantes et le
service public qui peuvent intervenir alternativement ou cumulativement. En Algrie, la
qualification du contrat est base sur le critre organique uniquement. De ce fait, la
qualification du contrat sert de critre de comptence entre la juridiction administrative et
la juridiction ordinaire. Lart.1 du code des marchs publics en donne une dfinition
complte : les marchs publics sont des contrats crits, passs dans les conditions
prvues au prsent code, par lEtat, les wilayas, les communes et les tablissements
publics, en vue de la ralisation de travaux, fournitures ou services. . Il y a donc dans
cette dfinition un cumul des diffrents critres : le critre formel (la forme crite), le
critre organique (parties au contrats) et le critre matriel (lobjet du contrat). Cependant,
le critre organique est llment ncessaire pour qualifier le contrat de march public.
En matire contentieuse, le critre organique est consacr par lart.7 du code de
procdure civile, puisque celui-ci prvoit que tout contrat o est partie lEtat, la wilaya, la
commune ou toute autre tablissement public caractre administratif (E.P.A.) relve du
juge statuant en matire administrative.
2.1

Lexcution des contrats administratifs :

Ladministration va bnficier de certaines prrogatives qui trouvent leur fondement dans les
ncessits de services publics, mais en contre partie le contractant bnficie de garanties
financires quelque soit lusage que ladministration aura fait de ses prrogatives.
Les prrogatives de ladministration : elle bnficie du pouvoir de contrle et de direction des
oprations dexcution du march public, tout comme elle a le pouvoir de modifier
unilatralement le contrat, condition cependant que les ncessits du service public
lexigent. De mme, ladministration a un pouvoir de sanction, en cas de faute dans
lexcution condition quil y ait une mise en demeure pralable de reprise des travaux mal
excuts.
Ce pouvoir existe de plein droit et de faon unilatrale, ladministration a un droit de
rsiliation unilatrale et discrtionnaire, le cocontractant ayant seulement droit une
indemnisation. Pour ce qui est des droits du cocontractant il a droit au paiement du prix et au
rtablissement de lquilibre financier du contrat au cas o il menacerait dtre rompu.
2.2 Les modes de passation du contrat administratif :
Il y a principalement trois modes de passation du contrat administratif. Pour ce dernier,
ladministration nest plus libre de choisir ses cocontractants. Les restrictions qui sont
imposes varieront suivant que lon voudra tenir compte avant tout des intrts financiers de

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lEtat : recours ladjudication, lorsque le march est confi au plus apte ou alors recours
des modes laissant davantage des liberts ladministration, par exemple ; le gr gr.
Ladjudication :
Ladministration ouvre la soumission tous les intresss (ouverte), ou certaines entreprises
seulement (restreinte). La soumission se fait sous enveloppe cachete, le bureau
dadjudication en sance publique doit proclamer adjudicataire celui qui a propos le prix le
plus bas.
Lappel doffre :
Cette procdure fait aussi appel la concurrence, mais ladministration peut tre libre de
choisir son cocontractant. Les soumissionnaires doivent prsenter des garanties techniques et
financires suffisantes.
Le gr gr :
Appel galement entente directe ou march ngoci ; dans ce cas ladministration comme un
particulier discute librement et choisit qui elle veut en matire de concession de services
publics ou de fournitures. Elle a toujours la libert de choix, cependant le seuil financier est
toujours fix par avance. Il est de six millions de dinars algriens (6.000.000 D.A.)
B.1.4. Les disciplines du droit dtach du droit administratif :
Lensemble constitu par les finances publiques et le droit fiscal runit les rgles qui rgissent
les dpenses et les recettes des collectivits publiques, ce qui inclut notamment lorganisation
du budget de lEtat et les rgles qui prsident la mise en uvre des impts destins
lalimenter.
Les liberts publiques dfinissent les diffrents droits de lindividu dans la socit et en
particulier les droits de lHomme, et les modalits de leur protection de la libert de lopinion,
libert de circulation, etc. Le droit de la construction regroupe les rgles de lurbanisme
entendu comme celle qui organise lutilisation et loccupation de lespace conformment aux
exigences gnrales.
B.2. Les subdivisions du droit priv :
De mme quil a t procd lors de lexamen des disciplines du droit public, nous pouvons
dire que le droit priv nenglobe que deux disciplines strictement prives, le droit civil et le
droit commercial, toutes les autres ne seraient que des disciplines soit dtaches du droit civil,
soit mixtes.
B.2.1. LE DROIT CIVIL :
Il a t, et pour longtemps, et il continue tre, le droit commun de tout le droit priv, cest-dire la discipline de rfrence pour lensemble des disciplines du droit priv. Lorsquil
nexisterait aucune rgle spciale devant tre applique une situation prcise de droit priv,
cest aux rgles, principes et techniques du droit civil quil convient de se rfrer pour
trancher le litige, alors mme que ces deux derniers relvent normalement du droit
commercial ou dune autre discipline du droit priv. Cette fonction particulire du droit civil
sexplique par le fait quil est la branche la plus antrieure du droit, ce qui rend

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particulirement fiable les mcanismes quil met en uvre. Son anciennet tient son objet
mme : lindividu envisag dans ses rapports les plus fondamentaux.
Le droit civil est la branche du droit qui englobe l'ensemble des rgles juridiques
gouvernant les rapports des particuliers entre eux ou avec des personnes morales de droit
priv.
Le droit civil constitue le droit commun du droit priv, c'est--dire qu'il a vocation
s'appliquer tous les rapports de droit priv ds lors que ceux-ci ne sont pas rgis par des
dispositions particulires d'une autre branche du droit priv tel que le droit commercial, le
droit du travail, le droit rural qui en sont drivs et qui y demeurent plus ou moins
subordonns.
Le droit civil est formul dans le code civil dont les articles noncent des rgles concernant
notamment le respect de la vie prive et du corps humain, la nationalit, les actes de l'tat
civil, le mariage, le divorce, la filiation, l'autorit parentale, la minorit et la majorit, la
tutelle et l'mancipation, la proprit des immeubles et des meubles, les successions,
donations et testaments, les contrats et autres obligations etc.
La date la plus importante dans l'histoire du droit civil franais est celle de la promulgation en
1804 du code civil, dit code napolon1.'Avant d'tre ainsi unifies, les rgles de droit civil
taient multiples et diffrentes selon les rgions. La rvolution franaise, en ralisant l'unit
politique de la France et en crant de nouvelles institutions judiciaires, tenta de codifier le
droit civil avec Cambacrs qui rforma certaines matires dans un esprit individualiste,
libral et galitaire, en particulier le droit de la proprit et le droit des contrats. Les systmes
juridiques des pays d'Afrique du nord et du proche orient sont fortement influencs par le
code civil franais, mme si certaines matires telles que le droit de la famille et le droit de
la proprit s'inscrivent dans la tradition islamique.
LOBJET DU DROIT CIVIL
Le droit civil, de faon trs gnrale, rgit l'activit juridique civile des personnes physiques
et morales. A cet gard, il envisage deux domaines nettement distincts : la famille et l'activit
conomique. Le droit civil conomique a pour objet les biens au sens strict du terme et les
obligations qui sont des moyens techniques qui permettent de manipuler ces biens. Elles
constituent un vecteur de cration d'un rapport juridique entre deux personnes ou plus.
L'existence de ce rapport oblige quelque chose l'une des personnes vis--vis de l'autre.
I - LE DROIT DES BIENS
La substance de ce qu'il est d'usage d'appeler le droit des biens est constitue par l'ensemble des
droits rels principaux qui tournent autour des notions de proprit et de possession. Le droit de
proprit est un droit rel dans la mesure o il porte sur un objet, par opposition au droit
personnel, qui est attach une personne pouvant exiger d'une autre l'accomplissement d'une
prestation. Il constitue un rapport de droit entre une personne et une chose, rapport en vertu
duquel, cette personne peut jouir et disposer de cette chose. La possession s'entend au contraire,
d'un rapport de fait entre une personne et une chose. Elle est l'exercice d'un pouvoir de fait
exerc sur une chose avec l'intention de s'en affirmer le matre. C'est une situation de fait o le
possesseur a la matrise de la chose et se comporte comme un propritaire.

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Traditionnellement, la doctrine et la jurisprudence considrent que deux lments, un lment

matriel et un lment psychologique, doivent tre runis pour qu'il y ait possession.
L'lment matriel, ou corpus, s'analyse comme le pouvoir de fait sur la chose qui se traduit par
l'exercice d'actes matriels, tels que la perception des loyers, l'habitation d'une maison.
L'lment psychologique, ou animus, reprsente l'lment intentionnel qui fait que le
possesseur s'affirme comme propritaire, la diffrence d'un locataire ou d'un emprunteur qui
jouit du bien tout en sachant qu'ils ne le possdent pas.
La possession est prise en considration par la loi qui y attache diffrents effets dont l'acquisition
du droit la proprit. Celle-ci peut s'oprer sous rserve des conditions poses par la loi :
continue, paisible, publique et non quivoque. En matire de meubles, le possesseur de
bonne foi devient immdiatement propritaire conformment l'adage possession vaut
titre . En matire d'immeubles, l'usucapion (prescription acquisitive) est admise de 10 20 ans
selon les cas et pour le possesseur de mauvaise foi au bout de 30 ans.
II LE DROIT DES OBLIGATIONS
On dsigne sous l'appellation de droit des obligations, l'ensemble des rgles qui gouvernent la
cration, les effets et le rgime des obligations (transmission, modification extinction).Ces rgles
peuvent s'appliquer tous les contrats et toutes les responsabilits.
A-

Les obligations contractuelles.

La responsabilit contractuelle est celle qui incombe un dbiteur contractuel lorsque celuici, en n'excutant pas son obligation ou en l'excutant mal, cause un dommage son
cocontractant. Elle n'a vocation intervenir que dans les rapports entre les contractants euxmmes.
L'affirmation d'une telle responsabilit a pour effet de contraindre le responsable rparer le
dommage qu'il a caus, rparation qui prend le plus souvent la forme d'une condamnation
des dommages-intrts, c'est--dire d'une obligation de payer une somme d'argent afin de
compenser le dommage subi. Cette condamnation suppose que soient dmontrs et prouvs
par le demandeur la fois le prjudice qu'il a subi et la faute commise par le dbiteur
laquelle constitue le prjudice.
Il y a lieu de distinguer entre deux sortes d'obligations. Les obligations de moyens se
caractrisent par le fait que le dbiteur s'est engag faire tous les efforts pour procure au
crancier une prestation dtermine mais sans garantir celle- ci : c'est le cas notamment du
mdecin qui s'engage soigner non gurir, c'est galement le cas de l'avocat qui s'engage
dfendre du mieux qu'il peut les intrts de son client, non le faire gagner son procs. Au
contraire, les obligations de rsultat supposent l'engagement du dbiteur de procurer un
rsultat dfini. Le transporteur de voyageurs s'engage mener ceux-ci l'endroit convenu.
B-

Les obligations extracontractuelles.

La responsabilit civile vise la rparation des dommages causs de manire illgitime par
une personne une autre personne. Par opposition la responsabilit contractuelle, on parle
de responsabilit dlictuelle. Celle-ci recouvre trois rgimes diffrents de responsabilit :

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responsabilit du fait personnel, responsabilit du fait d'autrui et responsabilit du fait

des choses.
La responsabilit du fait personnel (article 124 133 du code civil algrien), systme
traditionnel de la responsabilit civile, repose sur une faute commise par un responsable.
Cette faute intentionnelle (dlit) ou in intentionnelle (quasi-dlit) doit tre prouve par la
victime qui doit galement tablir le dommage qu'elle a subi et le lien de causalit existant
entre la faute et le dommage.
La responsabilit du fait d'autrui (article 134 137 du code civil), consiste dans l'affirmation de la
responsabilit d'une personne au regard d'un dommage caus par une autre personne. Rentre
dans cette catgorie, la responsabilit des parents des dommages causs par leurs enfants
mineurs habitants avec eux, la responsabilit des enseignants, ducateurs et les artisans pour les
dommages causs par leurs lves et apprentis pendant le temps qu'ils sont sous leur
surveillance. Toutefois, la responsabilit civile de l'Etat est substitue celle des enseignants et
ducateurs.
De mme, le commettant est responsable du dommage caus par son prpos lorsque cet acte a
t accompli dans l'exercice de ses fonctions.
La responsabilit du fait des choses (article 138 140 du code civil algrien), consiste dans
l'affirmation de la responsabilit d'une personne au regard d'un dommage caus par le fait de
choses que l'on a sous sa garde, telle la responsabilit du fait des animaux et la responsabilit
du fait des btiments. Le gardien, c'est--dire celui qui a les pouvoirs d'usage, de contrle et de
direction de la chose, par exemple, le chasseur l'gard de son fusil, le grant de caf l'gard
des chaises et tables disposes sur la terrasse, est prsum responsable des dommages causs
par la chose qu'il a sous sa garde.

C-

LES SURETES

Le droit de crance est fragile et la valeur effective de ce droit dpend de la solvabilit du

dbiteur, c'est--dire de l'existence d'un solde positif des comptes actif et passif de son
patrimoine, la mesure de la crance au moment ou celle-ci est excute.
Les srets sont des garanties destines assures l'excution future d'une obligation. Elles
permettent au crancier de se prmunir contre l'insolvabilit du dbiteur. Elles se divisent
en deux catgories distinctes : srets personnelles et srets relles.
Les srets personnelles reposent sur un mcanisme de multiplication des dbiteurs. Au lieu de
pouvoir rclamer le paiement celui-l qui s'est endett, le crancier pourra s'adresser aussi
d'autres personnes. La sret personnelle type est reprsente par le cautionnement qui se
dfinit comme un contrat par lequel un tiers appel caution promet un crancier de le payer si le
dbiteur n'excute pas son obligation.
Les srets relles, appeles galement droits rels accessoires, mettent en uvre une technique
diffrente qui consiste dans l'affectation d'un ou plusieurs biens, mobiliers ou immobiliers, au
paiement de la dette garantie, comme c'est le cas de l'hypothque en matire immobilire, qui est
dfinie selon les termes de l'article 882 du code civil algrien comme un contrat par lequel le
crancier acquiert sur un immeuble affect au paiement de sa crance, un droit rel qui lui permet de
se faire rembourser par prfrence aux cranciers infrieurs en rang, sur le prix de cet immeuble en

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quelque main qu'il passe . C'est galement le cas du gage qui est une sret relle portant sur les
biens meubles, organise par les articles 969 et suivants du code civil.
Le recours ces droits rels accessoires permet de confrer la crance garantie la scurit
propre aux droits rels.
B.2.2. Le droit commercial :
Il est constitu par lensemble des rgles qui organisent les diffrentes oprations accomplies
pour lexercice du commerce, ainsi que celles relatives lacquisition de la qualit de
commerant. Cet objet ainsi largement dfini inclut aussi bien les socits commerciales
constitues pour la ralisation doprations commerciales quaux moyens employs pour
lexercice du commerce, tels que le fond de commerce et les locaux commerciaux. Il a aussi
vocation sappliquer exceptionnellement des non commerants ; cela se produit lorsquune
personne qui na pas les qualits de commerant participe un acte que la loi rpute
commercial lgard de tous ; cest le cas de la signature par exemple dune lettre de change.
B.2.3. Les branches du droit dtach du droit civil :
On se bornera voquer les plus importantes dentre elles. Le droit rural ou droit agraire est
issu du droit civil. Il runit lensemble des rgles qui organisent lespace foncier agricole et
celle qui concerne lexploitation agricole et les diffrentes activits rentrant dans la dfinition
de celles-ci, le droit des assurances qui se rattachent au droit civil dans le domaine des
contrats et des mcanismes dassurance. De mme que sur la notion de responsabilit se
rattache galement au droit commercial pour ce quil est des formes dexploitation de
lentreprise dassurance, mais il prsente galement des aspects du droit public du fait du
contrle troit quexerce lEtat sur cette activit.
Le droit du transport terrestre, maritime et arien est une branche du droit spcifiquement
drive du droit commercial, en raison de la rglementation administrative quil affecte,
comporte des lments du droit public, parfois essentiels.
B.3. Les disciplines mixtes :
La notion de discipline mixte rsulte du constat de la distinction droit public, droit priv nest
pas une subdivision absolue du droit. Constitue un droit mixte, toute branche de droit qui
ralise une combinaison de rgles relevant pour les unes du droit public, et pour les autres du
droit priv. Cela tant, il est habituel de rattacher chaque discipline mixte lun ou lautre
des ples dominants du droit.
B.3.1. Droit pnal :
Lun des plus importants des droits mixtes est sans contester le droit pnal, galement appel
droit criminel. Cest un droit de rpression qui pour principal objet de dfinir les
comportements constitutifs dinfraction et de fixer les sanctions applicables leurs auteurs.
B.3.2. Le droit procdural :
Cest le droit de la procdure civile, de la procdure pnale et de la procdure administrative.
Ces trois branches ont pour objet commun de dfinir les diffrents organes de la justice en
dterminant lorganisation et la comptence des diffrents tribunaux, dune part et de rgler le
droulement des procs.
B.3.3. Le droit social :

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Lappellation du droit social regroupe deux branches distinctes : le droit du travail, et la

scurit sociale ; le premier recouvre lensemble des rgles qui dfinissent les conditions des
travailleurs salaris, celles qui gouvernent les contrats de travail et les prestations qui en
concrtisent lexcution et celles qui dfinissent le cadre de lexercice de laction collective et
concerte des travailleurs (rglementation des syndicats, conventions collectives et droits de
grve). La seconde, le droit de la scurit sociale, runit lensemble des rgles qui sont
destines garantir les travailleurs contre les diffrents risques sociaux et professionnels, tels
que les maladies professionnelles, la vieillesse, les accidents du travail, etc.

CHAPITRE IV : LES SOURCES DU DROIT

Toute rgle de droit contient deux lments distincts : le premier reprsente le corps de la
rgle ou sa matire, le second, reprsente lesprit de la rgle et la forme qui lui donne un
caractre officiel. L'expression sources du droit renvoie toutes les donnes morales,
conomiques, sociales, politiques l'origine du droit. Les sources du droit donnent naissance
la rgle juridique.
Les sources matrielles de la rgle de droit sont celles qui lui donnent sa matire. Elles
proviennent pour lessentiel du besoin de stabilit et dordre que revendiquent les nations et
les socits. Ce besoin dordre reprsente la premire source matrielle du droit.

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A titre dexemple, les dispositions de la loi sur la protection du consommateur ont pour source
matrielle le besoin de protection de la socit des agissements nfastes de certains oprateurs
conomiques, et de ce fait, empcher quils ne proposent la vente des produits pouvant
occasionner des dommages ceux qui les consommeraient.
Tout comme la source matrielle dune rgle de droit peut provenir galement des antcdents
historiques et civilisationnels dune socit donne. A titre dexemple, le droit algrien nous
donne une illustration parfaite de cette ide. Ainsi, les lgislations positives que nous
retrouvons en droit algrien sont pour lessentiel hrites du droit franais, du seul fait que
lAlgrie a t et pour longtemps, une colonie franaise. De l, noue considrons que le droit
franais est une source matrielle et historique du droit algrien.
De lautre ct, et par son appartenance civilisationnelle au monde musulman, le droit civil
des personnes en Algrie ou ce quil est communment appel le statut personnel est trs
largement inspir des prceptes de la loi coranique. L galement, nous pouvons dire que le
droit musulman est une source matrielle du droit algrien.
A ct de ces sources matrielles, nous retrouvons dautres sources appeles sources
formelles ou officielles. Ces dernires donnent la rgle de droit sa force dapplication vis
vis des personnes auxquelles elle est destine. Sans cela, la rgle de droit ne serait quune
matire sans forme. Le recours aux sources formelles est rendu obligatoire par le fait que
lEtat donne la rgle de droit une effectivit et elles constituent laspect extrieur de la
volont de lEtat de rendre obligatoire lapplication de certaines normes juridiques. Les
sources formelles sont des procds par lesquels le droit s'exprime. Ainsi il y a la loi, la
coutume etc.
A-

: LES SOURCES FORMELLES DU DROIT

1 La Loi :
La Loi est la source premire, la source principale du droit dans beaucoup de nations au
monde. Elle lest galement en Algrie. Cest le mode normal de cration de la rgle de droit.
Le lgislateur algrien a, dans ce contexte, pos le principe de la graduation des sources en
droit algrien en disposant ce qui suit dans larticle 1er du code civil Algrien : La loi rgit
toutes les matires auxquelles se rapporte la lettre ou lesprit de lune de ses dispositions. En
labsence dune disposition lgale, le juge se prononce selon les principes du droit musulman
et, dfaut, selon la coutume.
Le cas chant, il a recours au droit naturel et aux rgles de lquit.
Le terme de Loi est assez large et peut recouvrir des textes de nature diverse. Au sens large, le
terme loi englobe tous les textes manant du pouvoir lgislatif et rglementaire. Au sens
strict la loi mane du pouvoir lgislatif conformment larticle 122 de la Constitution
algrienne du 28 novembre 1996, modifie par la loi n02-03 du 10 avril 2002 Le parlement
lgifre dans les domaines que lui attribue la Constitution : cest la loi ordinaire. Son
domaine dapplication est limit par la Constitution. Certaines matires sont ainsi de son
domaine exclusif, les autres tant du domaine du dcret.

