Documentos de Académico
Documentos de Profesional
Documentos de Cultura
!#"%$&&'
(
)+*,,!-/.0,213.5467*98;:=<?>78A@B>7<C8ED0>F:,HG#IJ-K6LD0MN*A1C1PORQS@
TVUXWHY[Z?U]\_^=`a!b=c;degf!h
i;Y[a=jhkc]l/f=mghmnY[Z9o!epdrqhsa=bEf;drht_uva=w[a=qhx=oEyz[z!{
|
~ } ((
3/3
|K3+|V|rV v ¡#V } |¢F|£¤¥ 0¦H|§©¨ } | } vª| } _
¡#« } | |rH¬®¤¯°¤¯F } 33|§r| F| |C[rr±k¥¡²|³ } |_¤= |
} ¡´H3
/§µ[| } E
¤¯¦« |§¨ } | } /ªC| } rF7¶3°|| } 0|0F/· }
¸ vr } µ |¹P¹ºF7¶3¥F|3©|0|·F |FX|X _r_ v|
¬¥|9r¤¯n;V»X¼·
¥½¾
¿H
¸HÀ°Á » ¸ ° ¸«À
Á²Â ¬¥| V¹+ v|¡|¬FF·Ã¤HÄÅE¥Æ
Ç ½ ¸«À
¸HÈ ¼·ªC¼·
Á É!¼·
À Ũ¨É!¾
¸ËÊ?¸ !
¼ Ç ¿«ª ¸ Ê ¿« Ê ¾¨Å°¨3
¦« |§0¨ } | } ªC| }
¤¯¥¡ /F|
Ì/ÍÎÏÃÐKÎ7Ï_ÑAÒÃÎÓCÐVÔsÍ
Õ
Ö É |µ·ÃÅE| |× Ê F|FX|ËØÙ¤²( Ê |Æ ¸ ¨ Ç ¼¼s| µF|v¤¯Ú|¹FF } ¡
||·
Ö ¨3 } PÅE| |C× Ê F|F|X¨3F¡Vr#¤(¼Û µF|V ¬ |©FF§F| }
Ü r/sÝ·r§´Þ«¤¯F¡#²¨3 } £³r
µ à ßrà áâäãå7æV¤¯ ¡#«¤¯/ Ã|ÙF|´
| } F|C
Ö
|µ£Å| |C×!ÅEç´F|=£F! ¬ K!§µ| } |¡#§!µ V|Æ ¸ ¨ Ç ¼ ¼F7¶3
Ö ÉFÚÅ| |C× Ê |´ v| ¸ §«(9¨3 } ³r µ v Úèréê7ëvì_¤¯F¡#¨3Ä_ª|
² |¡²/¡#F30§§ |§sF# | } 3¹9 # ¥¡#F´|/ª¢í
Åî ½H
¥Ä_ª%
¦H } È 3#r|§# |§H } ÆÛr3ÆnF } H | F|
||
ï ðòñôóöõ÷ñôóùø
'5ú²0ÓÎûüsûüÐKÒÃ
/Ô#Í
Õ '
ý»X°|°¢FFF|§ } F´ Ü ¸ Ç Þ þ÷///
///////
/////
ÿ( ¸ Ç ¬9k¹7¤¯F¡#ý///
//////
///////
/////
Äà ¡´F¤ ¸ Ç ¡§| r ////
///////
/////
¨3|¡ ¸ Ç } | } | } } |9/////
///////
/////
¸ Ç /////
//////
///////
/////
Ê F| } |¤=µ|ý//
//////
///////
///// (
$ û Ô
Ì
Ï
úV
Í0Ó $
(ý¼Û´ F } F|_////
//////
///////
///// (
(ÿ ( ; } F¥ ¸ Ç ¬k¹7¤¯ ¡# /////
///////
///// (
( ¨3|¡£¹ } | | /
//////
///////
///// (
( ¸ ¬9µ ¸ Ç F|¢· //////
///////
/////
( Ç ¡7¶0¹ } ¥| |]
//////
///////
/////
( Ê ¥F } F§F | ////
///////
/////
( Ç ¡7¶03¡£° | ¡ | } /////
///////
///// ´
( ¨3¡²/¶¡¬¥| ¸ Ç } | } |F ////
///////
///// 3(
Í
sûVÐvÏ_û£
ùvÏAÎ Ì/
#Ï_ûV
PÎ7Ï
ÚûVÐKÎ 0
""!
¸ } F |·F } | } |FB//
//////
///////
///// #
ÿ( ¸ Ç | } F } | } |F2//
//////
///////
/////
¨3 |F | Æp| } } | } |F ////
///////
///// $
Ê µ[ | Æp| } F } | } |¢µ ////
///////
/////
¼Û } Hç´| º///
//////
///////
/////
ÄÃ v ´|0 %[ } //////
///////
///// &
" Í
sûVÐvÏ_û£
ùvÏAÎ Ì/
#Ï_ûV
ºûVÌEsûVÎ7ÐKÎv
'(!
¸ Ç |·F } | } |Fv//
//////
///////
///// &#
ÿ( ¸ Ç } r } | } | } |¢µ²//
//////
///////
/////
¨3 |F | Æ } } |¢F } | } |¢µ////
///////
///// )
Ê µ[ | Æ } r } | } | } |Fv////
///////
///// $
Ç r } | °ç´|F ///
//////
///////
/////
|||
|¹ *,+.-0/213-4/65
7 Í
sûVÐvÏ_û£
ùvÏAÎ Ì/
#Ï_ûV
PÍ8 °;Ï û 9(
¨3 |¥/rª% Ç //
//////
///////
///// &
ÿ( Ê µ?/ªE Ç //
//////
///////
///// &
¨3 |Ænrµ[Kª% Ç //////
///////
///// #´(
¨3¡¡#F /////
//////
///////
/////2
' Í
/Ó!Ô#ÏÃÏ_ûV
'&(
¸ Ã } F | } r¡ /
//////
///////
/////2&
ÿ( ¨3|¡£µ Ü F } | } |¢LÞ9 } ý/
///////
/////2:
¨3|¡V |9F } «/
//////
///////
/////2
¸ | } |°¤F r } //////
///////
/////2;
¥ } |Ã F|·Æpµ } | } |¢µ#///
///////
/////2
< Îv
>F= ¥Ív
@?A
v
Ï_û£Õ sû ÓÎÑ0ÏÃB 9Ó '$ 7
3ý¼Û´ F } F|_////
//////
///////
/////2(&
3ÿ( ¨ç´ ¬k¹|§5//
//////
///////
/////2(
3 ¾H °¬k¹r //
//////
///////
/////2;&
3 ÄÃ Ú r } F¡S |ý/////
///////
/////2C&
3 Ç | } |¢°C% } µ////
//////
///////
/////2&
9 ¥Î [ÐK
Í0Ó 'D''
ý»X°|°V³ µþ5///
//////
///////
/////2;
ÿ( ªC¬Æp ³ F©///
//////
///////
/////2; ´(
½°|§Æn 9³r¢Fµ°///
//////
///////
/////2; &
È Æn 9³r¢FµA///
//////
///////
/////2; &#
È Æp ³ F ///
//////
///////
/////2E (
¥´³ µ+///
//////
///////
/////2E )
¨3¡¡#F /////
//////
///////
/////2;
! ÐKÍvÏ_Ó9Ô#ÍB
Í0Ó 'D9 7
#5ÄÃF| } µ } K0| } µ |v//
///////
/////2;
#ÿ( ¨´FÆprv Æp¬¥FF·¤¯ ¡FS//
///////
/////2;#
# Å% } F| } ?| |R//
//////
///////
/////2; #&
# Ê r |§÷//////
//////
///////
/////2; #&
# »X||§ } ³§F |
//////
///////
/////B(
# F;F§F§ | //
//////
///////
/////B(
# ¨3 } |? µ¤¯F¡µ0| } |9//
///////
/////B(&
# Ê µ } | } } |µF|
//////
///////
/////B((
'&Ì£Ô Õ0Ì/ÒÃ0Ó
#û û£ÎÍ#û0
0Î7ÐVÓ $$ 7
¨3|§7Æp¬¥ ¡# /////
///////
/////B((&
(P
FÆnr
¬9¥ ¡ /////
///////
/////B($
Ê r
FµF| ///
//////
///////
/////B($:
Ê 3
¡ ° |§ò
//////
///////
/////B)( r
P
FÆnr Á H G } ³§F |ö//
///////
/////B)( D
©
FÆnr «FF¤¯F¡² } | } |¢µ ////
///////
/////B(
*,+.-0/21I-0/65 ¹
''vÌ£ÔKJ
«Í [#ûVÐVÔsÍ $ 7 !
Ê ¬9|0F | |¹/rF } |¹ ¸ Ç } | } |¢µ²/
///////
/////B(#
(P
¥ } F|¹ ¸ ¥¬ //
///////
/////B($&
Ç } |§r¬9¤ } Ú
//////
///////
/////B($&
Ê µ } | } ¬9¤ } } FF } F|N////
///////
/////B&(
'$ÃsûL
ÐK
ÍÎ7Ï_Ñ ûVÎ7Ísû0
0Î7ÐVÓ $(< 7
( ¸ Ç ¹ ¡ µ¥rv¡²¡ µ /////
///////
/////B(&
( (PÉFç´ } 0v¡ ¡²´®///
///////
/////B($
( Ê ¬9¡ F¡´R//
//////
///////
/////B($&
( Ê ¬9¥ç´|¢·¡² F¡´ö/////
///////
/////B$( #
( ¸ Ç |§ } | } |¢µ //
//////
///////
/////B$( #´(
( ¸ Ç | F¡´µ |v µr } µ ////
///////
/////B$( #:
'Dú#Ô
0ÐSÐKÒÃÎÓ©ú#ÔÔM & 7
; Ê 2//////
//////
///////
/////
; (P
/ /¤;¨ Ê ¼ Ç Å //
//////
///////
/////
&
; ¸ } 3¬¥§¡µË//
//////
///////
///// :
'3" ûÔ#ÏÃÐKÍvÎ7ú4
vÐVÔsÍN ÎÓÐ &(!
