CHAPTER 3_TRANSISTORS

muthmainnah

FACULTY OF MECHANICAL
ENGINEERING

TRANSISTORS
Part 1
3.1 Characteristics of Transistors.

CHAPTER 3: TRANSISTORS

Part 2
2.3 Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT)
Circuits: DC operation analysis.

MEC523
APPLIED ELECTRONICS &
MICROPROCESSOR

Part 3
3.3 Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT)
Circuits: AC operation analysis.

Prepared by Nurul Muthmainnah

Mohd Noor

Lecturer: Nurul Muthmainnah Mohd Noor

Room: A14-6C, Bangunan 1, Kompleks Kejuruteraan,
Phone: 03-55442982
Email: nurul.muth@gmail.com

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Objectives

COURSE OUTCOME
Upon completion of this course, students should be
able to:
CO1
Apply the fundamental concepts and
operational principles of circuit theory, digital logic
and microprocessor in solving engineering
problems {PO1, C4}.
CO2
Apply knowledge of circuit theory, digital
electronics and microprocessor interfacing
techniques for mechatronic engineering design
{PO3, C5}.

Describe and understand the concept

of semiconductor materials, types of
semiconductors, and diode.
Understand the diode applications rectifiers and regulators.

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PART 1

Transistors

Characteristics of
Bipolar Junction

Transistors
Transistor (BJT) Circuits

DC
AC

Characteristics of Transistors.

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Transistor Construction

Transistor Operation

There are two types of transistors:

pnp
npn

With the external sources, VEE

EE and VCC, connected as shown:
The emitter-base junction is forward biased
The base-collector junction is reverse biased

The terminals are labeled:

E - Emitter
B - Base
C - Collector

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Currents in a Transistor

Common-Base Configuration

Emitter current is the sum of the collector

and base currents:

The arrow in the graphic symbol

defines the direction of emitter
current (conventional flow)
through the device.

The collector current is comprised of two

currents:

The base is common to both input

(emitterbase) and output (collector
base) of the transistor.

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Common-Base Amplifier Output

Common-Base Amplifier
Input Characteristics

Output Characteristics

This
curve
shows
the
relationship between of input current
(IEE) to input voltage (VBE
BE) for three
output voltage (VCB
CB) levels.

This graph demonstrates

the output current (ICC) to an
output voltage (VCB
CB) for
various levels of input
current (IEE).

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Operating Regions

Approximations

Active Operating range of the amplifier.

Cutoff The amplifier is basically off. There is voltage, but little
current.
Saturation The amplifier is full on. There is current, but little
voltage.

Emitter and collector currents:

Base-emitter voltage:

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Transistor Amplification

Alpha ()

Omit DC biasing to demonstrate AC response

Assume Rii and Roo from input & output characteristic curves

Alpha (()) is the ratio of ICto IE:

Ideally: = 1
In reality: is between 0.9 and 0.998
Alpha (()) in the AC mode:

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CommonEmitter Configuration

Common-Emitter Characteristics

The emitter is common to both

input (base-emitter) and output
(collector-emitter ).
The input is on the base and the
output is on the collector.
Base Characteristics

Collector
Characteristics

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Common-Emitter Amplifier Currents

Beta ()

Ideal Currents

represents the amplification factor of a transistor. (( is sometimes

referred to as hfe, a term used in transistor modelling calculations)

Actual Currents
When IBB= 0 AA the transistor is in cutoff, but
there is some minority current flowing
called ICEO.

IICBO
usually so
so small
small that
that itit can
can
CBO isis usually
be
be ignored,
ignored, except
except in
in high
high power
power
transistors
transistors
and
and
in
in high
high
temperature
temperature environments.
environments.

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Beta ()

Beta ()

Determining from a Graph

represents the amplification factor of a transistor. (( is sometimes

referred to as hfefe, a term used in transistor modelling calculations)

Both values are usually reasonably close and are often used interchangeably

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Beta ()

CommonCollector Configuration

Relationship between amplification factors and

The input is on the base and

the output is on the emitter.

Relationship Between Currents

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CommonCollector Configuration

Operating Limits for Each Configuration

VCE
CE is at maximum and ICC is at
minimum (ICmax
Cmax= ICEO
CEO) in the cutoff
region.

The characteristics are similar

to those of the commonemitter configuration, except
the vertical axis is IE.

ICC is at maximum and VCE

CE is at
minimum (VCEmax = VCEsat = VCEO)
in the saturation region.
The transistor operates in the
active region between saturation
and cutoff.

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Power Dissipation

Transistor Specification Sheet

Common-base:
Common-emitter:

PCmax = VCBIC

Common-collector:

PCmax = VCEIC
PCmax = VCEIE

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PART 2

Biasing

Bipolar Junction Transistors

(BJT) Circuits:
DC BIASING ANALYSIS

Biasing:
The DC voltages applied to a transistor in order to turn it on so
that it can amplify the AC signal.

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Operating Point

The Three States of Operation

Active or Linear Region Operation
BaseEmitter junction is forward biased
BaseCollector junction is reverse biased
Cutoff Region Operation
BaseEmitter junction is reverse biased
Saturation Region Operation
BaseEmitter junction is forward biased
BaseCollector junction is forward biased

The DC input establishes

an operating or
quiescent point called
the Q-point.

