TimeDependentDeformationsof

ExcavationsandTunnelsintheGreater
TorontoArea
Andrew Cushing1, Jon Hurt1, Dr. Joe Carvalho2
1

Arup,2GolderAssociates

INTRODUCTION
The shales of the Greater Toronto Area (GTA) have been known to experience timedependent
deformations(TDD);thoseinitiatedbyexcavationinducedstressreliefwhichprogresswithtimeasa
functionofrockporewatersalinity,accesstofreshwater(orair)oflowersalinity,clayandcalcitecontent,
andthebuildupofswellingpressureswithintherockmass.Thesedeformationscaninducelongterm
pressuresonshaftwallsandtunnellinings,especiallyifthepermanentworksareconstructedsoonafter
excavation,withverylittletimedelay.Thispaperpresentsmeasurementsoftimedependentdeformation
ofrecentshaftandtunnelprojectsconstructedintheGTA,anddrawsconclusionsregardingthemain
influences on the TDD. The key input parameters for the numerical predictive model are critically
assessed. Projects which are discussed include the Billy Bishop Airport Pedestrian Tunnel, Hydro One
MidtownTunnelandHanlanFeedermain(Contract3).

MECHANISMOFTIMEDEPENDENTDEFORMATION
ExplanationofMechanism
TheGeorgianBayShaleunitconsistsoftypicallymoderatelyweatheredtofresh,greytodarkgrey,fineto
veryfinegrainedfissileshaleinterbeddedwithslightlyweatheredtofreshgrey,finegrainedcalcareous
siltstoneandlimestoneinterbeds.TherearetwodistinctivefeaturesoftheshaleintheGreaterToronto
Area(GTA).Oneisahighhorizontalstressregime,andthesecondislongtermtimedependentswelling
behaviorwhichdevelopswhenthefollowingfactorsoccur(LoandMicic,2010):

Stressreliefoftherockmass
Outwardsaltconcentrationgradientfromporefluidoftherocktotheambientfluid
Availabilityoffreshwater

The swelling is a consequence of the reduction in confined stress in the rock which occurs upon
excavationincombinationwithadifferentialgradientinsalinitybetweenthesalinerockporewaterand
freshwaterorevenhumidair.Osmoticanddiffusiveprocessesresultinadecreaseinthesalinityofthe
rockporewaterachievedbyanoverallincreaseinthewatercontent,resultinginvolumetricexpansionof
theshalerockovertime.Thedevelopmentofthistimedependentdeformation(TDD)relativetothetime

ofinstallationofthepermanentlininghasadirectimpactonthelongtermmomentsandforcesinduced
onthelining.
Swellingpotentialisdefinedastheaverageslopeoftheswellingstrainversusthelogarithmoftime
andisdefinedforaspecificdirection,sincebehaviorintheverticalandhorizontaldirectionsistypically
noticeablydifferent.Theswellingpotentialdecreasesastheappliedpressureisincreased.Thepressure
whereswellingpotentialiszeroandnoswelloccursiscalledtheCriticalStressandisdefinedwiththe
resultofthenoswelltest.
Hawlader,Lee,andLo(2003)studiedtheimpactofappliedloadontheswellingpotentialofdifferent
samples.Theyconcludedthattheappliedstressinoneprincipalstressdirectionreducesswellingstrain
notonlyinthatdirectionbutalsointheperpendiculardirections.
Theswellingpotentialofshalestendstoincreasewithdecreasingcalcitecontent,andanincreasing
outward salt concentration gradient from the pore fluid of the rock to the ambient fluid (Lee and Lo,
1993).Therefore,calcitecontentandsaltconcentrations(salinity)ofporewaterintherocksampleswere
alsoconsideredinthetests.

KeyRockPropertiesimpactingTDD
SwellPotential:FollowingthemethodologydevelopedbyLoetal.(1978),resultsfromfreeswelltests,
semiconfinedswelltestsandnoswelltestsareusedtoidentifytheSwellingPotentialoftherockin
differentdirections.Thesetestsareperformedasfollows:

Freeswelltest:Sampleisexposedtowater;andverticalandhorizontaldeformationofsamplein
timeisrecorded.
Semiconfined swell test: Sample is exposed to water and a constant load is applied to the
specimen.Thedeformationinthedirectionoftheappliedloadisrecordedintime.
Nullswelltest:Sampleisexposedtowaterandvariableloadisapplied.Nodeformationisallowed
inthedirectionoftheappliedload.Changeofloadintimeisrecorded.