C r+½°¬® } ´ F|
F|¥r3 ////
///////
/////&#
C r ( Ç F|F¥//////
//////
///////
/////
C r (J
3/r3 //////
///////
/////
C r ( (BØ´ Ú¨´F } //
//////
///////
/////
C r ( Á ¥¡/ £/
//////
///////
/////
C r (
3r } F } |
O¡| } ´ F| |r ///
/////
' 7 0
ÓÎÑ0Ï Ó!ûVÎ7
«Ï_ûV
P EÎû£
Ï_Ó
'D
Ê
+ ¡V+////
//////
///////
/////
(]%¦«7³r|¢F|Ë////
//////
///////
/////
º (%°|§µ¥ } 33 |§´
//////
///////
///// ;
Q Ç 3´|§Ú| F| |2/////
///////
///// ;
R %Ä3|¢³ } F| ///
//////
///////
///// E
Q À ·F | } F|Ú///
//////
///////
///// E
R ¸ }} µ } ////
//////
///////
///// E
S3 À ¬9 µ´· ///
//////
///////
///// E
#T %¦«| } |¡¥¤!|||·S
//////
///////
/////
U VXWZY\[^]`_ a
b c dfe ï c ï g h i j k l
mKn;m o pHqrtsuvqxwyr8z|{~}Hqr2sC}HH{6{6z|}rX t
I I
»X E
¤¡||FF3¡Vr|9 0£§ | } 3¡£¤¯3s¦ Ç ¹F§
} ´
|} } |°¬¥|¢F0 /¬k¹3#|/||| /§ | } 3¡£[¤¯H3 ¸ Ç ¹¢µ§ }
¾«²¡|§¬9¬¥´3£¬9F¬¥| } Ù |§Ã ¸ Ç [¼p/|
F V r/|+ ¡
} ¸ Ç EKµ } | } r¹´µ§¹E¦ Ç ¼Û| } F|;¬¥ ° } F | } |·£|% ²F£| |F
F§|PFÚ¤¯F¡ ¤« Ãr |· #|F } F|P¤ } F |#|FF¹´9 §²FFÚ|
§¹¢µ§K } F´°FsFV0 v } KF |FÚ Ü ¬
|F| |rÞ7«½°¬9¹
¬¥| ¸ Ç |«|°F|/ s|à } F| } §µFµ¡ µ°Úr¬9«| F| |Ù ¡#FF
¤
¡FK } |« _¦ Ç [ s¬9K³ ¸ Ç ÃF¡| à } ´ ¥ V¬ Ú|_|§¬
| } |/
07¶|F7µ|
¤¬¥´ÚF|«|r?|¤E } 3§FÚ3¬¥§Vr ¸ Ç |
( *2|/213P5:C*x*/2|1+.
} FFF
¼p¤%¡# } |/| } F } Fv sFµFK¡§ | } ³ÃFÚs°¤%FF|Fs¬¥| } |H¬¥|¢F
F|§¤! ¤ä ¸ Ç ¹F§
¬¥|?r/ } 0 } ´
¬¥|F } |¥9 °¤ä°|FµF?|
}} F } /¬¥| Ùɵk(¡ °ªk¬ ¤% } F¡#§7F| } | } |C
|H|°F£r | } rF |§sF| } |
¤; ¸ Ç §F V3¬¥Ú¥£¢$¤ÛàLã"¢)Ûæ)L×
Alternator operation
Step #1 Step #2
N S
+ -
no current! I I
Load Load
Step #3 Step #4
S N
- +
no current! I I
Load Load
Step #1 Step #2
N S S N N S S N
- +
- +
I
Load Load
Step #3 Step #4
N S S N N S S N
- +
- +
I
Load Load
K§F ¬¥Ã¹/¬¥|F } K·¬# ¥¤;¹F§/°F¹ |Ú¤!F£ ¤ärF
|ÙFsF¡s| } | Ü F|·Þ7#¼ÛÙF¤¯KÚ¦ Ç §F «FÚ } ©µæã¶y·¢ã;¹¢µ§
µ vF|7¤ 9¤¹F§« } «¹FÚk±(/F¹ |C F
¡£ | 7µ9¤ } |9¡#3|§
|FF¡|¢ ´ } ´µ } ¬¥|¢F# «F!
|§µ¡B¬¥s¹¥|/|¢9¡² «|¡|³ s¬¥
v¬90|ÚF?|¤¯
F¡#
|´¹¹¬¥| +¡#3|§ÚÙ 3|§v } F | } } ´F } /¬¥| +v¡¹3|§ } |%
²3¹´|r Ü 3|§vLÞLC } |Ú|¢¤ # ¤ä¤ §F «|
F¹¹´|§/|§Ù r?
¼p¤ v ¡´FsFF|§0Fs¡# } | } ´F|
r¡¡#s/7¶ |¹#¹krFCFsµ } | }
F¡#¤ F´Æn } |§F } ´F } F/ ¹ §F ¸ ¸ Ç §µ Ü r µÞ«3
° ç|F r°r } ¡¡£FFµ9 #¬9F[Ú ²|¥|¡¡£K / ¡#¥7¶F| } 3
¦ Ç §F µ
/³FH¤ ¸ Ç ¹°¦ Ç ¬¥|¢Fà §F #§F ° |§0|° # C } v|à } F| } ¡ µ
»X|«¦ Ç ¡ F=Fç´|FF¥ ¥¤[F=F/¡ } F| } } ´F } %¬¥| ¡¹´|§ } |;¤¬¥| ¸ Ç
¡Fµ°s¼ÛÚ¤ } ¸ Ç Ã¦ Ç ¡² H |§«F/¹Fv |¡²|¥F# |«§µF } ´ µ
Ü |F| } ¤¯9F
FH¤ | F|äÞL´ ¸ Ç ¡ 9|§#´9rF«F¹µ|§V¡§ | }
³X } º3º F |§ } FF´s §º|F0·µ |rF } |#¤K¬¥|Fà FFÚ Ù F |§
¡#§7°Fsv|F° ¤äsF/¦ Ç ¡F¥|§#´°v / } ´µ } µ¡#3|§²
F´|§ } } |9F# ¹F } F´ §v /FµF|§ } |¹ ñ(£ F | Ü ; V§FFÞ7
¨3²¬
3¬º r ¸ Ç §µFµE ¸ Ç ¡ µ #F²|¡9 0¦ Ç §F µ%v¦ Ç
¡Fµ_
|V |¹ |¡²| } |· µ K|F§F £F|||· ¬ } ´·²¤°¡#3¤ }
È ¬¥rE °| ¸ Ç §3²¤¯LþÚ¨3F£FF°¡£r·9r°¡ ¥FK|E rs|§sF|%¤[§F F;
*2|/213P5:C*x*/2|1+.
Transformer
AC Induced AC
voltage voltage
source
Large gear
(many teeth)
Small gear
(few teeth)
"Step-down" transformer
high voltage
½ low voltage
AC voltage
¾ many ¿
source turns few turns Load
high current
low current
"Step-up" transformer
high voltage
low voltage
AC voltage many turns
source few turns Load
high current
low current
_ µ¤¯F¡¡ v||·© ©·F ¸ Ç ¹F§®0¬¥¬¥| ] _§|¹ ¸ Ç ®¹´F§
¡# } P3 ¦ Ç |P ÃF¡ ¤r¬9#|·F |F|CX»XPFF ¡²|F|§ } F | } ¥r¬9¹
§#|·µ } |¢°|9¤¥¡
} |´¥Fs²¬¥|¢F÷F3ÆpÚ¹¢µ§0 r3Æp¬¥ } F´µ
Ü ¡#ÆÛ|¡7F/¬¥| #¬¥| F/F | |¹#¬9/FFÞ7C +Fs¹F§ } _¬¥+
} F´¥ } #v¤¯¥|r Fr|F } ¡¥
high voltage
Power Plant
Step-up
. . . to other customers
low voltage
Step-down
Home or
Business low voltage
F·¤¯ ¡F } §¡#/§ÆpF§
} F| } ¬9°|·F |F|õ } F| } n%»X| °
||¢·P P } |´Fº·F¹F§Ã]X¬¥CH|¢0¬º } ÆpF|| |¹Ú } r·F } ¬
3 ¡#9¤¯°3´ |§ } 7ÆpF§ Ü ¬¥| |V¤¯¬ ¡²|°¡´·LÞ9
¸ £ 7¤¯FF¤¯F¡²F£F Ù ¬9F_¬¥| ¸ Ç V¦ Ç È } F¡¤
¡£ 9| } F } 0F|£À ÂÁ¢:ã Ãâä:ã Ã0¡§ | } ³E |F } } F´ Ü ¦ Ç Þ } +F }
¡#§7F| } ³%FF¤¯F¡²F² |¡ ¬¥|¥²¬9F¬¥| º|F } } F ´©¾H¤ } F E|F }
*2|/213P5:C*x*/2|1+.
