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Persuasion
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Brief history
[ edit ]
Persuasion began with the Greeks, who emphasized rhetoric and elocution as the highest standard for a successful politician.
All trials were held in front of the Assembly, and both the prosecution and the defense rested, as they often do today, on the
persuasiveness of the speaker.[5] Rhetoric was the ability to find the available means of persuasion in any instance. The
Greek philosopher Aristotle listed four reasons why one should learn the art of persuasion:
1. truth and justice are perfect; thus if a case loses, it is the fault of the speaker
2. it is an excellent tool for teaching
3. a good rhetorician needs to know how to argue both sides to understand the whole problem and all the options, and
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Theories
[ edit ]
Revisiting the example of the smoker, he can either quit smoking, reduce the importance of his health, convince himself he is
not at risk, or evaluate the reward of his smoking to be worth the cost of his health.
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Cognitive dissonance is powerful when it relates to competition and self-concept. The most famous example of how cognitive
dissonance can be used for persuasion comes from Festinger and Carlsmiths 1959 experiment in which participants were
asked to complete a very dull task for an hour. Some were paid $20, while others were paid $1, and afterwards they were
instructed to tell the next waiting participants that the experiment was fun and exciting. Those who were paid $20 were much
more likely to convince the next participants that the experiment really was enjoyable than those who received $1. This is
because $20 is enough reason to participate in a dull task for an hour, so there is no dissonance. Those who received $1
experienced great dissonance, so they had to truly convince themselves that the task actually was enjoyable in order to avoid
feeling like they were taken advantage of, and therefore reduce their dissonance.[10]
natural reaction is to immediately seek a way to sort the information subconsciously and react to it. We evaluate the
information and compare it with the attitude we already have, which is called the initial attitude or anchor point.
When attempting to sort the incoming persuasive information, an audience will evaluate whether it lands in their latitude of
acceptance, latitude of non-commitment or indifference, or the latitude of rejection. The size of these latitudes will vary from
topic to topic. Our "ego-involvement" generally plays one of the largest roles in determining the size of these latitudes. When
a topic is closely connected to how we define and perceive ourselves, or deals with anything we care passionately about, our
latitudes of acceptance and non-commitment are likely to be much smaller and our attitude of rejection much larger. A
persons anchor point is considered to be the center of his latitude of acceptance, the position that is most acceptable to him.
An audience is likely to distort incoming information to fit into their unique latitudes. If something falls within the latitude of
acceptance, the subject tends to assimilate the information and consider it closer to his anchor point than it really is.
Inversely, if something falls within the latitude of rejection, the subject tends to contrast the information and convince himself
the information is farther away from his anchor point than it really is.
When trying to persuade an individual target or an entire audience, it is vital to first learn the average latitudes of acceptance,
non-commitment, and rejection of your audience. It is ideal to use persuasive information that lands near the boundary of the
latitude of acceptance if the goal is to change the audiences anchor point. Repeatedly suggesting ideas on the fringe of the
acceptance latitude will cause people to gradually adjust their anchor points, while suggesting ideas in the rejection latitude or
even the non-commitment latitude will not result in any change to the audiences anchor point.[17]
Methods
[ edit ]
Robert Cialdini, in Influence, his book on persuasion, defined six "influence cues or
weapons of influence":[18] Influence is the process of changing.
Reciprocity [ edit ]
Main article: Norm of reciprocity
The principle of reciprocity states that when a person provides us with something, we attempt to repay him or her in kind.
Reciprocation produces a sense of obligation, which can be a powerful tool in persuasion. The reciprocity rule is effective
because it can be overpowering and instill in us a sense of obligation. Generally, we have a dislike for individuals who neglect
to return a favor or provide payment when offered a free service or gift. As a result, reciprocation is a widely held principle.
This societal standard makes reciprocity extremely powerful persuasive technique, as it can result in unequal exchanges and
can even apply to an uninvited first favor.
Commitment and consistency [ edit ]
Consistency is an important aspect of persuasion because it:
1. is highly valued by society,
2. results in a beneficial approach to daily life, and
3. provides a valuable shortcut through the complicated nature of modern existence.
