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y
maximum on interior
f
maximum at endpoint
a
Note 1. There is no extreme value theorem for open intervals. Maxima and minima cannot
be guaranteed if we only know that the function f is continuous on the interval (a, b). The
following graph illustrates this concept.
y
f
This function is continuous on (a, b), but attains neither a minimum nor a maximum on the
interval.
Remark 3. Now that we know about local and global minima and maxima, as well as about
when they are guaranteed to exist, we would really like to know how to find them.
Example 2. Take a moment and try to draw a few continuous functions over the interval
[1, 4]. Note where there minimums and maximums occur. Be as creative as you can - the
only restriction is that your functions must be continuous along the entire interval. Draw
your own before looking at my examples below. I bet that, at their maximums, your functions
look very much like mine.
y
y
y
f
f
Maximum at Endpoint
Sharp Corner
Function Value
f (1) = 14
f (0) = 0
f (1) = 2
f (2) = 32
4
Recall that the largest value is the maximum, so f (x) has a maximum at x = 2. The smallest
value gives the minimum, so the function f (x) has a minimum at x = 1. The locations of
the extrema are as follows:
Minimum: (1, 2)
Maximum: (2, 32)
H
Example 4. Find the extrema of f (x) =
x4 2x3 3x2
Function Value
f (2) = 25
3
53
f (1) = 12
f (0) = 5
f (2) = 73
On the interval [2, 2], the function f (x) a mimimum at the point (2, 7/3) and a maximum
at the point (2, 25/3).
H
= 2 x = 1
1
= x =
2
1
= x =
4
So we have found two critical points. One at x = 0 and another at x = 14 . Now, we examine
the function values at the critical points as well as at the endpoints of the interval we are
interested in:
=
Critical Point
0
1
4
Function Value
f (0)
= 01
1
f 4 = 4
f (4) = 2
From the table, we have found the following about the extrema of f (x) on the interval [0, 1]
Minimum at: 14 , 14
Maximum at: (4, 2)
H
Example 6. Find the extrema of f (x) = 3 cos(2x) on the interval [0, 2].
Solution. Find f 0 (x)
f 0 (x) = 3 sin (2x) 2
= f 0 (x) = 6 sin (2x)
Now, we wish to find critical points by solving f 0 (x) = 0 and finding any points such that
f 0 (x) is undefined:
6 sin (2x) = 0
6
= sin (2x) = 0
= 2x = k (Recall that the Sine function is 0 at integer multiples of )
= x = k
2
Recall that the domain of the sine function is all real numbers, so there are no additional
critical points. Now, we need to find the critical points in our interval and put them into
our table:
Critical Point
0
3
2
Function Value
f (0)
=3
f 2 = 3
f ()
=3
3
f 2 = 3
f (2) = 3
Note that here, there are multiple critical points which give the same function values. In
this situation we have multiple minima and maxima.
Remark 6. Rolles Theorem may seem intimidating to read, however, draw a picture of it.
If you have a smooth function, and you know that the function values at the endpoints of
the interval [a, b] are equal, then there must be at least one point inside the interval such
that the function has a horizontal tangent line. Think about it: if you begin from f (a) and
draw a smooth curve that increases, in order for the curve to connect to f (b), you must turn
back around, so there must be a point at which the line tangent to your curve is horizontal
(remember, your curve must be smooth, so no sharp corners are allowed). The same is true
if you begin from f (a) and draw a smooth curve that decreases.
Theorem 4 (Mean Value Theorem). Let f (x) be continuous on [a, b] and differentiable on
the open interval (a, b), then there is at least one c in (a, b) such that
f 0 (c) =
f (b) f (a)
ba
Example 7. Use Rolles Theorem to show that the function f (x) = x x 4 has a critical
point on the interval [0, 4].
Solution.
Note that f (0) = 0 and f (4) = 0. Thus, we have a situation where
the
function values at the endpoints of our interval are equal. Also, note that f (x) = x 4 x is
differentiable on the interval (0, 4) (we could find its derivative). By Rolles Theorem, there
must exist at least one value c in (0, 4) such that f 0 (c) = 0. That is, there exists at least one
critical point for f (x) on this interval!