Ö Í
vÎ7
JÆÅ
Ö ¦ Ç ·µ9¤¯ ¦«|F } Ç F´ ¡|§¹F§H } F ´F°¡#|´F| } F´9F|¢·
¥| } | } |¹¹9 |¡
Ö ¸ Ç FrV¤¯ ¸ ¢FFF|§ Ç FF´ ¡|§+¹¢µ§v } F´² } §²F|¢·
|F } |CF } F|¹¹ |¡²
Ö ¸ Ç } F ¡ } | } C§F F3¬¥¢)¤ÄpàCLã(¢$pæ$y¶µ? K¤E|¡ } F } |ÃF_¦ Ç
} F ¡ } | } §µFµ
Ö ¸ Ç r0¦ Ç ¡² |§¤¯¬° } |¹§µF |§0 | } |°¹F }
Ö ¸ Ǽ¢ãȶ¯å7æ) ¹#àC9|°²|°¤!¡V r´Æp| } F|¹ } |v } 3¹ ¸ Ç ¬¤¯ ¡2 } |?F
¥ %¾H¤ä CF¥3¡£%¤rFF;|² } } ||% 7; } F¹F§9| } E } F
¤¯ ¡ /¬9F Ü F|¡#FÞ } |[ F/¬9F Ü } FÞ } |n
É Ê F|¡ #¹F§ Ü } F rH±K |¡#F# FµÞ
Ö ¨3 } #¹F§x
Ö ¨3 } } F |É Ê F|¡#F } F´ Ü F|¡# #FFH±² } F² FµÞ
-
Ó
Time
Û¼ + s¹¢µ§£¤¯ ¡ } F ¡² } | } % r C } §²¤¯ ¡ #r |·FÃ
F«|
s ¡´ r £¹¢µ§/¹ } §|§#¡«µ|0° 0ºF Ü } ´ ¹ Þ%|´
¡« ¬¥vH|¢µ°¼p¤;¬9K¬ Fs§µvF/F |§¡7F | } ¤¯ } |¤ | ¹°sF|»º´F
µ§«¤=V &§ 3¬¬9s³rv /¶ } °F¡ FC×
ÔÈx*²§0|Õ81IÖI+.×Ø5
ÙÚDÛÈÜÝ ÞßÚÈÝ2àyáÚDÛÈÜÝâ
ßÚäãDÝ&Û:åDÝ:Ýæ
ç è:è:è:èè:è:è:è:èè:è:è:è:èèéç3èªç:ç:çç ê:êSëDÝ&åÈì
íEîLè:è:è:èè:è:è:è:èè:è:è:è:èèéç3èªï:î:ðð
ñ:çLè:è:è:èè:è:è:è:èè:è:è:è:èèéç3èªî:ç:çç
òÈîLè:è:è:èè:è:è:è:èè:è:è:è:èèéç3èªó:ç:ó(í
ô:çLè:è:è:èè:è:è:è:èè:è:è:è:èèéç3èªð:ô:ôç
ó:îLè:è:è:èè:è:è:è:èè:è:è:è:èèéç3èªõ:ô:îõ
õ:çLè:è:è:èè:è:è:è:èè:è:è:è:èèöí÷èªç:ç:çç ê:êTøìæDßù"ßEúÈÝRøÈÝ:á&û
íEç:îvè:èè:è:è:è:èè:è:è:è:èè:èüç3èªõ:ô:îõ
íEï:çvè:èè:è:è:è:èè:è:è:è:èè:èüç3èªð:ô:ôç
íEñ:îvè:èè:è:è:è:èè:è:è:è:èè:èüç3èªó:ç:ó(í
íEî:çvè:èè:è:è:è:èè:è:è:è:èè:èüç3èªî:ç:çç
íEô:îvè:èè:è:è:è:èè:è:è:è:èè:èüç3èªï:î:ðð
íEð:çvè:èè:è:è:è:èè:è:è:è:èè:èüç3èªç:ç:çç ê:êSëDÝ&åÈì
íEõ:îvè:èè:è:è:è:èè:è:è:è:èè:èAê&ç3èªï:î:ðð
ï"íEçvè:èè:è:è:è:èè:è:è:è:èè:èAê&ç3èªî:ç:çç
ï:ï:îvè:èè:è:è:è:èè:è:è:è:èè:èAê&ç3èªó:ç:ó(í
ï&òÈçvè:èè:è:è:è:èè:è:è:è:èè:èAê&ç3èªð:ô:ôç
ï:î:îvè:èè:è:è:è:èè:è:è:è:èè:èAê&ç3èªõ:ô:îõ
ï:ó:çvè:èè:è:è:è:èè:è:è:è:èè:èAêí÷èªç:ç:çç ê:êTÚÝ&ÛÈáù"ßEúÈÝRøÈÝ:á&û
ï:ð:îvè:èè:è:è:è:èè:è:è:è:èè:èAê&ç3èªõ:ô:îõ
ñ:ç:çvè:èè:è:è:è:èè:è:è:è:èè:èAê&ç3èªð:ô:ôç
ñ"íEîvè:èè:è:è:è:èè:è:è:è:èè:èAê&ç3èªó:ç:ó(í
ñ:ñ:çvè:èè:è:è:è:èè:è:è:è:èè:èAê&ç3èªî:ç:çç
ñ&òÈîvè:èè:è:è:è:èè:è:è:è:èè:èAê&ç3èªï:î:ðð
ñ:ô:çvè:èè:è:è:è:èè:è:è:è:èè:èüç3èªç:ç:çç ê:êSëDÝ&åÈì
þ ÿ ÿ
0 90 180 270 360 90 180 270 360
(0) (0)
Alternator shaft
position (degrees)
¨3| } F/ ¦| ºµ?¶|¥¤! |¥§F } 0¡#FsF/FF§
¤! |¡K¥¬9¥¤ä°r´| |Ú|
§F´ K|¡r|Ú¡#F#¤¯H } } } vK¡ s|Ú²|¢H¤F|¡r¡¤ä Ú }
%¤¯F } |r;¤CK } ?!»Xs7¶FF%/¡ ¡´ |%|%¤ä } ² àCLâæ;H¤C/¬k¹
r |¤V¬9k¹H|0§FE|
¢)¤Ñ3¢$ýE¶´ ¡´¤CF|¡
F|v }} |9
v /F ¹¢µ§
|° |§² } ¤¯ C
¸ ¡Fr/¡F²¤¯K } ||§Ú s F |§ÚF ¤¥ ¸ Ç ¹F§ } F´/¬k¹
r àCLâ;æ ²|« # r¤% r } ´ÆÛ3Æn¤¯ Ù F |C/
|
| } vyå à 7éà(ã Cý£
²¡F
|£¤¯K¤¯Fç´ } |K v½° ¼ º Ü F¹3| | ½ ºÞ7;¬¥| } |Kç´E s¬k¹ } } s² } r+¤
|¡ Ê F|
Ú } ¦| º | ¤9 v½° ¼ º#|¢!¤¯ ç } ¬9K |¡_¶3 } }
} ? ¾«/¡² F/_ } F | } ç´|¡´K¤ä +F£¤¯Fç´ } _|F/¤ ´Ç Ê ¨ Ü Ç } Ê
¨3 } rÞ9|r·Fv¤; ½ º
Ê F|3v¤¯Fç´ }
¡# ¡#F| } ?F } |F } ¤/ ;
¥|F# k´|¤;V¬k¹
²r |0¤ } r|F¥¤¯ ç } s¬¥|?K| ½ º/k±² } }
« } r?×
1
Frequency in Hertz =
Period in seconds
¸ ²|·F ¡²´ } £Úæ)¶â¤¤æ)¶µæàE|!¶3 K |§K /|kK } §|§H¹F§E¹! |¡
§F| } C } C
KFF||Ú7·¬9ÃF|3Ã0¤¯Fç´ } |°¹F 7¤¯C ´¬®¬¥
|k3|§ ¸ Ç ¹F§K } FF´«¬k¹¤¯F¡ _à } | } rV } C È 0¡ F|§# Vr |
¤E ¬k¹£FF»| º´F!¶|
¤E } |´ } V } FÙÙ } |F } F|§s
F|¡¹ Ü |
} µÞL } Ú F¡| ¤¯Fç´ } s|ý°Â º
;F§/r } F H /3v#¡r £3 | } ?¹F|° Ý· } ¥ ¹k |F|v¹F|¡
Äà } ²¡F } ¡¡£ =¹Fk7¶F| } 9| ¶æé(ã ¬¥| } ²| |§¡F £F¥ F |§
} ¡ |## } ¡ | Ü FF °¬k¹FÞ¤?|¡ } |´ 3²Eµ%E/3Æ
| } C r |C È } / F |§ } F ´|¥²¬9k¹«¡C|H 9¡3s¤! / rF|
¤!F¬k¹H¡|/ C=É9 |FC Ü r } |v·F } Fv¡£r| } ÞF¹3|
07¶ } H§²¤¯¥F |§ ¸ Ç } } F
¼Û_¡V | } ! ¡#?¤¯ ç´ } Ã|
ç|¹´ â·yÁ3#ªC¬Æp| }
} +« VF } 3
² °rF3 } |¥¤%|¥¡ } /¹3|F |9F
F
FF|¹ ¬ Ü ¬]¤¯Fç´ } Þ7E½°|§Æ
| } + / } +
F } Ù3_B F#/¬¥|·F } |/¤9 sF¡V·3r#¤9¹3|F |
|
£|¹3|F |§sH¡V } 0¤ ¥µF Ü |§¥¤¯Fç´ } ÞL9½° /|°²FK¬¥|§² £ }
¤¯Fç´ } |9¤¯°²µ§¤ } ¡¡0¡£ | } ? ×
ÔÈx*²§0|Õ81IÖI+.×Ø5 #
C# D# F# G# A# C# D# F# G# A# C# D# F# G# A#
Db Eb Gb Ab Bb Db Eb Gb Ab Bb Db Eb Gb Ab Bb
C D E F G A B C D E F G A B C D E F G A B
one octave
¸ C } K ; } Fk¹;|?ç´FVàâÄÃÁD¬¥| E;¡7¬9 ¤|·µ } %/¥|¥3F?C
*2|/213P5:C*x*/2|1+.
Sawtooth wave
Ö Í
vÎ7
JÆÅ
Ö ¸ Ç F } 300 } F ¡ } | } ? r 9¤¯¬° /§µ| } ?r/¤! |/¬k¹
Ö ¾« Cý¤àH¤Es¬k¹K|« } ¡7FV¹F|ä%|F £´F|! V|´H r|¢|«FF
r¥|¢µ¢¤·
Ö
àCLâæ;/¤;V¬k¹
| K¡´¥¤ |¡²/|¥F9 } ¡² / } }
Ö à éà7"ã ý«|9F3¡£¥¤ } ¡7 } } 9 °V¬k¹ } ¡ |Ú²§|¹0¡¥¤F|¡
¿H ¡² Fs|ý°Â º Ü ½ ºkÞLCK| ½ ºr|§#ç´[F# } ¡ ¬k¹ } } /r° } ?
Ö ÉFç´ } É k± Ü r ||Ã } µÞ
D×^1352°|13×^1I-0/65 +.ÖRx* ש
®,-C/°1
mKn zq
u2H{6z|Ï z|}r8uLÎKÍä ÏÐq
0}s r2z
Peak
Time
¸ ¬k©| P¡² FÃ Ù F«|§´v7·¬9] |¢F_3ö
|v|v3´
ࢷÛæ ày¢ Ü Ê Æ Ê Þ¹¤; ¸ Ç ¬k¹¤¯F¡Ú×
Peak-to-Peak
Ó
Time
¿°¤¯ | £#¤9 #7¶FF|¤9¬k¹¤¯F¡ ¡| } +s¡| |§Ã¬¥
} ¡F|§·¬£|Ä%[F´%·3¤?¬9k¹ÉE¶¡3K ç´ ¥¬k¹¥3|§V«¹¢µ%|E´¹3|
§F °¡´°¤!¹F§
¤¯H§ °¡°¤= |¡²K Ú²F |§/¬9k¹
3|§sK¹F
/C % } F¤F ·¬9 ¸ Ç ¹¢µ§9r¬9F|§²²v¬9Kç´| K»| % ´×
( *2|/213P5:C*x*/2|1+.
