Natural Approach

Proposer/
Crashen & Terrell/ 1977
advocato
r
Goals
Students can acquire the
target languages in a natural
and communicative situation.
Mother Tongue

No mother tongue

Merits

1. Students acquire the target

language in a natural and
easy way.
2. Teaching materials are
designed very well.
Students ca acquire
language from easy to
difficult, from simple to
complex, and from
concrete to abstract.

Limits

1. Students may use the target

language fluently, but they
cannot use it accurately.
2. Teachers should collect
various teaching aids and
use them appropriately.
3. Special teaching designs is
necessary for the students
with better abilities.

Communicative Language
Teaching (CLT)
?/1972

Audio-lingual Method
(ALM)
Charles Fries /1939

Be able to communicate
with others in the target
language in different
situations
Both mother tongue and
target language
1. Students have the
opportunities to express
their own thoughts and
opinions.
2. Students have the
opportunities to
communicate with each
other in the classroom.
3. Students can learn the
culture of the target
language because the
teaching materials are
related to the social
environments.
4. The communicative
situation makes students
reconstruct their
knowledge and thoughts,
so students can learn to
fluently speak the target
language more easily.
1. Its difficult for a
nonnative speaking
teacher who is not very
proficient in the target
language to teach
effectively. Teacher
training and certification
are needed.
2. Students pronunciation
and grammatical
knowledge is poor.
3. It is difficult for teachers
to evaluate students
expression in the learning

Be able to listen, speak,

read, and write in the target
language, with emphasis on
listening and speaking
Less mother tongue
1. Students can learn target
language in natural order:
listeningspeaking
readingwriting.
2. Students can speak the
correct answers without
thinking by overlearning.

1. It fails to teach the longterm communicative

proficiency.
2. Structural linguistics
didnt tell us everything
about language that we
needed to know.
3. Its impossible and
unnecessary to teach
students without using
native languages.
4. Its boring for students to
overlearn the drills and

process.

Teaching Aids Visual aids, such as pictures,

maps, advertisement; games

Features

its tiring for teachers to

teach.
(a)Interesting and meaningful Textbooks, drills, tapes,
materials, such as linguistic language labs
games, role plays, and
problem solving materials.
(b) Technologyfilms,
videos, TV, computers, can be
used as teaching aids.

1. 5 important hypothesis 1.
A. the Acquisition-Learning H
Students acquire language
subconsciously in the
natural and communicative
2.
situations.
B. the Monitor H
Students may call upon
learned knowledge to
correct themselves when
they communicate, but that
conscious learning has only
3.
this function.
C. the Natural Order H
The acquisition of
grammatical structures
4.
proceeds in a predictable
order.
D. the Input (i+1) H
Students acquire language
best by understanding input
5.
that is slightly beyond their
current level of competence.
E. the Affective Filter H
6.
Student work should center
on meaningful
communication rather than
on form; input should be
7.
interesting and so contribute
to a relaxed classroom
atmosphere.
8.
------------------------------------2. The teacher was the

Language learning is
1.
learning to communicate.
The primary function of 2.
language is for
interaction and
communication.
Classroom goals are
focused on all of the
3.
components of
communicative
competence and not
4.
restricted to grammatical
or linguistic competence
Students learn to use the
appropriate language
forms in the different
5.
places.
Communicative activities
include functional
6.
communicative activities
and social interaction
activities.
Teachers are assistants,
guides, counselors and
group process managers. 7.
Students are expected to
interact with each other
rather than with the
teacher.
Learners should take the 8.
responsibility of the failed
communication.
Language is created by
the individual through

New material is presented

in dialogue forms
Theres dependence on
mimicry, memorization
of set phrases, and
overlearning.
Structural patterns are
taught using repetitive
drills.
Theres little or no
grammatical explanation.
Grammar is taught by
inductive analogy
explanation.
There is much use of
tapes, language labs, and
visual aids.
It is based on Behaviorist
psychology. Students
successful responses are
immediately reinforced
and their errors are
corrected immediately.
The teaching sequences
are aural training,
pronunciation training,
speaking, reading, and
writing.
Structures are sequenced
by means of contrastive
analysis and taught one at
a time.

3.

4.
5.

6.

7.

source of the learners

trial and error. Correction
input and the creator of
of errors may be absent
an interesting and
or infrequent.
stimulating variety of
9. Students can speak
classroom activities.
fluently but not
Learners dont need to say
accurately.
anything during the silent 10. Four language skills are
period until they feel
practiced. Reading and
ready to do so.
Writing can start from the
Start with TPR commands.
first day, if desired.
Use visuals, typically
magazine pictures, to
introduce new vocabulary.
The focus in the classroom
is on listening and
reading abilities.
No sentence patterns
practice and no error
correction during the
process of acquisition.