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La notion gnrale de loi englobe diffrentes sortes de textes ordonns selon une hirarchie
rigoureuse. La loi stricto sensu est luvre du parlement alors que le rglement est luvre
du pouvoir excutif. Cette distinction fait lobjet de larticle 122 et 125 de la Constitution.
Cette dernire oppose galement les lois ordinaires des lois organiques dans larticle 123, et
les cas o le chef de lexcutif peut lgifrer par voie dordonnance, dans larticle 124.
Article 122 : Le Parlement lgifre dans les domaines que lui attribue la Constitution, ainsi
que dans les domaines suivants :
1- les droits et devoirs fondamentaux des personnes ; notamment le rgime des liberts
publiques, la sauvegarde des liberts individuelles et les obligations des citoyens;
2- les rgles gnrales relatives au statut personnel et au droit de la famille; et notamment au
mariage, au divorce, la filiation, la capacit et aux successions;
3- les conditions dtablissement des personnes ;
4- la lgislation de base concernant la nationalit ;
5- les rgles gnrales relatives la condition des trangers ;
6-les rgles relatives lorganisation judiciaire et la cration de juridictions;
7- les rgles gnrales de droit pnal et de la procdure pnale; et notamment la
dtermination des crimes et dlits, linstitution des peines correspondantes de toute nature,
lamnistie, lextradition et le rgime pnitentiaire ;
8 - les rgles gnrales de la procdure civile et des voies dexcution ;
9 - le rgime des obligations civiles, commerciales et de la proprit ;
10-le dcoupage territorial du pays ;
11-ladoption du plan national ;
12-le vote du budget de lEtat ;
13 - la cration, lassiette et le taux des impts, contributions, taxes et droits de toute nature ;
14 - le rgime douanier ;
15 - le rglement dmission de la monnaie et le rgime des banques, du crdit et des
assurances ;
16 - les rgles gnrales relatives lenseignement et la recherche scientifique ;

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17 - les rgles gnrales relatives la sant publique et la population ;

18 - les rgles gnrales relatives au droit du travail, la scurit sociale et lexercice du
droit syndical ;
19 - les rgles gnrales relatives lenvironnement, au cadre de vie et
lamnagement du territoire ;
20 - les rgles gnrales relatives la protection de la faune et de la flore ;
21 - la protection et la sauvegarde du patrimoine culturel et historique ;
22 - le rgime gnral des forts et des terres pastorales ;
23 - le rgime gnral de leau ;
24 - le rgime gnral des mines et des hydrocarbures ;
25 - le rgime foncier ;
26 - les garanties fondamentales accordes aux fonctionnaires et le statut gnral de la
Fonction Publique ;
27 - les rgles gnrales relatives la Dfense Nationale et lutilisation des forces armes
par les autorits civiles ;
28 - les rgles de transfert de proprit du secteur public au secteur priv ;
29 - la cration de catgories dtablissements ;
30 - la cration de dcorations, distinctions et titres honorifiques dEtat.
Art. 123 - Outre les domaines rservs par la Constitution la loi organique, relvent
galement de la loi organique les matires suivantes:

l'organisation et le fonctionnement des pouvoirs publics;

le rgime lectoral;
la loi relative aux partis politiques;
la loi relative l'information;
les statuts de la magistrature et l'organisation judiciaire;
la loi cadre relative aux lois de finances;
la loi relative la scurit nationale.

La loi organique est adopte la majorit absolue des dputs et la majorit des trois quarts
(3/4) des membres du Conseil de la Nation. Elle est soumise un contrle de conformit par
le Conseil Constitutionnel avant sa promulgation.

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Art. 124 - En cas de vacance de l'Assemble Populaire Nationale ou dans les priodes d'intersession du Parlement, le Prsident de la Rpublique peut lgifrer par ordonnance. Le
Prsident de la Rpublique soumet les textes qu'il a pris l'approbation de chacune des
chambres du Parlement, sa prochaine session. Sont caduques les ordonnances non adoptes
par le Parlement. En cas d'tat d'exception dfini l'article 93 de la Constitution, le Prsident
de la Rpublique peut lgifrer par ordonnances. Les ordonnances sont prises en Conseil des
Ministres.
Art. 125 - Les matires, autres que celles rserves la loi, relvent du pouvoir rglementaire
du Prsident de la Rpublique. L'application des lois relve du domaine rglementaire du
Chef du Gouvernement.
2- : La coutume
La coutume est un pratique devenue une rgle non crite en raison de son emploi constant.
Bien que le systme juridique algrien, linstar du systme franais, repose essentiellement
sur la loi, il reconnat pourtant une place la coutume en tant que source du droit. Mme si
elle n'est pas une source de droit directe, puisque ces pays sintgrent dans un systme
juridique codifi, il est ncessaire d'accorder une valeur juridique la coutume, de faon
donner au droit une souplesse.
Au contraire, les pays de common law ou loi commune (Grande-Bretagne, Canada, tatsUnis, Nouvelle-Zlande) accordent une place prpondrante la coutume en tant que source
du droit, leur droit n'tant pas formellement codifi. Les juges sont en effet tenus par la rgle
du prcdent, et non par des dispositions qui seraient contenues dans un code. Le droit
international est galement largement coutumier, et de nombreuses conventions
internationales, notamment en droit diplomatique, se bornent reprendre dans leurs
dispositions des rgles d'origine coutumire.
La coutume et l'usage sont dans le langage courant utiliss comme synonymes. Or la coutume
a un caractre plus contraignant que les usages que l'on observe dans la vie sociale.
La coutume est constitue de deux lments : l'un matriel, l'autre psychologique. L'lment
matriel de la coutume est li par la rptition constante d'un fait ou d'une tradition ; l'lment
psychologique consiste en la croyance chez les personnes que leur comportement obit non
un usage, mais une rgle de droit. L'usage ne se caractrise pas par cette conviction
collective et, ce titre, reprsente une source de droit encore moins directe que la coutume.
C'est donc cet lment psychologique qui transforme un simple usage en une coutume ayant
force obligatoire.
En consquence, les deux termes doivent tre distingus en droit. Les usages reconnus en
droit sont gnralement trs circonscrits une profession ou une place (ports, rgions). Les
usages ont une existence conventionnelle, c'est--dire que c'est la pratique qui les a crs. Il se
peut, dans certains cas, que l'usage soit reconnu comme ayant une force juridique devant les
tribunaux, notamment en matire maritime ou portuaire. Ainsi, lorsque l'usage est

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particulirement bien connu et appliqu par les membres d'une profession, le tribunal doit le
prendre en compte.
Il existe trois types de rgles coutumires gnralement reconnues en droit : les coutumes
contraires la loi (coutumes contra legem), les coutumes auxquelles renvoie la loi (coutumes
secundum legem) et les coutumes qui continuent de s'appliquer dans des domaines qui ne sont
pas rglements par la loi (coutumes praeter legem).
On parle de coutume contra legem lorsqu'une rgle, issue d'un usage gnral et prolong, est
en opposition avec une disposition lgale ou rglementaire. Or dans un systme de droit
codifi et donc crit, comme cest le cas du droit algrien ou du droit franais, la
reconnaissance d'une coutume contraire la loi est particulirement remarquable. Par
exemple, le droit commercial reconnat la possibilit pour la personne ayant prt de l'argent
un groupe de personnes de rclamer une seule d'entre elles la totalit de la somme prte, ce
qui est une coutume contraire aux dispositions prvues par le Code civil, qui ne retient pas
lide de prsomption de solidarit des cranciers ou dbiteurs.
Lorsqu'elle comble les lacunes de la loi qui n'est pas encore intervenue dans certains
domaines, la coutume praeter legem est considre comme une source autonome du droit.
Ainsi en tait-il de la coutume selon laquelle la femme marie devait porter le nom de son
mari.
De manire plus singulire, le droit constitutionnel reconnat l'existence de certaines rgles
coutumires, comme celle par exemple qui autorise les parlementaires poser des questions
crites aux ministres, qui doivent obligatoirement y rpondre, lors des dbats l'Assemble
nationale populaire.
Enfin, la coutume secundum legem a trait la coutume laquelle renvoient de nombreux
textes de lois, et notamment le Code civil. Cette latitude qui est concde par le lgislateur est
destine adapter les rgles tablies aux diversits locales. C'est notamment cet effet qu'il
autorise le juge interprter un contrat ambigu en fonction des usages locaux.

B- LES SOURCES INTERPRETATIVES DU DROIT

En plus des sources matrielles dont nous avons parl prcdemment et les sources formelles
que nous venons dexposer, existe galement dautres sources du droit appeles pour certaines
des sources suppltives et les autres des sources interprtatives.
Les sources suppltives sont des sources, comme leur nom lindique dailleurs assez
clairement, qui peuvent suppler c'est--dire remplacer les sources formelles au cas o ces
dernires venaient manquer. Les dispositions de larticle 1er du code civil algrien organisent
cette situation et prvoient quen labsence dune disposition lgale, le juge se prononce selon
les principes du droit musulman et, dfaut, selon la coutume. A dfaut, il a recours au droit
naturel et aux rgles de lquit. De cela, nous devons comprendre que le juge algrien devra
avant toute chose appliquer la loi, en seconde position et en labsence dune loi, il devra faire
application du droit musulman qui constitue de ce fait une source matrielle et suppltive du

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droit algrien. A dfaut de lune comme de lautre, il pourra recourir la coutume, mais
galement aux rgles du droit naturel et de lquit qui sont des principes suprieurs de justice
issus de la perception dun quilibre idal de la nature qui simpose lhomme.
Les sources interprtatives du droit sont des sources secondaires qui tiennent essentiellement
la jurisprudence des arrts et dcisions rendus par les juridictions et les travaux raliss par
la doctrine. Les rgles de droit sont interprtes par les tribunaux, interprtations qui leur
tour forment une source importante pour sadapter aux volutions de la socit.
1- : La jurisprudence
La jurisprudence regroupe lensemble des solutions donnes par les tribunaux sur un point de
droit prcis. Pour quun ensemble de dcisions fasse jurisprudence il faut rassembler deux
conditions :
- la rptition : cest le fait de prendre une dcision identique, dinterprter la loi dans le
mme sens par un certain nombre de tribunaux diffrents et sur un mme point de droit.
- la hirarchie : la solution juridique donne par la Cour Suprme du fait de sa position au
sommet de la hirarchie des tribunaux et par le mcanisme des renvois lui confre une autorit
particulire.
La jurisprudence est donc une source du droit en ce quelle interprte les lois pour les adapter
aux situations concrtes. Elle comble galement les lacunes ventuelles des lois, celles ci ne
pouvant envisager toutes les situations litigieuses. Elle na toutefois pas le caractre
obligatoire qu une rgle de droit, un tribunal ntant jamais li par une dcision dun autre
tribunal.
2- : La doctrine

Cest lensemble des travaux de rflexion et dtudes des juristes, soit sur la jurisprudence soit
sur des faits de socit susceptibles de faire voluer le droit. Ces travaux dbouchent sur de
nouvelles interprtations, de nouvelles solutions envisageables et peuvent dans une certaine
mesure influencer les magistrats ou le lgislateur.

BIBLIOGRAPHIE
Jean- Luc AUBERT : Introduction au droit 8me dition. Armand Colin. Paris 2001.
Jean-Paul Pastorel : Droit Administratif 4me dition Mmentos. Gualino diteur 1999.
Alex Weil : Droit civil Troisime dition . Dalloz . Paris 1973.

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Raymond Legeais : Clefs pour le droit . ditions seghers. Paris 1973.

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REPUBLIQUE ALGERIENNE DEMOCRATIQUE ET

POPULAIRE

Ministre de lenseignement
Suprieur et de la recherche scientifique
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Ecole Normale Suprieur des Lettres et Sciences Humaines

Constantine

(LMD(S4

CIVILISATION AND LITERATURE

Prepared by

Kheribet Souheila & Lebbal Farida

2008-2009

Part one : CIVILISATION

: Content

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British imperialism in America

The Founding of the American Colonies..3-1
The Drafting of the American Constitution.16-2

Course 01
British Imperialism
Introduction

278

Age of Imperialism
The British Imperialism means the policy followed in Britain in the 20th century of
forming and maintaining that great empire through subjugating territories and establishing
colonies. Thus, the British Empire is a group of territories united by allegiance to the British
.crown
At the peak of its history, the British Empire comprised twenty percent of the world
and consisted of more than 400 million people. If Britain could establish such an empire, it
was due to the power of the British navy. It dates back to the 16th century (during the rule of
Queen Elizabeth I) under the command of the brilliant navigator Francis Drake. At the
beginning, the objective of the British expansion was purely economic. British first real
.venture was the attempt to establish the Roanoke colony in America by Sir Walter Raleigh

:History of the British Empire

Everything started when the Spanish explorer, Christopher Columbus discovered the
New World. The British interest was realized after defeating the mighty Spanish Armada.
Britain, then, became the mistress of the sea and started to establish its colonies in the New
World. In fact, the motives behind the British colonization of the New World were of
religious values. The first venture to the Eastern coast of what is nowadays the United States
of America, was the one done by the Pilgrim fathers from the Plymouth colony . These latter
landed in the Massachusetts bay in 1620. They wanted to escape Roman Catholic persecution
in England and seeking for religious freedom. As a result, thirteen colonies were founded.
What was noticed about those colonies is that they enjoyed total freedom in America. Because
of internal problems in England, the king could not interfere in colonial affairs. Hence,
colonial governments were allowed to elect assemblies to form the legislative body and an
.executive
During the Ten Years republic, Oliver Cromwell, pursued an anti-Spanish diplomacy.
In 1655, Jamaica was conquered. It was the first British colony taken by force. In South
America, Tobacco and cotton crops attracted a large labour force provided by slaves from
Africa. Meanwhile, the republic passed the Navigation Acts of 1651, which outlined that
.imported goods should be carried in British ships
The old colonial system was more regulated at the Stuarts restoration in 1660. In 1670,
the date corresponding to the date of the Treaty of Madrid, Spain recognized the officiallity of
the English possessions. The sugar economy expanded and the African Royal Company was
.formed in 1672 bringing Africans to the Caribbean
Concerning North America, British colonies expanded down the coast line. In 1664,
New Amsterdam was taken by force from the Dutch to be called New York. Pennsylvania
was created by William Penn in 1681 under a royal grant. When king James II succeeded to
the throne, the American colonies were brought under closer royal control

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The British Empire in 1897, marked in pink, the traditional colours of Imperial British
Dominions in maps
In Asia, however, the British Empire started in India after the formation of the East
Indian Company, during the Mughal dynasty. Coming back to America, and after the
Glorious revolution of 1688, further British expansion was achieved. The Hudson Bay
Company was created as a new commercial presence based on fur trade. This led to the
emergence of a new conflict with New France based in St Lawrence Valley. The result was
King William War. Between 1721 and 1742, sir Robert Walpole adopted a policy of laisser
.faire inside and outside the kingdom
Following the French and Indian war, British forces could capture St Lawrence Valley
as well as Quebec in the North. In 1763, the treaty of Paris was signed according to which
France gave up almost all its important territories in North America to the British. The Seven
.Years War reinforced the British position of Britain as a real imperialistic power
On the other hands, the English knew very well that a big empire needs a lot of
money. Thats why the parliament decided that the needed funds should be afforded by
American colonies. Hence, many acts were passed: the sugar Act, the Stamp Act, the
,Coercive Acts
These acts, among too many others, led to the American Revolution, which ended with
the victory of the Americans. With the American colonies independence from the British
crown, ended the first British Empire centred in North America. Nevertheless, this does not
mean the end of the British presence in the New world. For, if the British crown, lost its 13
.colonies, it reinforced its presence in Canada

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Concerning the British imperialism in India, it was reinforced, as it has already

mentioned above, because of the establishment of the British Indian Company. As a result,
Britain took control of all India. Yet, in 1858, the Hindu soldiers heard that the British
soldiers used the fat of cows to grease their arms. Those animals were very sacred in the
Buddhist Indian religion. They considered that act as an offence. Subsequently, the rebellion
started. The British tried to convince the Indians that they were just interested in trade but in
.vain. By the 20th century, all India was freed from British control
In South Africa, the great trek started in the 1830. The British were defeated by the
Boers of the Transvaal and Orange Free states in 1902. Also, the British occupied Egypt in
order to preserve control over the Suez Canal. Hong Kong however was taken from China
.following what is commonly called the Opium Wars
The British Empire was also growing in different other Parts in the world. Britain
occupied African courtiers like the Buchuana land in 1880 and Rhodesia (now Zimbabwe) in
.1884, in addition to Australia and New Zealand

British Imperialism
Case of study: The United States of America
The history of the United States of America has a very romantic value in the eyes of most
Americans. In fact, it started with first waves of immigration, which is, according to them,
the chief means that contributed to the creation of their dear nation, the United States of
America, and to the completion of what they qualify to be their Manifest Destiny. In fact,
although till now, many people, belonging to different parts of the world, long to immigrate to
the United States and thousands of them go there yearly, U.S.A immigration started more than
two centuries ago. It goes back to the days of the Mayflower immigrants or, may be earlier, to
.the Roanoke immigrants, who mysteriously disappeared
In fact, it is commonly agreed about that the first people who immigrated to the New
World and established what came to be known as the United States of America were the
Europeans, and more precisely the Spanish and the Portuguese. For, it is believed that the first
European countries who were interested in the discovery of the New World were Spain and
Portugal. Everything started in the fifteenth century, when these two strong unified nations
declared the beginnings of their expansion. Their objective was to end up Italian control over
trade with the East (Japan, China and India), whose centre was Venice. The Italians used to
transport different types of goods like spices, carpets, sugar and even gold through Asia to the
Persian Gulf area, where, these same goods would be transported by Arab merchants via
.Baghdad to the Egyptian seaports to be shipped to Italian ports
Thus, Spain and Portugal started to think about a solution, and by the way finding a
new and short route to Asia. Exploiting these favourable circumstances, the Italian navigator,
Christopher Columbus decided to test his theory (which was totally ignored and neglected in
his home country), that stipulates that since the world is round , there must be an other route
to the Indies he set sailed West through the Western hemisphere. And thats what happened.

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After being sponsored by Spain and Portugal, and more precisely by Queen Isabella of Spain,
the sailor started his voyage in three small ships: the Penta, the Ninia and the Santa Maria. In
October, 1942, Christopher Columbus discovered the New World, which he mistook for the
.East Indies. Probably, this was the reason why he called the Native Americans the Indians
Columbus had never realized that he discovered a new world about which no body had
any idea. It was until the declaration of Americus Vespucius (after whom the New World was
named, America), that it was confirmed that what Columbus discovered had nothing to do
.with the East Indies, but rather it was a new continent
With this new discovery, Spain has become the most powerful and developed nation in
Europe. The Proof of that was their subduing and enslavement of great civilizations in the
new World like the one the Incas in South America and the Aztec in Central America. Also,
they exploited the natural resources of that virgin land to the development of their own
country. Indeed, Spain had become the richest and wealthiest nation in Europe. It established
its first permanent settlement in North America near a fort called St Augustine, in nowadays
.state of Florida
All these circumstances contributed a lot in luring other European countries to follow
the same path as Spain, especially France and England, whose internal problems (between
Catholics and Protestants) prevented her from entering that lucrative enterprise. It was until
the rule of Queen Elizabeth I (who ended up with all the existing problems in the kingdom)
that the English nation was ready to enter that imperialistic race. Hence, due to brave sailors
like Francis Drake and Sir Walter Raleigh and via piracy, that the English were able to
destroy the mighty Spanish Armada. This maritime victory made of England the new mistress
.and absolute possessor of the sea
England then started a process of expansion by encouraging it people, and sometimes
forcing, them to immigrate to the New World in order to establish English colonies there, a
process of expansion which would result two centuries later in the United States of America.
The basic reasons that pushed England to encourage such immigration were of different types.
First of all, the kingdom at that time was characterized by hard times, either economically or
socially speaking. So England found it very favourable to send its people, especially judged to
be a nuisance for the health of the country, to fill up the emptiness and wilderness of the
newly discovered nation. Besides, the English noticed that establishing royal colonies in
America would be so beneficial for them especially after discovering never-ending genders of
natural resources and raw materials (like fisheries, sugar, timber, that the kingdom needed for
.its industrialization

Economically speaking, North America was seen as the best place in the world where
the English may open new and independent markets for its manufactured goods. Furthermore,
England considered North America as a missionary field for it protestant field against
Catholicism. Also, the New World is seen as a the place where the excess of population
would thrown off to avoid any further problem in the kingdom. In addition to that, we may

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add that among the basic causes that pushed the English to declare its process of expansion in
the new world were the hard times that characterized the British society in the 16th century
like poverty, unemployment, wars, political and religious persecution
In addition to that, there are many driving that pushed the English people to immigrate
to the new world such as hoping to find gold there, because there some rumours that
circulated in England that assured the existence of many mines of gold. Besides, most of the
English chivalric aristocracy had a certain tendency and love of adventure. A good illustration
of that was Sir Walter Raleigh, who went to the new world, established the colony of
Virginia, which he dedicated to Queen Elizabeth I of England, after whom he name (Virginia
after the virgin Queen Elizabeth I because she was unmarried), and of whom he was probably
.in love
Hence, and because of what all has been said before, the first English settlements were
created like the Jamestown settlement which was established in 1606. This happened after
James I of England chartered the Virginia Company of London. In fact, every body considred
that settlement as a business enterprise. After this first settlement, the crown started the
process of what was commonly called: the settlement of New England. Chief among the first
colonies of New England that was established at that time was the Plymouth colony, created
in 1620by a group of separatists (English people who believed that the Church of England
was so corrupted that is why they decided to create their own church). 102 men, largely
known as the pilgrims set sailed on board of the Mayflower. They landed in North America
on November 1620, and decided to settle in the Plymouth. The colonists of the Plymouth
could not survive the wilderness of the New World. It is reported that some of them even
resorted to cannibalism. Fortunately, their leader, John Smith was clever enough to think to
.ask for help from the Indians, who kindly supplied them with essential foodstuffs
In 1630, the Massachusetts Bay Colony was founded by puritans, more precisely by
the Congregationalists ( English people who believed that the Church of England was so
corrupted and needed to be purified from within). This colony was so pious and respected the
protestant values very much to the extent that they banished anyone who did not respect the
norms of that colony. Hence, those exiled people gathered themselves and founded the colony
of Providence (Rhode Island) in 1635. Its leader, Roger Williams game more religious
freedom to the settlers of that colony. He believed that al the immigrants escaped from
England and came to the new world in order to find religious freedom not to be more harassed
.and persecuted
The colony of Connecticut was founded by Massachusetts settlers in 1636, who were
looking for fertile lands, whereas New haven was established in 1639 by Massachusetts
settlers under the leadership John Devonport and Theophilus Easton. They wanted an ideal
bible community. Concerning Maryland, it is believed to be the first catholic colony
established in North America. It was founded by George Calvert, the first Lord Baltimore on
the proprietary principle. In fact, the king of England granted to the Calverts this land because
they served him faithfully and at the same time, they could not remain in England because of
.their religion: Catholicism

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The immigration to New England continued when the English established what they
called the Royal colonies. These latter include New Amsterdam, which became New York in
1674. This colony was taken from the Dutch to become a royal colony named after the Duke
of York (later king James II). Besides, Pennsylvania is also believed to be a proprietary
colony since it was founded by William Penn, who was given that land in return of a debt
contracted by the king from William Penns father. It served as a refuge for the Quakers
persecuted in England. Also, each of New Jersey, the Carolinas, and Georgia were considered
as royal colonies. All the already stated colonies were seen as the first thirteen colonies
established in the New World by immigrants coming from Europe in general and England in
.particular
Those thirteen colonies, which strung out along the eastern seaboard of what is
nowadays the United States of America declared their independence from the mother country
in 1776, fought a revolutionary was and won it in 1781. After that they drafted the
constitution which stipulated that all the colonies should be united under one federal
government composed of two houses the Senate in which representation was equal, and a
House of representatives in which the representation was proportioned according to the
population. Here, the Americans noticed that the continent was so large and that it needs to
filled up. As a solution, the Americans started to migrate Westward beyond the Appalachian
Mountains. Consequently, people started to establish new colonies or states, which were soon
given statehood as soon as they possessed some conditions settled by the federal paper.
Hence, states like California, Texas, and New Mexico among too many others were added to
.the union. Louisiana, however, was purchased from the French at the Price of $ 13 million

A detailed explanation of the founding of the first thirteen colonies

It is said that The history of the original 13 colonies is a tangled tale indeed. There
are many ways to view the events and, in hind sight, it is easy to think you understand. But no
one knew where they were headed at the time and it could have ended up very different.

