SENSITIVITY AND MOVEMENT

Stimulus: An environmental change to which an organism reacts or responds e.g. light,

temperature.
Response: A change in the organism brought about by the stimulus, this is important for the
survival of the organism since it enable the organism to avoid climate changes, predators etc
Note: see pg 153 of text for table 14.1 which shows examples of stimuli the responses to them
and the importance.
IMPORTANCE OF RESPONSES TO STIMULI

Growth for example plants grow in response to light and gravity.

Production of food e.g. when plants grow in response to light it is so that the plant is able

to receive ample light for photosynthesis to occur.

Prevention of dehydration. E.g. invertebrates move away from light in order to avoid

desiccation of their bodies

Reproduction, some organisms respond to chemical signals in the air to find mates
Escape from predators, some organisms move from light to dark areas to avoid capture by
predators.

THE SENSE ORGANS

We have 5 senses: sight, smell, taste, hearing and touch. Our main sense organs are our eyes,
ears, nose, tongue and skin. Sense organs are formed by a group of sense cells and other tissues.
ORGA
N
Eye

STIMULUS
Light, brightness etc

RESPONSE
Sensory cells in the back of the retina of the eye
respond to light, from them impulses are sent to
the brain via the optic nerve, so changes in colour,

Ear

Sound

shape, distance etc are detected.

Vibrations in the air are detected by sensitive hairs
in the inner ear, impulses are sent to the brain by
the auditory nerve so changes in tone, pitch,

Nose

Chemical molecules in the air

loudness etc are detected

Chemical molecules in

air

touch

sensitive

molecules in the nose causing messages to be sent

Tongue

Chemical molecules in food

to the brain so changes in scent are detected.

Taste buds in different parts of the tongue taste
different flavours, they send messages to the brain

Skin

so change in flavor are detected

Nerves ending as sensory cells throughout the skin

Touch

send impulses to the brain, so pain, touch, cold,

and pressure are detected.

NOTE: see pg 164 in text table 15.1 for sense organs and the stimuli to which they respond
THE NERVOUS SYSTEM
The nervous system is made up of neurons. It consists of the central nervous system (CNS)
which is made of the brain and the spinal cord, and the Peripheral nervous system (PNS) which
comprises of all the nerves outside the brain and spinal cord; this forms a vast communication
system linking the reception of a stimulus to a response. Receptors receive stimuli from the
environment and responses are brought about by effectors.
Neurone/ Nerve cells send electrical impulses to and from the brain.
Sensory neurone: carry impulses from receptors to the CNS
Motor neurone: carry impulses from the CNS to the effectors
Intermediate/ Relay neurone: link sensory to motor neurons, these are found in the CNS

DIAGRAM OF A MOTOR NEURONE

Efferent Neuron Moving toward a central organ or point

Relays messages from the brain or spinal cord to the muscles and organs

DIAGRAM OF A SENSORY NEURONE

Afferent Neuron Moving away from a central organ or point

Relays messages from receptors to the brain or spinal cord

DIAGRAM OF A RELAY NEURONE

Relays message from sensory neurone to motor neurone

Make up the brain and spinal cord

TABLE COMPARING TYPES OF NEURONES

Sensory neuron

Interneuron

Motor Neuron

Length of
Fibers

Long dendrites and short

axon

Short dendrites and short

or long anxon

Short dendrites and long

axons

Location

Cell body and dendrite are

outside of the spinal cord; Entirely within the spinal
the cell body is located in cord or CNS
a dorsal root ganglion

Function

Conduct impulse to the

spinal cord

Interconnect the sensory

neuron with appropriate
motor neuron

Dendrites and the cell body

are located in the spinal
cord; the axon is outside of
the spinal cord
Conduct impulse to an
effector (muscle or gland)

TABLES SHOWING DIFFERENCES BETWEEN AXONS AND DENDRITES

Bring information to the cell body

Rough Surface (dendritic spines)

Usually many dendrites per cell

Have ribosomes

No myelin insulation

Branch near the cell body

Neurons are similar to other cells in the body because:

1. Neurons are surrounded by a cell membrane.

2. Neurons have a nucleus that contains genes.
3. Neurons contain cytoplasm, mitochondria and other organelles.
4.

Neurons carry out basic cellular processes such as protein synthesis and energy production.