Hypothesis
the Acquisition-Learning H
the Monitor H
the Natural Order H

the Input (i+1) H

the Affective Filter H

Definition
Acquisition is a unconscious and intuitive process of constructing the
system of a language. Learning refers to a process in which conscious rules
about a language are developed. Learning cannot lead to acquisition.
Conscious learning can function only as a monitor or editor that checks and
repairs the output of the acquired system.
The acquisition of grammatical structures proceeds in a predictable order.
Errors are signs of naturalistic developmental processes and during
acquisition, similar developmental errors occur in learners, no matter what
their mother tongue is.
People acquire language best by understanding input that is slightly beyond
their current level of competence. If an acquirer is at stage or level i, the
input (s)he understands should contain i+1. Input should neither be so far
beyond their reach nor so close to their current stage.
The ability to speak fluently cannot be taught directly; it emerges
independently in time.
The learners emotional state or attitudes as an adjustable filter that freely
passes, impedes, or blocks input necessary to acquisition. Three kinds of
affective or attitudinal variables are: (1) motivation, (2) self-confidence (3)
anxiety. The best acquisition will occur in environments where anxiety is low
and defensiveness absent.

Direct Method

Natural Approach
Similarity

1. It emphasized that the principles underlying the

1.
method were believed to conform to the principles

It is believed to conform to the naturalistic

principles found in successful second acquisition.

of naturalistic language learning in young

children.

Difference
DM focuses on:
1. Teacher monologues
2. Direct repetition
3. Formal questions and answers
4. Accurate production of target language sentences

NA focuses on:
1. Exposure input
2. Optimizing emotional preparedness for learning
3. Listening & Reading

Total Physical Response

(TPR)
Proposer/
Asher/ 1964
advocator
Goals
Be able to respond
physically to the sentences
made in the target language.
Mother Tongue
No mother tongue
Merits
1. It provides rapid and
rather permanent
language gains on early
levels, so students can
remember the learned
vocabulary for a long
time.
2. Students respond
actively and feel
interested in the learning
processes.
3. Its easy for teachers to
teach students verbs.
Limits
1. Its difficult to teach the
abstract content with
TPR
2. Students pronunciation
is poor.
3. Teachers have to do
obvious actions
carefully or students
would be confused and
be misled by the
unnecessary hints.
4. TPR has been an
experimental model
with volunteer students;
its, not useful for the
inactive students.
5. TPR is especially
effective in the
beginning levels of
language proficiency,
but then loses its
distinctiveness as
learners advance in their
competence.

Community Language Learning (CLL)

Counseling Learning Method
Curran/1961
To get the language competence and performance by asking
questions.
Both mother tongue and the target language
1. Each student lowers the defenses that prevent open
interpersonal communication.
2. The anxiety caused by the educational context is lessened
by means of the supportive community.
3. The teachers presence is not perceived as a threat, but as
a counselor.

1.

2.

3.

4.
5.

The counselor-teacher can be too nondirective. Some

intensive inductive struggle is a necessary component of
second language learning. Learning by being told is
much better.
Translation is an intricate and complex process that is
often easier said then done. If subtle aspects of
language are mistranslated, there could be a less than
effective understanding.
The training is required for an ideal knower. (s)he would
have a perfect command of the foreign language and
would have to be professionally competent in both
psychology and linguistics.
It has limitations in a large-group situation with one
teacher.
Theres a need for clients who speak a common
language.

Teaching Aids
Features

No text. Body language and

practical materials.
1. Based on 3 important
hypothesis:
(A) the Bio-program H
Children, in learning
their first language,
appear to do a lot of
listening before they
speak, and their listening
is accomplished by
physical responses.
(B) the Brain
Lateralization H
Motor activity is a rightbrain function that
should precede left-brain
language processing
speaking.
(C) Reduction of Stress H
An important condition
for successful language
learning is the absence
of stress.
2. Imperative()
drills are the major
classroom activity in
TPR.
3. Commands are easy
first, and then become
more and more
complex.
4. Students are listeners
and performers. They
do a lot of listening and
acting until they master
the commands. They are
required to respond both
individually and
collectively.
5. Students respond to the
commands physically.