Figure1showsthegeneralrelationshipbetweenappliedpressureandswellingpotentialinhorizontal
andverticaldirectionsforshalesamplestestedfortheBillyBishopAirportPedestrianTunnelProject.The
pointofzeroswellingpotential(Criticalstress)isalsoclearattheendofthelines.Similartoprevious
experienceofotherprojectsinthearea,thefreeswellingpotentialintheverticaldirectionistwotothree
timeshigherthanthehorizontalvalue.
AsummaryofswellpotentialdatafromvariousprojectsissummarizedinTable1.
InSituStressState(PreExcavation):Asummaryofpreexcavationinsituhorizontalstressmeasurements
takenwithintheshalerockoftheGeorgianBayFormationwithintheGreaterTorontoAreaatdepthsless
than40maresummarizedinTable2.Themaximumhorizontalstressrangesfrom2.6to10MPa(withan
averageofapproximately5.5MPa),whiletheminimumhorizontalstressrangesfrom2.1to6MPa(with
anaverageofapproximately3.6MPa).

Figure1.Swellingpotentialvs.stressinverticalandhorizontaldirectionsBillyBishopTunnel
Table1.SummaryofShaleSwellPotentialforTunnelsConstructedintheGreaterTorontoArea
WC(%), Salinity
Calcite
FreeSwellPotential
Critical
Project
Before/
(g/L),
(%/LogTime,days) Suppression
Content
After
Before/
(%)
Stress
Vertical Horizontal
After
(MPa)
2.0
3.5/5.1
86/11
0.71.1 0.150.3
0.64
BillyBishop Lab
(1.05.2)
Pedestrian
Shaft
Tunnel

0.71.1 0.30.4
3
Backanalysis
3.8
0.1
HanlanFeedermain
3.8/4.6
61/10
0.40.55
(2.15.1)
0.12
2.2
HydroOneMidtownTunnel
0.160.22
(1.63.1)
HeartLakeTunnel,

0.42
0.130.17
1.92.6
Mississauga(Loetal1979)
DeepLakeWaterCooling

0.12
Centre,Toronto(Lo&
Micic2010)
SkydomeandJohnStreet
3.3
0.23
Tunnel,Toronto(Loetal
0.080.26

(1.55.1)
0.62
1987)
ScotiaPlazaExcavation
1.820.5

0.080.16
(TrowandLo,1989)
BruceSiteDGR
1.34.0 1.41.5 0.10.7
LakeviewDeephole

1.87.6 0.51.4 0.10.34

Table2.SummaryofMeasuredInSituHorizontalStressesintheGeorgianBayShaleFormationofthe
GreaterTorontoArea
Test
E
v
Project
h(MPa)
Depth(m) (MPa)
(GPa)
HaltonBurloakIntakeTunnel,GreatLakes
6.5(Max)
38.7
1
11.1
Blvd.,Oakville(2004)
4.6(Min)
BillyBishopAirportPedestrianTunnel
15.6
*
59.5
2.83.1(Max)
HanlanFeedermain(TomkenNear
14.3
0.36
2.12.3
3.57.1
Matheson),Mississauga,ON(2013)
15.6
(Min)
16.15
0.32
5(Max);2.3(Min)
17.34
0.35 2.6(Max);2.4(Min) 813.5
ScotiaPlazaExcavation
(TrowandLo,1989)
20.26
0.41 5.2(Max);4.1(Min)
26.45
0.53 4.1(Max);3.5(Min)
5
1.5
HeartLakeTunnel(Lo,etal.,1979)
3
10
5.5
SkydomeandJohnStreetTunnel,Toronto
0.2
10
2.22.3
(Loetal1987)
OutfallTunnelEastofToronto(Morton,Lo,
915
Upto6.9
&Belshaw,1975)
OutfallTunnels(Lo&Morton,1976)
910
24
* Asingletestresultof8.2MPawasobtainedbutisnotconsideredrepresentativeduetotesting
difficulties