Neurons differ from other cells in the body because:

1. Neurons have specialised extensions called dendrites and axons. Dendrites bring information to the
cell body and axons take information away from the cell body.
2. Neurons communicate with each other through an electrochemical process.
3.

Neurons contain some specialized structures (for example, synapses) and chemicals (for example,
neurotransmitters).

TYPICAL PATHWAY OF A RECEPTOR TO AN EFFECTOR

1.
2.
3.
4.

Stimulus touches the receptor

Signal travels along the sensory neurone to the CNS
A relay neurone carries the signal through the brain in the CNS
Signal travels along the motor neurone to the effector which responds.

Note: see pg 156, table 14.2 for receptors, effectors and their responses in man.
THE SYNAPSE
Signals travel along nerves as electrical responses, these are very fast. Where the ends of two
nerves meet there is a gap called a synapse. Electrical impulses cannot cross these so they must
be converted to chemical signals to be able to cross. When they reach the other neurone they are
again converted to electrical impulses and continue on their way.

NOTE: ALL ACTIVITY INVOLVES

THE COORDINATION OF THE
BRAIN, SPINAL CORD, SENSORY
AND MOTOR NEURONES. STIMULI
ARE CONSTANTLY RECEIVED,
SENT TO THE BRAIN AND
RESPONSES ARE SENT BACK
REFLEX ACTIONS
These are rapid and automatic responses
to stimuli, they dont require conscious
control i.e. control which the brain doesnt
bring about. The pathway between the
receptor and the effector is called the reflex arc. There are two kinds of reflexes:
1. Spinal reflexes here nerve impulses pass through the spinal cord and do not go to
the brain e.g. in the knee jerk response
2. Cranial reflexes these reflexes are in the head region e.g. blinking and the
response of the pupil to light.
THE REFLEX ARC
The three types of neurones are arranged in circuits and networks, the simplest of which is the
reflex arc.

In a simple reflex arc, such as the knee jerk, a stimulus is detected by a receptor cell, which
synapses with a sensory neurone. The sensory neurone carries the impulse from site of the
stimulus to the central nervous system (the brain or spinal cord), where it synapses with an
interneurone. The interneurone synapses with a motor neurone, which carries the nerve impulse
out to an effector, such as a muscle, which responds by contracting.
Reflex arc can also be represented by a simple flow diagram:

THE BRAIN
This is the most important part of the nervous system. When we receive stimulus from the
environment the brain brings about a response. The brain has grey matter on the outside and
white matter on the inside, it is surrounded by tough membranes called meninges and
cerebrospinal fluid which cushions the brain from knocks. And finally it is protected by the skull.
Note: See text book pg 159 for diagrams of the brain
THE AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM
This consists of all the nerves which automatically control normal functioning of internal organs,
these is thus no need for conscious control. These include:

Heart beat
Peristalsis
Dilation and constriction of pupils
Dilation and constriction of blood vessels
Homeostasis

ORGANISATION OF THE HUMAN NERVOUS SYSTEM

The human nervous system is far more complex than a simple reflex arc, although the same
stages still apply. The organisation of the human nervous system is shown in this diagram:

It is easy to forget that much of the human nervous system is concerned with routine, involuntary
jobs, such as homeostasis, digestion, posture, breathing, etc. This is the job of the autonomic
nervous system, and its motor functions are split into two divisions, with anatomically distinct
neurones. Most body organs are innervated by two separate sets of motor neurones; one from the
sympathetic system and one from the parasympathetic system. These neurones have opposite (or
antagonistic) effects. In general the sympathetic system stimulates the fight or flight responses
to threatening situations, while the parasympathetic system relaxes the body. The details are
listed in this table:
Sympathetic System

Dilates pupil
No effect
Inhibits saliva production
Dilates bronchi
Speeds up heart rate
Inhibits peristalsis
Stimulates glucose production
Inhibits urination