1-Virginia
The foundation of the colony of Virginia was primarily based on George Weymouth's
accounts of voyages to the New England area in 1606. In fact, two private companies were
formed to seek a patent for colonization on the Atlantic Coast. One of these companies was
called the London Company and it was given the southern Virginia territory. The other
company was called the Plymouth Company and its patent was for northern Virginia. Both
companies quickly sought to exercise their patents but the London Company was the first to
actually place colonists on the shore. In 1607, 105 London Company sponsored settlers
arrived from England to begin the story that we all remember from our school days. Since
they were there representing England and its King, James I, they settled in an encampment
they called Jamestown on a river they named the James River.
The first year was devastating for the colonists, with only 32 colonists surviving the
winter and only then because Native Americans living in the area came to their aid with food.
After a supply ship arrived the next year they had additional provisions but many more

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colonists to feed as well. Once again, over the winter, most of the colonists died of starvation
and from hostile encounters with their neighbors. As winter came to a close, ships arrived,
and most of them were ready to leave. But as they were leaving, Lord Thomas de la Warr
(Delaware is named after him) arrived from England with new supplies and more settlers. He
refused to let the survivors return to England. Slowly, as they reached agreements with the
local Native American tribes and they learned how to grow some of their own crops, the
colony began to prosper.
Most of those original Jamestown settlers were after profit, mainly riches in the form
of gold and other precious metals. They had not given enough thought to the perils that they
would face in this unknown land. One of the settlers, however, was familiar with hardship and
was committed to Jamestown's survival. Capt. John Smith was a soldier and adventurer. He
had fought in France and Hungary, been captured and escaped. Although his personality
caused him some initial problems with the other colonists (he arrived in Jamestown in chains
after alienating the leaders of the expedition) he eventually made contact with the local Native
American chieftain Powhatan, who provided the colonists with much of their food in that first
year. Capt. Smith was eventually even appointed leader of the colony.
One of Powhatan's children, a daughter called Pocahontas, visited the colonists in the
early years and even brought food and other provisions to them. Several years later in an
attempt to obtain bargaining advantage over Powhatan the colonists kidnapped Pocahontas
and she stayed with them in Jamestown. A colonist, John Rolfe (who incidentally was the first
of the colonists to cultivate commercial quality tobacco and start the Colony on its way
towards profitability) eventually married her and took her to England. She died as they were
preparing to return to Virginia.
In 1619 a group of 20 African slaves arrived in Jamestown on a Dutch ship. Grouped
with the Southern Colonies, Virginia started out as a corporate colony (granted by Royal
charter to a Company of investors who have governing rights) but in 1624 became a Royal
colony (subject to the governing authority of the granting Royalty). In 1676 the village of
Jamestown was nearly destroyed during "Bacon's Rebellion." Whereas, In 1788 Virginia was
the tenth state to ratify the Constitution and recommended the Bill of Rights be added.

2-Massachussetts
In 1607, about the same time as the Jamestown colonization, a group of
English colonists attempted to establish a colony in the Northern Virginia territory. The
colony was located in present day Maine and was named Popham. It lasted for approximately
a year before the discouraged settlers returned to England.
http://www.timepage.org/images/NewEngColonies.gifThe Pilgrims were the first
English colonists to permanently settle in New England in what we now know as
Massachusetts. On Sept. 16, 1620 the ship "Mayflower" set off from Plymouth, England on it
journey to the New World. There were 102 passengers on the Mayflower including 41

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Christian Puritan Separatists known collectively as the Leiden group. After spending many
years in Holland exiled from the English Church, the Puritans were seeking a new life of
religious freedom in America. All 102 of the passengers were referred to as the "Pilgrims"
after they arrived. The group had obtained a Patent from the London Virginia Company
which indentured them into service for the Company for seven years after they arrived and
settled. To prepare for their life in America, they had sought advice from people who had
already visited the New World. Among their advisors was Captain John Smith who, earlier,
had helped found Jamestown for the Virginia Company. It took sixty six days to reach New
England and the journey was very hard for these non-seafarers. When they arrived they
anchored off the tip of Cape Cod, in an area now known as Massachusetts, and before they
even set foot on shore they wrote, and all the men signed, an agreement called the
"Mayflower Compact" that would set the rules to guide them through the early, hard times of
establishing a new community. The Compact, which was signed on November 21, 1620
(modern date, see note below.), served as the official Constitution of the Plymouth Colony for
many years.
For nearly a month they explored, by foot and in boats, the area around Cape Cod
using the maps they had obtained in England. During their exploration they had a few minor
encounters with the local natives. Finally, on December 21, they decided on a location near
Plymouth Harbor which they named Plymouth. Nearly half of the colonists and crew died
from illnesses that first winter as they struggled to build their town. The following spring they
were visited by a local Wampanoag native named Samoset who, surprisingly, spoke some
broken English. Eventually he introduced the settlers to another native named Squanto who's
village had occupied the area before the Pilgrims arrived. Squanto had been kidnapped by
English explorers and while he was in Europe the rest of his people had all been killed by
diseases brought by European explorers. Squanto spoke English very well and he stayed with
the Pilgrims and taught them many valuable skills that enabled them to survive in their new
country. He also played a very big part in bringing the Pilgrims and the local native
population together, leading, eventually to a long, but restless, peace.
Not long after the Pilgrims arrived in Plymouth (1628) the Puritans came to
Massachusetts and settled Naumkeag (later called Salem). John Winthrop, carrying the
Massachusetts Bay Charter, arrived in 1630 and founded Boston. Maine was annexed to
Massachusetts in 1652 and later the Plymouth Colony was too.
The relationship between the Native tribes and the colonists in New England was
always strained but generally didn't result in much bloodshed. In 1637 colonists,with the
cooperation of several local tribes, mounted a devastating attack on a tribe known as the
Pequots and then, in 1675, the long accord that had existed between the New England
colonists and the local native tribes came apart in a bloody war known as King Phillip's War
after the leader of the Wampanoag tribe, Metacomet, who was also known by his English
nickname "King Phillip". Metacomet was the son of Massasoit the Wampanoag leader who
had originally greeted the Plymouth settlers.

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Massachusetts was a New England colony which started out as a Corporate colony but
became a Royal colony in 1691. In 1788 Massachusetts was the sixth state to ratify the
Constitution.
3- New Hampshire
In 1623 two groups of English settlers, sent by Captain John Mason, arrived in what is
now called New Hampshire (after John Masons home County of Hampshire) and established
a fishing village near the mouth of the Piscataqua River. New Hampshire would remain an
English colony throughout the colonial period even though, at various times, it came under
Massachusetts jurisdiction.
In 1638, John Wheelwright, banished from Boston for defending his sister-in-law
Anne Hutchinson, founded a settlement called Exeter in New Hampshire. In 1639 the settlers
signed the "Exeter Compact" patterned after the "Mayflower Compact". One of the New
England Colonies, New Hampshire started out as a Proprietary colony but it became a Royal
colony in 1679. In 1719 Scots-Irish settlers from Londonderry, Ireland were sent to form a
"Scottish" settlement in New Hampshire named for their town of origin. In 1788 New
Hampshire was the ninth state to ratify the Constitution after which it was officially adopted.

4-New Jersey
Along with their holdings in New York, New Jersey was originally settled in 1623 by
the Dutch as New Netherlands. In 1664, after obtaining control of Dutch holdings lying
between Virginia and New England, the Duke of York made a proprietary grant to Sir George
Carteret and Lord Berkeley, of the land between the Hudson and the Delaware River. These
men intended to profit from real estate sales. The new grant was named New Jersey for
Carteret, who was governor of the Isle of Jersey.
In fact, it is commonly agreed about that this Middle Colony, New Jersey, started out as a
Proprietary colony but in 1702 it was granted a Royal charter. New Jersey, in 1787, was the
third state to ratify the Constitution.

5-New York
Although the Dutch West India Company explored and began to settle the New York
area as early as 1614, the principal occupation of the area did not occur until 1624 when
Dutch settlers arrived at Governors Island and then spread to other areas in the region. In
1626, Peter Minuit arrived on Manhattan Island and, with other Dutch settlers, bought the
island from the local Indians for 60 guilders ($24.) worth of goods. The settlement and fort on
the island became known as New Amsterdam which eventually became the City of New

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York. The Dutch holdings in the area were collectively called New Netherlands and included
areas of what is now New Jersey. New Amsterdam was granted self government and
incorporated by the Dutch in 1653.
In 1664, after King Charles II decided to reclaim the territory between Virginia and
New England, Peter Stuyvesant surrendered to English forces and New Amsterdam was given
to the King's brother, the Duke of York, and renamed New York. The Dutch continued to
struggle with the British for control of New Netherlands off and on until 1674 when the
British finally obtained full control. New York originally started out as a Proprietary colony
(granted by Royalty to one or more proprietors who had full governing rights) but in 1685
became a Royal colony. In 1788 New York became the eleventh state to ratify the
Constitution.

6-Maryland
In 1632 Charles I granted a Maryland Charter to Lord Baltimore (George Calvert,
Baron of Baltimore, who, with his family were faithful Catholics devoted to the king. He
granted them this colony as a price for their faithfulness and fidelity). Lord Baltimore wanted
very much to see the Colony become a reality and his son Cecil saw to it that the new Colony
was settled. In 1633 the first group of settlers set sail for Maryland to establish a colony of
freemen led by Leonard Calvert, Cecil Calvert's younger brother. This colony was one of the
Southern Colonies that started as a Proprietary colony. Maryland was the seventh state to
ratify the Constitution in 1788.

Rhode Island-7
While scattered Europeans began to settle the area as early as 1620, the first
permanent settlement wasn't established until 1636. In 1635 Roger Williams was driven from
Salem, Massachusetts for espousing religious and political freedom. After spending the winter
with the Indians he finally bought land from the Narragansett Indians and settled in what is
.now called Providence. The new colony became a haven for those seeking religious freedom
In 1638, Anne Hutchinson, having been banned from Massachusetts, helped found
Portsmouth, Rhode Island. A New England Colony, Rhode Island was established as a
corporate colony and received a Royal "Charter of Rhode Island and Providence Plantations"
in 1663. Among other unique guarantees, the Charter established complete religious freedom
in Rhode Island, which was unusual at the time, and later formed the basis for similar
provisions in the U.S. Constitution. Although Rhode Island was one of the first colonies to
embrace autonomy from the British and espouse Revolutionary ideals, it was the last of the 13
.colonies to ratify the Federal Constitution and became a State in 1790

Connecticut-8
Dutch traders had established a permanent settlement near Hartford as early as 1633.
Soon English settlers began to arrive in the area from Massachusetts. In 1636, after being

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driven from Massachusetts, Clergyman Thomas Hooker and his followers arrived in Hartford
and declared freedom from all save Divine Authority. In 1639 the "Fundamental Orders" were
enacted to govern the colony. In 1662 Connecticut finally obtained a Royal Charter under
John Winthrop Jr. One of the New England Colonies, Connecticut was also a Corporate
.colony. In 1788 Connecticut was the fifth state to ratify the Constitution

Delaware-9
In 1631, the first settlement was attempted in Delaware by Dutch traders led by
Captain David Pietersen de Vries. By 1632 the party had been killed in a dispute with the
.local natives
In 1638, Peter Minuet, now in the service of the Swedish, led a group of Swedish
settlers to the Delaware River area under a grant from the New Sweden Company. It was
.these Swedish settlers that brought the log cabin design to America
In 1655 the Dutch gained control of the land from the Swedish. In 1664 the English
obtained Delaware after defeating the Dutch. The Dutch briefly recaptured Delaware in 1673
but in 1674 the English finally took control. In 1682 Delaware was awarded to William Penn
but his control didn't last and Delaware became independent in 1701 and elected its own
.assembly in 1704
At the beginning, Delaware was a Proprietary colony and was the first state to ratify the
.Constitution and become a State in 1787

North Carolina -10

North Carolina's outer banks were the scene of the first British colonizing efforts in
North America. Both attempts, in the late 1500's, to form a colony on Roanoke Island (see
.above ) did not succeed
http://www.timepage.org/images/Carolinas&Georgia.gifVirginia colonists began to settle the
North Carolina region in 1653 to provide a buffer for the southern frontier. In 1691
Albermarle, the northern Carolina region was officially recognized by the English crown.
.This is the first time the "North Carolina" designation was used
One of the Southern Colonies, North Carolina started out as a Proprietary colony but obtained
a Royal charter in 1729 from Charles II. After agreeing to the first 12 amendments, in 1789,
.North Carolina became the 12th state to ratify the new Constitution

South Carolina -11

South Carolina was the site of the first European settlement in North America. In 1526
San Miguel de Gualdape was established by settlers from Hispanolia who initially landed in
South Carolina but ended up moving to an area of the Carolina region that would eventually

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become Georgia. The party returned to Hispanolia after suffering many deaths due to fever
.the first year
In 1663 King Charles II created the colony of Carolina (named for King Charles II) by
granting the territory, of what is now roughly North Carolina, South Carolina and Georgia, to
loyal supporters. This colonial charter was challenged by many Virginians who had settled in
Albermarle Sound and resented their inclusion in the Carolina Charter. Charleston (originally
Charles Town after the King) was founded in 1670 by a group of 200 colonists from English
Barbados. The leader of the colonists was Sir John Yeamans, a powerful plantation owner on
.Barbados
South Carolina was a southern colony that started out as a Proprietary colony but also became
.a Royal colony in 1719. In 1788 South Carolina was the eighth state to ratify the Constitution

Pennsylvania -12
As early as 1647, a settlement occurred on what is now Pennsylvania soil by Swedish,
Dutch and English settlers in the Delaware River region. In 1681 however, Pennsylvania's
colonial status was sealed when approximately the present state of Pennsylvania was granted
to William Penn, a member of the Society of Friends (Quakers), to offset a debt owed to
Penn's father. In 1682 the city plan for Philadelphia was laid out. In 1682 the "Frame of
Government" for Pennsylvania was put into effect. In 1683 the first German settlers arrived in
.Pennsylvania and formed Germantown near Philadelphia
This colony, Pennsylvania, was a Proprietary colony and in 1763, Charles Mason and
Jeremiah Dixon, two young British astronomers commissioned to establish a borderline
between Maryland and Pennsylvania, worked for more than four years to settle a century-old
boundary dispute between the Calverts of Maryland and the Penns of Pennsylvania by
establishing the Mason-Dixon Line. In 1787 Pennsylvania was the second state to ratify the
.Constitution

Georgia-13
There were a few Spanish settlements along the coast, north of Florida, in the 16th and
early 17th century but what is now Georgia was originally just the southern portion of the
Carolina grant. Hoping to provide a second chance for adventurous members of the English
under class, King George II, in 1732, granted Georgia to James Edward Oglethorpe, an
English general. In addition to its lofty social goals the new Colony was also intended to
provide additional protection for its northern colonial partners. Prior to Oglethorpe and his
party settling the area in 1733, Fort King George was the only English occupation in the area.
The Fort, which was established in 1721, was the Southern-most post in the Colonies and was
.situated to provide a buffer against Spanish and French intrusion from the South
In 1738, General Oglethorpe brought a large military contingent to Georgia and the
following year his troops provided a strong showing against the Spanish in King George's
War (the War of Austrian Succession in Europe). General Oglethorpe led his men into St.

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Augustine and although they were not able to obtain a victory there, when the Spanish sailed
into Georgia seeking retaliation two years later, he and his soldiers were able to drive the
.Spanish back to Florida for, what turned out to be, the last time
One of the Southern Colonies, Georgia started out as a Proprietary colony but
eventually became a Royal colony in 1752. In 1788 Georgia was the fourth state to ratify the
.Constitution
The following table resumes all the most important detail related to each colony:

COLONY
NAME

YEAR
FOUNDED

FOUNDED BY

BECAME ROYAL
COLONY

Virginia

1607

London Company

1624

Massachusetts

1620

Puritans

1691

New Hampshire 1623

John Wheelwright

1679

Maryland

1634

Lord Baltimore

N/A

Connecticut

c. 1635

Thomas Hooker

N/A

Rhode Island

1636

Roger Williams

N/A

Delaware

1638

Peter Minuit and New Sweden

N/A
Company

North Carolina

1653

Virginians

1729

South Carolina

1663

Eight Nobles with a Royal

Charter from Charles II

1729

New Jersey

1664

Lord Berkeley and Sir George

Carteret

1702

New York

1664

Duke of York

1685

Pennsylvania

1682

William Penn

N/A

Georgia

1732

James Edward Oglethorpe

1752

Course 02
The Drafting of the American constitution
Introduction

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The Constitution of the United States of America is the basic element of the American
government. Also, it is considered to be the Supreme and most eminent law of the whole
nation. For, it played a very elementary role in guiding the evolution of governmental
institutions and in providing the basis rules for political stability, economic growth and social
.progress
In fact, it is commonly agreed about that the American Constitution is the oldest
written constitution in force in any nation of the world. Its basic principles are the model of
many other constitutions in the world. It owes its remarkable longevity and it lasting influence
to two equally significant criteria: simplicity and flexibility. It was originally designed to
provide a framework for governing thirteen weak and disparate former colonies. These basic
elements upon which the American constitution was based were so soundly conceived that
they allowed to the Constitution to serve the needs of more than 210 million people in 50
.states
Politically speaking, the word government has many definitions and explanations. It
may be regarded as the fact of exercising authority over a state, or a system of ruling. Also, it
may be considered as a political administration, or simply a political organization. In the
United States of America, however, the government has a particular meaning, more precisely,
a meaning of a historical value. Probably this is due to the difficulties and obstacles that the
founding fathers faced and to which they resisted to achieve the creation of a chef- doevre,
.that is commonly called nowadays the American Federal Government
As it has already mentioned, to become the widely known and famous American
Government, this latter witnessed different changes and modifications throughout the
American history, and of which it constitutes the major part. In fact, it goes back to the days
of the American Revolution, when the thirteen colonies decided to unite themselves under the
Articles of Confederation to stop the British harassment and exploitation of the New World.
Nevertheless, those articles proved to be inefficacious and their weaknesses were apparent to
everybody. That is why 55delegates coming from the thirteen colonies met in Philadelphia for
the sake of revising the so called Articles of Confederation. The Constitutional or Federal
Convention convened on May 25, 1787, in Independence Hall, where the Declaration of
Independence had been adopted eleven years earlier on July 4, 1776. As It has already
mentioned above, although the delegates had been authorized only to amend the Articles of
Confederation, they pushed the articles aside and proceeded to construct a charter for a wholly
new, more centralized form of government. The new document, the Constitution, was
.completed on September, 17, 1787, and was officially adopted on March 4, 1789

However, before putting this federal paper into practice, there was a great deal of
controversy and speculation among the delegation, embodied mainly in the Virginia and New
Jersey plans of union. The former provided for a bicameral government with a proportional
representation in both houses, whereas the latter stipulated that the government would be a
unicameral institution with equal representation. Hence, the major problem that faced the
delegation was about representation in the government. In fact, the larger states argued in

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favour of proportional representation in the legislature i.e. each state should have voting
power according to its population. The smaller states, fearing domination by the larger ones
.insisted for an equal representation for all states
After long debates, the delegates reached a compromise, which they qualified to be
great. This so called Great compromise ended the rift between large and small states since it
outlined that the new Federal government would be composed of tow houses in which the
representation would be equal in one house and proportional in the other house. In the Senate
(the upper house), every state would have two seats (equal representation). In the House of
Representatives, however, the number of seats would depend on population (proportional
representation). Also, the latter house was given the power to originate all legislation dealing
with the federal budget and revenues. Besides, they agreed that the federal government should
.constitute of three main branches: the executive, the legislative and the Judiciary
Although the United States Constitution has changed in many aspects since it was first
:adopted, its basic principles remain the same now as in 1789, and they are six main principles
The three main branches of the government are separate and distinct from one another. The-1
powers given to each are delicately balanced by the power of the other two. Each branch
.serves as a check on potential excesses of the others
The constitution, together with laws properly passed according to its provisions, and treaties-2
entered into by the President and approved by the Senate, stand above all other laws,
.executive acts and regulations
All men are equal before the law and are equally entitled to its protection. All states are-3
.equal, and non can receive special treatment from the Federal Government
Within the limits of the Constitution, each state must recognize and respect the laws of the-4
.others
State governments, like the Federal Government, must be republican in form, with final-5
.authority resting in the people
The people have the right to change their form of government by legal means defined in the-6
.Constitution itself
Concerning the Federal system, the framers of the constitution had several cut objectives in
mind. They set this down with a remarkable and brilliant clarity in the federal paper. They are
:six major points
To form a more perfect union-1
To establish justice-2
To ensure domestic tranquillity-3

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To provide for the common defence-4

To promote the general welfare-5
To secure the blessing of liberty to ourselves and our prosperity -6
All in all, and to sum up all what has been said before in the introduction concerning
the American Constitution, we may say that the United States Constitution was written in
1787, adopted in 1788, and took effect in 1789, replacing the Articles of Confederation. It
.remains the basic law of the United States Federal (central) government