Various materials for different purposes; colored coded

signals; tapes; recorders
1. The sense of belonging needed by both students and
teachers.
2. Both teachers and students have the responsibility for the
learning activity.
3. In a good knower-client relationship, there quickly
develops a warm, sympathetic attitude of mutual trust
and respect. The client emulates the language and person
of the knower; the knower is fulfilled and enriched
through the counseling-teaching experience.
4. More important to learners is the freedom and initiative
they are permitted.
5. The most basic ingredient in CLL is a mutual interest,
respect and concern of teachers for students and students
for students.
6. A group of ideas concerning the psychological
requirements for successful learning are collected under
the acronymSARD. (S-security, A-attention and
aggression, R-retention and reflection, D-discrimination)
7. The teaching procedure:
(a) The students sit in a circle, and the teacher(s) is(are)
outside the circle.
(b) During the first stage, a tape recorder is normally used.
The only voices taped are those of the student-clients
when they are speaking in the target language.
(c) The students initiate the conversation in their native
language and the knower Translates it into the target
language. They then repeat in the target language what
they have heard the knower said.
(d) Students assist each other and they use the teacher when
there is a need. The knower provides translation only
when someone signals by raising his/her hand.
(e) Color coded signals are used. If red is flashed, an error
has been made. If amber, there is a more suitable idiom
and a better way. If green, the utterance is acceptable.
Blue indicates native expertise.
8. Students developmental stages:
(a) The Embryonic Stage ()
Students are totally dependent on the teacher.
(b) The Self-assertion Stage()
The student-clients begin to show some independence and

No verbal response is
necessary.

tries out the language.

(c)IThe birth Stage ()
The students speak independently. They are most likely to
resent what they feel unnecessary assistance from the knower.
(d) The Reversal Stage()
They are secure to take correction.
(e) The Independent Stage()
Interruptions are infrequent. They occur for enrichment
and improvement of style.

The Silent Way

Proposer/
Gattegno/ 1972
advocato
r
Goals
Let students use the target language to express
their own thoughts and feeling independently
and develop the ability to correct their errors by
themselves

Suggestopedia / Suggestology
Lozanov/ 1978

Conduct the many negative suggestions

or fears which inhibit learning feelings of
incompetence and fear of making mistakes,
and make students learn the target language
in a relaxing atmosphere.
Mother Tongue Both mother tongue and the target language Both mother tongue and the target language
Features
1. Learning is facilitated if the learner
1. In a relaxing atmosphere with carpeted
discovers or creates rather than remembers
floor, easy chairs and classic music
and repeats what is to be learned. The
Baroque, integrated the use of music,
learners should develop independence,
the element of lecture and theater,
autonomy and responsibility.
through the reputation of the method
and the instructor, students language
2. Learners in a classroom must cooperate
competence, confidence and wills to
with each other in the process of solving
communicate are reinforced.
language problems.
2. Students are encouraged to be as
3. Teachers provide single-word stimuli, or
childlike as possible, yielding all
short phrases and sentences once or twice,
authority to the teacher.
and then students must refine their
3. Every student is provided a new name
understanding and pronunciation
and a new role within the target
themselves.
language on the first day of class. They
4. Teachers utilize a set of Cuisinere rods
live with a new identity rather than
small colored wooden rods of varying
struggle with a foreign language. The
lengths to introduce vocabulary, verbs and
new names also contain phonemes from
syntax, especially about the spatial
the target language culture that learners
relationships and related prepositions as
find difficult to pronounce.
well as every aspect of language ranging 4. The dialogues are presented to the
from comparisons to tense, the conditional
students in three phases:
and the subjunctive.
(a) explicative reading
5. Teachers use a series of colorful wall charts
(b) intonational reading
to introduce pronunciation models,
(c) concert
grammatical paradigms.
5. Students engage in interaction activities
6. The teacher is silent as much as possible,
to review the material and involve new
and make students work out solutions
utterances as much as possible.
themselves.
6. The teacher maintains a solemn attitude
7. Four language skills are emphasized and
towards the session and shows absolute
students are encouraged to read and write
confidence in the method.
the sentences they have heard and spoken.
8. Students correct the errors themselves and
teachers view these errors as the responses
to the teaching and give students some
hints and help.

Merits

1.

Students interact not only with teachers but 1. Students are willing and able to
also with each other.
communicate in the target language and
students learn the target language in a
relaxing atmosphere.
2. Easy grammatical explanation helps
students learn the target language more
easily.
Limits
1. Teachers must know their teaching
1. Students dont concentrate on the
objectives clearly and make use of the
language learning because eof the
teaching aids effectively.
music.
2. Students may be confused with the
2. Students speech is somewhat
symbols of the colored wooden rods.
inaccurate grammatically and
3. Students waste too much time struggling
phonologically.
with a concept that would be easily
3. All students need to share a common
clarified by the teachers direct guide.
native language.
4. It is difficult for teachers to evaluate
4. Teachers must be proficient not only in
students progress in their learning process.
the target language but also I students
native language.
5. Not all teachers are skilled in acting,
singing and choosing the appropriate
music and not all students can
appreciate the music.
Teaching Aids Cuisinere rods, phonic charts, transparencies A carpet, sofas, classic music tapes, flowers
and pictures