10 V
Ó
Time
¾«K¬k¤;7¶FF|§#F£¡| V¤E|»%[F´«¬k¹r|Ù#¡F/ç´|¹k´H¤ |Ã|¥F
¡#F¡#F| } k¹µ§/ #¹
¤9=Fr´| |¹²§ |¹²r|´FÙ0¬k¹7¤¯ ¡H¡ °§FF
_ |§%§§F§´F#´¡£+
|²¡|¢F0¡ F% |¡3¬¥ KF ¢$ÒkàC¼¢;ÃàE|KF0¹k
µ|| } P3 P } F ¡² } | } 9¡² #¡²¹¡´ÚF Ãk¹F§|§_C % } #¤
¡ | |%
°¬9kF#7¶FFEFK¡| ¤ ¸ Ç ¬k¹¤¯F¡ç´|¹´ ¬¹´|
0µ V ¡ |_FF¡#¤%F|> ¢êâ ¤ â ¥ýpæ à¯å7$æ ¹ :é ¶àgåµDé ¤2ÑE)æ !rà ²¡# ¡ | } =k¹µ§K¤
¸ Ç ¬9k¹7¤¯F¡ 3 ¬ ¡ ° ´F
Bandsaw
Jigsaw
blade
motion wood being
cut
wood being
cut
blade
motion
5 A RMS
50 W
power
10 V 2Ω dissipated
RMS
5 A RMS
Equal power dissipated through
equal resistance loads
5A
50 W
power
10 V 2Ω dissipated
5A
Û¼ ¥·¬ } | } |¢µ%¹¬9°k¹F«F¡°¡²´E¤?VF |·µ } Ü (#"¥ÞE|F | |§ «F¡
¡´9¤¬|F
¤¯F¡ ¤! Ü V¬9µFÞ7´r¬9Fs´ ¸ Ç
´s¦ Ç È }
¸ Ç ¹¢µ§£ } K| } FFr¹/|«ç´|¹´ Ü |_ F¡#°¤%r¬9
|¹F0FvsÞ9Fv
¹¢¦ Ç F?¬9£¬9 } F|
#¹¢ ¸ Ç } ÄÃF£ r } |³ } ?¬9£¬9FV|F
¹¢µ§¹¥!|§#«¹¢µ% $
ëÚèr
¥ç´|³ °Ä_¨ Fr!¤¯ $«æ$æ Cë_yà ¢ãs&è 7é ¢$ ଥ| } ²|!
¡#F¡#F| } C¡ Ú¤; |¹3|§F£¦ Ç ç´|¹k´°¹k/¤¯ ¡2|´F¥Ú§F Ü ´ |F|
¡7F } |FC¤ ç´ |§° r´| |¹9§ |¹%|´FC£¥¬k¹¤¯F¡]§µCk¹µ§|§
FçrFv¹k 0F3|§ K ç´ F´¥¤! «k¹F§°F#µ|0 ³r¬9LÞLE¨¡7F|¡
|¹² ¡#à éâ ÒE¢$¤àã E( ')Jà éâ ÒE¢$¤àã +| ¤ °ÄÙ¨[ K s|Ú|/
F¡
°Ä_¨¡|¢F¡F¡9|9F
r·¥¬kVFVFF ¸ Ç çr´ | | ¦ Ç ç´´F|¢F|3
¸ Ç ç´F|¢F|9¤»| %[F|§²¬k¹7¤¯ ¡ù 3¬¥0|§£¬¥| 0¡F¡µE¤ } F| } ¬=É
F } |µ |r´r#9´ÆgFÆpr¡ F¡´µ¡#k#
9FV¡;É|F }
¬¥P F¡||§_ 0F¦| ºv¤H¬¥|F Ü ¡ } |¢·ÞF } } } F | } ¬9K¤¯F¡ Ù } #F
Ã?°ÄÙ¨ } FF´K¡ F¡´K|/Fs£ _ } #FsF| } | } } F+¬¥|¢F } FF´
|«¹F |§s¤E V¬¥| ?¬¥| } _|/s¤¯ } | ¤r¬9| |r | } 3 } F´HFF§
F |F } ¤ /¬¥|F%½°¬9¹3¬¥Úµ |§| µ9¤¯° F¹3| } «|Ã|§Æp¹¢µ§ ¸ Ç | } F|
£¹F§¡F¡µ=FF¥¡E |F } 9 ¥F| } | } } FVF9|;|
¹ } v3F|7¤! |¤=¹F§´|F } |¹
¤! |¡²
Ê
K´ÆgFÆpr¡ F¡´µ r·; ¤¯F¡²/¬¥| £´ } | } k¬¥| } } } F
} FFK¤ ¬9k¹7¤¯F¡ ¬¥| |§ § #¤° }} µ } _ ÃF#¤·V } F|¤ } Æ
µkÆn rÙ|® F } §|]¹F§BÉ0°ÄÙ¨¡ ¡²´FH§ ¡7F0¡²¹¡´µ
Ü0
¦ ¡ ¸ µ´¹g» C| V¹ } F 3¡²¡7 µÞ¬¥|¬9FK§!F£k¹9r } |µF
|]°Ä_¨X³§F ¥¡¡£v r硲 v¡¹¡´FFF©|| } _ S ¢)ÒCà ¼¢Côàv¹k
¤/+¹¢µ§0 } F´ ¸ } |µ |P¤ } #¤¯HÄ_¨ºF¡²#+ | } #¬9k¹ Ú¬¥F
vFF|| 7·¬9Pk¹µ§s HÄ_¨|²´¬¥CÅ% } F | } ¡7Fµ² } |³ } |§¤¯
°Ä_¨Ã¡² F¡´« KH¤¯HFKµ [«¨3¡K| F¡´«¡#´¤ } FFµ°k¹K |§|§|r
¡7F9¤¯° ¡||§£FK°Ä_¨¹¤´¬9k¹7¤¯F¡Ú=¾«/ } ¡#´¤ } FFF3 }
FÆ
°Ä_¨ ¡7Fµ9¬¥|¢Fv£ |´#F |·F|¹H |§²¡´r¬9Fs´sV¹¢µ§°F |F£Fr|§
¡FC9
£ |§s %[ } H¤=FHF |·µ } /¡´H|°¡ FF¡# s§|¹K F£HÄ_¨
¹H¬¥| v£¡# ¡ | } } } F|%¬¥F 3¹Ý·FHk¬°¤C3| } |v } |#|s¤¯³¡
D×^1352°|13×^1I-0/65 +.ÖRx* ש
®,-C/°1 E
¤! K7³|¢F|0¤!°ÄÙ¨[
É ¬9k¹7¤¯F¡# |¡² } 3¹F | } 3 } |´F } } } ²¬¥| } çr Ê [ Ê ´Æ
Æ Ê [ ¸ ¹µ§´Ú°Ä_¨v¡F¡µ
RMS = Peak
AVG = Peak
P-P = 2 (Peak)
RMS = ???
AVG = ???
P-P = 2 (Peak)
|C|¥¹FH|¡rµ´ } } F°µ·µ¬¥/ |§«£§¡7F¡¹¡´CF°¡ F
¸ Ç ¹F§% } F ¸ ²§«¡²¹¡´ } |F /
|| } F¥°Ä_¨[¬¥|3£r¥ }} µFE¬¥
¡F|§« ¥ |¥¬9k¹C¼p¤rF¬9k¹7¤¯ ¡J¤ ¥¹F§9 } F´;r|§
¡ K|%3´ |§
/ H |H¬k¹ «|r| } F|s§|¹²3² °¡7 ¬¥|rE° ° FHHÄ_¨¹H¤[ «¬9k¹7¤¯F¡Ú
K¡²´°¤=£ r } F|Ú|Ãç¡7F°¡¹¡´¥|¥ rF|[F > ¢$ÒkCà ¼¢CôàH¹k
¤Fs¬k¹7¤¯ ¡ÚCKFv°ÄÙ¨[°ÄÙ¨ ¡² } |µF| |/F|+3 ¬¥|§ v¤
¡7F£ Ú £|£| kK0³¶ F | ¤9 vk¹µ§V¹#3¬¥Ù _rF°Ä_¨ ¹Kå7$æ
¢*¢) nâ Dé ¤»¢)Ñ3¢$Òkà ¶¼ÁÈ¢+àv¨3| } Fs|Æn¬k¹²r|/¡ } ¡¡ |Ù } F| } ;¡ ¡´FC|
|°F£¬k¹rK ¡Ã¤¯«§#¡ } |µF|C ¸ 3ÚF«¬9k¹ /¬¥|=k¹K»| % ´
F |vr·¬Ú|¢µ¥k¹F§«0°Ä_¨v¹0 ²¡7F } |µF¤¯° |7Æp¬9k¹H¹¢µ§«
} F´¥¬¥|C¥|| } F HÄ_¨v¬¥ÚF|§#²Æp |´r|[¬9k¹
; *2|/213P5:C*x*/2|1+.
Ö Í
vÎ7
JÆÅ
4
R1
100 Ω
5
10 V R2 500 Ω
4
R3
6
400 Ω
7DT5:×^I«÷1Tx*À*8
*°÷C/ä*2|«*°«/8C+.-5 )
4
Rtotal = R1 + R2 + R3
4
Rtotal = 1 kΩ
8
Etotal
Itotal = 4
Rtotal
10 V
Itotal =
1 kΩ
Itotal = 10 mA
8 8 8
ER1 = ItotalR1 ER2 = ItotalR2 ER3 = ItotalR3
8 8 8
ER1 = 1 V ER2 = 5 V ER3 = 4 V
3¨ |F |F } #·F|H?µ¥F |F } ² |«|¡|| C¥P _ªk¬°¤| } $%]
¾«¡ù·F|² F ¸ } 3E¬H¬¥|r| } ¹; E ° Erk¬°|¢$¤Ñ3¢)ýE¶%² F´|¢¡
Ý·/ /¬k¹£FÃ7¶FFHF#ç´´ | |¤¹F§ } F´Ùr´| |Ù } F´|+¡F
¹k } ¡# ¡#F| } r¤¯F¡!»X|¢FF | |¹ } | } |F¬¹F } ¡7¶| |%¤ ¸ Ç F
¤?/F } | } } ç´ } # /¬ } F ; °3¡£µ%; §#¬9¥¬ °|§/¬¥|¢Fs|¡
¦ Ç ç´F|¢F|
È } v9 v¡#F¡# | } 9F |r| | F%¬9 } P¡#v v¤H²¤¡²||
µ ¡7F0¤ §´¦| º|§ } | } |¹!Ý·«¬¥| æ Ç ×
R1 R2 R3 Total
5
E 1 5 4 10 Volts
I 10m 10m 10m 10m Amps
5
R 100 500 400 1k Ohms
¾ ¡#Ý· } k¹¥F#r/§|¹0F×C¡ F¡´µ¤ ¸ Ç ¹F§
} FF´¥¡£H
«
7¶FF ²|s HF¡¥FF¡# Ü [Æn Æn[k¹F§E°ÄÙ¨ÞL´¼p¤? « } °¹¢µ§9|%§|¹#|
¸ Ç ¹¢µkF# } FF´F=rK¹¢µ§!rç´ } } £ } ·=|V ¡#!¤rK|¢µ
¼p¤F/ } H¹F§H|9§|¹| ¸ Ç HÄ_¨#¹FFÚ } } } F´Fs¹F§F } 9|
¸ Ç °Ä_¨s|F¬9g;
|E%F °¤¯
¢ã ý } } | Ú¾«H ¡ ¡ ªk¬°´| } %.¡ 9ªk¬°
7 } =¿°F!FF¬¥| F ?3¹¤¹F§E } F !| ¸ Ç } | } |F= §µ/F ¡F
°Ä_¨/F C rKk¹µ§´Æn Æn?¼ÛV¡²9F?¤ } F| } kr
¡ F¡´µ
F/F¡²?°|Ú¡¥| } F| Ü } |s| F|? } F| } µÞE K ¡ |0|°°Ä_¨[
Ö Í
vÎ7
JÆÅ
Ö ¸ ¥²F;rVk¬°=¤?¦ Ç Ü | } %.¡ 6;¢µ§¥ Ç F´%ªk¬°´¾«¡H¡ %ªk¬HÞ! |
; *2|/213P5:C*x*/2|1+.