History of the American Constitution

Historically speaking, the American Constitution was the logical outcome of the
famous historical event commonly known as the Declaration of Independence that happened
on June 7, 1776. This was a significantly important resolution that was introduced in the
Second Continental Congress declaring the union with Great Britain dissolved, proposing the
formation of foreign alliances, and suggesting the drafting of a plan of confederation to be
submitted to the respective states. Independence was declared on July 4, 1776; the preparation
.of a plan of confederation was postponed
A year before, the gunfire of Lexington and concord burst, and the Second Continental
Congress that took place in Philadelphia resulted in the fact that all the American colonies
expressed their common will to resist the British aggression. Hence, the Congress assumed
the executive power over all the thirteen colonies and created a continental army the head of
which was George Washington. The American war of independence that opposed the British
army to the thirteen colonies, who were united under the Articles of Confederation, began on
June 17 with the battle of Banker Hill. On July 4, the Americans adopted the Declaration of
Independence drafted by Thomas Jefferson, then on November 15, the Articles of
Confederation were officially adopted as a compact that stipulated a perpetual union between
the thirteen colonies, although the majority of the colonists did not believe in the efficacy of
.these Articles of Confederation
Militarily speaking, the American Army was essentially composed of volunteers and
was so small and weak compared to the British one. It was defeated at the battle of Long
Island on August 1776, and George Washington was obliged to withdraw from New York;
and the same thing happened a year late in Philadelphia. The first truly victory of the
American Army occurred at the battle of Saratoga (17 October 1777). This battle is
considered to be a turning point in the stream of the American Revolution especially that the
French noticed that the victory of the Americans meant confining the British power and
subsequently a release to the French. Hence, They decided to intervene in the war on the
behalf of the French under the leadership of Lafayette and Rochambeau. The war ended
victoriously to the English on October 19, 1781, whereas Britain recognized the American
.Independence when the Paris Peace treaty was issued at Versailles on September 3, 1783

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The newly established American nation found herself in a very difficult economic and
political situation: there was no money to build a nation and no government to guide this
enterprise. It was apparent to everybody that a central government is needed, subsequently;
.George Washington called for another Continental Convention which he would preside
In fact, Weaknesses in the Articles of Confederation became apparent before the
Revolution ended. Even before the thirteenth State (Maryland) conditionally joined the "firm
league of friendship" on March 1, 1781, the need for a revenue amendment was widely
conceded. Under the articles, Congress lacked authority to levy taxes; instead, it could request
the States to contribute a share to the common treasury. The amounts gained through this
technique were not sufficient. To remedy this defect, Congress applied to the States for power
to lay duties and secure the public debts. Twelve States agreed to such an amendment, but
Rhode Island refused its consent, thereby defeating the proposal.
Thus; it was emphasized a second weakness in the Articles of Confederation, namely,
the Liberum Veto which each State possessed whenever amendments to that instrument were
proposed. Not only did all amendments have to be ratified by each of the thirteen states, but
all important legislation needed the approval of nine States. With several delegations often
absent, one or two States were able to defeat legislative proposals of major importance.
The period between the adoption of the Articles of Confederation in 1781 and the
drafting of the Constitution in 1787 has been seen by some historians as one of weakness,
dissension, and turmoil, and by others as basically stable and prosperous. Under the Articles
of Confederation, no provisions were made for an executive branch to enforce the laws or for
a national court system to interpret them. A legislature was the sole organ of the national
government, but it had no power to force the states to do anything against their will. It could
theoretically declare war and raise an army, but it could not force any state to meet its
assigned quota for troops or for the arms and equipment needed to support them. It looked to
the states for the income needed to finance its activities, but it could not punish a state for not
contributing its share of the federal budget. Control of taxation and tariffs was left to the
states, and each state could issue its own currency. In disputes between states--and there were
many unsettled quarrels over state boundaries--Congress played the role of mediator and
judge but could not require states to accept its decisions.
Without the power to collect taxes, the federated government plunged into debt. At the
same time, seven of the 13 states printed large quantities of paper money, high in face value,
but low in real purchasing power, in order to pay Revolutionary War veterans and a variety of
creditors as well as settle debts between small farmers and large plantation owners.
By contrast, the Massachusetts legislature imposed a tightly limited currency and high
taxes, triggering the formation of a small army of farmers led by Daniel Shays, a former
Revolutionary War army captain. The incident came to be known as Shays' Rebellion. In a
bid to take over the Massachusetts statehouse, Shays and others demanded that foreclosures
and unfair mortgages be dropped. Troops were called out to suppress the rebellion, but the
national government took notice.

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The absence of a single, uniform, and stable currency also disrupted trade among the
states and with other countries. Not only did the value of paper currency vary from state to
state, but some states, such as New York and Virginia, levied duties on products entering their
ports from other states, thereby provoking retaliatory actions. The states could assert, as had
the federal superintendent of finance, that their public credit was gone. To compound their
problems, these newly independent states, having separated violently from Britain, no longer
received favored treatment at British ports. When U.S. minister John Adams tried to negotiate
a commercial treaty in 1785, the British refused on the grounds that the individual states
would not be bound by it.
The weak central government also lacked the power to back its policies with military
strength. As a result, it was inevitably handicapped in foreign affairs. The British refused to
withdraw their troops from the forts and trading posts in the new nation's Northwest Territory,
as they had agreed to do in the Treaty of Paris of 1783 that marked the end of the
Revolutionary War. To make matters worse, British officers on the northern boundaries and
Spanish officers to the south supplied arms to various American Indian tribes and encouraged
them to attack American settlers. The Spanish, who controlled Florida and Louisiana, as well
as all territory west of the Mississippi River, also refused to allow western American farmers
to use the port of New Orleans to ship produce.
Other imperfections in the Articles of Confederation proved embarrassing as well.
Congress could, for example, negotiate treaties with foreign powers, but all treaties had to be
ratified by the several States. Even when a treaty was approved, Congress lacked authority to
secure obedience. Congress could not act directly upon the States or upon individuals. Under
such circumstances, foreign nations doubted the value of a treaty with the new confederation.
Furthermore, Congress had no authority to regulate foreign or interstate commerce.
Legislation in this field, subject to unimportant exceptions, was left to the individual States.
Disputes between States with common interests in the navigation of certain rivers and bays
were inevitable. Discriminatory regulations were followed by reprisals.
Although there were signs of returning prosperity in some areas of the fledgling
nation, domestic and foreign problems continued to grow. It became increasingly clear to
many nationalists that the confederation's central government was not strong enough to
establish a sound financial system, to regulate trade, to enforce treaties, or to go to war when
needed. With Shays' Rebellion of 1786 vividly in mind, George Washington warned: "There
are combustibles in every state which a spark might set fire to."

Mount Vernon Conference-1

The colony of Virginia, recognizing the need for an agreement with Maryland
respecting the navigation and jurisdiction of the Potomac River, appointed, in June 1784, four
commissioners to "frame such liberal and equitable regulations concerning the said river as
may be mutually advantageous to the two States." Maryland, in January 1785, responded to
the Virginia resolution by appointing a like number of commissioners for the purpose of
settling the navigation and jurisdiction over that part of the bay of Chesapeake which lies
within the limits of Virginia, and over the rivers Potomac and Pocomoke" with full power on

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behalf of Maryland "to adjudge and settle the jurisdiction to be exercised by the said State,
respectively, over the waters and navigations of the same."
At the invitation of George Washington, the commissioners met at his Mount Vernon
home, in March 1785, and drafted a compact which, in many of its details relative to the
navigation and jurisdiction of the Potomac, is still in force. What is more important, the
commissioners submitted to their respective States a report in favor of a convention of all the
States "to take into consideration the trade and commerce" of the Confederation. Virginia, in
January 1786, advocated such a convention, authorizing its commissioners to meet with those
of other States, at a time and place to be agreed on, "to take into consideration the trade of the
United States; to examine the relative situations and trade of the said State; to consider how
far a uniform system in their commercial regulations may be necessary to their common
interest and their permanent harmony; and to report to the several State, such an act relative to
this great object, as when unanimously ratified by them, will enable the United States in
Congress, effectually to provide for the same."

Annapolis Convention -2
This proposal for a general trade convention seemingly met with general approval;
nine States appointed commissioners. Under the leadership of the Virginia delegation, which
included Randolph and Madison, Annapolis was accepted as the place and the first Monday in
September 1786 as the time for the convention. The attendance at Annapolis proved
disappointing. Only five States--Virginia, Pennsylvania, Delaware, New Jersey, and New
York--were represented; delegates from Massachusetts, New Hampshire, North Carolina, and
Rhode Island failed to attend. Because of the small representation, the Annapolis Convention
did not deem it advisable to proceed on the business of their mission. After an exchange of
views, the Annapolis delegates unanimously submitted to their respective States a report in
which they suggested that a convention of representatives from all the States meet at
Philadelphia on the second Monday in May (May 13) 1787 to examine the defects in the
existing system of government and formulate "a plan for supplying such defects as may be
discovered.
The Virginia legislature acted promptly upon this recommendation and appointed a
delegation to go to Philadelphia. Within a few weeks, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, North
Carolina, Delaware, and Georgia also made appointments. New York and several other States
hesitated on the ground that, without the consent of the Continental Congress, the work of the
convention would be extra-legal; that Congress alone could propose amendments to the
Articles of Confederation. George Washington was quite unwilling to attend an irregular
convention. Congressional approval of the proposed convention became, therefore, highly
important. After some hesitancy, Congress approved the suggestion for a convention at
Philadelphia "for the sole and express purpose of revising the Articles of Confederation and
reporting to Congress and the several legislatures such alterations and provisions therein as
shall when agreed to in Congress and confirmed by the States render the Federal Constitution
adequate to the exigencies of Government and the preservation of the Union."

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Therefore, the remaining States, Rhode Island excepted, appointed in due course
delegates to the Convention, and Washington accepted membership on the Virginia
delegation.

3-Philadelphia Convention
On February 21, 1787, Congress resolved: "It is expedient that on the second Monday
in May next a Convention of delegates who shall have been appointed by the several States be
held at Philadelphia for the sole and express purpose of revising the Articles of
Confederation." On the appointed day, May 14, few representatives were present. The
Convention (also known as the Philadelphia Convention) only obtained a quorumdelegates
of seven stateson May 25.
The 55 delegates who drafted the Constitution included most of the outstanding
leaders, or Founding Fathers, of the new nation. They represented a wide range of interests,
backgrounds, and stations in life, although they shared a common background: the vast
majority of them were wealthy landowners and all were white males. All agreed, however, on
the central objectives expressed in the preamble to the Constitution:
We the People of the United States, in Order to form a more perfect Union, establish Justice,
insure domestic Tranquility, provide for the common defense, promote the general Welfare,
and secure the Blessings of Liberty to ourselves and our Posterity, do ordain and establish this
Constitution for the United States of America.
The primary aim of the Constitution was to create a strong elected government that
was responsive to the will of the people, although there is some controversy over this. Many
of the Founding Fathers believed that the new government needed to be insulated from the
will of the people; hence the design of such features as the Electoral College or the election of
Senators by the state legislatures. The concept of sovereignty of the people in a republic was
new--a key ingredient of Republicanism in the United States. By the time the Constitution
was adopted, Americans had considerable expertise in the art of self-government. Long before
independence was declared, the colonies were functioning governmental units controlled by
the people. By 1777, ten of the thirteen states had adopted their own constitutions. Most states
had a governor elected by the state legislature. The legislature itself was elected by popular
vote. Every state but Pennsylvania had a bicameral legislature as well.
The Articles of Confederation had tried to unite these self-governing states. The Constitution,
by contrast, established a strong central, or federal, government with broad powers to regulate
relations between the states and with sole responsibility in such areas as foreign affairs and
defense.

Drafting the Constitution

The sense of potential disaster and the need for drastic change pervaded the
Constitutional Convention that began its deliberations on May 25, 1787. All of the delegates

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were convinced that an effective central government with a wide range of enforceable powers
must replace the weaker Congress established by the Articles of Confederation.
On May 29, Edmund Randolph, on behalf of the Virginia delegation, submitted to the
convention 15 propositions as a plan of government. Despite the fact that the delegates were
limited by the instructions of their State legislatures to a revision of the Articles, Virginia had
really recommended a new instrument of government. For example, provision was made in
the Virginia Plan for the separation of the three branches of government; under the Articles
executive, legislative, and judicial powers were vested in the Congress. Furthermore, the
legislature was to consist of two houses rather than one.
On May 30, the Convention went into a committee of the whole to consider the 15
propositions of the Virginia Plan seriatim. These discussions continued until June 13, when
the Virginia resolutions in amended form were reported out of committee.
The delegates agreed that the new government would be composed of three separate,
branches, based on ideals enumerated in John Locke's Two Treatises of Government:
legislative, judicial, and executive, each with distinct powers to balance those of the other two
branches. It was also agreed that the legislative branch, like the British Parliament, and the
state legislatures (except Pennsylvania), should consist of two houses.
Beyond this point, however, there were sharp differences of opinion that threatened, at
times, to disrupt the convention and cut short its proceedings before a constitution was
drafted. The Virginia Plan provided for proportional representation in both houses. The small
States were dissatisfied.
The large states argued in favor of proportional representation in the legislature--that
is, each state should have voting power according to its population, calling equal
representation, "confessedly unjust." The small states, fearing domination by the large ones,
insisted on equal representation for all states.
At the time of the convention, the South was growing more quickly than the North,
and it was Southern states who had the most extensive Western claims. South Carolina, North
Carolina, and Georgia were small in the 1780s, but they expected growth, and thus favored
proportional representation. New York was one of the largest states at the time, but two of its
three representatives (Hamilton being the exception) favored an equal representation, as part
of their desire to see maximum autonomy for the states. (The two representatives other than
Hamilton left the convention before the representation issue was resolved, leaving Hamilton,
and New York state, without a vote.)
James Madison and Alexander Hamilton were two of the leaders of the proportional
representation group. Madison argued that a conspiracy of large states against the small states
was unrealistic, as the large states were so different from each other. Hamilton argued that the
states were artificial entities made up of individuals, and accused small state representatives
of wanting power, not liberty. (see History of the United States Senate).

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For their part, the small state representatives argued that the states were, in fact, equal,
and that proportional representation would be unfair to them. Gunning Bedford, Jr. of
Delaware notoriously threatened on behalf of the small states, "the small ones w[ould] find
some foreign ally of more honor and good faith, who will take them by the hand and do them
justice."
Therefore, on June 14, when the Convention was ready to consider the report on the
Virginia plan, William Paterson of New Jersey requested an adjournment to allow certain
delegations more time to prepare a substitute plan. The request was granted, and, on the next
day, Paterson submitted nine resolutions embodying important changes in the Articles of
Confederation, but strictly amendatory in nature. Vigorous debate followed. On June 19, the
delegates rejected the New Jersey plan and voted to proceed with a discussion of the Virginia
Plan. The small States became more and more discontented; there were threats of withdrawal.
On July 2, the Convention was deadlocked over giving each State an equal vote in the upper
house--five States in the affirmative, five in the negative, one divided.
The problem was referred to a committee of 11, there being 1 delegate from each State, to
effect a compromise. On July 5, the committee submitted its report, which became the basis
for the Great Compromise" of the Convention. The report recommended: in the upper house,
each State should have an equal vote; in the lower house, each State should have one
representative for every 40,000 inhabitants, counting three-fifths of the slaves; money bills
should originate in the lower house (not subject to amendment by the upper chamber).
After six weeks of tumult, North Carolina switched its vote to equal representation and
Massachusetts abstained, and a compromise was reached, the so called "Great Compromise."
In the "Great Compromise," every state was given equal representation, previously known as
the New Jersey Plan, in one house of Congress and proportional representation, known before
as the Virginia Plan, in the other. In the Senate, every state would have two seats. In the
House of Representatives, the number of seats would depend on population. Because it was
considered more responsive to majority sentiment, the House of Representatives was given
the power to originate all legislation dealing with the federal budget and revenues/taxation.
When, on July 12, the motion of Gouverneur Morris of Pennsylvania that direct
taxation should also be in proportion to representation was adopted, the crisis had been
successfully surmounted. A compromise spirit began to prevail; however, the small States
were not willing to support a strong national government.
The Great Compromise ended the rift between the large and small states, but
throughout the summer the delegates worked out numerous other compromises. Some
delegates, fearful of giving too much power to the people, argued for indirect election of all
federal officials; others wanted as broad an electoral base as possible. Some wanted to
exclude the western territories from eventual statehood; others saw the future strength of the
nation in the lands beyond the Appalachian Mountains. There were sectional interests to be
balanced; differing views to be reconciled on the term, powers, and method of selection of the
president; and conflicting ideas on the role of the federal judiciary.

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The high quality of the delegates to the convention eased the way to compromise.
Only a few of the great leaders of the American Revolution were absent: Thomas Jefferson
and John Adams, both future presidents, were serving as America's envoys to France and
Britain, respectively; John Jay was busy as secretary of foreign affairs of the Confederation,
although he later wrote some of the Federalist Papers. A handful of others, including Samuel
Adams, Thomas Paine, and Patrick Henry, chose not to participate, believing that the existing
governmental structure was sound. Of those in attendance, the best known by far was George
Washington, commander of American troops and hero of the Revolution, who presided over
the convention. Benjamin Franklin, the scientist, scholar, and diplomat, was also there. So,
too, were such outstanding men as James Madison of Virginia, Gouverneur Morris of
Pennsylvania, and Alexander Hamilton, the brilliant young lawyer and soldier from New
York.
Even the youngest delegates, still in their twenties and thirties, had already displayed
political and intellectual gifts. As Thomas Jefferson in Paris wrote to John Adams in London,
"It really is an assembly of demigods."
Debates on the Virginia resolutions continued. The 15 original resolutions had been
expanded into 23. Since these resolutions were largely declarations of principles, on July 24, a
committee of five (Edward Rutledge of South Carolina, Edmund Randolph of Virginia,
Nathaniel Gorham of Massachusetts, Oliver Ellsworth of Connecticut, and James Wilson of
Pennsylvania) was elected to draft a detailed constitution embodying the fundamental
principles which had thus far been approved. The Convention adjourned from July 26 to
August 6 to await the report of this "committee of detail". This committee, in preparing its
draft of a Constitution, turned for assistance to the State constitutions, to the Articles of
Confederation, to the various plans which had been submitted to the Convention and other
available material. On the whole, the report of the committee conformed to the resolutions
adopted by the Convention, though on many clauses the members of the committee left the
imprint of their individual and collective judgments. In a few instances, the committee
avowedly exercised considerable discretion.
Some of the ideas embodied in the Constitution were new, but many were drawn from
Classical Antiquity and the British governmental tradition of mixed government which was in
practice among 12 of the 13 states and were advocated by the writings of Charles de
Secondat, Baron de Montesquieu. The United States Constitution was partly based on ideas
from the uncodified constitution of the United Kingdom, such as Article 39 from the British
Magna Carta of 1215, which states:
No free man shall be arrested, or imprisoned, or deprived of his property, or outlawed, or
exiled, or in any way destroyed, nor shall we go against him or send against him, unless by
legal judgement of his peers, or by the law of the land.
From August 6 to September 10, the report of the committee of detail was discussed,
section by section, clause by clause. Details were attended to, further compromises were
effected. Toward the close of these discussions, on September 8, another committee of five
(William Samuel Johnson of Connecticut, Alexander Hamilton of New York, Gouverneur

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Morris of Pennsylvania, James Madison of Virginia, and Rufus King of Massachusetts.) was
appointed to revise the style of and arrange the articles which had been agreed to by the
house.
On Wednesday, September 12, the report of the "committee of style" was ordered
printed for the convenience of the delegates. For three days, the Convention compared this
report with the proceedings of the Convention. The Constitution was then ordered engrossed
on Saturday, September 15, and the work was done by Jacob Shallus.
The Convention met on Monday, September 17, for its final session. Several of the
delegates were disappointed in the result. A few deemed the new Constitution a mere
makeshift, a series of unfortunate compromises. Some delegates left before the ceremony, and
three of those remaining refused to sign: Edmund Randolph and George Mason of Virginia,
and Elbridge Gerry of Massachusetts. Of the 39 who did sign, probably no one was
completely satisfied, and their views were ably summed up by Benjamin Franklin, who said,
"There are several parts of this Constitution which I do not at present approve, but I am not
sure I shall never approve them." He would accept the Constitution, however, "because I
expect no better and because I am not sure that it is not the best."
An amendment was agreed upon to change "the number of Representatives shall not
exceed one for every forty thousand" to "the number of Representatives shall not exceed one
for every thirty thousand." A paragraph making clear this change and a few minor
modifications was appended to the document by Shallus, and attested to by secretary William
Jackson.
The advocates of the Constitution, realizing the impending difficulty of obtaining the
consent of the States to the new instrument of Government, were anxious to obtain the
unanimous support of the delegations from each State. It was feared that many of the
delegates would refuse to give their individual assent to the Constitution. Therefore, in order
that the action of the Convention would appear to be unanimous, Gouverneur Morris devised
the formula Done in Convention, by the unanimous consent of the States present the 17th of
September...In witness whereof we have hereunto subscribed our names. Thirty-nine of the
forty-two delegates present thereupon subscribed to the document.

Ratification of the American Constitution

It was within the power of the old Congress to expedite or block the ratification of the
new Constitution. The document which the Philadelphia Convention presented was
technically only a revision of the Articles of Confederation. But the last article of the new
instrument provided that when ratified by conventions in nine states, it should go into effect
among the States so acting. In effect, Congress was asked to sanction a secession of nine
States from the old Union which had been declared perpetual. Congress eventually yielded
and passed the Constitution on to the States.
Then, followed an arduous process of ratification of the Constitution by specially
constituted conventions. The need for only nine states was a controversial decision at the

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time, since the Articles of Confederation could only be amended by unanimous vote of all the
states. Despite this, the new Constitution was ratified by all 13 states within two and a half
years.
Three members of the ConventionMadison, Gorham, and Kingwere also
Members of Congress. They proceeded at once to New York, where Congress was in session,
to placate the expected opposition. Aware of their vanishing authority, Congress on
September 28, after some debate, unanimously decided to submit the Constitution to the
States for action. It made no recommendation for or against adoption.
Two parties soon emerged, one in opposition (Antifederalists), and one in support
(Federalists), of the Constitution, and the Constitution was debated, criticized, and expounded
clause by clause. Hamilton, Madison, and Jay, under the name of "Publius," wrote a series of
commentaries, now known as the Federalist Papers, in support of the new instrument of
government; however, the primary aim of the essays was for ratification in the state of New
York, at that time a hotbed of anti-federalism. These commentaries on the Constitution,
written during the struggle for ratification, have been frequently cited by the Supreme Court
as an authoritative contemporary interpretation of the meaning of its provisions. The
closeness and bitterness of the struggle over ratification and the conferring of additional
powers on the central government can scarcely be exaggerated. In some states, ratification
was effected only after a bitter struggle in the state convention itself.
Delaware, on December 7, 1787, became the first State to ratify the new Constitution,
the vote being unanimous. Pennsylvania ratified on December 12, 1787, by a vote of 46 to 23
(66.67%), a vote scarcely indicative of the struggle which had taken place in that State. New
Jersey ratified on December 19, 1787, and Georgia on January 2, 1788, the vote in both was
unanimous. In New York, fully two thirds of the convention were at first opposed to the
Constitution. Hamilton led the Federalist campaign, including the fast-paced appearance of
the Federalist Papers in New York newspapers. An attempt to attach conditions to ratification
almost succeeded, but on July 26, 1788, New York ratified, with a recommendation that a bill
of rights be appended. The vote was closeyeas 30 (52.6%), nays 27due largely to
Hamilton's forensic abilities and his reaching a few key compromises with moderate antiFederalists led by Melancton Smith. Opposition to ratification was led by Governor George
Clinton.
The Continental Congresswhich still functioned at irregular intervalspassed a
resolution on September 13, 1788, to put the new Constitution into operation.