H
Remark 7. To explain the Mean Value Theorem, think of two police cars sitting one mile
apart on the highway. The officers in the cars radio back and forth to one another. The first
officer takes particular notice of a car that is traveling 30mph as it passes the first officer.
The officer radios his companion down the road about the car. The second officer sees the car
go by 1 minute later, still traveling at 30mph. What has happened? We all know that the car
must have sped up in between the two police officers locations, because otherwise, it would
have taken the car a full two minutes before it passed the second police car. The mean value
theorem guarantees us that there was at least one point between the police officers where the
car was traveling at 60mph.
Example 8. Use the Mean Value Theorem to show that, for the function f (x) = x2 , there
exists a c in (0, 1) so that f 0 (c) = 1. Then find it.
Solution. Notice that f (0) = 0 and f (1) = 1. Then,
f (1) f (0)
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Now, by the MVT, since f (x) = x2 is differentiable on (0, 1), we are guaranteed the existence
of at least one c such that f 0 (c) is equal to the slope of the tangent line. To find c, we want
to solve the equation f 0 (x) = 1:
f 0 (x) = 1
= 2x = 1
1
= x =
2
2
So the slope of the function f (x) = x at the point where x =
the secant line through the points (0, f (0)) and (1, f (1)).
1
2
Warning 2. Be mindful of the requirements for the use of these theorems. If a function
does not satisfy the hypotheses of a theorem, then you cannot apply the result of the theorem!
Remember, that these theorems require continuous and differentiable functions.
f (x)
x
5
2
Solution. We can determine the behavior of the function at each of the points by evaluating
its derivative at each. Thus, we begin by computing the derivative:
f (x) = x sin(x)
= f 0 (x) = x cos(x) + sin(x)
10
5
2
H
The derivative can tell us a lot about the character of a function. We have seen that the
derivative tells us about the slope of a function. One of the most important uses of the
derivative is in identifying maxima and minima of functions. We have already seen that the
derivative can be used to identify critical points for a function.
After finding the critical points for a function in previous examples we were able to find
the global minimum and global maximum by comparing the function values at each of the
critical points and choosing the smallest and largest respectively. Sometimes, though, we are
interested in knowing about all of the local extrema rather than just their global versions.
Unfortunately we cant identify local extrema using the method where we compare the
function values. So, what makes a minimum and what makes a maximum? Lets take a
look!
y
y
f
local
minimum
local
maximum
f
p
11
The derivative can be used to discuss what is going on near local extrema.
y
y
f
f 0 (x) > 0
f 0 (x) < 0
local
minimum
f 0 (x) < 0
f 0 (x) > 0
local
maximum
f
The images above depict what is called the First Derivative Test for Minima and Maxima.
Theorem 6 (First Derivative Test). Let c be a critical point for the function f (x) which
is continuous on an open interval I which contains c, and is differentiable on the interval
(except possibly at c). Then f (c) can be classified as follows:
If f 0 (x) changes from negative to positive at c, then f has a relative minimum at
(c, f (c))
If f 0 (x) changes from positive to negative at c, then f has a relative maximum at
(c, f (c))
If f 0 (x) is either positive on both sides of c or negative on both sides of c, then f has
neither a minimum nor a maximum at c.
Strategy 2 (Using the First Derivative Test). The following strategy can be employed when
locating and classifying relative extrema for a differentiable function f (x):
a. Find all critical points for f (x)
b. For each critical point (c), select a value (a) to the left of it and a value (b) to the right
of it and evaluate f 0 (a) and f 0 (b)
F Be sure to choose values that are relatively close to the critical point you are
examining. For example, consider a function with two critical points c1 and c2 ,
where c2 > c1 . Then, the point you choose to the right of c1 must be between c1
and c2 !
c. Use the first derivative test to classify each critical point.
Example 11. Find and classify all extrema for the function f (x) =
12
x4 2x3 3x2
+
+ 18.