A B A B
A B
A B
A B A B
·¬9Ú¬9k¹/ ¬¥ r¹ Ü ¸ ¹µ È Þ/ ¤FF¡s¡|¢Fs ¤¯ ç´ } KF
F¤« P¬¥| © } F¼Û F } | } 9 F¡#% || } ÁÈ¢)¶7඼Á3â åynPÅE |£¬9Ú k¬
¬ ¬9 } _ |V¬k¹ 3 } } |§sF² F|§¡7 F| } |V¤¯ } |Ù¤¯§
F§|§
¤¯F¡ v§FCv¤¯ } | }
#·µ |§0r|´/¤0 |¬9k¹£¬@º Ú¡| #@ºF
§FF§ |§HF¤¯ |¢F|¹°¡|¢FH3 #/§F$ ºFH; § ¤¯§F|¹¥&(
§F3#r } V KF·µ |§£|´ ¤ ºF£ K§F!»Ù } s ° |9§
} Ǥ/
¦| ºµ?¶|¤!¥¬k¹¤¯F¡ #7¶FFÝ·°¬¤¥°¤= v/¬9k¹«|¬¥| à ×
Adegrees
@(0) @(0)
;A <0 =90 180
>270 ?360 =90 180
>270 ?360
;A B
}
A
Phase shift = 180 degrees
}
A and B waveforms are
mirror-images of each other
B
½
A B
¹ A leads B; B lags A
Phase shift = 90 degrees
ª
ª X-nsu\aFnsXL+IoW[T
GJ]W`^ g uPIo^u\a
IKL#X-TOX-nG!IsG_(a
G0LL+X-[E(ITrL!Wu\W[T
G!I c E^+X-L!IW`TNOW`L!CµX-_VmFnIKL+a c EHX-T c m
C
X`G!E
G0CFIoJMLW-JY`W[nKLX-e[E X-T c u\aF^+^!ETrLQDXZY`E\J]W[^!_HGDL+WdNiEVu\W`_VmFnE\L+EPnX`uPuPaF^XL!E[lBDCFIsG^!E ç aFIo^+EGL!CFE*a
G!E W`J X
_VX-L!CFE_HXL!IsuPX`nG0bG0L!E_ºuPX`nonE c»¼½i¾o+¤éb¼H\¿À l
DIPOLE LOOP
g GL+CFEVmOWQEP^+E cjc IomiW`nEV^+X c IX-L!EGIoL+GuC
X`TFe`ITFedEPnEu:L+^!Isu ³ EPn c ITrL!WG0mOX`u\E[fXduCOX-TFe[IoTFed_HX-e`T
E\L!Isu ³ EPn c
IsG#mF^+W c a
u\E c XL#^+Ioe[C[L X`TFe`nEGfL+Ca
G G!a
G0L+X-ITFITFeL!C
EpEPnEu\L!^+Iu ³ En c J]a
^0L+CFEP^(IoTrL!WjG!m
X[u\E`f~X-T c G!WW`TX[GL!C
E
QDXZY`Em
^!W[m
X-erXL!EGSX-LDL!CFEG!mOEE c W-JnIe`CrLl g GL+CFEmiWQSE^!E c noWW[mX`T[L+EPTFTOX ^X c IsXL+EGIoL+GuC
X`TFe`ITFe*_VX`e`TFEPL!Isu
³ En c ITrL!WtG!m
X`uPE`f~XjuC
X`TFe`ITFeEPnEu\L!^+Iu ³ EPn c IG mF^+W c a
u\E c XL ^+Ioe[CrL X-TFe[noEGPf¥QIKL+CL!CFEG!X`_VEHEPT c ² ^+EG!aFnKL(W-J
XpuPW`TrL!ITaFW`a
GEPnEu\L!^+W`_HX-e[TFE\L+IuQDXZY`E#G!EPTrLXZQDXZpJ]^+W`_¶L+CFE(X`T[L+EPTFTOXFl¸ IKL+CFEP^X-TrL!ETFT
XpX[uCFIoEY`EGDL!CFEVG+X-_VE
N
X[G0IsuL+X`G!v¥L!CFE#uPW`TrL!^+W`nnoE c m
^!W c a
u\L!IW`TW-J~X-TEPnEu\L!^+W`_HX-e[TFE\L+Iu ³ EPn c l
AC current
produced
Radio transmitters
FC InoE#L!CFE^!E#IsG ¼²é
»$# _VW`^+EL!C
X-LuPX`TNOE(G!X`I c X`NOW[abLX-TrL+EPTFT
XHL!EuC
TFW`nW`e[`fbL+CFIGNF^+IoEPJ~ITrL!^+W c a
u:L+IoW[TIG
EPT
W`aFe[CHL!W(e`IY`E[W`aHL+CFEe[EPTFE^+X`nFI c EX W-JQC
X-L Ú G e[W`ITFe#W[TtãÔX`T c miEP^+C
X-m
GSEPT
W`aFe[CpIoTFJ]W`^+_VX-L!IW`THL+W mF^+WY`W[`E
X(J]EPQ E\bmiEP^+Io_VEPTrLG ç l
ª¬«®d¯\°&%
ª â[X`_*EG ¢jX-bQSEnon c IsG!uPWY`EP^+E c L+C
XLDuC
X-T
e`ITFe EnoEu:L!^+Isu ³ En c GSmF^+W c a
u\EmiEP^+mOET c Isu\aFnsX-^_HX-e`T
E\L!Isu ³ EPn c GPf
X-T c YIG+X² Y`E^+G+XFfrEPY[EPTIoTEP_VmbLRdG0m
X[u\E[l
ª g LRQIoTHG!E\LW-JEPnEu\L!^+IuDX`T c _VX`e`TFEPL!Isu ³ EPn c Gf`W[G+u\InnX-L!ITFeXL^+Ioe[C[LX`TFe`nEG¥L+WEX`uC*W-L+CFEP^X`T c L!^XZY`EnoITFe
XLDL!CFE#G!miEPE c W`JnIoe[C[Lf
u\W[T
G0L!IoL!abL+EGX-T P¾o»\þÿ¿!-¼VÕ -\þÿÔ»#× Õ-ØZ l
ª g T Õ
þP
iÕ IsGDX c EPYIuPE_HX c EW-JQI^+E`f c EG0Ie`TFE c L+W*^X c IX-L!EX(uC
X`TFe`ITFe*EPnEu\L!^+Iu ³ EPn c W`^uC
X-T
e`ITFe
_VX`e`TFEPL!Isu ³ EPn c QCFETmiWQEP^+E c NdXVCFIe`Cb²ÿJ]^+E ç aFEPTOu\ g G!W`aF^u\E[fFW`^ITrL!E^+uPEPmbLX`TEnoEu:L+^!W[_VX`e`TFEPL!Isu
³ EPn c X`T c u\W[TrY[EP^!LIoLL!WHX`T g Y`W[nKLX-e`EW`^uPaF^+^!ET[Ll
ª BDCFE Ö- ½F-¾o X-TrL!ETFT
XÜu\W`TOG0IsGRLGpW`JLRQSWÜmFIoEu\EGW`J#QIo^+EÜãÔTFW-LdL!W`aOuCFIoT
e ç fmF^!I_HX-^+IonÞe`ETFEP^XL+IoTFeX`T
EPnEu:L+^!Isu ³ EPn c QCFEPTEPT
EP^+e`IÛPE c fFX-T c G!Eu\W[T c X`^!InoVmF^+W c a
uPIoTFeHXV_HX-e[TFE\L+Iu ³ En c ITG0m
X[u\E[l
ª BDCFE ¾o+½ X`TrL!EPT
T
XHu\W[T
G0IsG0L+GW`J~XVnWW`mW-J~QI^!E[fFmF^+Io_HX-^+Inode`EPT
EP^XL!ITFeHXV_HX-e[TFE\L+Iu ³ En c QC
EPTEPT
EP^!²
e`IÛPE c fFX-T c G0Eu\W[T c X-^+InoHmF^+W c a
uPIoTFeHX`TdEnoEu:L!^+Isu ³ EPn c IoTG0mOX`u\E[l
' (*),+.-0/21 3
4 5 6 7 8 9 : ; < 8 = >
VÂÁ
? È ~Å%ÎpÓ0CÉ!A~ÇPÎ(È
@ BA
èEDèFHGIGJKGJMLON0JPGRQOSITOUWVXGYLOZKG[JPU\Q]L_^`FaSbGcVXGbLd!GIGIFeLd!N0SbULOUWGQfègSbNhKi\JMjHTONlkU\JPGc^`Fm^`FHQOdnGToSbNFHQ]U\Q]LOUWFKpqN`D
^
QOUFKpiGrFhKstVXGIT
UWFusBUWiWGQfPvUWiWNsYGbL_GIT$QIfNT
QONsYGrN`LOZHGIT
hKFKUL
N`DiUWFKG^TsBGR^QOhKT_GIsYGIFLw% á NldnGkGITRfUxD¥è d!GIT_GL_N
JPGRQOSITOUWVaGZKNldyLONtLOT$^zkGIiKD{TONs,NFKGSIUxL|LONB^`FKNLOZKGTfr}è d!NhKi\JYZH^zkGLONtjHTONlkU\JPGsYNT_GUWFPD{NT_sc^lLOUWNFYL_ZH^`Fo~hHQL
LOZHGoJPUWQ]L_^FHSbGgVXGbLd!GIGFuLOZKNQ]GrLd!N[SbULOUWGQFn è d!NhHiWJu^`i\Q]NYZH^zkGrLONcjKT_NlkUWJPGUWFPD{NT_sc^lL_UNFu^VaNhPL
LOZKG `Ö MO¿ »\þ
l
LONBL_T_^zkGIifK^Qd!GIiWiw