The Bill of Rights

The American Constitution had been amended 27 times since 1789, and undoubtly, is
going to be revised in the future. The most important changes were made within tow years of

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its adoption. At that time, the first ten amendments, known collectively as the Bill of Rights,
were added to the constitution. They approved as a block by the Congress in September 1789,
and were ratified by eleven states by the end of 1791.
Most of the initial resistance to the Constitution did not came from those opposed to
the strengthening of the federal union, but rather by statesmen who felt that their rights of
individuals must be specifically spelt out to clarify and certify the rights of the American
citizen. One among these was George Mason, author of the declaration of rights of Virginia,
and which, in its turn, was a forerunner of the Bill of Rights. As a delegate to the
constitutional convention, Mason refused to sign the document because he felt that the
individual rights were not sufficiently protected. Masons opposition nearly blocked the
ratification by Virginia. As it was reported earlier, the state of Massachusetts, because of
similar feelings, conditioned its ratification on the addition of specific guarantees of
individual rights. At that particular time, the first Congress convened that the majority of the
states share the same opinion about those individual rights, and that the adoption of such
amendments was nearly unanimous, and the Congress lost little time in drafting them.
These amendments remain intact today, as they were written nearly two centuries ago.
The first guarantees were freedom of worship, speech and press, the right of peaceful
assembly, and the right to petition the government to correct wrong and mistakes. The second
guaranties, however, were the right of citizens to bear arms. The third provides that troops
may not be quartered in private homes without the consent of the owner. The fourth guards
against unreasonable searches, arrests and seizure of property.
The next four amendments deal with the system of justice; the fifth forbids trial for a
major crime except after indictment by a grand jury. In fact, it prohibits repeated trials for the
same offence, forbids punishment without due process of law and provides that an accused
person may not be compelled to testify against himself. The sixth guarantees a speedy public
trial for criminal offences, in requires trial by an unbiased jury; guarantees legal counsel for
the accused, and provides that witnesses shall be compelled to attend the trial and testify in
the presence of the accused. The seventh assures trial by jury in civil cases involving anything
valued at more than $ 20. The eighth forbids excessive bail or fines, and cruel or unusual
punishment.
Concerning the last two of these ten amendments contain very broad statements of
constitutional authority: the ninth declares that the listing of individual rights is not meant to
be comprehensive, that the people have other rights not specifically mentioned in the
Constitution. The tenth provides that powers are not delegated to the federal government nor
prohibited by the constitution to the states, are reserved to the states or people.

The 13 Enduring Constitutional Issues

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The thirteen enduring Constitutional issues are considered to be the core of what the
Regent's examination in United States History and Government will test on the topic of
government. It is recommended that you familiarize yourself with these 13 issues. As you
progress through your government review be aware of how what you know about government
.relates to one or more of these enduring Constitutional issues

National Power-1
The Constitution created a "limited government" with clearly delegated powers,
however over time federal power has grown to include a greater amount of implied as well as
."necessary and proper" powers

Federalism-2
The Constitution attempts a balance of power between the federal government and
those of the states. Over time the federal government has grown to meet the demands of a
more complex society, how do we preserve the balance of federalism while meeting these
?demands

The Judiciary-3
As interpreter of the Constitution and its changing meaning over time, the Judicial
Branch has a unique power to shape the Constitution and its protections in order to adapt to
.the changing needs and challenges of society

Civil Liberties-4
An on-going discussion in American history has been the delicate balance between the
civil rights of the individual with the security, welfare and needs of American society as a
.whole

Crime and Rights of the Accused-5

The Constitution (in the Bill of Rights) very specifically details the rights of the
accused and the limits on the government in prosecuting accusations. At the same time we
have struggled to balance the rights of the accused with the general welfare of the nation and
.the rights of the victim

Equality as a Constitutional Value-6

The Constitution does not outline the specific ways in which equality is to be defined,
be it social, economic or political. As the nation has progressed, reinterpretations of the
."Constitution have helped to better define the meanings of "equality

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Rights of Women-7
The Constitution does not specifically address the rights and status of women, save for
the 19th amendment, however in the recent past Constitutional protections assumed for men
.have been extended to fully include women as well

Rights of Racial and Ethnic Minorities-8

The Constitution has in many ways failed to protect the rights of ethnic and racial
minorities, however in recent history there has been a greater push to extend Constitutional
.protections to a greater number of groups

Presidential Foreign and Wartime Powers-9

Presidential power has increased as the nation as grown and expanded, reaching their
.peak during times of war and national emergency

Separation of Powers-10
The Constitution set up three branches of government, each with specific and unique
.powers, as well as system of checks and balances designed to limit those power s

Representation-11
The Constitution provides for voting rights, which have been expanded over time to
include a greater amount of the population. The growth of political parties also has aided in
.the growth of representation in government

Property and Economic Rights-12

The government provides for the general welfare and protects the rights of the people
.to own property and exercise economic freedom

Constitutional Change and Flexibility-13

The Constitution as a "living document" with the ability to amend and be reinterpreted
.to meet changing times

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:All I n all the American Constitution provides for the following

:The federal government of the United States

It is the centralized United States government body established by the constitution. It
has three major branches: The executive, the legislative and the judicial. Through the system
of checks and balances, each of branches has some authority to act on its own, some authority
to regulate the two other branches, and has some of its own authority, in turn, regulated by the
other branches. Furthermore, we have to specify that the federal government power as a
whole is limited by the constitution that vests most of its authority to the individual states.
The seat of the federal government is in the federal district of Washington, D.C., the District
of Columbia on the eastern seaboard. The White House, both residence and office of the
.president is located there

:The three branches of the U.S Government

:The Executive Branch-1
To better understand the executive branch and its main functions, we have to focus on
.its major components: the President, the Cabinet, the executive departments and agencies

:a-the President
In the United States of America, it has been settled that all the power in the federal
government is vested in the President of the nation, although, this same power is often
delegated to his Cabinet members and other officials. Both of the presidents and vicepresident of the United States of America are elected as running mates for four years terms
by the Electoral College. It is also stated in the constitution that the Vice- President succeeds
to the presidency in case of death, resignation or incapacitation of the president. Additionally,
.the Constitution spells out in some detail the duties and powers of the president
Also we must mention that the U.S constitution put strict and clear conditions as to the
choice of its president. It requires the president to be a natural born American citizen at least
35 years old. Candidates for the presidency are chosen by political parties several months
before the presidential elections, which are held every four years on the first Tuesday After
the firs Monday of November. The electors of all 50 states and the District of Columbia- a
.total of 538persons-comprise what is generally known as the Electoral College
In the United States of America, the presidential term is four years. It begins on
January 20 following the November election. Generally speaking, the U.S president starts his
official duties with an inauguration ceremony, traditionally held on the steps of the U.S
Capitol, where Congress meets. The president publicly takes an oath of office, which is
administered by the Chief Justice of the United States. This presidential oath is well described
:in the second Article of the U.S Constitution

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I Do solemnly swear (or affirm) that I will faithfully execute

The office of President of the United States, and will to the
best of my ability, preserve, protect and defend the Constitution
of the United States
After this first ceremonial oath, the U.S President always makes an inaugural address in
.which he explains and exposes his new policies and plans of his administration

:The presidential powers in the USA

We have to bear in mind that the office of the President of the United States of
America is the highest and most powerful in the world. To carry out his responsibility, he
presides over the executive branch of the Federal Government. In addition to that, he has
important powers in legislative and judicial powers. For example, concerning the legislative
body, and in contrast of what is mentioned in the constitution that all the legislative is vested
in Congress, the president of the United States, as a chief formulator of public policy, had
the power to veto any bill passed by Congress. Hence, all the bills passed by the American
Congress, and which are vetoed by the president can not become laws until two thirds in each
house vote to override the veto. Furthermore, the president may call Congress into a special
.session if the members of this latter decide to adjourn a presidential proposal
Concerning the presidents judicial powers, it has been settled that he is responsible
for appointing the federal judges and members of the Supreme Court. Also the president has
the power to grant a conditional pardon to any one accused of breaking the federal law except
in case of impeachment. Coming to the executive powers, the president of the United States
can issue rules, regulations and instructions commonly known as the executive orders.
Besides, he is Commander in-chief of the armed forces of the United States of America. The
U.S president has also the broad power to choose the heads of all the executive departments
.and agencies, in addition to hundreds of high ranked federal officials
All in all, we will summarize the functions, characteristics and powers of the
:president of the United States of America, as follows
Term of office: Elected by the people, through the Electoral College, to a four-year term;limited to two elected terms
Salary: $200 000 plus $50 000 allowance for expenses, and up to $100 000 tax-free for.travel and official entertainment
.Inauguration: January 20, following the November general electionQualifications: Native born American citizen at least 35 years old and at least 14 years a.resident of the United States
.Chief power and duty: To protect the constitution and enforce the laws made by Congress-

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:Other powersTo recommend legislation to the CongressTo call special sessions of the CongressTo deliver messages to the CongressTo veto billsTo appoint federal judgesTo appoint heads of federal departments and agencies and other principal federalofficials
To appoint representatives to foreign countriesTo carry on official business with foreign nationsTo exercise the function of Commander-in-chief of the armed forces of the UnitedStates of America
.To grant pardon for offences against the United States of America-

:b-the Cabinet
The executive cabinet of the United States of America is created by Congress to deal
with specific areas of national and international affairs. In the USA, there are thirteen
executive departments, whose heads are chosen by the president and approved with the
advice and consent of the U.S Senate. Altogether with the president, they for what is
:commonly called the Cabinet. The 13 executive departments of the USA are
.The Department of State headed by the Secretary of state. It was created in 1789.The Department of Treasury headed by the Secretary of the Treasury, created in 1789.The Department of Defence headed by the Secretary of Defence, created in 1949.The Department of Justice headed by the attorney General, created in 1870.The Department of the Interior headed by the Secretary of the Interior, created in 1849.The Department of Agriculture headed by the Secretary of Agriculture, created in 1889.The Department of Commerce headed by the Secretary of Commerce, created in 1913.The Department of Labour headed by the Secretary of labour, created in 1913The department of Health and Human Services headed by the Secretary of Health and.Human Services, created in 1979
The Department of Housing and Urban Development headed by the Secretary of Housing.and Urban Development, created in 1965
The Department of Transportation headed by the Secretary of Transportation, created in.1966
.The Department of Energy headed by the secretary of Energy, created in 1977.The Department of Education headed by the Secretary of Education, created in 1979In addition to the heads of the different existing departments, that constitute the
executive cabinet, there are a number of stuff organizations grouped into the Executive Office
of the president. These include each of the White House staff, The National Security Council,
the Office of Management and Budget, the Council of Economic Advisers, The Office of the
U.S Trade Representative, The Office of National Drug Control Policy and the Office of
National Science and Technology Policy. However, all these are not the only units composing
the American Executive Cabinet, because there are many other independent agencies, which

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have the responsibility for keeping the government and the economy working smoothly. The
major function of these independent agencies is to provide an annual section 300 report to the
.Presidents office of management and budget
:Among the most important agencies are the following
The Office of Personal ManagementThe General Accounting OfficeThe Interstate Commerce CommissionThe Federal Trade CommissionThe Veterans AdministrationThe Securities and Exchange CommissionThe General Services AdministrationThe National Relations Labor BoardThe Federal Reserve SystemThe Small Business Administration(The National aeronautics and Space Administration (NASAThe National Science FoundationThe Arms Controls and Disarmament AgencyThe Federal Communications CommissionThe Federal Power CommissionThe United States Postal ServiceThe National Foundation on the Arts and the HumanitiesThe United States Information Agency(The Central Intelligence Agency (CIA-

:The Legislative Branch -2

In the United States of America, the Legislative branch of the federal government
means the Congress. This latter is bicameral i.e. it comprises two houses. An upper house,
commonly known as the senate and in which the representation is equal for all sates. Hence,
there 100 senators in the U.S Congress, who serve six years term, bearing in mind that one
third of the senate stands for election every two years. For more than a century, after the
adoption of the constitution, Senators were not elected by direct vote of the people, but were
chosen by state legislatures. Senators are believed to be the representatives of their home
states. Their duty was to assure that their states are treated equally in all legislation. The 17th
amendment, however, adopted in 1913, provided for a direst election of the Senate. The lower
house, however, is the House of representatives, which consists of 435members, each of
whom represents a congregational district and serves for a two-year term. Unlike the Senate,
.the representation in the U.S Lower House is proportioned according to the state population

:Qualifications of members of Congress

The Constitution provide that the U.S Senators must be at least 30 years old, citizens of the-1
United States for at least nine years, and residents of the states from which they are elected.

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Members of the House of Representatives, however, must be at least 25 years old, citizens of
the United States for at least seven years, and residents of the states which send them to
.Congress
.Each states is entitles to two Senators-2
The total number of the members of the House of Representatives has been determined by-3
Congress. Hence, that number is divided among the states according to their populations. Yet,
regardless to its population, each state is constitutionally guaranteed at least one member of
.the House of Representatives
State legislatures divide the 50 states into congregational districts, which must be equal in-4
population. Each two years, the voters of every district choose their representative in the
.House of Representatives
Senators are chosen in state wide-elections. The senatorial term is six years, and each two-5
years, one third of the senate stands for election. This means that one this of the senators are
.persons with some legislative experience at the national level

:Responsibilities of a Congressperson
Each Congressman/women assumes three main roles: -legislator
committee memberrepresentative of his/her districtOften he/she must joggle these responsibilities with party affiliation, usually with one of thetwo most powerful parties of the United States Of America: The Democratic Party and the
.Republican Party
It is also very important to mention that there is what the American call the
Congregational oversight, which is intended to prevent waste and fraud, protect civil liberties
and individual rights; ensure executive compliance with the law, gather information for
making laws and educating the public and evaluate executive performance. This Congresss
:oversight function takes many forms like
Committee inquires and hearings-1
Formal consultation with and reports from the President-2
Senate advice and consent for presidential nominations and for treaties-3
House impeachment proceeding sand subsequent senate trials-4
House and Senate proceedings under the 25th amendment in the event that the-5
president becomes disables or the office of the Vice President falls vacant
Informal meetings between legislators and executive officials-6
Congregational membership on governmental commissions-7
Studies by congregational committees and support agencies such as the-8
Congregational Budget Office, which is considered to be an arm of Congress

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:Powers of the House and the Senate

Each house of Congress has the power to introduce legislation on any subject, except
revenue bills, which must originate in the House of Representatives. Hence, it seems from the
first glance that larger states may better benefice from the public purse rather than the smaller
states. Nevertheless, in reality, each house can vote against the legislation passed by the
opposite house. The Senate may disapprove a revenue bill, or add an amendment, which
might change its nature. In this case, a committee, whose members belong to both houses, is
called to reach a compromise and satisfy both sides before the revenue bill becomes an
.official law
The Senate also has specific powers including mainly the confirmation of presidential
appointments of high officials of the federal government as well as ratifying the treaties by a
.two third vote
In case of impeachment, the House of Representatives has the right to bring charges of
misconduct or wrong behaviour. This act may lead to an impeachment trial. The Senate,
however, has the right to impeachment cases and prove that the federal officials are guilty or
not guilty. In case it is proved so, this implies the removal the federal official from the public
.office
All in all, the powers of the whole congress are well enumerated in the eighth section
:of the first article of the constitution. They include what follows
1To levy and collect taxes
2To borrow money from the public treasury;
3To make rules and regulations governing commerce among the states and with
foreign countries.
4To make uniform rules for the naturalization of foreign citizens.
5To coin money, state its value and provide for the punishment of counterfeiters.
6To set the standards for weights and measures.
7To establish bankruptcy laws for the country as a whole.
8To establish post offices and post roads,
9To issue patents and copyrights.
10To set up a system for federal courts.
11To punish piracy.
12To declare war.
13To raise and support armies.
14To provide for a navy.
15To call out the militia to enforce federal laws, suppress lawlessness or repel
invasions by foreign powers.
16To make all laws for the District of Columbia.
17To make all laws necessary to enforce the constitution.
It is true that the U.S Constitution gives all these prerogatives to Congress, but at the same
:time it forbids certain acts committed by the two houses like

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.Suspend the writ of habeas corpus, unless necessary in time of rebellion or invasion-1
.Pass laws, which condemn persons for crimes or unlawful acts without a trial-2
.Pass any law which retroactively make a specific act a crime-3
.Levy direst taxes on citizens, except on the basis of a census already taken-4
Tax exports from anyone state-5
Give specially favourable treatment in commerce or taxation to the seaports of any state-6
or to the vessels using them
.Authorize any title of nobility-7
Additionally, it is worth noting to mention that the Vice President is the president of the
senate, and that he has no vote except in case of a tie. The House of Representatives, however,
chooses its own presiding officer, the Speaker of the House. This latter is always member of
.the political party with the largest representation in both houses
To sum up all what has been said so far concerning the Senate and the House of
:Representatives, we propose the following table
Senate

House of representatives

100

435

2
Voters of the entire state

According to population
Voters of congregational
district
2 years
Filled by special election
At next general election

6 years
Special election or
Temporary appointment
By state governor until
Special or regular election
$57 000 a year
Meets Jan.3 of each year
Vice President
-Approves or rejects
treaties
-tries impeached
officers
-Confirms or rejects
Appointments made by
The president
Elects a vice presidentIf no candidate has a
Majority in the electoral
Vote

$57 000 a year

Meets Jan.3 of each year
Speaker
-originate revenue bills
Impeaches civil officersElects a president if no
Candidate has a majority
In the electoral vote

Total membership:-1
Number of members-2
For each state:
Elected by-3
Term of Office-4
Vacancy-5

Salary-6
Sesseion(regular)-7
Presiding officer-8
Exclusive powers of-9
Each house

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:The Judicial Branch-3

The third branch of the U.S federal government is the judicial. The latter consists of
courts headed by the Supreme Court and includes subordinate courts throughout the country.
Historically speaking, the system of state court existed before the constitution was drafted.
The major question that was raised among the delegation was about whether or not a federal
court was needed, and whether it would supplant the state courts. The answer was provided in
:the third article of the constitution
The judicial branch of the United States shall be vested
In the Supreme Court, and such inferior courts as the
Congress may from time to time ordain and establish
After a careful reading of that passage, we may easily notice that the delegation, as
usual, had reached a compromise according to which the state courts were continued while a
federal judiciary with limited power was created. Thus, the whole country was divided into
districts, to each one they instituted a state court. The final result was the establishment of the
following structure: the Supreme Court, 11 courts of appeal, 91district courts, and three courts
of special jurisdiction. Nowadays, Congress retains the power to to create and abolish federal
courts, as well as to determine the number of judges in the federal judiciary system.
.Nevertheless, it is unable to abolish the Supreme Court

:The Supreme Court

The Supreme Court is believed to the highest court of the United States of America. It
is also the only one created specifically by the Constitution. A decision made by the Supreme
Court cannot be appealed to any other court. Congress has the power to fix the number of
judges sitting on the court, and within limits, decide what kind of cases it may hear, however,
it can never change the powers given to the Supreme Court by the Constitution itself.
Concerning the qualifications of the judges of the Supreme Court, there exists no
requirements in the constitution that describes them like within the legislative or the executive
.branches
Since the creation of the Supreme Court, there have been only 100 justices. The
original court consists mainly of a Chief Justice and five associate justices. Furthermore, the
Supreme Court has original jurisdiction in only two kinds of cases: Those involving foreign
.dignitaries, and those in which a state is a party
Concerning the decisions of the court, they must be unanimous, a simple majority
prevails, provides at least six justices participate in the decision. In split decision, however,
the court usually issues both a majority and a minority or _dissenting_ opinion, both of which
may form the basis for future decisions by the court. Often, justices will write separate

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concurring opinions when they agree with a decision, but for reasons other than those listed
.by the majority

:State Government
Before independence, each colony was governed separately by the British Crown. In
the early years of the Republic, prior to the adoption of the constitution, each state was
virtually an autonomous unit. The delegates of the constitutional convention sought a stronger
., more viable federal union, but they were also intent in safeguarding the rights of the states
In general, matter which lie entirely within state borders are the exclusive concern of
state governments. These include internal communications, regulations relating to property,
industry, business, and public utilities; the state criminal code; and working conditions within
the state. Within this context, the federal government requires that state governments must be
republican in form and that they adopt no laws which contradict or violate the federal
.constitution or the laws and treaties of the United States
There are of course, many areas of overlap between state and federal jurisdictions.
Particularly in the recent years, the federal government has assumed over broadening
responsibility in such matters as health, education, welfare, transportation and housing and
urban development. But where the federal government exercises such a responsibility in the
states, programs are usually adopted on the basis of cooperation between the two levels of
.government, rather than an imposition from above
The constitutions of various states differ in some details but generally follow a pattern
similar to that of the federal constitution, including a statement of the rights of the people and
a plan for organizing the government. On such matters as conditions governing the operation
of businesses, banks, public utilities and charitable institutions, state constitutions are often
more detailed and explicit than the federal . Each state constitution, however, provides that the
final authority belongs to the people, and sets certain standards and principles as the
.foundation of government

:State government organization

In the United States of America, no two states are exactly alike. Some are highly
urbanized and industrialized. Others are essentially rural and agrarian. Some encompass
relatively small areas while others sprawl over vast territories, larger than many nations in the
world. Each state has social problems peculiar to the composition of its population. Hence,
the forms of state governments vary in many significant details. There are features common to
.nearly all of them, however
Like the national government, all state governments have three branches: executive,
legislative and judicial. With the exception of Nebraska, which has a single legislative body,
all states have a bicameral legislature, with the upper house usually known as the Senate, and
the lower as the House of Representatives, House of Delegates or general assembly. The latter