4
3
2
Now we need to evaluate the derivative to the left and to the right of each critical point, so
we pick any value we like in each of the regions created between critical points:
1/2
2
3
2
1
(< 0)
f 0 (2) = 2 (2 + 3) (2 1)
= 6 (> 0)
1 1
1
0
f (1/2) =
+3
1
2 2
2
1 7
1
=
2 2
2
7
=
(< 0)
8
f 0 (2) = 2 (2 + 3) (2 1)
= 10
(> 0)
Now that we have evaluated the derivative in each region we can use the first derivative test
to categorize each of our critical points:
13
1/2
0
>
x)
f 0(
<
>
f 0(
x)
f 0(
x)
<
f 0(
x)
Since the derivative changes from positive to negative at x = 0, the function f (x) must have
a relative maximum here.
Since the derivative changes from negative to positive at 3, the function f (x) has a relative
minimum at x = 3. Similarly, the function has a relative minimum at x = 1.
H
14
Increasing and
Concave Up
Decreasing and
Concave Up
Increasing and
Concave Down
Increasing and
Neutral Concavity
Decreasing and
Concave Down
Decreasing and
Neutral Concavity
Theorem 8. If the point (c, f (c)) is an inflection point, then f 00 (c) = 0 or f 00 (c) is undefined.
Example 13. Find all possible points of inflection for the function f (x) = 3x5 9x4 .
Solution.
f (x) = 3x5 9x4
= f 0 (x) = 15x4 36x3
= f 00 (x) = 60x3 108x2
Now, we want to find all values such that f 00 (x) = 0, so we set up and solve this equation.
f 00 (x) = 0
= 60x3 108x2 = 0
= 12x2 (5x 9) = 0
9
are points of inflection
5
Note that should test points to ensure that the concavity does indeed change through these
values. However, in the interest of brevity, we will omit the verification, and you may
continue to use this practice in your work for this course.
H
= x = 0, and x =
The second derivative (f 00 (x)) is also useful in determining the character of the function
(f (x)) at its critical points. That is, we can use the second derivative to determine whether
critical points of the function f (x) are local minima or local maxima instead of using the
first derivative test. The test you choose to use is a matter of personal preference, there are
situations where the Second Derivative Test is inconclusive whereas the First Derivative Test
always yields a result. In the interest of completeness, the second derivative test is stated
below.
Theorem 9 (Second Derivative Test). Let f be a function such that f 0 (c) = 0 and the second
derivative of f exists on an open interval containing c. Then,
If f 00 (c) > 0, then f has a relative minimum at c
If f 00 (c) < 0, then f has a relative maximum at c
If f 00 (c) = 0, then the test fails and you should consult the first derivative test
Example 14. Use the second derivative test to classify all relative extrema for the function
x2 1
. Also, find all of the points of inflection for the function.
f (x) =
2x 1
16
Solution. Since we are asked to classify the relative extrema, we begin by finding all of the
critical points for f (x)
x2 1
f (x) =
2x 1
= f 0 (x) =
= f 0 (x) =
2x2 2x + 2
(2x 1)2
Note that f 0 (x) is undefined when x = 1/2, so we have at least one critical point. We can
find the remaining critical points by solving f 0 (x) = 0:
f 0 (x) = 0
=
2x2 2x + 2
=0
(2x 1)2
= 2x2 2x + 2 = 0
= x2 x + 1 = 0 which has no real solutions
Thus we have found a single critical. The location is at 1/2.
In order to classify the critical points we are asked to use the second derivative test, so we
must calculate f 00 (x).
2x2 2x + 2
= f 0 (x) =
(2x 1)2
= f 00 (x) =
= f 00 (x) =
= f 00 (x) =
(8x2 8x + 2) (8x2 8x + 8)
(2x 1)3
= f 00 (x) =
17
6
(2x 1)3
18
Closing
Homework. For homework, please try the following problems from the textbook:
Section
3.1
3.2
3.3
3.4
Suggested Problems
1-43 (odd), 60, 61, 62
1-51 (odd), 59, 63, 69, 71
1-47 (odd), 57-62, 79, 80
3-41 (odd), 53, 56, 63, 64
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