Consistency allows us to more effectively make decisions and process information. The concept of consistency states that if a
person commits, either orally or in writing, he or she is more likely to honor that particular commitment. This is especially true
for written commitments, as they appear psychologically more concrete and can be backed up with hard proof. Once a person
commits to a stance, he or she has a tendency to behave according to that commitment. Commitment is an effective
persuasive technique because once you get someone to make a commitment, they are more likely to engage in selfpersuasion, providing themselves and others with reasons and justifications to support his or her commitment in order to
avoid dissonance.
Social proof [ edit ]
We[who?] are influenced by others around us; we want to be doing what everyone else is doing[citation needed]. People often
base their actions and beliefs on what others around them are doing, how others act or what others believe.
"The power of the crowd" is very effective. We all want to know what others are doing around us. We are so obsessed with
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what others do and how others act, that we then try to be just like other people.[dubious discuss] Cialdini gives an example that
is somewhat like this: in a phoneathon, the host will say something along the line of, "Operators are waiting, please call
now." The only context that you have from that statement is that the operators are waiting and they are not busy. Rather the
host may say: "If operators are busy, please call again." This is proving the technique of social proof. Just by changing three
words, it sounds like the lines are busy and other people are calling; so it must be a good, legitimate organization.
Social proof is most effective when people are uncertain or when there are similarities in a situation. In uncertain or
ambiguous situations, when there are multiple possibilities or choices that need to be made, people are likely to conform to
what others do/are doing. We become more influenced by the people around us, in situations that cause us to make a
decision. The other effective situation for social proofing is when there are similarities. We are more prone to change/conform
around people who are similar to us. If someone who is similar to you is being controlling and a leader, you are more likely to
listen and follow what it is they are saying.
Likeness [ edit ]
This principle is simple and concise. People say "yes" to people that they like. Two major factors contribute to overall
likeness. The first is physical attractiveness. People who are physically attractive seem to be more persuasive; they get what
they want and they can easily change others' attitudes. This attractiveness is proven to send favorable
messages/impressions of other traits that a person may have, such as talent, kindness, and intelligence. The second factor is
similarity. We are more likely to be persuaded by people we see as similar to ourselves.[19]
Authority [ edit ]
We have the tendency to believe that if an expert says something, then it must be true. People like to listen to those who are
knowledgeable and trustworthy, so if you can be those two things, then you are already on your way to getting people to
believe and listen to you.
In the Milgram study, a series of experiments begun in 1961, a "teacher" and a "learner" were placed in two different rooms.
The "learner" was attached to an electric harness that could administer shock. The "teacher" was told by a supervisor,
dressed in a white scientist's coat, to ask the learner questions and punish him when he got a question wrong. The teacher
was instructed by the study supervisor to deliver an electric shock from a panel under the teacher's control. After delivery, the
teacher had to up the voltage to the next notch. The voltage went up to 450 volts. The catch to this experiment was that the
teacher did not know that the learner was an actor faking the pain sounds he heard and was not actually being harmed. The
experiment was being done to see how obedient we are to authority. "When an authority tells ordinary people it is their job to
deliver harm, how much suffering will each subject be willing to inflict on an entirely innocent other person if the instructions
come 'from above'?". In this study the results show that most teachers were willing to give as much pain as was available to
them. The conclusion was that people are willing to bring pain upon others when they are directed to do so by some authority
figure.
Scarcity [ edit ]
Scarcity is a principle that people underestimate. When something has limited availability, people assign it more value.
According to Cialdini, "people want more of what they cannot have." When scarcity is an issue, the context matters. This
means that within certain contexts, scarcity "works" better. To get people to believe that something is scarcer, you need to
explain what about that certain product will give them what no other product will. You have to work the audience in the correct
way. Something else, that you can do to get people to believe that something is scarce, is to tell them what they will lose, not
what they will gain. Saying things like "you will lose $5", rather than saying "you could save $5". You are making something
sound more scarce.
There are two major reasons why the scarcity principle works:
1. when things are difficult to get, they are usually more valuable so that can make it seem to have better quality; and
2. when things become less available, we could lose the chance to acquire them.
When this happens, we assign the scarce item or service more value simply because it is harder to acquire.
This principle is that we all want things that are out of our reach. If we see something is easily available, we do not want it as
much as something that is very rare.
Machiavellianism [ edit ]
Machiavellianism employs the tools of manipulation and deceit to gain wealth and power.
organization.
Step 2: Confront the five barriers
Five obstacles pose the greatest risks to a successful influence encounter: relationships, credibility, communication
mismatches, belief systems, and interest and needs.