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is almost always the larger. In most states, Senators serve four-year terms, and members of
.the lower house two-year terms

:The legislative branch-1

Each state is divided into electoral districts, in which the voters choose their
representatives for the legislature. In accordance with a Supreme Court decision in 1964, all
districts are substantially equal in population, insuring parity in representation for densely
populated urban areas and sparsely populated rural areas. A legislator generally must have
.resided in the district which elects him for at least a year before election
The state legislative process is much like that of the national Congress. Bills are
introduced by members in either house and are referred to committees for study, hearings and
recommendations. A bill which successfully passes the committee stage is debated on the
floor. If passed, it is sent to the other house for action. Differences between the versions of the
two houses are dealt with by a conference committee. After passage by both houses, bills are
sent to the governor for signature. In all states but north Carolina, the governor, like the
president of the United States, has a veto power, which can be overridden by two thirds (in
.some cases a simple majority) of the legislature

:The executive branch -2

The chief executive of a state is the governor, elected by a popular vote, typically for
.(four-years terms ( although in few states the term is two years
The powers of the governor are outlined in the state constitution, and generally
paralleled those of the president of the United States. The governor advices the legislature on
laws which are needed and many call the legislature into special session when required. He
appoints high ranking public officials and in some states his appointments are subject to
legislative confirmation. The governor is the commander of the National Guard in his state,
just as the president is commander-in-chief of the national armed forces. The governor has the
.power to pardon or reduce the sentences of persons convicted of state crimes
The equivalent of Vice President at state level is usually a lieutenant governor, who is
elected by state-wide popular vote. He presides over the Senate, and succeeds the governor if
.the latter dies, retires or removed from office
The executive branch of the state government includes a number of officials who are
elected by popular vote in many, but not all, the states. In some states, the governor exercises
considerable control over their work; but in other states, since the officials are directly elected
by the voters, they are in no sense subordinate to the chief executive. Among these official
:are
The attorney general: He is the chief law officer. He and his deputies represent the state in-1
the courts and in all legal matters involving the interests of the people as a whole. He also
.advices the governor and other officials on the meaning and application of state laws

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The auditor or comptroller: He approves payments of all functional obligations of the-2

state. He is responsible for recording all money paid into and out of the state treasury, and for
keeping track of all the money the legislature has voted to spend. He also supervises the work
.of county, city and municipal officials who collect money for the state
The treasurer: He has physical control of the money received from taxes, licences and-3
fees. With authorization from the comptroller, the treasurer pays the legal debts of the state
.government
The many services of modern state governments are provided through numerous
departments, commissions and bureaus, the officials of which are generally appointed by the
governor. These enforce laws and conduct public business in such areas as labor relations and
.working conditions, banking, and road building and maintenance
Many states have instituted a civil service system, similar to that of the federal
government, to eliminate political favouritism in public employment and to insure that
.officials of the state government are well qualified for their jobs

:The judicial branch

Part of the government of every state is a court system which handles civil suits
between private persons, and between private persons and state or local governments; hears
cases relating to the violations of criminal laws; and keeps the other branches of the state
government within the bounds fixed for them by the state constitution. In no way subordinate
to the national judiciary, the state structure consists of a group of courts roughly paralleling
the national pattern. It begins with purely local jurisdictions such as justices of the peace, is
followed by a series of intermediate trial courts, then by appellate courts, and finally, at the
.top of the pyramid, by states Supreme Court
In addition to courts of general jurisdiction, many states have courts of special
jurisdiction. Nearly all states have probate courts to supervise the execution of wills. Many
also have juvenile courts to deal with minors who have broken laws. Courts of domestic
relations deal with family disagreements. Small claims courts process cases of minor debts
.with little expense to the litigants
Trials are presided over by judges who are usually elected officials, although in some
states judges are appointed by the governor or state legislature. In the higher courts, terms of
officials range from six to fifteen years, and are shorter in the lower courts. Trial by jury is
guaranteed to those accused of committing a crime, but appeals are heard by judges or judicial
panels. An accused person, in accordance with federal constitution, cannot punished twice for
.the same offense
As in the federal system, two types of juries are utilized. The grand jury indicts or
refuses to indict accused persons. If a majority of the grand jury decides there is sufficient
evidence for a trial, the case passes to a court where guilt or innocence is decided by a petit

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(or trial) jury, usually made up of 12 persons. In most states, the trial jury must reach a
.unanimous agreement on guilt, or the defendant is acquitted or a mistrial declared
A prosecuting attorney, who is an official of the judicial branch, presents the case
against the accused. If the defendant cannot afford legal counsel, the state must provide an
.attorney to defend him at public expense

:The U.S.A government finance

In fact, it takes a great deal of money to supply the kind of services the American
people have come to expect from their governments at all levels. The federal government
employs three million full-time workers; state, city and local governments employs millions
more. The provision of education, welfare, health programs, public works and reclamation
projects, highways, national defence, veterans benefits and myriad other activities involve
.huge and continuing outlays of funds
Added to these expenditures are the cost of debt service- principal and interest on the
money the government has borrowed in the past- and United States commitments of
.economic, military, and other forms of aid to governments abroad
Most of the money to run the government comes from taxes of all sorts, on personal
and corporate incomes, on sales of goods, on imports and on inherirances. The ultimate
source of all tax money is the same: the American people. In fact, all the Americans look at
the paying of taxes as a duty, not necessarily pleasant, but essential to the promotion of the
welfare of the nation as a whole, and to the supporting assistance given to less fortunate
.nations around the world
John Marshall, the famed chief justice of the United States of America in the early
years of the republic, once remarked that the power to tax involves the power to destroy.
Conversely, the power to tax involves also the power to create. One of the most delicate tasks
facing policy makers is balancing the financing needs of government against the need to
provide sufficient consumer purchasing power and business incentives to keep the economy
.functioning smoothly
The governmental budget-making process is a team effort involving both the executive
and the legislative branches. Budgets are drawn up in stages, beginning by estimates made by
executive department heads of their fiscal needs for the year ahead. The executive ( president,
governor or mayor) carefully examines the estimates, trimming unneeded items, and then,
submits a combined budget request from all the executive departments to the legislative
.branch
In the national congress, the Appropriations Committee of the House of
Representatives holds hearings on the presidential requests. It passes its recommendations to
the whole House for floor debate and passage. From there, the proposed budgetary legislation
goes to the Senate for the same kind of action. At other levels of government, budgetary

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matters are handled by the governor and state legislature, the mayor or city manager and a
.board of officials, and the county of town board

:Sources of federal funds

In addition to the revenues from taxes, the federal government receives also incomes
from the repayment of money loaned by the United States to foreign governments, sales of
surplus property, and fines levied against lawbreakers in federal courts. All in all, the
:principal taxes are
Income tax: levied against the incomes of individuals and corporations, according to the-1
ability to pay. Certain deductions, such as the cost of supporting dependents, do- nations for
charitable purposes, educational and other expenses, and business losses- reduce the amount
.of income that can be taxed
Inheritance tax: levied on heirs and beneficiaries of estates. Large gifts of money or-2
.property made by one person to another are also taxed
Excise taxes: imposed on manufactured products, such as liquor, cigarettes, gasoline and-3
.automobile tires. Certain services, such as telephone calls, are also taxed
Customs duties: charged on goods brought into the country from abroad. The government-4
.also has the power to place surcharges on goods shipped overseas
.Transfer taxes: on the sale or exchange of stocks and bonds-5
Special purpose taxes: Revenues which are allocated to a specific purpose, such as the-6
social security tax on an employees income. Revenues from this tax underwrite payments
.from the federal government to employed or retired persons

:State revenues
Tax patterns vary from one state to another, and although efforts are made to avoid
multiple taxing of the same source by federal, state and local governments, a certain amount
of duplication is unavoidable. Most states, for example, levy a tax on income, as do a number
of cities. State taxes are added to federal excise taxes on such items as gasoline and telephone
.calls
:The most common state taxes include
.Property taxes: Levied against land, building and equipment-1
.Inheritance taxes: Levied against the estates left by deceased persons-2
.Income taxes: Usually charged at considerably lower rates than the federal levy-3

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.Business taxes: On the earning of companies and corporations operating in the state-4
Franchise taxes: On private enterprises whose business requires extensive use of public-5
.property and facilities such as highways
Gasoline tax: imposed at points of retail purchase, and frequently earmarked for highway-6
.construction and maintenance costs
Sales tax: Levied on all retail purchases in some states, and on selected categories of-7
.purchases in others
Fees, tools and fines: charges made for recording documents; fees for using canals,-8
.bridges, roads and ferries; and fines assessed against persons convicted of breaking the laws
Another increasingly important source of state funds in such areas as transportation,
.education, welfare and housing are allocations from the federal government

:Revenues for local government

The real estate tax assessed annually according to the value of land and buildings is
the most important revenue producer for local governments. This income is frequently shared
with the state which, in turn, provides assistance to local communities for education, road
:construction and other activities. Other tax sources for local government include
1Earning tax: On local public service companies.
2Franchise taxes: Similar to those imposed by state governments.
3Sales taxes: On retail purchases.
4Gross transaction taxes: on businesses and financial institutions.
5Amusement taxes: On entrance fees to places of amusements.
6Licence and permit fees: On marriage licences, dog licences, and licences to
sell liquor, cigarettes, and other articles or to operate places of amusements. Hunting
and fishing licences and auto permits may be collected by state or local governments,
or both.
The more demands the American people make on government for services and
administration, the higher the cost of government. Taxes act both as a check on the popular
appetite for government services, and as a true expression of democracy; a government of, by
.and for the people

General information about the U.S/A Government

A good portion of the United States History and Government curriculum is based on
the ideas and principles of American government. These ideas and principles are best
.exemplified by the United States Constitution

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A Constitution is a country's plan of government. The discussion of the US Constitution

.focuses on the features that make our plan of government unique and enduring
:US Government review focuses on these eight main areas
Foundation
Highlights the roots of the American system and the unique history of United States
.political though that gave rise to the Constitution
Convention
Focuses on the dynamics of the Constitutional Convention of 1787 in Philadelphia, the
.differing point of view and eventual compromises that gave birth to the document itself
Three Branches
Examines the three branches that compose the Federal Government, their unique
powers and roles, as well as how power is separated in order to keep one branch of
.government from dominating the system
Checks and Balances
Examples of the system of checks and balances in action. Examples of how each
.branch is endowed with the power to temper the power of the other two
Federalism
Identifies the unique balance between federal and state power, as well as the types of
.powers identified in the Constitution
Amendments
Discusses the process for amending the Constitution, as well as a discussion of the Bill
.of Rights, the other amendments and their historic roots
Unwritten Constitution

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Explains the features of the Constitution that are considered implied or "unwritten".
Provides examples of these features in action, as well as a reasoning behind their
.implementation
Laws
A selection of significant legislation from American history, focused on the provisions
.of the laws and their historic roots

Bibliography

322

.Zinn, Howard, A Peoples History of the United States. Bridgeman Art Library, 2003
Schroeder, Richard. C, An Outline of the American Government. United States Information
. Agency
O. Morgen. Kenneth, The Oxford Illustrated History Of Britain. Oxford University press.1996
G.M. Trvelyann, A Shortened History of England. Penguin Books.1942

PART TWO: LITERATURE

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Introduction
Throughout history many ideas have presented themselves, especially during The latter half
of the 19th century which was a time of enormous change in human thinking. Such changes
includes emergence of new philosophies about religion, philosophy, and individuals, such as
social Darwinism and Freudian theories of the human psyche. These changes also had a
significant impact on the artists of the era, particularly those who wrote literature. thus with
.these ideas many literary movements were started
While there are many similarities among these literary movements or styles, they are quite
distinct in a number of ways. These distinctions most often include technique, character,
setting, themes, and other characteristics. This course will discuss some of the major literary
movements in order to demonstrate these distinctions in the works of authors. A conclusion
will address why such literary movements are significant in terms of understanding history
.and human beings in general
2.
What are the Literary Movements?
Critics refer often to literary movements, citing different movements that have developed in
literature and then been replaced by some other movement. Generally, the term is not defined,
and instead it is simply assumed that everyone is talking about the same thing when the term
is used. One definition could be that the literary movements is "A term commonly applied to
a trend or development in literature" . although this definition is too simple to be more than a
beginning, it contains the necessary elements, but they are not fully explained. The important
word in his definition is "trend" rather than "development," for the latter is too unspecific and
.could refer to a literary device or idea used by one writer
A literary movement must be a trend, meaning that it is subscribed to by a number of writers
who make use of the ideas and techniques that define a given movement. To be a movement,
it must also be differentiated from other movements and not be merely a variation on an
existing theme or a core group following an old trend. A literary movement has to be
identified, meaning someone has to notice that there is a trend and that there is a group of
.writers who are making use of it in their work
A movement may declare itself--some movements have been created and expressed through
manifestoes and overt statements of principle. Other movements may come about because
there is something "in the air," as it were, so that a number of writers begin making use of a
.given technique
Since the literary movements are as numerous as the steps of human thinking development,
the present course cannot enumerate all of them, so , well be confined to the major literary
.movements
3.

Some Major Literary Movements

The Romantic Movement .1

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Romanticism marked a profound shift in sensibilities away from the Enlightenment. It was
inspired by reaction to that period's concepts of clarity, order, and balance, and by the
revolutions in America, France, Poland, and Greece. It expressed the assertion of the self, the
power of the individual, a sense of the infinite, and transcendental nature of the universe.
Major themes included the sublime, terror, and passion. The writing extolled the primal power
of nature and the spiritual link between nature and man, and was often emotional, marked by
a sense of liberty, filled with dreamy inner contemplations, exotic settings, memories of
.childhood, scenes of unrequited love, and exiled heroes
In America, Romanticism coalesced into a distinctly "American" ideal: making success from
failure, the immensity of the American landscape, the power of man to conquer the land, and
"Yankee" individualism. The writing was also marked by a type of xenophobia. Protestant
America was faced with an influx of Catholic refugees from the Napoleonic Wars, of Asian
workers who constructed the railroads, and the lingering issue of Native Americans. An
insular attitude developed, the "us and them" in Whitman. The major writers of the period
were Irving, Cooper, Emerson, Poe, Thoreau, Hawthorne, Whitman, Dickinson, and Melville.

2. Realism
Realism developed as a reaction against Romanticism and stressed the real over the fantastic.
The movement sought to treat the commonplace truthfully and used characters from everyday
life.
Writers probed the recesses of the human mind via an exploration of the emotional
landscape of characters. This emphasis was brought on by societal changes sparked by The
Origin of Species by Darwin, the Higher Criticism of the Bible, and the aftermath of the Civil
War. A deeper, more pessimistic, literary movement called Naturalism grew out of Realism
and stressed the uncaring aspect of nature and the genetic, biological destiny of man.
Naturalists believed that man's instinctual, basic drives dominated their actions and could not
be evaded. Life was viewed as relentless, without a caring presence to intervene. Twain,
Crane, London, Norris, Howells, James, and Dreiser were the major writers of this movement.

2.1. Definition
Broadly defined as "the faithful representation of reality" or "verisimilitude," realism is a
literary technique practiced by many schools of writing. Although strictly speaking, realism is
a technique, it also denotes a particular kind of subject matter, especially the representation of
middle-class life. A reaction against romanticism, an interest in scientific method, the
systematizing of the study of documentary history, and the influence of rational philosophy all
affected the rise of realism. According to William Harmon and Hugh Holman, "Where
romanticists transcend the immediate to find the ideal, and naturalists plumb the actual or
superficial to find the scientific laws that control its actions, realists center their attention to a
remarkable degree on the immediate, the here and now, the specific action, and the verifiable
consequence" (A Handbook to Literature 428).

2.2. Other Views of Realism

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"The basic axiom of the realistic view of morality was that there could be no moralizing in the
novel [ . . . ] The morality of the realists, then, was built upon what appears a paradox-morality with an abhorrence of moralizing. Their ethical beliefs called, first of all, for a
rejection of scheme of moral behavior imposed, from without, upon the characters of fiction
and their actions. Yet Howells always claimed for his works a deep moral purpose. What was
it? It was based upon three propositions: that life, social life as lived in the world Howells
knew, was valuable, and was permeated with morality; that its continued health depended
upon the use of human reason to overcome the anarchic selfishness of human passions; that
an objective portrayal of human life, by art, will illustrate the superior value of social,
civilized man, of human reason over animal passion and primitive ignorance" (157). Everett
Carter, Howells and the Age of Realism (Philadelphia and New York: Lippincott, 1954).
"Realism sets itself at work to consider characters and events which are apparently the most
ordinary and uninteresting, in order to extract from these their full value and true meaning. It
would apprehend in all particulars the connection between the familiar and the extraordinary,
and the seen and unseen of human nature. Beneath the deceptive cloak of outwardly
uneventful days, it detects and endeavors to trace the outlines of the spirits that are hidden
there; tho measure the changes in their growth, to watch the symptoms of moral decay or
regeneration, to fathom their histories of passionate or intellectual problems. In short, realism
reveals. Where we thought nothing worth of notice, it shows everything to be rife with
significance."
-- George Parsons Lathrop, 'The Novel and its Future," Atlantic Monthly 34 (September
1874):313 24.
Realism is nothing more and nothing less than the truthful treatment of material. --William
Dean Howells, Editors Study, Harper's New Monthly Magazine (November 1889), p. 966
"Realism, n. The art of depicting nature as it is seen by toads. The charm suffusing a
landscape painted by a mole, or a story written by a measuring-worm." --Ambrose Bierce The
Devil's Dictionary (1911)

2.3. Characteristics

Renders reality closely and in comprehensive detail. Selective presentation of

reality with an emphasis on verisimilitude, even at the expense of a well-made plot

Character is more important than action and plot; complex ethical choices are
often the subject.

Characters appear in their real complexity of temperament and motive; they are
in explicable relation to nature, to each other, to their social class, to their own past.

Class is important; the novel has traditionally served the interests and
aspirations of an insurgent middle class.

Events will usually be plausible. Realistic novels avoid the sensational,

dramatic elements of naturalistic novels and romances.

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Diction is natural vernacular, not heightened or poetic; tone may be comic,
satiric, or matter-of-fact.

Objectivity in presentation becomes increasingly important: overt authorial

comments or intrusions diminish as the century progresses.

Interior or psychological realism a variant form.

In Black and White Strangers, Kenneth Warren suggests that a basic difference
between realism and sentimentalism is that in realism, "the redemption of the
individual lay within the social world," but in sentimental fiction, "the redemption of
the
social
world
lay
with
the
individual"
(75-76).
The realism of James and Twain was critically acclaimed in twentieth century;
Howellsian realism fell into disfavor as part of early twentieth century rebellion
against the "genteel tradition."

Realism in American Literature, 1860-1890 .2.4

In American literature, the term "realism" encompasses the period of time from the Civil
War to the turn of the century during which William Dean Howells, Rebecca Harding Davis,
Henry James, Mark Twain, and others wrote fiction devoted to accurate representation and an
exploration of American lives in various contexts. As the United States grew rapidly after the
Civil War, the increasing rates of democracy and literacy, the rapid growth in industrialism
and urbanization, an expanding population base due to immigration, and a relative rise in
middle-class affluence provided a fertile literary environment for readers interested in
understanding these rapid shifts in culture. In drawing attention to this connection, Amy
Kaplan has called realism a "strategy for imagining and managing the threats of social
change"
Realism was a movement that encompassed the entire country, or at least the Midwest and
South, although many of the writers and critics associated with realism (notably W. D.
Howells) were based in New England. Among the Midwestern writers considered realists
would be Joseph Kirkland, E. W. Howe, and Hamlin Garland; the Southern writer John W.
DeForest's Miss Ravenal's Conversion from Secession to Loyalty is often considered a realist
novel, too.

2.5.Context and Controversy

In its own time, realism was the subject of controversy; debates over the suitability of realism
as a mode of representation led to a critical exchange known as the realism war.
The realism of James and Twain was critically acclaimed in the twentieth century. Howellsian
realism fell into disfavor, however, as part of early twentieth century rebellion against the
"genteel tradition." For an account of these and other issues, see the realism bibliography and
essays by Pizer, Michael Anesko, Richard Lehan, and Louis J. Budd, among others, in the
Cambridge Guide to Realism and Naturalism.

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2.6. Some Major Realist Writers

Mark Twain
William Dean Howells
Rebecca Harding Davis
John W. DeForest
Joseph Kirkland
E. W. Howe
Hamlin Garland
Henry James

Naturalism .3

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Usually in the realms of literature and the arts each major movement can be seen as a
rebellion against whatever came before it, so Romanticism upstages Classicism, only to be
done in in turn by Realism as people weary of the excesses of one style only to rush headlong
.into the excesses of its opposite
But sometimes it happens that one style is replaced by an even more extreme version of itself,
as was the case when Realism in literature and the visual arts was replaced in the late 19thand early 20th-centuries by Naturalism, a movement that was inspired by adaptation of the
principles and methods of natural science, especially the Darwinian view of nature. One of the
most perfect examples of this movement is Jack London's short story "To Build A Fire",
published in The Century Magazine in 1908 with its themes of the fragility of human survival
and the ways in which we as humans are defined by the ways in which we are at odds with the
rest of nature. (A more "juvenalized" version had been published previously, but it is the 1908
(.version that is now considered to be the definitive one
In literature, Naturalism extended the tradition of realism, aiming at an even more faithful,
unselective representation of reality. It is not coincidental that the rise of Naturalism should
follow the rise of photography as an artform (and as a technological possibility), for both
photography and naturalism (whether in literature or in the visual arts) attempt mortality and
man's place in the universe. Fifty degrees below zero stood for a bite of frost that hurt and that
must be guarded against by the use of mittens, ear-flaps, warm moccasins, and thick socks.
Fifty degrees below zero was to him just precisely fifty degrees below zero. That there should
. be anything more to it than that was a thought that never entered his head
Although many of the greatest Naturalist artists were Americans, the school actually
originated in France, with Emile Zola championing and perfecting the style and the associated
literary philosophy . Like Zola, London would become not simply an observer, content to
record phenomena, but rather an intentionally detached experimenter who subjects his (or her
- although Naturalism was a field dominated by men) characters and their passions to a series
of tests, working with emotional and social facts as a chemist works with matter. We see this
again and again throughout "To Build a Fire" - the moment things seems to be going just the
.smallest degree better for our protagonist, London throws something else awful at him

3.1. Definition
The term naturalism describes a type of literature that attempts to apply scientific principles
of objectivity and detachment to its study of human beings. Unlike realism, which focuses on
literary technique, naturalism implies a philosophical position: for naturalistic writers, since
human beings are, in Emile Zola's phrase, "human beasts," characters can be studied through
their relationships to their surroundings. Zola's 1880 description of this method in Le roman
experimental (The Experimental Novel, 1880) follows Claude Bernard's medical model and
the historian Hippolyte Taine's observation that "virtue and vice are products like vitriol and
sugar"--that is, that human beings as "products" should be studied impartially, without

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moralizing about their natures. Other influences on American naturalists include Herbert
Spencer and Joseph LeConte.