Grammar-Translation Method (G-T)

Proposer/
1840~1940
advocator
Goals
To learn a language in order to read its
literature or in order to benefit from the
mental discipline and intellectual
development that result from foreign
language study.
Mother Tongue
Both mother tongue and the target
language
Limits
1 Students learn the target language
indirectly.
2 Students just learn the knowledge of
books not the common language, so
they may have trouble applying their
knowledge to the real social
situations.
3 Students have poor listening and
speaking ability because they seldom
practice listening and speaking.

Direct Method (Natural Method)

?
Students can understand the target language
without translation

No mother tongue
1.

It overemphasizes and distorts the

similarities between naturalistic first
language learning and classroom foreign
language learning and it fails to consider the
practical realities of the classroom.
2. It lacks a rigorous basis in applied linguistic
theory.
3. It requires teachers who are native speakers
or who have native like fluency in the
foreign language. It is largely dependent on
the teachers skill, rather than on a textbook,
and not all teachers are proficient enough in
the foreign language to adhere to the
principles of the method.
4. Sometimes a simple brief explanation in the
students native tongue would have been a
more efficient route to comprehension.
Merits
1 With translation of the native
1 Students can learn the target language
language, students can read and write
directly and systematically.
the target language I an easy and
2 Students can pronounce correctly.
meaningful way.
3 Students can learn to use both the written
2 Students can learn the grammars of
form and oral form of the target language.
the target language with a systematic
4 Students can have interest in learning.
and correct way.
Teaching Aids Textbooks and grammar books
Pictures and articles related to the textbooks
Features
1. Reading and writing are the major
1. Classroom instruction is conducted
focus; little or no systematic
exclusively in the target language.
attention is paid to speaking or
2. Only everyday vocabulary and sentences are
listening.
taught.
2. Vocabulary is based on the reading
3. Oral communication skills are built up in a
text used, and words are taught
carefully graded progression organized
through bilingual word lists,
around question and answer exchanges
dictionary study and memorization.
between teachers and students in small3. The sentence is the basic unit of
intense classes.
teaching and language practice.
4. New teaching points are introduced orally
4. Accuracy is emphasized.
before students see the written form.
5. Grammar is taught deductively.

6.

The students native language is the 5.

medium of instruction.
6.
7.
8.

Concrete vocabulary is taught through

demonstration objects and pictures; abstract
vocabulary is taught by association of ideas.
Both speech and listening comprehension
are taught.
Correct pronunciation and grammar are
emphasized; grammar is taught inductively.
Students have to offer the interesting
materials to draw students curiosity to learn
the target language.

The St. Cloud Method

Proposer/
?/1951
advocator
Goals
To learn target languages in a situation
presented by various media

Microwave Device
Stevick/1964

To organize the power of the structure,

vocabulary and communication of the target
language in a short-term intensive language
program.
Mother Tongue Both mother tongue and the target language
Not limited
Features
1. A carefully structured course in which 1. This device is like a microwave cycle. It
students are immersed in multi-media
consists of an utterance which includes a
language presentations.
question and 4 to8 replies.
2. Cultural, situational and nonverbal
2. The cycle of instruction includes an M
component should permeate the
phase (mimicry, manipulation and
presentation.
mechanics) and a C phase
3. The Direct Method is employed.
(communication, conversation and
4. Initially students watch a picture
continuity).
sequence, then repeat the material
3. It should play a supporting role , or at
chorally. Students dont see the written
language until after sixty hours of
instruction.
5. Communication depends on asking
questions and answering.
Merits
1. Because courses and related media are
designed well, it is appreciated by nonnative teachers who are not completely
secure in the language they are
teaching.
2. It produces better phonological than
communicative competence.
3. It has proven more satisfactory with
younger students than with those of
college age.
4. The meaning of the pictures or films
and the goal of course are easy to
know.
Limits
1. Students communicative competence
and performance are not good.
2. It is difficult for teachers to evaluate
students progress in their learning
process.
3. It wastes too much time speaking and
listening without writing.
4. Its difficult to get the teaching media
and appropriate teaching materials.
Teaching Aids Film strips are the dominant medium and

most a co-starring role in language

materials.

1.
2.

1.
2.

Because of the different learning goals,

students can learn different materials.
Students can communicate with others in
the accurately structured target language
in a short time.