ZKGcvUWFHJmN`DUFKD{NT_sY^`LOUWNFeLOZa^lLtGIjHTOGRQOQOGQg^QOUFHpiWG[JPUsYGFHQ]UWNFfQOhHS$Z^QgiWUWFKG^TtJPU\QL$^`FHSIGfUWQoS^`iWiGRJm^
ÀP»Õ¾oÕ-¿ %ß Ú
hH^FLOUL|[UFqsc^lL_ZKGIsc^`LOU\SIQw KSI^`i\^`T
FhKsVaGT_Q
^TOGLOZHGgvUWFHJuN`DFhKstVXGIT$Q|Nh kGrhHQ]GRJuUFusYNQ]L^`iWiN`D
|NhKT
sc^lL_ZKGIsc^lL_UWS^`i^`jKjKiWU\SI^lL_UNFHQ
QONYD
^`TRw!ZKGgkNiL_^pGjKT_NJKhHSbGRJV|q^YVH^lLOLOGTO|fKD{NTGbK^`sYjKiWGfKU\Q^cQ_SI^iW^T
%ß pã ç
hH^`FL_UxL|w PNcUWQ!L_ZKGgTOGRQ]U\Q]L_^`FaSbGN`D^jHUGRSbGgN`Dd
UT_G {NZKscQ fPNTL_ZKGoSbhKT_T_GIFLLOZKT_NhKpZUL
^sYjHQ w ã ç
á Û
Nld!GIkGITRfId
ZKGFtd!GVXGIpUFgL_Nr^FH^`iW| IG^ixL_GIT_FH^lL_UFHpSbhKT_T_GIFLSbUWT$SbhKUL_QfldnGHFHJoLOZH^`L hH^`FL_UxL_UGRQNDHkNixL$^`pGf
ã M¼½ Ö[Õ i»
bS hHTOT_GIFLf^`FHJeGIkGIFeTOGRQ]U\Q]L_^`FaSbG
SI^iiWGJ K l $ UWF ç
^`T_GYFKN`LLOZHGYD
^`sYUiWU\^`TgNFHGbJPUsYGFHQ]UWNFa^`i hH^`FK
Ú
LOULOUWGQd!G TOGchHQOGJeL_NsYG^Q]hHTOUWFKpUWF,SIUT$SbhKUL_Qw0^`LOZKGTfLOZKGRQ]G hH^`FLOULOUWGQfVaGRSI^`haQ]GcL_ZKGI| TOGJP|FH^`sYU\S Ú
ã ç
^ixL_GIT_FH^lL_UFHpoUFuJPUWTOGRSLOUWNF[^FHJ[^sBjHiULOhHJKG fPjXNQ_QOGQ_QN`L_ZKGIT!JPUWsBGFHQOUNFHQL_ZH^lLsthaQL!VaGL_^`vGIF[UWFLONB^SISINhKFLRw
KT_G hKGFHSb|e^`FHJejKZa^QOG[Q]ZKUDLt^`T_GYLd!NuNDnL_ZKGQOGJPUWsYGIFHQOUWNFHQL_ZH^lLtSINsYGcUWFL_NjKi\^z|wkGIFmd
ULOZmT_GIi\^lLOUWkGi|
Ú
QOUsYjKiWGo SIUT$SbhKUL_QfPd
ZKGTOGd!G TOGrNFKiW|JPGR^`iWUFHpBd
ULOZ^YQOUFKpiGrD{T_G hKGFHSb|fPdnGgQ]LOUWii¡Za^zkGLOZKGoJPUWsYGIFHQOUWNFuN`D
jKZH^Q]GgQOZKUDL
LON[SbNFLOGIFaJd
ULOZqUWFq^JKJPULOUWNFuLONBL_ZKGo^`sYjKiWUxL_hHJPGw
è Û
FNT$JPGToLONMQ]hHSSbGRQOQ]D{hKiWi|m^`FH^i| G,SbUWT_SIhKUL_Qfd!G[FKGGJmL_N0d!NT_vMd
ULOZsc^`LOZKGsY^`LOU\SI^iNVK~GSL$Qt^FHJ
á
LOGRS$ZKFKU hKGQYSI^jH^`VHiGN`DT_GIjKT_GQOGIFL_UFKp0LOZKGRQ]GusthKiLOUJPUsYGFHQ]UWNFa^`i ha^`FLOULOUWGQw GTOGUWQBd
ZKGTOGudnGFKGIGRJL_N
^`Va^`FHJPNFQOS^`i\^`TgFhKstVXGIT$QgD{NTtQONsYGbL_ZKUFHp0VaGIL]L_GITQOhKULOGRJ¢ $ » -¼½¾ !¤ b¼ P¿À â
eré Y£$ w hHQ]LtiUWvGYL_ZKGGIK^`sYjKiWGcN`D
pUWkUFHpMJPUWTOGRSL_UNFHQoD{T_Ns&NFKGSIUxL|eLONm^`FHN`LOZHGITRf ha^`FLOULOUWGQUFy^QOUFHpiWGbD{TOG hHGIFHSI|eSIUT$SbhKULZa^zkGVXN`L_Z
ã ç Hã ç
^`sYjKiWULOhHJPG
^FH^`iWNp|¤¢!JPU\Q]L_^`FaSbG ^`FaJjKZH^Q]GBQ]ZKUDL
^`Fa^`iWNp|¤¢JPUWTOGRSLOUWNF w¥SINsYjKiWGbFhKstVXGITrUWQr^QOUWFKpiWG
sc^lL_ZKGIsc^lL_UWS^`i hH^FL_UxL|^`VKiWGLONYGbPjKT_GQ_QnLOZKGRQ]GLd!NcJPUWsBGFHQOUNFHQN`D}^`sYjKiWUxL_hHJPGo^FHJjHZH^QOGgQ]ZKUDL^`LNFHSbGw
Ú ¥è è
nNsYjKiWGbcFhKsVaGT_Q!^`T_GGR^QOUGTL_NpT_^Q]jcd
ZKGF[L_ZKGI| OT GrTOGjKT_GQOGIFLOGRJYpT$^`jKZKU\SI^iiW|w ED JKT_^zd¦^tiUWFKGd
UxL_Z
Ñã ç jã ç ~è
^ SIGITOL_^`UWFiWGIFKpLOZ {sc^pFKULOhHJKG ^FHJ^`FHpiWG
JPUWTOGRSL_UNF f gZH^zkG[^pT$^`jKZHUWSYT_GIjKT_GQOGIFL$^lLOUWNFeN`D^SbNsYjKiWGb
0
FhKstVXGIT
d
ZHUWS$ZqU\Q
SbNsYsYNFHi|[vFKNld
FuUWFujHZ|PQOUWSQ
^Q
^ l ¢ Ø +»Pþ ¿
¦-å
¦l§ §
¨ ©n
ǻH¬
®0n©¯°±®0©n
²
length = 7 length = 10
angle = 0 degrees angle = 180 degrees
length = 5 length = 4
angle = 90 degrees angle = 270 degrees
(-90 degrees)
length = 9.43
length = 5.66 angle = 302.01 degrees
angle = 45 degrees (-57.99 degrees)
¡UWvGJKUWQ]L_^FHSbGRQ^`FHJcJKUT_GSbLOUWNFHQ}NF[^gsc^`j¡fLOZKGTOGsthHQ]LVXGQ]NsYGSbNsBsYNFD{T$^`sYGNDXT_GbD{GTOGFHSbGD{NTn^FKpiWG
è
HphKTOGRQ¡L_NZa^zkGn^F|rsYGR^`FKUWFKpHw FoL_ZKUWQS^QOGf`JPUWTOGRSL_i|gT_UpZLU\QSINFHQOU\JPGIT_GJL_NVXG
³´zf^FHJo^FKpiWGQ^`T_GnSINhKFLOGRJ
UWFq^BjXNQOUxL_UkGgJPUT_GSbLOUWNFupNUFKpcSINhKFLOGT]SbiWNPS$vd
UWQOG¢
µ o
180o 0
270o
(-90o)
ZKGU\JPGR^gN`DT_GIjKT_GQOGIFLOUWFKpg^gFhKsVaGTUWFcpT$^`jKZKU\SI^iPD{NT_s,UWQFKN`L_ZKUFHpoFKGIdgw·eG^`iWiHiWG^TOFHGJBLOZHUWQUFcpT_^JPG
Q_S$ZKNNid
ULOZuLOZKGo¸FhKstVXGITiWUFKG¢ ¸
...
¹
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
ã
·eG!GkGFtiWG^`T_FKGRJoZKNldº^JKJPULOUWNFB^`FHJBQ]hHVPLOT$^SbLOUWNFtd!NT_vPQV|oQOGIGUFKprZKNldiWGIFHp`LOZaQ
sc^`pFHUxL_hHJPGQ ç QL$^S$vGJ
(§
ªKWº
g±!¨ I § ¦»
hKjuLONYpUkG^HFa^`i^FHQ]d!GITR¢
5+3=8
8
5 3
...
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
^`LOGTfzd!GiWG^`T_FKGRJrLOZH^`LL_ZKGIT_Gd!GIT_Gd^z|Q¡LONrJPGQOUpFH^lL_GL_ZKGnkl^ihKGRQ £$Pþô×$I L_ZKGd
ZKNiGnFhKstVXGIT$Qsc^TOvGJ
NFLOZHGgiUWFKGwZHGQOGgdnGTOGD{T_^SL_UNFH^`iNTJPGSIUsc^`i hH^FLOULOUWGQ¢
3-1/2 or 3.5
...
¹
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
^`LOGT!|GbLd!GiGR^`T_FKGJLOZH^`L
LOZKGgFhKsVaGT
iUWFKGoSINhKi\JGILOGIFaJL_NBLOZKGgiWGbDLNDÛGIT_NY^QdnGii¢
... ...