Step 3: Make the pitch
People need a solid reason to justify a decision, yet at the same time many decisions are made on the basis of intuition.
This step also requires presentation skills.
Step 4: Secure commitments
In order to safeguard the longtime success of a persuasive decision, it is vital to deal with politics at both the individual
and organizational level.
In culture
[ edit ]
It is through a basic cultural personal definition of persuasion that everyday people understand how others are attempting to
influence them and then how they influence others. The dialogue surrounding persuasion is constantly evolving because of
the necessity to use persuasion in everyday life. Persuasion tactics traded in society have influences from researchers, which
may sometimes be misinterpreted. To keep evolutionary advantage, in the sense of wealth and survival, you must persuade
and not be persuaded. In order to understand cultural persuasion, researchers will gather knowledge from domains such as
"buying, selling, advertising, and shopping, as well as parenting and courting."[21]
Methods of persuasion vary by culture, both in prevalence and effectiveness. For example, advertisements tend to appeal to
different values according to whether they are used in collectivistic or individualistic cultures.[22]
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Neurobiology
[ edit ]
Attitudes and persuasion are among the central issues of social behavior. One of the classic questions is when are attitudes
a predictor of behavior. Previous research suggested that selective activation of left prefrontal cortex might increase the
likelihood that an attitude would predict a relevant behavior. Using lateral attentional manipulation, this was supported.[24]
An earlier article showed that EEG measures of anterior prefrontal asymmetry might be a predictor of persuasion. Research
participants were presented with arguments that favored and arguments that opposed the attitudes they already held. Those
whose brain was more active in left prefrontal areas said that they paid the most attention to statements with which they
agreed while those with a more active right prefrontal area said that they paid attention to statements that disagreed.[25] This
is an example of defensive repression, the avoidance or forgetting of unpleasant information. Research has shown that the
trait of defensive repression is related to relative left prefrontal activation.[26] In addition, when pleasant or unpleasant words,
probably analogous to agreement or disagreement, were seen incidental to the main task, an fMRI scan showed preferential
left prefrontal activation to the pleasant words.[27]
One way therefore to increase persuasion would seem to be to selectively activate the right prefrontal cortex. This is easily
done by monaural stimulation to the contralateral ear. The effect apparently depends on selective attention rather than
merely the source of stimulation. This manipulation had the expected outcome: more persuasion for messages coming from
the left.[28]
See also
[ edit ]
Advertising
Captatio benevolentiae
Communication
Compliance gaining
Crowd manipulation
Elaboration likelihood model
Extended transportation-imagery model
Inoculation theory
Judgeadvisor system
Regulatory Focus Theory
Social engineering (political science)
Social marketing
Soft power
References
[ edit ]
1. ^ Seiter, Robert H. Gass, John S. (2010). Persuasion, social influence, and compliance gaining (4th ed.). Boston: Allyn & Bacon.
p. 33. ISBN 0-205-69818-2.
2. ^ "Persuasion" . Business Dictionary. Retrieved 9 May 2012.
3. ^ Fautsch, Leo (January 2007). "Persuasion" . The American Salesman 52 (1): 1316. Retrieved 9 December 2012.
4. ^ Schacter, Daniel L., Daniel T. Gilbert, and Daniel M. Wegner. "The Accuracy Motive: right is better than wrong-Persuasion."
Psychology. ; Second Edition. New York: Worth, Incorporated, 2011. 532. Print,
5. ^ Ancient greece
6. ^ Higgins, Colin; Walker, Robyn (September 2012). "Ethos, logos, pathos: Strategies of persuasion in social/environmental
reports" . Accounting Forum. doi:10.1016/j.accfor.2012.02.003 . Retrieved 20 August 2015.
7. ^ "Fundamental Attribution Error" . changingminds.org.
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8. ^ Cialdini, R.B. (2007). "Influence: The Psychology of Persuasion" New York: HarperCollins Publishers.
9. ^ DellaVigna , S., & Gentzko, M. (2010). Persuasion: Empirical evidence. The Annual Review of Economics, 2, 643-69. doi:
10.1146/annurev.economics.102308.12430
10. ^ "Cognitive Dissonance Theory" . Simply Psychology. Retrieved 30 April 2014.