SHAFTCASEHISTORIES
BillyBishopAirportPedestrianTunnelMainlandShaft
The mainland shaft of the Billy Bishop Airport Pedestrian Tunnel is rectangular in shape, measuring
approximately33mlong,14mwide,and35mdeep.Theshaftwasconstructedbydrillingaseriesof1m
diameter interlocking secant piles from the ground surface through approximately 8m thickness of
saturatedsiltysandoverburden,withthetoesofthepilessocketedintotheunderlyingshale.Thesecant
pilesweresupportedbytwolevelsofinternalstruts,aswellasarockanchoratthetoeofeachprimary
(reinforced)pile.Theexposedverticalfaceofthesoundshalebelowthesecantpiletoesdidnotrequire
anyadditionalsupport.Hence,themagnitudeandrateofshaftsidewallTDDisafunctionofthedegree
ofhorizontalstressrelief,whichisinfluencedbytheshaftgeometryandtherateofshaleexcavation.
Theshaftwasinstrumentedwithatotalofthreeinclinometers,twoonthelongernorthside(0.5m
and3mfromtheexcavationface)andoneonthewestside(0.5mfromtheface).Theresultsshowed
elasticmovementsduringeachsuccessiveshaftexcavationwasperformed,followedbyverysmallTDD
movements.Itshouldbenotedthattheshaftwallswereverywet,providingtheidealconditionsforTDD
to occur. The total (elastic + TDD) horizontal movements of the two inclinometers along the longer,
northernshaftwallatEl.57.4mareprovidedinFigure2(19.3mdeeprelativetogroundsurface,or10.6m
belowtopofweatheredrock).ThefinalrateofTDDappearstobeontheorderof4mmperlogcycleof
time(days).

Figure2.BBAPTTotalHorizontalMovementofMainlandShaftNorthernWallInclinometersat
57.4mEl.

HanlanFeedermainContract3ShaftsS5&S7
TheHanlanFeedermain(Contract3)hasrequiredtheconstructionofmultipleshafts,severalofwhich
have been instrumented with inclinometers. Shaft S5 (circular cross section, 13.2m diameter) was
constructedalmostentirelyinrock,withmeshandboltsupporttopreventlocalizedblockfailure.Shaft
S7(trapezoidalsection)wasconstructedthroughabout3mofoverburdensoilusingshotcreteandbolts,
followedbymeshandboltswithintheunderlyingshale.Theshaftsupportisnotexpectedtoinfluence
theTDDineithercase.InwardhorizontalwallmovementsatShaftsS5andS7arereportedinFigures3
and4below.
AstheshaftexcavationwascompleteattheendofSeptember2014,butearliestinclinometer
readingsnottakenuntilOctober8th,alltheshaftmovementreportedisinferredtobeTDD.Thedata
showsconsiderablescattersincetheaccuracyoftheinstrumentsisclosetothemagnitudeofthe
movementtakingplace.Bestfitlinesshowingtheinterpretedmovementhavebeenaddedtothe
figures.SincetheTDDrelationshipisnotsignificantlyimpactedbythedepthoftherock,thebestfitline
hasbeenplacedasanaverageofallmovementsrecordedineachshaft.

Figure3.HanlanContract3ShaftS5InwardWallMovementsfromInclinometerINC03

Figure4.HanlanContract3ShaftS7InwardWallMovementsfromInclinometerINC01

Table3.SummaryofMaximumMeasuredTimeDependentHorizontalWallMovementofShafts
ConstructedintheGreaterTorontoArea
ShaftCut
TDDInwardWall
NormalizedTDDInward
Shaft
Project
Section
Diameter
MovementRate
WallMovementRate
Shape
D(m)
(mm/logtime)* (mm/logtime/mdiameter)
BillyBishop
Mainland
33x14 Rectangle
4.0
~0.12
Tunnel
Shaft
Hanlan
ShaftS5
13.2
Circle
0.8
0.06
Feedermain
ShaftS7
9x4.5 Trapezoid
0.2
~0.02
Contract3
*mm/logtimemovementinmmperlogtimeiebetween10and100days,100and1000daysetc.