3.2. Characteristics
Through this objective study of human beings, naturalistic writers believed that the laws
behind the forces that govern human lives might be studied and understood. Naturalistic
writers thus used a version of the scientific method to write their novels; they studied human
beings governed by their instincts and passions as well as the ways in which the characters'
lives were governed by forces of heredity and environment. Although they used the
techniques of accumulating detail pioneered by the realists, the naturalists thus had a specific
object in mind when they chose the segment of reality that they wished to convey.
In George Becker's famous and much-annotated and contested phrase, naturalism's
philosophical framework can be simply described as "pessimistic materialistic determinism."
Another such concise definition appears in the introduction to American Realism: New
Essays. In that piece," The Country of the Blue," Eric Sundquist comments, "Revelling in the
extraordinary, the excessive, and the grotesque in order to reveal the immutable bestiality of
Man in Nature, naturalism dramatizes the loss of individuality at a physiological level by
making a Calvinism without God its determining order and violent death its utopia" (13).
A modified definition appears in Donald Pizer's Realism and Naturalism in NineteenthCentury American Fiction, Revised Edition (1984):
T]he naturalistic novel usually contains two tensions or contradictions, and . . .]
the two in conjunction comprise both an interpretation of experience and a
particular aesthetic recreation of experience. In other words, the two constitute
the theme and form of the naturalistic novel. The first tension is that between
the subject matter of the naturalistic novel and the concept of man which
emerges from this subject matter. The naturalist populates his novel primarily
from the lower middle class or the lower class. . . . His fictional world is that of
the commonplace and unheroic in which life would seem to be chiefly the dull
round of daily existence, as we ourselves usually conceive of our lives. But the
naturalist discovers in this world those qualities of man usually associated with
the heroic or adventurous, such as acts of violence and passion which involve
sexual adventure or bodily strength and which culminate in desperate moments
and violent death. A naturalistic novel is thus an extension of realism only in
the sense that both modes often deal with the local and contemporary. The
naturalist, however, discovers in this material the extraordinary and excessive
.in human nature
The second tension involves the theme of the naturalistic novel. The naturalist often describes
his characters as though they are conditioned and controlled by environment, heredity,
instinct, or chance. But he also suggests a compensating humanistic value in his characters or

330

their fates which affirms the significance of the individual and of his life. The tension here is
that between the naturalist's desire to represent in fiction the new, discomfiting truths which
he has found in the ideas and life of his late nineteenth-century world, and also his desire to
find some meaning in experience which reasserts the validity of the human enterprise. (10-11)
For further definitions, see also The Cambridge Guide to American Realism and Naturalism,
Charles Child Walcutt's American Literary Naturalism: A Divided Stream, June Howard's
Form and History in American Literary Naturalism, Walter Benn Michaels's The Gold
Standard and the Logic of Naturalism, Lee Clark Mitchell's Determined Fictions, Mark
Selzer's Bodies and Machines, and other works from the naturalism bibliography.

3.2.1. Characters. Frequently but not invariably ill-educated or lower-class characters

whose lives are governed by the forces of heredity, instinct, and passion. Their attempts at
exercising free will or choice are hamstrung by forces beyond their control; social Darwinism
and other theories help to explain their fates to the reader.

3.2.2. Setting. Frequently an urban setting, as in Norris's McTeague.

3.2.3. Techniques and plots. Walcutt says that the naturalistic novel offers "clinical,
panoramic, slice-of-life" drama that is often a "chronicle of despair" (21). The novel of
degeneration--Zola's L'Assommoir and Norris's Vandover and the Brute, for example--is also
a common type.

: Themes .3.2.4
.survival, determinism, violence, and taboo are key themes .1
2. The "brute within" each individual, composed of strong and often warring emotions:
passions, such as lust, greed, or the desire for dominance or pleasure; and the fight for
survival in an amoral, indifferent universe. The conflict in naturalistic novels is often "man
against nature" or "man against himself" as characters struggle to retain a "veneer of
civilization" despite external pressures that threaten to release the "brute within."
3. Nature as an indifferent force acting on the lives of human beings. The romantic vision of
Wordsworth--that "nature never did betray the heart that loved her"--here becomes Stephen
Crane's view in "The Open Boat": "This tower was a giant, standing with its back to the plight
of the ants. It represented in a degree, to the correspondent, the serenity of nature amid the
struggles of the individual--nature in the wind, and nature in the vision of men. She did not
seem cruel to him then, nor beneficent, nor treacherous, nor wise. But she was indifferent,
flatly indifferent."
4. The forces of heredity and environment as they affect--and afflict--individual lives.
5. An indifferent, deterministic universe. Naturalistic texts often describe the futile attempts
of human beings to exercise free will, often ironically presented, in this universe that reveals
free will as an illusion

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Naturalism in American Literature Once again the rapid shifts in culture .3.3
pervading the U.S. during this era provided such authors with their interest in the middleclass. In a sense, realism that embodies determinism and focuses on the lower-classes is
naturalism. According to Richard Chase, the following characteristics are most common to
the movement known as realism: Renders reality closely and in comprehensive detail.
Character is more important than action and plot. Ethical choices are often the subject. Class
is important, especially the middle-class. Diction is natural vernacular, not heightened or
poetic. Objectivity in presentation. The works of writers like Mark Twain and Henry James
demonstrate the above characteristics, though Twain classification as a writer of realism is
tenuous at best. However, the works of Henry James clearly demonstrate the focus on
character, middle-class, and objectivity that are the primary characteristics of realism. For
example, in JamesDaisy Miller, we see a young, innocent, enthusiastic American girl
.traveling abroad with her mother

Some Major Naturalistic Writers .3.4

Frank Norris

Theodore Dreiser

Jack London

Stephen Crane

Edith Wharton, The House of Mirth (1905)

Ellen Glasgow, Barren Ground (1925)

John Dos Passos (1896-1970), U.S.A. trilogy(1938): The 42nd Parallel

(1930),1919 (1932), and The Big Money (1936)

James T. Farrell (1904-1979), Studs Lonigan (1934)

John Steinbeck (1902-1968), The Grapes of Wrath (1939)

Richard Wright, Native Son (1940), Black Boy (1945)

Norman Mailer (1923- ), The Naked and the Dead (1948)

William Styron, Lie Down in Darkness (1951)

Saul Bellow, The Adventures of Augie March (1953)

Surrealism.4

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Surrealism was a revolution against all kinds of formal literary expression, an attempt to turn
away from all previous literary movements and to achieve a new freedom without formal
.rules
This is what the writers of the time believed artists were achieving, and they applied this idea
consciously to their work in order to produce a surrealist literature. They were only partially
successful, and many of those who were most dedicated to this movement were not the most
gifted writers of the time: One cannot take Andr reton, the chief surrealist, at times a
veritable Stalin with his purges, wholly seriously as a creative writer; his confusions require
to be studied; he is a symptom of twentieth-century unease. . . For the truly gifted writers, on
the other hand, surrealism provided a new beginning, a break with conventions; they went on
to new pastures (Seymour-Smith 467). A movement does not have to produce great literature
to be a movement. A movement is defined by its underlying concepts and its adherents, not by
its success or failure. Some movements concentrate primarily on one form of expression, such
.as the Imagists in poetry

5. Absurdism

333

Absurdism, and its more specific companion term Theatre of the Absurd, refers to the works
of a group of Western European and American dramatists writing and producing plays in the
1950s and early 1960s. The term Theatre of the Absurd was coined by critic Martin Esslin,
who identified common features of a new style of drama that seemed to ignore theatrical
conventions and thwart audience expectations. Characterized by a departure from realistic
characters and situations, the plays offer no clear notion of the time or place in which the
action occurs. Characters are often nameless and seem interchangeable. Events are completely
outside the realm of rational motivation and may have a nightmarish quality commonly
associated with Surrealism (a post-World War I movement that features dream sequences and
images from the unconscious, often sexual in nature). At other times, both dialogue and
incidents may appear to the audience as completely nonsensical, even farcical. However,
beneath the surface the works explore themes of loneliness and isolation, of the failure of
individuals to connect with others in any meaningful way, and of the senselessness and
.absurdity of life and death
The writers most commonly associated with Absurdism are Samuel Beckett, Eugne Ionesco,
Jean Genet, Arthur Adamov, Harold Pinter, and Edward Albee, as well as a number of lesserknown dramatists. The avant-garde nature of absurdist writing contributed in part to its short
life as a literary movement. Features of the plays that seemed completely new and mystifying
to audiences in the 1950s when absurdist works first appeared, soon became not only
understandable, but even commonplace and predictable. With the exception of Ionesco, most
playwrights abandoned the absurdist style after the 1960s; however, many of the individual
.plays are now considered classics of European and American drama

6. Beat Movement

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The roots of the Beat literary movement go back to 1944 when Jack Kerouac, Allen
Ginsberg, and William Burroughs met at Columbia University in New York. It was not until
the 1950s that these writers and other Beats would be recognized as a movement and as a
generation of post-World War II youths whose attitudes and lifestyles were far removed from
typical Americana. Kerouac used the term beat to describe both the negatives of his world
and the positives of his responses to it. On one hand, beat implied weariness and disinterest
in social or political activity, and on the other it was reminiscent of the Beatitudes of Jesus
declarations of blessedness and happiness uttered during the Sermon on the Mount. While
certain measures of blissfulnessoften drug-inducedmay have applied to followers of the
Beat Movement, so would feelings of disillusionment, bitterness, and an overwhelming desire
.to be free of social constraints
The work of Beat writers is characterized by experimental styles and subjects, including
spontaneous writing without regard for grammar, sexually explicit language, uninhibited
discussion of personal experiences, and themes ranging from a rejection of American values
and fear of nuclear war to sexual escapades and road trips. Representative works of the
movement are Kerouacs novel On the Road, Burroughss novel Naked Lunch, and poems
such as Ginsbergs Howl and Gregory Corsos BOMB. None of these works appeared on
American bookshelves until nearly a decade after Kerouac first used the word beat to
signify an outlook on writing and an outlook on life. What had begun as a small cluster of
rebellious outcasts in New York City soon grew into a larger group based in San Francisco
and eventually spread its influences across the country. Beats appeared everywhere in the
.1950s, paving the way for the hippies of the following decade

American Transcendentalism .7
American transcendentalism was an important movement in philosophy and literature that
flourished during the early to middle years of the nineteenth century (about 1836-1860). It
began as a reform movement in the Unitarian church, extending the views of William Ellery
Channing on an indwelling God and the significance of intuitive thought. It was based on "a

335

monism holding to the unity of the world and God, and the immanence of God in the world"
(Oxford Companion to American Literature 770). For the transcendentalists, the soul of each
.individual is identical with the soul of the world and contains what the world contains
Transcendentalists rejected Lockean empiricism, unlike the Unitarians: they wanted to
rejuvenate the mystical aspects of New England Calvinism (although none of its dogma) and
to go back to Jonathan Edwards' "divine and supernatural light," imparted immediately to the
soul by the spirit of God.

Definition .7.1
Transcendentalism, in fact, really began as a religious movement, an attempt to"
substitute a Romanticized version of the mystical ideal that humankind is capable
of direct experience of the holy for the Unitarian rationalist view that the truths of
religion are arrived at by a process of empirical study and by rational inference
from historical and natural evidence" Lawrence Buell, New England Literary
(Culture (1986
Transcendentalism, as viewed by its disciples, was a pilgrimage from the"
idolatrous world of creeds and rituals to the temple of the Living God in the soul.
It was a putting to silence of tradition and formulas, that the Sacred Oracle might
be heard through intuitions of the single-eyed and pure-hearted. Amidst
materialists, zealots, and skeptics, the Transcendentalist believed in perpetual
inspiration, the miraculous power of will, and a birthright to universal good. He
sought to hold communion face to face with the unnameable Spirit of his spirit,
and gave himself up to the embrace of nature's perfect joy, as a babe seeks the
(breast of a mother." William Henry Channing (1810-1844
That belief we term Transcendentalism which maintains that man has ideas, that"
come not through the five senses or the powers of reasoning; but are either the
result of direct revelation from God, his immediate inspiration, or his immanent
presence in the spiritual world. . . ." Charles Mayo Ellis, An Essay on
(Transcendentalism (1842
Standing on the bare ground,--my head bathed by the blithe air, and uplifted into"
infinite space,--all mean egotism vanishes. I become a transparent eye-ball. I am
nothing. I see all. The currents of the Universal Being circulate through me; I am
part or parcel of God" (996). See also Emerson's essay "The
(Transcendentalist."(1842) Ralph Waldo Emerson, Nature (1836

Basis of Transcendentalism .7.2

Reaction against New England Calvinism

Reaction against eighteenth-century rationalism

God as Deistic "divine watchmaker"

336

skepticism

Reaction against Lockean empiricism

Emerging ideal of American democracy

German philosophy

idealism (principle of organicism--Leibniz)

Kant and Neoplatonists (mind imposes form). Transcendentalism affirmed Kant's

principle of intuitive knowledge not derived from the senses. According to M. H. Abrams in
A Glossary of Literary Terms,
"Kant had confined the expression 'transcendental knowledge' to the
cognizance of those forms and categories--such as space, time,

quantity, causality-which, in his view, are imposed on perception by the

constitution of all human minds; he regarded these aspects as the universal conditions
of sense-experience. Emerson and others, however, extended the concept of
transcendental knowledge, in a way whose validity Kant had specifically denied, to
include an intuitive cognizance of moral and other truths that transcend the limits of
human sense-experience" (216).

Schelling (emphasis on feeling; divinity and creative impulse in nature)

The Romantic movement, especially Coleridge, Wordsworth, and the English

romantics (Emerson)

Unitarianism

Eastern philosophy

7.3. Ideas from Emerson

Transcendentalism posits a distinction between "Understanding," or the normal means
of apprehending truth through the senses, and "Reason," a higher, more intuitive form
of perception. In Biographia Literaria, Coleridge cites Milton's Paradise Lost on the
difference between reason and understanding (Book V, ll. 479-490). In this passage
from Paradise Lost, Raphael instructs Adam and Eve on the distinction between
heavenly and earthly perception:
So from the root
Springs lighter the green stalk, from thence the leaves
More aery, last the bright consummate flow'r
Spirits odorous breathes: flowr's and thir fruit
Man's nourishment, by gradual scale sublim'd
,To vital spirits aspire, to animal
To intellectual, give both life and sense
Fancy and understanding, whence the Soul
,Reason receives, and reason is her being

337

Discursive, or intuitive; discourse

Is oftest yours, the latter most is ours
.Differing but in degree, of kind the same
According to Emerson, reason is "the highest faculty of the soul--what we mean by the soul
itself; it never reasons, never proves, it simply perceives; it is vision." By contrast, "The
Understanding toils all the time, compares, contrives, adds, argues, near sighed but strong.(sighted, dwelling in the present the expedient the customary" (L1:412-413

Microcosm and macrocosm: each part of nature contains all within it. "Nature
is a sea of forms radically alike. . . ." ; "Every particular in nature, a leaf, a drop, a
crystal, a moment of time is related to the whole, and partakes of the perfection of the
whole. Each particle is a microcosm, and faithfully renders the likeness of the world."

Principle of analogy, of perceiving correspondences: "[M]an is an analogist,

and studies relations in all objects."

Emblematic Nature: "Every natural fact is a symbol of some spiritual fact."

Universal soul ("Oversoul"): "Meantime within man is the soul of the whole;
the wise silence; the universal beauty, to which every part and particle is equally
related."

The principle of organicism; the concept of the circle.

Transcendentalism, like other romantic movements, proposes that the essential nature of
human beings is good and that, left in a state of nature, human beings would seek the good.
Society is to blame for the corruption that mankind endures. Hawthorne's juxtaposition of the
red rose, the flower of nature, and the rusty, blackened prison, the "black flower" of society,
exemplifies this perspective. This view opposes the neoclassical vision that society alone is
responsible for keeping human beings from giving in to their own brutish natures.
Transcendentalism also takes the Romantic view of man's steady degeneration from
".childhood to adulthood as he is corrupted by culture: "A man is a god in ruins

7.4. Context and Controversy

Orestes Brownson, a philosopher and contemporary of Emerson's, raised objections to
Emerson's thought that are remarkable because he neither defends Lockean epistemology nor
seems worried (as were conservative thinkers) about the "murderous instincts" of the lower
classes. Although he retracted much of this later because he felt sympathy for Emerson (who
:was under attack for these ideas), here are some of his initial impressions
But we give it up. We cannot analyze one of Mr. Emerson's discourses. He hardly ever has a"
leading thought, to which all the parts of his discourse are subordinate, which is clearly stated,
systematically drawn out, and logically enforced. He is a poet rather than a philosopher--and
".not always true even to the laws of poetry
Reviewing the "Divinity School Address," Brownson said that we are told "to obey our
instincts" and to scorn to imitate even Jesus. But "How shall we determine which are our
higher instincts and which our lower instincts? We do not perceive that he gives us any

338

instructions on this point. . . . We are to act out ourselves. Now, why is not the sensualist as
"?moral as the spiritualist, providing he acts out himself
Brownson accuses Emerson of "transcendental selfishness": "Are all things in the universe to
be held subordinate to the individual soul? Shall a man take himself as the center of the
universe, and say all things are for his use, and count them of value only as they contribute
something to his growth or well-being?" According to this system, "I am everything; all else
".is nothing, at least nothing except what it derives from the fact that it is something to me

Brief Overview of Some Other Literary movements .8

Literature constantly evolves as new movements emerge to speak to the concerns of different
.groups of people and historical periods

339

Aestheticism (c. 18351910): A late-19th-century movement that believed in art as an

end in itself. Aesthetes such as Oscar Wilde and Walter Pater rejected the view that art had to
.posses a higher moral or political value and believed instead in art for arts sake

Angry Young Men (1950s1980s): A group of male British writers who created
visceral plays and fiction at odds with the political establishment and a self-satisfied middle
class. John Osbornes play Look Back in Anger (1957) is one of the seminal works of this
.movement

Bloomsbury Group (c. 19061930s): An informal group of friends and lovers,

including Clive Bell, E. M. Forster, Roger Fry, Lytton Strachey, Virginia Woolf, and John
Maynard Keynes, who lived in the Bloomsbury section of London in the early 20th century
.and who had a considerable liberalizing influence on British culture

Commedia dellarte (1500s1700s): Improvisational comedy first developed in

Renaissance Italy that involved stock characters and centered around a set scenario. The
elements of farce and buffoonery in commedia dellarte, as well as its standard characters and
plot intrigues, have had a tremendous influence on Western comedy, and can still be seen in
.contemporary drama and television sitcoms

Dadaism (19161922): An avant-garde movement that began in response to the

devastation of World War I. Based in Paris and led by the poet Tristan Tzara, the Dadaists
produced nihilistic and antilogical prose, poetry, and art, and rejected the traditions, rules, and
.ideals of prewar Europe

Enlightenment (c. 16601790): An intellectual movement in France and other parts of

Europe that emphasized the importance of reason, progress, and liberty. The Enlightenment,
sometimes called the Age of Reason, is primarily associated with nonfiction writing, such as
essays and philosophical treatises. Major Enlightenment writers include Thomas Hobbes,
.John Locke, Jean-Jacques Rousseau, Ren Descartes

Elizabethan era (c. 15581603): A flourishing period in English literature, particularly

drama, that coincided with the reign of Queen Elizabeth I and included writers such as Francis
Bacon, Ben Jonson, Christopher Marlowe, William Shakespeare, Sir Philip Sidney, and
.Edmund Spenser

Gothic fiction (c. 17641820): A genre of late-18th-century literature that featured

brooding, mysterious settings and plots and set the stage for what we now call horror
stories. Horace Walpoles Castle of Otranto, set inside a medieval castle, was the first major
Gothic novel. Later, the term Gothic grew to include any work that attempted to create an
.atmosphere of terror or the unknown, such as Edgar Allan Poes short stories

Harlem Renaissance (c. 19181930): A flowering of African-American literature, art,

and music during the 1920s in New York City. W. E. B. DuBoiss The Souls of Black Folk
anticipated the movement, which included Alain Lockes anthology The New Negro, Zora

340

Neale Hurstons novel Their Eyes Were Watching God, and the poetry of Langston Hughes
.and Countee Cullen

Lost Generation (c. 19181930s): A term used to describe the generation of writers,
many of them soldiers that came to maturity during World War I. Notable members of this
group include F. Scott Fitzgerald, John Dos Passos, and Ernest Hemingway, whose novel The
.Sun Also Rises embodies the Lost Generations sense of disillusionment

Magic realism (c. 1935present): A style of writing, popularized by Jorge Luis Borges,
Gabriel Garca Mrquez, Gnter Grass, and others, that combines realism with moments of
.dream-like fantasy within a single prose narrative

Metaphysical poets (c. 16331680): A group of 17th-century poets who combined

direct language with ingenious images, paradoxes, and conceits. John Donne and Andrew
.Marvell are the best known poets of this school

Middle English (c. 10661500): The transitional period between Anglo-Saxon and
modern English. The cultural upheaval that followed the Norman Conquest of England, in
1066, saw a flowering of secular literature, including ballads, chivalric romances, allegorical
poems, and a variety of religious plays. Chaucers The Canterbury Tales is the most
.celebrated work of this period

Modernism (1890s1940s): A literary and artistic movement that provided a radical

breaks with traditional modes of Western art, thought, religion, social conventions, and
morality. Major themes of this period include the attack on notions of hierarchy;
experimentation in new forms of narrative, such as stream of consciousness; doubt about the
existence of knowable, objective reality; attention to alternative viewpoints and modes of
thinking; and self-referentiality as a means of drawing attention to the relationships between
.artist and audience, and form and content
High modernism (1920s): Generally considered the golden age of modernist
literature, this period saw the publication of James Joyces Ulysses, T. S. Eliots The
Waste Land, Virginia Woolfs Mrs. Dalloway, and Marcel Prousts In Search of Lost
Time.