11. ^ a b Petty; Cacioppo (1986). "The elaboration likelihood model of persuasion". Advances in Experimental Social Psychology 19
(1): 123205. doi:10.1016/S0065-2601(08)60214-2 .
12. ^ Petty; Cacioppo & Schumann (1983). "Central and peripheral routes to advertising effectiveness: The moderating role of
involvement". Journal of Consumer Research 10 (2): 135146. doi:10.1086/208954 . Cite uses deprecated parameter
|coauthors= (help)
13. ^ a b Katz, D. (1960). "The functional approach to the study of attitudes". Public Opinion Quarterly 24 (2): 163204.
doi:10.1086/266945 .
14. ^ DeBono, K.G. (1987). "Investigating the social-adjustive and value-expressive functions of attitudes: Implications for persuasion
processes". Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 52 (2): 279287. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.52.2.279 .
15. ^ Jenah Schwartswalder (14 February 2001). "Innoculation Theory - Persuasion Context" . Uky.edu. Retrieved 30 April 2014.
16. ^ Green, M. C., & Brock, T. C. (2002). "In the mind's eye: Transportation-imagery model of narrative persuasion." In M. C. Green,
J. J. Strange & T. C. Brock (Eds.), Narrative impact: Social and cognitive foundations. (pp. 315-341). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence
Erlbaum.
17. ^ "Social Judgment Theory | Persuasion Blog" . Healthyinfluence.com. 22 April 2014. Retrieved 30 April 2014.
18. ^ Cialdini, R. B. (2001). Influence: Science and practice (4th ed.). Boston: Allyn & Bacon.
19. ^ Burger, Jerry M.; Messian, Nicole; Patel, Shebani; Prado, Alicia del; Anderson, Carmen (1 January 2004). "What a
Coincidence! The Effects of Incidental Similarity on Compliance" . Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 30 (1): 3543.
doi:10.1177/0146167203258838 . ISSN 0146-1672 . PMID 15030641 .
20. ^ The art of Woo by G. Richard Shell and Mario Moussa, New York 2007, ISBN 978-1-59184-176-0
21. ^ a b c Friestad, Marian; Wright, Peter. Everyday persuasion knowledge. Psychology & Marketing16. 2 (Mar 1999)
22. ^ Han, S., & Shavitt, S. (1994). Persuasion and Culture: Advertising Appeals in Individualistic and Collectivistic Societies. Journal
of Experimental Social Psychology, 326-350.
23. ^ Lawson, Willow. Persuasion:Battle on the Car Lot, Psychology Today published on 1 September 2005 - last reviewed on 31 July
2009
24. ^ Drake, R. A., & Sobrero, A. P. (1987). Lateral orientation effects upon trait behavior and attitude behavior consistency. Journal of
Social Psychology, 127, 639-651.
25. ^ Cacioppo, J. T., Petty, R. E., & Quintanar, L. R. (1982). Individual differences in relative hemispheric alpha abundance and
cognitive responses to persuasive communications. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 43, 623-636.
26. ^ Tomarken, A. J., & Davidson, R. J. (1994). Frontal brain activity in repressors and nonrepressors. Journal of Abnormal
Psychology, 103, 339-349.
27. ^ Herrington, J. D., Mohanty, A., Koven, N. S., Fisher, J. E., Stewart, J. L., Banich, M. T., et al. (2005). Emotion-modulated
performance and activity in left dorsolateral prefrontal cortex. Emotion, 5, 200-207. Free full-text .
28. ^ Drake, R. A., & Bingham, B. R. (1985). Induced lateral orientation and persuasibility. Brain and Cognition, 4, 156-164. Induced
lateral orientation and persuasibility .
[1]
Further reading
[ edit ]
Herbert I. Abelson, Ph D. Persuasion "How opinions and attitudes are changed" 1959
"Richard E. Vatz," ""The Only Authentic Book of Persuasion"" Kendall Hunt, 2013
External links
[ edit ]
1. ^ Higgins, C., & Walker, R. (2012). Ethos, logos, pathos: Strategies of persuasion in
social/environmental reports. Accounting Forum, 36(3), 194-208. Retrieved 26 July
2015, from
Look up persuasion in
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http://www.sciencedirect.com.ezproxy.msvu.ca/science/article/pii/S0155998212000178
Categories: Persuasion Attitude change Social psychology Belief
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