¼ ½ ¾ ¿ À
-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5
Vã ç
ZKGRQ]GHGIi\JKQNDFhKstVXGIT$Q {d
ZKNiGf¡UFL_GIpGTfT$^lL_UNFH^`if¤UT_T$^lLOUWNFa^`ifXT_G^ifGIL_Sw iWG^TOFHGJ0UWFepT$^JPGBQOS$ZKNNi
Ú 0Ö M¼
À iÕ-¾
QOZH^`T_Gt^[SINsYsYNFqLOT$^`UL¢L_ZKGI| TOG^`iWi `XIÁ l cb $
` wrZHGQ]LOT$^`UWpZLOFKGRQOQN`D}LOZHGtFhKstVXGITriWUFKGUiWiWhHQL_T_^`LOGRQ
LOZHUWQpT$^`jKZHUWS^`iWi|wqÂNhSI^FsYNlkGchKjºNTJKNld
FmLOZKGFhHstVXGITBiUWFKGf}VHhPLB^ii!¸`sYN`L_UNFH¸0^`iWNFHpqLOZH^`LiWUFKGUWQ
ã Û ç
T_GQ]LOT_UWSbLOGJºLON^QOUWFKpiWG0^lPU\Q {ZKNTOU INFL$^`i w¬ÃFKGIEJKUsYGIFaQ]UWNFH^ifQ_SI^`i\^`TYFhKsVaGT_Qc^TOGjXGITOD{GSbLOiW| ^JKG hH^lL_G
D{NTYSbNhKFLOUWFKp0VXG^JKQIf}T_GIjHTOGRQ]GFL_UFHp0dnGUpZLfNTsBGR^QOhKT_UFKpM¥VH^`L]L_GIT_|ekNiL_^pGfVKhKLtLOZHGI|mD
^`iWiQ]ZKNT]LN`D
VXGIUWFKp[^`VKiWGrLONcT_GIjKT_GQOGIFL
Q]NsYGbLOZHUFKpcsYNTOGgSbNsYjKiGIiWUvGL_ZKGoJPU\QL$^`FHSIG l Õ Ö
JPUT_GSbLOUWNFuVaGILdnGGIFuLd!NYSIUxL_UGRQIf
NToLOZKG^sYjKiULOhaJPG l Õ Ö jKZH^Q]GcND^`FÄd!^zkGbD{NT_sqw[NTOGjKTOGRQ]GFLrL_ZKGQOG[vUWFHJKQgND hH^FLOULOUWGQfd!GcFKGIGRJ
¥è
sthHixL_UWJPUWsYGIFHQOUWNFH^iaT_GIjKT_GQOGIFL$^lLOUWNFaQIw F[N`L_ZKGIT!d!NT$JKQIfd!GFKGGJ[^tFhHstVXGIT!iUWFKGLOZH^`LS^`F[jXNUWFLnUWFJPUÅXGTOGFL
Ú
JPUWTOGRSL_UNFHQIfK^FHJLOZH^`L Q
GbK^SbLOiW|[d
ZH^`L^kGSbLONTU\QIw
ƺÇÈÉÊbÈË&%
Æ ÀP»Õ¾oÕ-¿
FhKsVaGT!U\Q!LOZHGL|jXGrNDsc^lL_ZKGIsc^lL_UWS^`i¤NVK~GSL!LOZa^lLjaGNjKiWGr^TOGrhHQOGJ[LONBhHQ]UWFKpBUFGIkGIT_|JH^z|
iUD{G¢^BNFHGbJPUsYGFHQ]UWNFa^`i hH^`FLOUL|[iWUvGLOGsBjXGIT$^lL_hKT_GfPiWGIFKpLOZ¡fKd!GIUWpZLRfPGbL_Sw
Æ $ » -¼½¾ !¤ b¼ P¿
uré Y£$ U\Q^BsY^`LOZKGsc^lLOU\SI^i hH^`FLOUL|[T_GIjKT_GQOGIFL_UFKpLd!NBJPUWsYGIFHQOUWNFHQNDsc^`pFKULOhHJPGg^FHJ
JPUT_GSbLOUWNF¡w
Æ Ø »Pþ -¿ è
z E UWQ^pT$^`jHZKUWS^`iT_GIjHTOGRQ]GFL$^lL_UNFeND^0SbNsBjHiGIeFhKsVaGTw ELtiWNNvPQoiWUWvG^F^`T_TONldgfd
UxL_Z^
Vß
Q L$^`TOLOUWFKpjXNUWFLf^L_Uj¡f^uJKGbHFKULOGYiWGIFKpLOZ¡f^`FHJM^qJPGbHFHUxL_G[JPUT_GSbLOUWNF¡w NsYGILOUWsBGRQrLOZKGYd!NT$J H# I ½ FÕZÀ -¿
UWQhHQ]GRJqUFGiGRSL_TOU\SI^i^`jKjHiU\SI^`LOUWNFHQ
d
ZHGIT_GgLOZKGB^`FKpiGgNDLOZKGokGSbLONTTOGjKTOGRQ]GFL_Q
jKZa^QOGoQ]ZKUDLVXGbLd!GIGF
d!^zkGbD{NT_scQIw
¦`Ì §
¨ ©n
ǻH¬
®0n©¯°±®0©n
²
VÂ
? ? Í ÌÉ!A¥Î Å%ͶÒ#ÈÓÏÎÑÐ Ò Ò
Ó(ÌÐ`Î ÅÔ Í
Amplitude
Length
ZKGpT_G^lL_GITLOZKGc^`sYjKiWULOhHJPGBN`DLOZKGBd!^zkGbD{NTOsqfKL_ZKGYpT_G^`LOGITLOZKGBiWGIFKpLOZNDUxL$QSbNT_T_GQOjaNFHJPUWFKp[kGRSL_NTRw
ZKGu^`FKpiG[ND
LOZKGukGRSL_NTRfZHNldnGkGITRfTOGjKTOGRQ]GFL_QL_ZKGjHZH^QOGQOZKUxDLYUWFºJPGIpTOGGQtVaGILdnGGIFL_ZKGd^zkGID{NT_s×UWF
hKGQ]LOUWNF¬^`FHJ¦^FKN`L_ZKGITd!^zkGbD{NTOsØ^SbLOUWFKpº^Qu^º¸TOGID{GIT_GIFHSIG¸mUWF¦L_UsYGwÙQOhH^iiW|fd
ZHGIF¦L_ZKGejKZH^QOG0NDt^
ºã
d^zkGbD{NTOsÄUF^gSIUT$SbhHUxLU\QGIPjKTOGRQOQOGJ¡fULnU\QT_GbD{GIT_GIFaSbGJL_NgLOZKGjaNld!GITnQ]hKjHjKi|BkNixL$^`pG
d!^zkGbD{NT_s ^`T_VKUxL_T_^TOUWiW|
ç ¿ \¾Õþ MØ
Q]L_^lL_GJL_NVXGn¸^`L_¸³´ w
GsBGstVXGITLOZH^`LjKZH^Q]GUWQ^`iWd!^z|PQ^ O z sYG^QOhKT_GIsYGIFLVXGbLd!GIGFgLd!N
d!^zkGbD{NT_scQ
T$^lLOZHGITLOZa^`Fq^`F^`VHQONiWhPL_GjKT_NjXGITOL|w
§
ªK ªKÛÚ©r¨
²¥o¨°ÜÚ©nn
®² ¦ræ
Ý
A
Phase shift = 90 degrees Þ
Ý A is ahead of B 90 degrees
A B
(A "leads" B) B
B 180 degrees
Phase shift = 180 degrees
Ý Ý
A and B waveforms are A B
Ý mirror-images of each other
A
ß ß
A B A
à
angle
B
phase shift
ZKGpT_G^lL_GITLOZKGjKZH^QOGQOZKUDLgUFJKGIpT_GIGRQVXGbLd!GIGF0Ld!N[d!^zkGbD{NTOscQfKLOZHGpTOGR^lLOGTL_ZKGB^FKpiWGtJPUŤGIT_GIFHSIG
*ã
VXGbLd!GIGIFqL_ZKGSINT_TOGRQ]jXNFaJPUFHpckGSbLONT_Qw
ánGUFHp^cT_GIi\^lLOUWkGgsYGR^QOhKTOGsYGIFLfaiUWvGkNiL_^pGfKjKZH^Q]GtQOZKUDL
kGSbLONT
ç
^`FHpiWG NFHi|ZH^QsYG^FKUWFKpcUFT_GbD{GTOGFHSbGrL_N[Q]NsBGoQ]L_^FHJK^T_Jd!^zkGbD{NTOsqwârGIFHGIT$^`iWi|cL_ZKU\Q¸`T_GbD{GTOGFHSbGR¸td^zkGI
è
D{NT_s2U\QL_ZKG!sY^UFBmjXNldnGTQOhKjKjKiW|okNiL_^`pGUWFtL_ZKG!SIUT$SbhHUxLRw EDKL_ZKGIT_G!UWQsYNT_GL_ZH^`FNFKGekNiL_^`pGQONhKT$SbGf
LOZHGIFqNFKGgNDL_ZKNQOGgQ]NhKT$SbGQ!U\Q^`T_VKULOT$^`T_UiW|[S$ZKNQ]GFL_NBVXGgL_ZKGgjKZH^Q]GT_GbD{GIT_GIFaSbGrD{NT^ii¡NLOZKGT
sYG^QOhKT_GIsYGIFL$Q
UWFL_ZKGoSbUWT$SbhKULw
ZKU\QoSbNFHSbGjPLtND
^qT_GbD{GTOGFHSbGcjXNUWFLtU\QgFKN`LhKFKiWUvGcLOZH^`LtN`DL_ZKG¸`pTONhKFHJK¸jXNUWFLUF^0SIUT$SbhHUxLgD{NToLOZHG
VXGIFKGIKLNDkNiL_^pGgT_GbD{GIT_GIFaSbGw!· ULOZM^cSIiGR^`T_i|uJPGbaFKGJjXNUWFLUWFLOZKGSbUWT_SIhKUxLrJPGSIiW^TOGRJuLON[VXGt¸`pTONhKFHJf ¸YUL
VXGSbNsYGQjXNQ_QOUVKiWGLONoL_^`iWv^VaNhPLkNiL_^`pG¸`NFH¸rNT¸^lL_¸gQOUWFKpiWG
jaNUFL$QUWF[^oSbUWT_SIhKULfVXGIUWFKpohHFHJPGIT$Q]LONNPJBLOZH^`L
pã
LOZHNQOGkNixL$^`pGQ ^`iWd!^z|PQgT_GIi\^lL_UkG[VaGILdnGGIF þÿ× ç
jXNUWFL_Q ^TOG[T_GbD{GTOGFHSbGRJeLONe¸`pT_NhHFHJw ¸nNT_TOGRQ]jXNFHJKUFKpi|f
d