TUNNELCASEHISTORIES
BillyBishopAirportPedestrianTunnelDriftBores&MainTunnel
ConstructionoftheBillyBishopAirportPedestrianTunnel(BBAPT)involvedthesequentialdrillingand
massconcretebackfillingofseven1.85mdiameterdriftboreswithinthecrownofthemaintunnelprofile
andthreemaintunnelexcavationscenter(cut1),sidewalls(cut2),andinvert(cut3)resultinginafinal
horizontaltunnelcutdiameterof10m.Initialsupportwaslightsteelribsinthedrifts,nosupportincut1
andboltsandshotcreteincut2.
DriftBoreConvergence:Radialconvergencemeasurementsweretakenoverathreemonthperiodwithin
1.85mdiameterTBMdriftbore2(thefirstboreactuallydrilled)usingasteeltapeextensometerandtwo
arrays(atSta.0+030and0+070)offourconvergencestuds(eyebolts)installedwithintheshaleatthe
crown,invert,andsidewalls(atspringlinelevel).Atotalofsixchordsweremeasuredateachfourpoint
convergencearray,namelyhorizontal(H1),vertical(V1),andadiagonalchordineachofthequadrants
(D1,D2,D3,andD4).ThefieldconvergencedataforchordsH1andV1arereportedinFigure5interms
ofthemeasuredinwardtunnelsidewallmovement.Theconvergenceofthehorizontalorverticalchord
lengthwouldbedoublethesevalues.

Figure5.BBAPTInwardSidewallMovementTBMdriftbore#2

MainTunnelConvergence:Therangeintheinwardhorizontalsidewallmovement(asdeterminedbytape
convergencereadings)withtime(days)afterthecentralexcavation(Cut1)withanapproximate7m
widespanofthemaintunnelisreportedinFigure6,withwallmovementsgenerallybetween0.5mm
and0.9mmupto56daysafterexcavation.Twomultipointboreholeextensometers(MPBXs)werealso
installedatSta.0+020(twotunneldiametersfromthemainlandportal),oneineachsidewall,inmidJuly
of2013.
The MPBXdataforthe easternwallhaspreviouslybeenreportedby Hurt, etal. (2014). The total
inward movements recorded by the MPBXs included two discrete elastic jumps corresponding to
completion of main tunnel cuts 2 and 3 in the vicinity of Sta. 0+020. These elastic movements were
removed,andtheresultingtrendintimedependent(inward)sidewallmovementsaresuperimposedon
Figure6,indicatingamaximumvalueof0.25mmforeachsidewallafterabout135days.Itisinteresting
tonotetheinfluenceofthetunnelshapeontheTDD,withthesquareCut1,showsahigherrateofTDD
thanthelargerexcavationafterCut2withamorecurvedprofile.Thisillustratestheimportanceofthe
shapeoftheexcavation,whichinfluencestheextentoftheareathatexperiencesstressreliefthatinitiates
theTDD.

Figure6.BBAPTInwardMainTunnelSidewallMovementsCut1(7mSpan)TapeMeasurements;
Cut1/2MPBXEast/WestWallMeasurements@Sta.0+020

HydroOneMidtownTunnel
The HydroOne Midtown Tunnel was constructed using a rock TBM in Toronto, with a cut diameter of
approximately3.3m.Thetunnelwassupportedwithribsandboards.Convergencestudswereaffixedto
theshalerock,andtheconvergencemeasuredusingatapeextensometer.However,theaccuracyofthe

measurementswaslessthanthemeasurementsrecorded,withrecordedmovementsover82daysinthe
rangeof0.2mmenlargementto0.2mmconvergenceandnodiscernabletrend.

HanlanFeedermainContract3
The Hanlan Feedermain Project (Contract 3) in Mississauga, Ontario, consists of two parallel tunnels
constructed in shale rock, the Hanlan Feedermain (HFM) with a 3.33m cut diameter, and the MCC
Watermainwitha2.67mcutdiameter.EachtunnelisexcavatedbyarockTBMandsupportconsistsof
rockboltsandmeshinthecrown.Tunnelconvergencemeasurementsweretakenwithasteeltapein
eachofthetwotunnels,andthechangeinhorizontalchordlengtharereportedinFigure7.Theresults
aresimilartotheHydroOneMidowntunnelinthatnodiscernabletrendcanbeidentifiedanditappears
that the average result is very close to zero movement and individual results are scattered due to
accuracyofthemeasurements.