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DC Biasing Circuits

Fixed Bias

Fixed-bias circuit
Emitter-stabilized bias circuit
Collector-emitter loop
Voltage divider bias circuit
DC bias with voltage feedback

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The Base-Emitter Loop

Collector-Emitter Loop

From Kirchhoffs voltage

law:

Collector current:
From Kirchhoffs voltage law:

Solving for base current:

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Saturation

Load Line Analysis

The end points of the load line
are:

When the transistor is operating in saturation, current through the

transistor is at its maximum possible value.

The Q-point is the operating point:

where the value of RBBsets the value of IBB
that sets the values of VCEand IC

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Circuit Values Affect the Q-Point

Circuit Values Affect the Q-Point

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Emitter-Stabilized Bias Circuit

Circuit Values Affect the Q-Point

Adding a resistor (RE)

to the emitter circuit
stabilizes the bias
circuit.

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Base-Emitter Loop

Collector-Emitter Loop
From Kirchhoffs voltage
law:

From Kirchhoffs voltage

law:
Since IE= ((++ 1)IB:
Solving for IB:

Also:

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Improved Biased Stability

Example 2.2
For the reversed diode configuration,
determine VD, VRR and ID.

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Parallel Diode Configurations: Example 2.3

Parallel Diode Configurations: Example 2.4

Determine the current I for the network of figure.

Determine Vo, I11, ID1, and ID2

D2 for the parallel diode configuration

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Half-Wave Rectification

PIV (PRV)
Because the diode is only forward biased for
one-half of the AC cycle, it is also reverse biased
for one-half cycle.

The diode only

conducts when it
is forward biased,
therefore
only
half of the AC
cycle
passes
through the diode
to the output.

It is important that the reverse breakdown

voltage rating of the diode be high enough to
withstand the peak, reverse-biasing AC voltage.

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Full-Wave Rectification

Transistor Switching Networks

The rectification process can be improved by using a full-wave rectifier

circuit.

Transistors with only the DC source applied can be used as electronic

switches.

The dc level obtained from a sinusoidal input can be improved 100% using a
process called full-wave rectification.
Full-wave rectification produces a greater DC output.

The most familiar network for performing such

a function appears in Figure with its four diodes in
a bridge configuration.

Bridge Network

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Switching Circuit Calculations

Switching Time

Saturation current:

Transistor switching times:

To ensure saturation:
Emitter-collector resistance at
saturation and cutoff:

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PNP Transistors

Troubleshooting Hints
Approximate voltages

The analysis for pnp transistor biasing circuits is the same as that for
npn transistor circuits. The only difference is that the currents are
flowing in the opposite direction.

VBE
BE ~=
~= .7 V for silicon transistors
VCE
~=
CE 25% to 75% of VCC
CC
Test for opens and shorts with an ohmmeter.
Test the solder joints.
Test the transistor with a transistor tester or a curve tracer.
Note that the load or the next stage affects the transistor operation.

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Zener Diodes: Vi and R

Zener Diodes: Basic Zener regulator

The applied dc voltage is fixed, as is the load resistor. The analysis can fundamentally be
broken down into two steps.

The voltage divider rule:

Basic Zener
regulator

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Zener Diodes: Vi and R

Zener Diodes: Vi and R

The applied dc voltage is fixed, as is the load resistor. The analysis can
fundamentally be broken down into two steps.

The applied dc voltage is fixed, as is the load resistor. The analysis can
fundamentally be broken down into two steps.

Since voltages across parallel elements must be the same :The power dissipated by the Zener diode is determined by
The Zener diode current must be determined by an
application of Kirchhoffs current law.
Substituting
Substituting the
the Zener
Zener equivalent
equivalent for
for the
the on
on
situation.
situation.

Substituting
Substituting the
the Zener
Zener equivalent
equivalent for
for the
the on
on
situation.
situation.

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which must be less than the PZM

ZM specified for the device.

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Zener Diodes: Vi and R

Example 2.5

* NOTE
a) If the Zener diode is in the on state, the voltage across the diode is not V volts. When the
system is turned on, the Zener diode will turn on as soon as the voltage across the Zener
diode is VZZ volts. It will then lock in at this level and never reach the higher level of V volts.
b) Zener diodes are most frequently used in regulator networks or as a reference voltage. For
values of applied voltage greater than required to turn the Zener diode on, the voltage across
the load will be maintained at VZZ volts. If the Zener diode is employed as a reference voltage, it
will provide a level for comparison against other voltages.

Zener diode regulator

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Zener Diodes: Fixed Vi, variable RL

Example 2.6

Firstly, the Zener is in the on state. Too small a load resistance RLL will result in a
voltage VLL across the load resistor less than VZZ , and the Zener device will be in the
off state.
The Zener current
Same as before, VLL =VRR
Solve RLL
AA minimum
minimum IIZZ when
when IILL isis aa maximum
maximum
and
and aa maximum
maximum IIZZ when
when IILL isis
aa minimum
minimum value
value since
since IIRR isis constant
constant

The maximum ILL

The voltage across R remains fixed at

The minimum ILL

Zener diode regulator

The maximum load resistance

The IRR remains fixed at

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Zener Diodes: Fixed RL, variable Vi

Example 2.6
Determine the range of values of Vi that will maintain the Zener
diode of figure in the on state.

Firstly, the Zener is in the on state.

Same as before, VLL = VRR
Vii = Vimin,
imin,
The maximum value of Vii is limited by the maximum Zener current IZM
ZM. Since IZM
ZM = IRR - ILL.

Since ILL is fixed at VZZ/RLL and IZM

ZM is the maximum value of IZZ, the maximum Vii
is defined by

Zener diode regulator

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END of CHAPTER 2
Let's do exercises

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