It just supplies variable activities instead

of a complete course.
It sacrifices the practices of reading and
writing to reinforce the listening and
speaking competence.

Variable materials for different special

pictures are supplement.

purposes

Situational Reinforcement Method

Proposer/
Hall/1978
advocator
Goals
Be able to use the target to communicate in
the real situations
Mother Tongue
Features
1.
2.
3.

4.
Merits

1.
2.

3.

Limits

1.
2.
3.

Aural Discrimination Method

Winitz & Reeds/1973

Learn to discriminate the vocabulary,

inflection, phonology and syntax by a
visually-cued listening approach.
Not limited
Not limited
Discard the sequenced grammatical
1. Teachers introduce vocabulary four or
approach.
five times as fast as possible. Students
listen to teachers pronunciation and
It involves students in authentic
then from four pictures select the one
communication.
which best represents what they have
Its built in cognitive choices in order to
heard.
2. Students dont speak until they have
avoid mere mechanical repetition.
mastered the basic structures and
Students may analyze language and use it
vocabulary of the target language.
effectively in the new situations.
Students learn concrete objects before
they learn abstract ideas.
Students enjoy the realistic situations
which enhance students willing to learn.
By simulating the realistic language
situations, students can understand what a
language is and why to learn it.
Students learn to communicate with these
materials quite soon and they can use the
materials even outside the classroom.
Teachers have to spend lots of time and
energy creating the real situation and not
every situation can be simulated well.
Excessive repetition is in the lesson
format.
The unstructured-unsequenced material
can give students the feeling that they are
not making any real progress.

Teaching Aids Authentic languages

1.
2.

1.

Its interesting and meaningful to utilize

pictures as teaching media, and they
attract students attention easily.
Students have the opportunities to think
about the messages by judging the
different pictures according to what
they heard.

Students just can learn the concrete

objects; they cannot learn the abstract
ideas.
2. It focuses on listening competence, and
ignores speaking, reading and writing.
As a result, students listening ability is
good, but their three other language
abilities are poor. Therefore, it just can
be seen as an assistant method rather
than as a major teaching approach.
3. It lacks the variety of some methods
and the relevance inherent.
Pictures, tapes, and video tapes

Stylized Mnemonics
Structured Tutoring
Proposer/
Lipson/1971
Harrison/1976
advocator
Goals
In order to learn the target language by
Make students learn the target language in
recalling the memory of the drawings
an individually structured course.
Mother Tongue Both mother tongue and the target language Both mother tongue and the target language
Features
1. Use translation at the outset of instruction. 1. Initially, this approach is used to teach
disadvantaged children how to read. It
2. A corpus of sentences is learned through
involved volunteer tutorsadults or
choral repetition and translation, but
peers.
drawings replace translation almost
2. It focuses on reading and writing, even
immediately.
introduces to beginners during the
3. Interesting and culturally relevant
second week of instruction.
vocabulary is combined in exotic
3. It is an informal remediable course
situations to teach the target language.
designed for the low-achievement
4. Some grammatical explanation are
students.
presented but the emphasis is on
4. The courses are well structured.
communication
Students cannot learn the next unit until
5. The situations become more and more
they reach the goals of the last unit.
involved, new combinations of language 5. Tutors spend 80 percents of their time
are constantly generated.
on grammar during seven out of the
6.

7.

Merits

1.
2.

Limits

1.
2.
3.
4.

This approach is cognitive, culturally

1.
oriented, systematic and interesting.
Variable comprehensible drawings as cues 2.
to introduce vocabulary are interesting to
students and can help them memorize the
new vocabulary more easily.
3.
This approach requires bilingual teachers. 1.
Not all teachers are artists; not every
2.
teacher can draw pictures well.
Initially students should be linguistically
homogeneous at least.
3.
The bizarre situations of the drawings
may create an amuse detachment on the

eight units.
The tutors should be volunteers, and
their mother tongue is the target
language. Before they start to help the
students, they have to be trained.
The students who must be literate
native tongue, receive one-hour tutorial
visits a week and work four to six hours
on their own.
Students can reach the learning objects
in a short period of time.
It includes the negligible cost involved
simply administrative and material
charges.
Students get the needed help, so the
good will is generated in their hearts.
Its difficult to find volunteer nativespeaking tutors overseas.
Some experienced teachers think their
teaching skills are bound under the
tightly controlled tutorial materials.
It overemphasizes reading and writing,
students speaking competence is

part of learners.

Teaching Aids Pictures with explanatory words

ignored.
4. Its boring with the one-by-one
teaching.
5. Students may feel bored with the
overemphasis on the grammar teaching.
Well structured teaching materials