Figure7.HanlanContract3HFMandMCCTunnelConvergenceMeasurements

HeartLakeTunnel
AvaluablehistoricalreferencethatdemonstratesdamageduetoTDDisreportedbyLoandYuen(1981).
TheyprovideobservationsofstructuraldamagewithintheHeartLakeStormSewerTunnelinMississauga,
westofToronto.Thetunnelis1.5kmlong,withafinishedinternaldiameterof2.7to3.0mandanominal
lining thickness of 300mm. The tunneled section used both TBM and drillandblast techniques. The
earliestdamagelongitudinalcrackingatspringlinealongtheentire183mlongdrillandblastsection,
indicativeofinwardtunnelsidewallmovementalongthespringlinewasdiscoveredjustlessthan3years
afterconstructionofthissectionwascompleted.Atthistime,nodamagewasobservedwithintheTBM
section.Somedamagewaslaterobservedwithina330mportionofthe1,050mlongTBMsection.Some
ofthelongitudinalcracksopenedtoawidthof6mm,withdifferentialdisplacementofcrackfacesof4mm.
Ofparticularinterestisthecorrelationofthedamagedzoneswiththeinsituhorizontaltoverticalinsitu
stress ratio. In the drillandblast tunnel, this ratio ranged between 20 at the interface with the TBM
section,toanultimatehighofnearly40(duetotheloweroverburdenstressandhighhorizontalstress).
For the TBM tunnel section, the insitu horizontaltovertical stress ratio dropped to as low as 3, as a
consequenceofincreasedoverburdenandlowerhorizontalstress.TheTBMtunnelliningdamagewas
first observed was within the zone of highest initial horizontaltovertical in situ stress ratio and
progressedwithtimedownthetunnel,butonlywithinthelengthwheretheratiowasaroundinexcess
of7.

SummaryofTunnelTDD
A summary of the maximum measured timedependent deformations along the horizontal chord of
tunnelsconstructedinshalerockwithintheGreaterTorontoAreaaresummarizedinTable4below.The
measurementsaregenerallyquitesmall,anditshouldbenotedthatallofthetunnelslistedinTable4
wereconstructedeitherusingrockTBM,rockbreaker,orroadheader.Nonewereconstructedusingdrill
andblastmethods.Itisbelievedthatthemethodsofconstructionemployedontheseprojectsresulted
inaminimumdegreeofdamagetothesurroundingrock,andthatthiscontributestoalesserdegreeof
timedependentdeformation.
Table4.SummaryofMaximumMeasuredTimeDependentHorizontalWallMovementofTunnels
ConstructedintheGreaterTorontoArea
Tunnel
TDDInwardWall
NormalizedTDDInward
Cut
Tunnel
Project
Section
MovementRate
WallMovementRate
Diameter Shape
(mm/logtime)* (mm/logtime/mdiameter)
D(m)
DriftBore#2
1.85
Circle
0.8(H),0.5(V)
0.43(H),0.27(V)
(Tape)
MainTunnel
7
Trapezoid
0.7(H)
0.1(H)
BillyBishop
Cut1(Tape)
Tunnel
MainTunnel
Cuts1&2
10
Oval
0.2(H)
0.02(H)
(MPBX)
HydroOne
Rock
3.30
Circle
Notmeasurable
Tunnel
(Tape)
withinaccuracy
HFM
3.33
Circle
oftape
N/A
Hanlan
(Tape)
extensometer
Feedermain
MCC
over200+days
Contract3
2.67
Circle
(Tape)
*mm/logtimemovementinmmperlogtimeiebetween10and100days,100and1000daysetc.

ESTIMATIONOFTDD
ClosedFormSolution
TherearetwocommondesignmethodsavailabletoassesstheimpactsofTDDonthetunnellining.Lo
and Yuen (1981) developed a closed form solution method to predict the long term loads and
displacementatanypointintimeinliningandrock.However,theclosedformsolutionmethoddoesnot
considerthelimitingeffectofbuildupoftimedependentswellinginducedrockstressontheswelling
potential of the shale rock. As a result, the closedform solutions for the final unlined rock swelling
displacementandliningmomentsandforcesareconservativelyoverestimated.

NumericalSolution
Toobtainamorerealisticestimateofthetimedependentmovement,anumericalmodeltoaccountfor
swellingbasedontheswellingrockconstitutivemodelinHawladeretal.(2003;2005)canbeused,based
ontheMohrCoulombelastic/perfectlyplasticmaterialmodel.Thismodelisbasedontheobservationsin
thelaboratoryexperimentsthattheswellingstrainsintheprincipalswellingdirectionsofaShalerock

10

specimenincreaselinearlywiththelogarithmoftime,andtheswellingstrainsarereducedinbothparallel
andperpendiculardirectionsbytheapplicationofstressontherockspecimen.Inthisproject,themodel
formulation was implemented for use with the twodimensional code FLAC in plane strain mode.
ApplicationofthisapproachisdescribedinCarvalho(2015)andHurt,etal.(2014).