Neoclassicism (c. 16601798): A literary movement, inspired by the rediscovery of

classical works of ancient Greece and Rome that emphasized balance, restraint, and order.
Neoclassicism roughly coincided with the Enlightenment, which espoused reason over
passion. Notable neoclassical writers include Edmund Burke, John Dryden, Samuel Johnson,
.Alexander Pope, and Jonathan Swift

Nouveau Roman (New Novel) (c. 19551970): A French movement, led by Alain
Robbe-Grillet, that dispensed with traditional elements of the novel, such as plot and
.character, in favor of neutrally recording the experience of sensations and things

341

Postcolonial literature (c. 1950spresent): Literature by and about people from

former European colonies, primarily in Africa, Asia, South America, and the Caribbean. This
literature aims both to expand the traditional canon of Western literature and to challenge
Eurocentric assumptions about literature, especially through examination of questions of
otherness, identity, and race. Prominent postcolonial works include Chinua Achebes Things
Fall Apart, V. S. Naipauls A House for Mr. Biswas, and Salman Rushdies Midnights
Children. Edward Saids Orientalism (1978) provided an important theoretical basis for
.understanding postcolonial literature

Postmodernism (c. 1945present): A notoriously ambiguous term, especially as it

refers to literature, postmodernism can be seen as a response to the elitism of high modernism
as well as to the horrors of World War II. Postmodern literature is characterized by a
disjointed, fragmented pastiche of high and low culture that reflects the absence of tradition
and structure in a world driven by technology and consumerism. Julian Barnes, Don DeLillo,
Toni Morrison, Vladimir Nabokov, Thomas Pynchon, Salman Rushdie, and Kurt Vonnegut
.are among many who are considered postmodern authors

Pre-Raphaelites (c. 18481870): The literary arm of an artistic movement that drew
inspiration from Italian artists working before Raphael (14831520). The Pre-Raphaelites
combined sensuousness and religiosity through archaic poetic forms and medieval settings.
William Morris, Christina Rossetti, Dante Gabriel Rossetti, and Charles Swinburne were
.leading poets in the movement

Sturm und Drang (1770s): German for storm and stress, this brief German literary
movement advocated passionate individuality in the face of Neoclassical rationalism and
restraint. Goethes The Sorrows of Young Werther is the most enduring work of this
.(movement, which greatly influenced the Romantic movement (see above

Symbolists (1870s1890s): A group of French poets who reacted against realism with a
poetry of suggestion based on private symbols, and experimented with new poetic forms such
as free verse and the prose poem. The symbolistsStphane Mallarm, Arthur Rimbaud, and
Paul Verlaine are the most well knownwere influenced by Charles Baudelaire. In turn, they
.had a seminal influence on the modernist poetry of the early 20th century

Victorian era (c. 18321901): The period of English history between the passage of the
first Reform Bill (1832) and the death of Queen Victoria (reigned 18371901). Though
remembered for strict social, political, and sexual conservatism and frequent clashes between
religion and science, the period also saw prolific literary activity and significant social reform
and criticism. Notable Victorian novelists include the Bront sisters, Charles Dickens, George
Eliot, William Makepeace Thackeray, Anthony Trollope, and Thomas Hardy, while
prominent poets include Matthew Arnold; Robert Browning; Elizabeth Barrett Browning;
Gerard Manley Hopkins; Alfred, Lord Tennyson; and Christina Rossetti. Notable Victorian
nonfiction writers include Walter Pater, John Ruskin, and Charles Darwin, who penned the
.(famous On the Origin of Species (1859

342

Bibliography

Adams, Hazard (ed.) (1971) Critical Theory Since Plato, Harcourt Brace
Jovanovich,

343

New York

Ashcroft, Bill, et. al., The Empire Writes Back: Theory and Practice in PostColonial Literatures. New York Routledge, 2002 (ISBN 0415280206)

Culler, Jonathan (1975) Structuralist Poetics, Routledge & Kegan Paul,

London

Dictionary of Modern Critical Terms, revised and enlarged edition, (1987)

Routledge & Kegan Paul, London

Eagleton, Terry (1983) Literary Theory: An Introduction, Basil Blackwell,

Oxford

Ellis, John M. (1974) The Theory of Literary Criticism, University of

California Press,
Berkeley

Fowler, Alastair (1982) Kinds of Literature: An Introduction to the Theory of

Genres
and Modes, Clarendon Press, Oxford

Fowler, Roger (1986) Linguistic Criticism, Oxford University Press, Oxford

Harari, Josu V. (ed.) (1979) Textual Strategies: Perspectives in PostStructuralist

Criticism, Methuen, London

Hawkes, Terence (1977) Structuralism and Semiotics, Methuen, London

Jakobson, Roman (1960) Concluding Statement: Linguistics and Poetics. In

T.A. Sebeok (ed.), Style in Language, Massachusetts Institute of Technology Press,
Cambridge, pp. 35077

Jefferson, Ann and Robey, David (eds) (1982) Modern Literary Theory: A
Comparative Introduction, Batsford Academic, London

Lodge, David (ed.) (1972) Twentieth Century Literary Criticism: A Reader,

Longman,
London

Watt, Ian. The Rise of the Novel: Studies in Defoe, Richardson and Fielding.
Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1963.

Online References
Gioia, Dana. "Disappearing Ink: Poetry at the End of Print Culture." Hudson
Review 56.1 (Spring 2003). http://www.hudsonreview.com/gioiaSp03.pdf

The Cambridge History of English and American Literature (1907-1921).

http://www.bartleby.com/cambridge/

CLCWeb: Comparative Literature and Culture

http://clcwebjournal.lib.purdue.edu

Ong, Walter J. Orality and Literacy: The Technologizing of the Word. New
York: Routledge, 2002.

344

345

Rpublique Populaire Dmocratique Algrienne

Ministre de lEnseignement Suprieur et de la Recherche Scientifique
cole Normale Suprieure des Lettres et Sciences Humaines
Constantine

Cours distance
2e anne
Semestre 4

Module TICE

Prpar par
Mlle Soumeya HEDJEL

346

2007-2008

347

348

TRAVAIL COLLABORATIF ASSIST PAR ORDINATEUR

(TCAO)
Les outils daccs au savoir .2
2.1. Classe virtuelle
La classe virtuelle dsigne la simulation d'une classe relle. La diffusion du cours se
fait l'aide d'une solution rseau, une date et une heure prcise (synchrone) auprs
d'apprenants loigns gographiquement. Cet environnement intgre des outils reproduisant
distance les interactions d'une salle de classe.
2.2. FAQ
La foire aux questions, ou Frequently Asked Questions ( questions frquemment
poses ), est une liste faisant la synthse des questions poses de manire rcurrente sur un
sujet donn, accompagnes des rponses correspondantes. Voici un exemple de FAQ sur
wikipdia.

2.3. Wiki
Un WIKI est un site Web dont tout visiteur peut modifier les pages volont. Il
permet non seulement de communiquer et diffuser des informations rapidement, mais de
structurer cette information pour permettre d'y naviguer commodment. Le mot WIKI
provient d'un adjectif en langue hawaiienne "wikiwiki" qui signifie rapide. Le principe est
simple, il s'agit d'un modle coopratif de rdaction de documents. Concrtement, n'importe
quel visiteur a la possibilit de modifier la page qu'il est en train de lire. Les modifications
sont ensuite enregistres et toutes les versions historiques restent accessibles.

349

Exemples de moteur de Wiki

-

WikiWikiWeb : http://www.c2.com/cgi/wiki?WelcomeVisitors
MediaWiki : http://www.mediawiki.org/wiki/MediaWiki
DocuWiki : http://wiki.splitbrain.org/wiki:dokuwiki

Exemples de Wiki
-

Wikipdia : http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Accueil
http://wiki.univ-paris5.fr/wiki/Accueil

Capture dcran dune page de Wikipdia

2.4. Portail dinformation

Un portail Web (de l'anglais Web portal) est un site Web qui offre une porte d'entre
unique sur un large panel de ressources et de services (messagerie lectronique, forum de
discussion, espaces de publication, moteur de recherche) centrs sur un domaine ou une
communaut particulire.
Les utilisateurs ont la plupart du temps la possibilit de s'enregistrer un portail pour
s'y connecter ultrieurement et utiliser l'ensemble des services proposs, dont notamment la
personnalisation de leur espace de travail, lequel est organis l'aide d'lments d'IHM de
base : les portlets.
Il ne faut pas confondre le portail Web avec un site portail institutionnel. Il s'agit dans
ce dernier cas d'un site servant de voie d'accs unique vers les diffrents sites d'un organisme
(entreprise commerciale, institution publique). Le site portail permet de rediriger l'internaute
vers le site de l'organisme qui correspond le mieux ses attentes en fonction de son profil.

350

Exemples de portails
Les portails sont souvent des sites communautaires qui tentent de rassembler un
ensemble de services susceptible d'intresser les internautes.
La force des portails rside souvent dans la communaut qui les entoure. Dans le cas
des portails les plus connus tels que wanadoo, la communaut est issue des abonnements
internet fournis par Wanadoo (Orange maintenant). Free a quant lui eu la mme volution.
Les abonns avaient, aprs installation de la ligne internet, accs en page daccueil au portail
de loprateur.
D'autres types de portails existent. Les portails qui ont construit leur notorit sur un
service gratuit. Quelques exemples : Hotmail (email gratuit), MSN (email gratuit), Free joue
galement dans cette catgorie. En revanche certains (Neuf par exemple) ont volontairement
limit l'accs leurs adresses email. Elles ne sont disponibles que pour les abonns de Neuf.
Pour conclure sur les portails web, ils se sont tous construits autour de services (accs
web, adresse mail gratuite, annuaire gratuit...) et fournissent la plupart du temps des contenus
ditoriaux propres et adapts leur communaut.
Exemple de portail dinformation :
-

Thot : http://thot.cursus.edu/

2.5. Liste de diffusion

C'est une mthode de diffusion d'informations, dans laquelle les abonns de la liste peuvent
envoyer des messages qui seront diffuss aux autres.
2.6. Bookmark partag
Le systme de bookmarks (ou marque-page) partags permet aux internautes de grer
leurs signets (ou leurs favoris) en ligne, mais aussi et surtout de permettre d'autres de les
consulter et de les exploiter.
Exemples d'applications permettant de partager des bookmarks
-

Zotero : http://www.zotero.org/
Del.icio.us : http://del.icio.us

Les outils de coordination .3

galement appels outils de Workflow.
On appelle "WorkFlow" (traduisez littralement "flux de travail") la modlisation et la
gestion informatique de l'ensemble des tches accomplir et des diffrents acteurs impliqu
dans la ralisation d'un processus mtier (aussi appel processus oprationnel). Le terme de
Workflow pourrait donc tre traduit en franais par Gestion lectronique des processus mtier.

351

De faon plus pratique le WorkFlow dcrit le circuit de validation, les tches

accomplir entre les diffrents acteurs d'un processus, les dlais, les modes de validation et
fournit chacun des acteurs les informations ncessaires pour la ralisation de sa tche. Pour
un processus de publication en ligne par exemple, il s'agit de la modlisation des tches de
l'ensemble de la chane ditoriale, de la proposition du rdacteur la validation par le
responsable de publication.
3.1. Agenda partag
Un agenda partag est l'agenda d'une personne qui est rendu visible d'autres
personnes. Par exemple celui du chef de projet. Des exemples de ce type de calendriers sont
nombreux sur l toile. Voici des captures dcrans de calendrier partag de Google.

3.2. Agenda collectif

Un agenda collectif est un agenda tenu collectivement par plusieurs personnes.
3.3. Todo list
Une todo list, de l'anglais to do, faire , signifie liste des choses faire. La todo list
est un procd simple et efficace qui permet de se concentrer sur une tche d'un projet sans
pour autant perdre de vue les autres tches accomplir. Les listes todo se dclinent de
multiples faons : par exemple, un chef de projet qui note les bogues corriger et les
fonctionnalits programmer construit une todo list. Plus trivialement, un post-it avec une
liste de courses faire est aussi une todo list.
3.4. Outils de management de projet en ligne
Les outils de management de projet en ligne permettent, sur un mme espace internet,
plusieurs acteurs dun projet (chef de projet, quipe de dveloppement, clients) davoir
accs toutes les informations ncessaires pour collaborer : ces applications web permettent
davoir lagenda partag du projet, un espace dchange de fichier, des todo list , des
jalons, des outils de communication.

352

Exemples
-

Basecamp : http://www.basecamphq.com/
ActiveCollab : http://www.activecollab.com/
Collabtive : http://collabtive.o-dyn.de/
Projectpier : http://www.projectpier.org/

3.5. Sondages / planification de runions

Outil qui permet dinterroger plusieurs personnes, par exemple sur leurs disponibilits
pour participer une runion, et ainsi de synthtiser les informations facilement.

Les outils de production .4

4.1. Versioning
Processus permettant de conserver une trace des modifications successives apportes
un fichier numrique (documentation, code source, base de donnes), travers un logiciel
spcialis. Il est ainsi possible de retrouver des donnes effaces, mais aussi d'effectuer de
nombreuses manipulations, comme la comparaison de sous parties d'un logiciel voluant
paralllement.
4.2. Gestionnaire de fichiers
Un gestionnaire de fichiers est un logiciel qui fournit une interface utilisateur pour
travailler avec les fichiers informatiques. Les plus communes utilisations sont : la cration,
l'ouverture, la visualisation, l'impression, la lecture, le renommage, le dplacement, la copie,
la suppression, les proprits et la recherche de fichiers. Le plus souvent, les fichiers sont
affichs dans une hirarchie, sous forme d'arborescence. Les gestionnaires de fichiers peuvent
contenir des fonctionnalits hrites des navigateurs web, en incluant les flches de navigation
(prcdent/suivant).
4.3. Documents, applications partags
Ce sont des applications qui sont stockes sur un serveur auxquelles on peut accder
distance en utilisant un rseau. Les applications qui sont souvent trs lourdes sont centralises
sur un serveur.
Exemples de logiciel de partage d'applications
Adobe Connect : http://www.adobe.com/fr/products/connect/
Certains outils de communication instantane permettent de partager des
applications comme Windows Live messenger.

353

4.4. Partage de fichiers

Mise disposition pour dautres utilisateurs de fichiers pour lecture ou modification selon les
droits attribus lutilisateur.
4.5. Le graphe conceptuel
Dans l'objectif de structurer la pense et de reprsenter des connaissances, les graphes
conceptuels permettent de visualiser des ides, des notions, des informations en les liant, les
groupant et en les commentant.
Ces outils assistent aussi bien la rflexion personnelle que celles d'un groupe. L'ide
centrale, qui peut tre un mot, une phrase, ventuellement une image, est d'abord dispose
dans le graphe. Puis les termes qui sont en relation avec cette ide sont disposs autour. On
continue cette progression en renseignant le lien entre les ides. Chaque nouvelle ide insre
dans le graphe peut son tour tre relie celles qui existent dj ou de nouvelles.
Les outils qui assistent ce processus permettent non seulement une prsentation facile
et claire, mais peuvent traduire l'organisation graphique sous une forme textuelle (titres,
paragraphe, alina, etc.).
Terme quivalent : carte conceptuelle
Voici une image reprsentant un graphe conceptuel

354

OUTILS D'DITION WEB

diteur HTML .1
Un diteur HTML (ou diteur Web) est un logiciel conu pour faciliter la prparation
et la modification de documents crits en Hypertext markup language (HTML). Un document
HTML est le principal composant d'une page web. Il existe deux catgories d'diteur :
-

les diteurs tel-tel (WYSIWYG)

les diteurs de texte

L'dition des images, des animations ou du son sont effectues avec les logiciels
appropris. Un diteur HTML ne sert qu' disposer ces ressources dans une page web.
Les pages offrant des services en plus de simples informations sont gnralement
gnres la demande par des logiciels propres au site web.
1.1. diteurs WYSIWYG
Dfinition
WYSIWYG ([wziwg] ou [wiziwg]) est l'acronyme de la locution anglaise What
you see is what you get, signifiant littralement en franais ce que vous voyez est ce que
vous obtenez ou de faon plus concise tel affichage, tel rsultat . L'acronyme est
couramment utilis en informatique pour dsigner les interfaces utilisateur graphiques
permettant de composer visuellement le rsultat voulu, typiquement pour un logiciel de mise
en page, un traitement de texte ou d'image. L'acronyme dsigne, de fait, une interface
intuitive : l'utilisateur voit directement l'cran quoi ressemblera le rsultat final
(imprim).
Usage
Un diteur WYSIWYG (permet d'diter une page web peu prs telle qu'elle apparat
dans les navigateurs courants. Il propose les fonctions classiques des traitements de texte
WYSIWYG. Ses deux principaux avantages sont la facilit d'utilisation et l'observation
immdiate du rendu graphique. Ses deux principaux dsavantages sont le manque de matrise
sur la qualit du document HTML produit et les risques d'incompatibilit avec des navigateurs
non prvus par l'diteur (plus rcents, plus anciens, ou moins courants).
Exemples dditeurs WYSIWYG
-

OPEN BEXI HTML Builder

Adobe GoLive
Adobe Dreamweaver (anciennement Macromedia Dreamweaver)
KompoZer
Microsoft Expression (anciennement Microsoft FrontPage)
Mozilla Composer
Nvu

355

Nous verrons plus en dtail le fonctionnement de lun de ces diteurs, Nvu, en

loccurrence.
Ci-dessous une image de la fentre de Mozilla Composer

1.2. Les diteurs en mode texte

Ces diteurs ditent directement en langage HTML : le code y apparat et y est trait
comme du texte. Ils requirent donc une comptence dans ce langage. En contrepartie, ils
permettent un utilisateur comptent de s'assurer de la qualit du document produit.
-

HTML Kit
Notepad++
Quanta+
Bluefish
Isofting eWriter Wisto
Htmledit

Voici une image dune fentre ddition en mode texte de lditeur Notepad++

356

357

Exemple dutilisation de la plate-forme Dokeos

Dans lexemple qui va suivre, nous prsenterons les principales fonctionnalits de Dokeos
Page daccueil : sur cette page il est possible de se connecter avec un identifiant et un mot de
passe si lutilisateur est dj inscrit, dans le cas contraire, une inscription est ncessaire pour
accder au contenu de la plate-forme.

Sidentifier pour un
membre dj inscrit.

Sinscrire pour
un nouvel
utilisateur

Aprs vous tre identifi en tant qutudiant, vus avez accs cette page de Dokeos 1.8.4

Les diffrents onglets

vous donnent accs
diffrents espaces,
nous dcouvrirons
lespace Mes cours

Dans lespace Mes cours , vous dcouvrirez les multiples fonctionnalits de Dokeos.

358

Ceci est le titre dun

cours, en cliquant
dessus, vous avez
accs au contenu.

Ressources du cours

Voici maintenant tous les outils proposs pas Dokeos, une fois laccs au cours effectu.
Description du cours et
prsentation des objectifs

O sont consigns des dates

et rendez-vous importants

Tous les documents

ncessaires dposs par
lenseignant

Espace pour dposer des

articles en relation avec
le cours

Modules constituant
le cours

359

BIBLIOGRAPHIE / SITOGRAPHIE
1.
BIELACZYC, K. and COLLINS, A. (1999). Instructional-Design Theories
and models. Volume II, Charles M. Reigeluth, LEA, Chap. 12.
2.
Blog, http://www.cyberprofsdepmf.com/
3.
Communaut dapprentissage, http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Communaut
%C3%A9_d'apprentissage
4.
Grgoire, R. et Laferrire, T. (1997). Communaut dapprentissage, des mots
pour le dire. Disponible ladresse http://www.tact.fse.ulaval.ca/fr/html/prj7.1/commune1.html

360

Table of Contents
Content
...Page
Writing and Grammar
Part one: Writing
Part One:....p.4
Part Two...p29
Bibliography..p37

Part two: Grammar

Lesson one: Reported Speech...p38
Lesson two: Phrasal verbs.....p43
Lesson three: Types of verbs.....p46
Lesson four: Ellipsis......p51
Lesson five: Substitution....p54
Bibliography....p58

Phonetics& Speaking
Part One : Phonetics
Chapter One: Aspects of Connected Speech ...p62
Chapter Two: Elision.....p73
Chapter Three: Liaison..p77
Chapter Four: Juncture..p80
Chapter Five: Weak forms.p81
Bibliography..p85
Part Two : Listening & Speaking
Lecture1 :Economy.....................p87
Lecture 2 : Jessica Tandy..........................................................p91

361

Lectures 3,4,5: Ramadan in America, Alaska Purchase, Wynton and

Willie.....................................................................................p94
Lecture 6: Reef World.p97
Bibliography....p103
..

Reading Techniques
Grimms Fairy tales ..p107
List of References .p131

Linguistics
Sociolinguistics and Linguistics...................................................................................p136
Varieties of Language.p138
Varieties in Contact ( Mixture of Varieties)..p143
Language and Social Interaction...p148
Bibliography..p153

Teaching English as a Foreign Language

Lesson One : Language teaching methods and approachesp157
Lesson Two: The Competency-Based Approach.p173
Bibliography....p178

Educational psychology
Chapter One: Adolescence
Part One: Aspects of Adolescent Development......................................p183
Part Two: Approaches to Adolescence....p200
Chapter Two: Motivation and learning....p218
Chapter Three: Teachers and Teachingp226
Bibliography .p239

362

Gnralits en sciences juridiques

Chapitre 1 : Les diffrents sens du mot droit ....p243
Chapitre 2 : La personnalit juridique.....p248
Chapitre 3. : La spcialisation des rgles de droit.......p253
Chapitre 4 : Les sources du droit.........p266
Bibliographiep272

Civilisation and Literature

Part one : Civilisation
British imperialism in America...p276
The Drafting of the American Constitution...p289
Bibliography...p320

Part two : Literature

The Romantic Movement ..p322
Realism p322
Naturalism........................................................................................................................p326
Surrealism.p330
Absurdism.p331
Beat Movement ..p332
American Transcendentalism .p333
Brief Overview of Some Other Literary movements......................................................p337
Bibliography....p341

363

T.I.C.E.

Travail collaborative assist par ordinateur ( TCAO)....p345

TCAO)....p345
Outils ddition web...p359
Bibliographie/Sitographie..p357
Table of contentsp358

364