InfluenceofExcavationShape
Theexcavationshapeimpactstheextentofstressrelief,withacircularprofilegenerallyresultingina
smallerareaofrockwherethestressdropstolessthanthecriticalstressthanarectangularprofile.This
isreflectedintheBillyBishoptunnelmovements,whereahigherrateofmovementwasencounteredin
thesmallerrectangulartunnelcomparedwiththelargerovaltunnel,asshowninFigure6.Thesetwo
excavationshavebeenmodelledinFLACusingtheswellingmodel,andtheresultscorrelatewiththesite
observations,asshowninFigure8.

CUT1
FLACPrediction:
0.7mm/logtime
Observed:
0.7mm/logtime
Depthofswell
zone:2.5m

CUTS1+2
FLACPrediction:
0.4mm/logtime
Observed:
0.2mm/logtime
Depthofswell
zone:1.8m
RockParametersUsed:
HorizontalStress2.5MPa
Outofplanestress6.9MPa
Swellpotential0.7%V,0.4%H
CriticalStress0.64MPa

Figure8.FLACmodelresultsfordifferentexcavationshapesusedonBillyBishopPedestrianTunnel

Influenceofratiobetweeninsitustresses
Theratiobetweentheinplanestresseswillalsoimpacttheareaofrockwherethestressdropstoless
thanthecriticalstressgenerallythelargerthedifferencebetweenthetwostressesthelargerthelow
stressareawillbe.ThisisillustratedinFigure9wheretwosectionsoftheHeartLakeTunnelwithdifferent
stressrationshavebeenmodelledinFLAC.ThisisalsoafactorinwhytheTDDmovementsintunnels
(wherethehorizontalstressisseveraltimesthemagnitudeofthevertical)istypicallylargerthaninshafts
(wherethehorizontalstressesareoftensimilar).

11

Figure9.FLACmodelresultsfordifferenthorizontaltoverticalstressratiosonHeartLakeTunnelLining

AccesstoWater
It is known that water is required for swelling to occur. It has been reported that humidity alone is
sufficient to allow swelling (Lee and Lo, 1993). This is backed up by observations on the Billy Bishop
project, where rates of swelling were observed in the shaft and the tunnel that gave similarly good
agreementwiththenumericalmodels,despiteverydifferentexposureconditionstowater.Intheshaft,
therewasconstantflowsofwaterdownthefaceoftherockwall,whereasinthetunneltheexposureto
waterwasfromhumidityintheairorslowseepagethroughtherockmass.

SUMMARYANDCONCLUSIONS
ThefollowingconclusionscanbemadewithregardstoTDDinGeorgianBayShaleintheTorontoarea.
TDDmovementsaredependentontheexcavationshapeandtheratiobetweeninsitustresses.
Inparticular,ahighhorizontalstressinshallowoverburden(asseeninHeartLaketunnel)willgive
ahighpotentialforswelling.Greaterinvestmentinstressmeasurementsonprojectswouldbe
usefulinidentifyingsectionswithhighpotentialfordamagingTDD.
AflexibleinitialsupportsystemwillnotimpactTDD.Anyrigidsupportsystemwouldtypicallyseehigh
loadingunlessinstalledwellafterexcavation.
ReasonableTDDpredictionscanbeobtainedusingnumericalsolution,providedthegeotechnical
investigation program includes (1) freeswell and null swell tests to define swell potential and
criticalstressand(2)insitustressmeasurements.Giventhepotentialvariationoftheseinputs
alonganalignment,aparametricdesignapproachisrecommended.
Monitoringdatacanprovideusefulverificationofthedesign,althoughinsmallerexcavationsthe
movementscanbesosmallthattheyarelessthantheaccuracyoftheinstrumentation.

REFERENCES
Carvalho,J.2015.ASimpleNumericalApproachforModellingTimeDependentSwellingMechanismsin
Shale.ProceedingsoftheInternationalSymposiumonRockMechanics,17p.
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BehaviourofShalyRocks.CanadianGeotechnicalJournal,40(3),501511.

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Lee,Y.N.,andLo,K.Y.1993.TheswellingmechanismofQueenstonshale.CanadianTunnelling1993,
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