ULOZ¦^mSbiWG^TOiW|ºJPGIHFKGJyjXNUWFLN`DTOGID{GIT_GIFHSIGuD{NTcjKZH^Q]GUL[VXGSbNsYGQcjXNQ_Q]UWVKiWGqLONQOjaGR^`vNDrkNiL_^pGQY^FHJ
SbhHTOT_GIFL_QUF[^FY SIUT$SbhKULZH^zkUWFKpoJPGbaFKUxL_GjKZH^Q]G^`FKpiGRQIw}K^`sYjKiWG¢¸lLOZHGSbhKT_T_GIFL}LOZKT_NhHpZYTOGRQ]U\Q]LONTã
UWQ
¦ å l§ w sYUiWiWUW^sBjaQ
^lL! ̧ JPGpT_GIGRQIf ¸od
ZKU\S$ZusBGR^`FHQnL_ZKGoSbhKT_T_GIFL!d^zkGID{NT_siW^pQ Ì`§ ´VXGIZKUWFHJLOZKGsc^`UWFqQ]NhKT_SIG
kNixL$^`pGd^zkGID{NT_suw
ƺÇÈÉÊbÈË&%
¦-ä §
¨ ©n
ǻH¬
®0n©¯°±®0©n
²
VÂ
? $ä dÇ 3ÊË\ÌæÓ(ÌÉ!A~Î Å´ÒÓÓjÇA~Ç\Î*È
å Ô
GsBGstVXGITYL_ZH^lLckGRSL_NT$Q^TOGusc^lLOZHGIsc^lL_UWS^`i
NVK~GSL$Q~hHQLciWUvGqFhHstVXGIT$QNFy^MFhKstVXGITciWUWFKG¢LOZKG|ºSI^F
V Gq^JKJPGRJfnQOhKVPL_T_^SLOGRJfshKiLOUWjKiUWGJ¡f!^FHJ JKUkU\JPGJwçJHJPUxL_UNFçUWQYjXGIT_ZH^`jaQtL_ZKGqG^Q]UWGQ]LckGSbLONTNjaGT_^`LOUWNF
X
Û Ú (è
LONukUWQOhH^iU IGf¡Q]NudnG iWiVaGpUWFd
ULOZMLOZH^`Lw EDnkGRSL_NT$Qd
ULOZmSbNsYsYNFe^`FKpiGRQ^TOGY^JHJPGJf¤L_ZKGIUWTsc^`pFHUxL_hHJPGQ
ã ç
{iWGIFHp`LOZaQ ^JKJhHj~haQLiWUWvGTOGphKi\^`T
Q_SI^iW^T hH^FL_UxL_UGRQI¢
é
length = 6 length = 8 total length = 6 + 8 = 14
è è è
angle = 0 degrees angle = 0 degrees angle = 0 degrees
ßUWsYUi\^`T_i|fUD kNixL$^`pGQONhHT_SIGQ}d
ULOZcL_ZKGQ_^`sYGjKZa^QOG^`FKpiG^`T_GSbNFHFKGSbLOGJcLONpGbL_ZKGITUWFQOGIT_UGRQIfLOZKGUT
kNixL$^`pGQ^JKJt~hHQ]L^Q|NhusBUWpZLGIjXGSbLd
UxL_Z¦VH^lLOLOGTOUWGQ¢
ê
¼ 6V ¼ 8V ê
0 deg 0 deg 6V 8V
- + - + - + - +
- + - +
¼ 14 V 14 V
0 deg
ëiWG^Q]GFKNLOG
L_ZKG Eì ã ç ã ç
^`FHJ { jXNi\^`T_UL|tsc^`T_vPQFKGbLL_NgLOZKGiGR^JKQ}ND¤LOZKG
Ld!NoºQ]NhKT_SIGQwkGFtL_ZKNhKpZ
Ú
d!GovFKNld2íJKNGRQ]F LrZH^zkGo¸jaNiW^TOUL|P¸YUFL_ZKGQ_^`sYGtQOGIFaQ]GgL_ZH^lLr«JPNGRQIfaLOZKGRQ]Gsc^`T_vQ^`T_GoGQ_Q]GFLOU\^`iL_N
vFKNld
UWFKp[ZKNld°L_NT_GbD{GIT_GIFaSbGoL_ZKGBpUWkGIFjHZH^QOG^FKpiWGQN`D}L_ZKGkNiL_^pGQwZKU\Qrd
UiWiVaGRSbNsYGBsYNT_Gt^`jKja^`T_GIFL
UWFL_ZKGgFKGILGIK^`sYjKiWGw
è ã ä ç
EDkGSL_NT$QnJKUT_GSbLOiW|cNjKjXNQOUFHptG^S$Z[N`L_ZKGIT ]î ³´
NhPL!NDjKZH^Q]G ^TOG^JHJPGJ[LONpGbL_ZKGITRfL_ZKGIUWTsc^`pFHUxL_hHJPGQ
ã ç
{iWGIFHp`LOZaQ QOhKVPL_T_^SL~hHQ]LiUWvGgjXNQOUxL_UkGg^`FHJFKGIp^lL_UkGQ_SI^iW^T ha^`FLOULOUWGQ
QOhKVPL_T_^SL
d
ZKGIF^JKJPGJ¡¢
ï
total length = 6 - 8 = -2 at 0 degrees
or 2 at 180 degrees
ß
UWsYUi\^`T_i|fKUDNjKjXNQOUFKp[íkNiL_^`pGgQ]NhKT_SIGQ
^TOGoSINFKFKGRSL_GJuUF0QOGIT_UWGQfPLOZKGUTkNixL$^`pGRQ
Q]hHVPLOT$^SbL^Q
|Nh
sYUpZLGbPjaGRSL
d
ULOZ0g VH^`L]L_GIT_UGRQ
SbNFHFKGSbLOGJUWFq^FNjKjXNQOUFKpBD
^Q]ZKUWNF¢
§
ªKñðPy²®0n©ÄÚ©¨
° I P§ ¦ò
ê
¼ 6V 8V ê
0 deg 180 deg 6V 8V
- + - + - + + -
- ½ + ½
2V + 2V
-
180 deg
·eGoSbNhHiWJZH^zkGn~hHQ]L^Q!d!GIiWiQOZKNld FL_ZKGgNjHjaNQ]UWFKpBkNiL_^pGRQ!QOhKVPL_T_^SL_UFKpYUWFQ]GTOUWGQ!iWUvGLOZKU\QI¢
ê
¼ 8V ê
¼ 6V
0 deg 8V
0 deg 6V
- + - + - + - +
- ½ + + ½ -
2V 2V
180 deg
óNLOGZKNld,LOZKGujaNiW^TOULOUWGQ^`jKjXG^TtL_NVXGNjKjaNQ]GRJmLONMG^S$ZN`LOZHGITBFKNldgf}JPhKGLON0L_ZKGT_GIkGIT$QO^iN`Dd
UT_G
bS NFKFKGRSLOUWNFaQNFL_ZKG ä (ß Vã ç
kNiLoQ]NhKT_SIGw PUFHSIGYVaNLOZmQ]NhKT_SIGQ^`T_GtiWU\QL_GJm^QrZH^zkUWFKpG hH^`ijKZH^Q]GY^`FHpiWGQ
³´ f
LOZHGI|BLOT_hKiW|Y^TOGNjKjXNQOGJBL_NtNFHG^`FHN`LOZHGITRf^`FaJYLOZKGNlkGT_^iiKGIÅXGRSL!UWQLOZKGrQO^sYG^QLOZKGD{NT_sYGITnQ_SbGFH^`T_UWNod
UxL_Z
¦
¸^JKJPULOUWkGR¸tjXNi\^`T_UxL_UGRQ
^`FHJuJPUÅXGTOUWFKpcjKZa^QOG^FKpiWGQ¢}^LON`L$^`ikNiL_^`pGNDNFKiW| kNiL_Qw
å ³ §
¨ ©n
ǻH¬
®0n©¯°±®0©n
²
6V 8V
0 deg 0 deg
- + + -
- +
2V
180 deg
+ -
2V
0 deg
VÂ
? ]ö Î ·Î(Å%Ó
Ò Î(È÷ÎÑÐ HÊÎ*Ë\ÒÅÇAXùø
ø
ëNi\^`T_UL|[sc^`T_vUWFKpQ
d
UxL_ZKUWF«SbUWT_SIhKULQOS$ZHGIsc^lL_UWSQIfX^`FHJqZKNld«L_ZKGQOGtsc^`T_vUFHpQT_GIi\^lLOGoLON[jKZa^QOGt^`FKpiGRQIfaUWQ
^BjaNLOGFL_UW^iiW|SINFPD{haQ]UWFKpcQ]hHVP~GSbLw«D{GId«UWiiWhHQ]LOT$^lLOUWNFaQnsc^z|[ZHGIiWjL_N[Sbi\^`T_UxD{|[LOZKGgU\QOQOhKGw
¿ P¾oÕ-þ MØ
GsBGstVXGITYL_ZKUWQYUWsYjaNT]L$^`FLcTOhHiG¢jKZH^QOGuUWQ[^ O l sYG^Q]hKT_GIsYGFLRfL_ZKG0^`sYNhHFLcNDrQOZKUxDL^id^z|PQ
VXGIUWFKpYTOGID{GIT_GIFHSIGJcL_NYNFKGrjH^`TOLOU\SbhHiW^T!d^zkGID{NT_s¥UWFq^BSIUT$SbhHUxLRw°d^zkGID{NT_s¥V|[UL_QOGIiDT_G^iiW|[JPNGQOF L
ZH^zkGr^ Ú
è
jKZH^Q]Gw ELU\Q
NFKiW|d
ZHGIFqdnGoSINsYjH^TOGULd
UxL_ZN`LOZHGIT
d^zkGbD{NTOscQnLOZa^lLd!GgSI^`FQ_^`sYGo^`F|LOZHUFKpYsYG^FKUWFKp`D{hKi
^`VXNhKL!¸`UL_QnjKZH^Q]Gw ¸FHJd
ZKGIFdnGTOGID{GIT_GIFHSIG
LONY^gd^zkGbD{NTOsqfdnGsthHQ]L!sc^vGQOhKT_Gd!GvFKNld # $#I N`D × Ô» iÖ
Ú
LOZa^lLnd^zkGID{NT_s Q}QONhKT$SbGUWQnQ]GTOkUWFKpt^QLOZKGTOGID{GIT_GIFHSIGjXNUWFLRw}ëNi\^`T_UxL|osc^TOvPQNF[ kNixL$^`pGQONhHT_SIGQ}GIU\Q]L
QOUsYjKiW|cLONBjKT_NlkUWJPG^tD{T_^sBGNDTOGID{GIT_GIFHSIGD{NTjKZH^QOG^`FKpiGRQIfT$^lLOZHGIT!LOZH^FL_NB^SL_hH^`iWi|[JKGIFKNLOGjaNiW^TOUL|cN`D^
T_G^`ikNiL_^pGw
ZKU\QU\Q!^`FH^iNpNhaQLONLOZKGjaNiW^TOUL|sc^TOvUWFKpgN`DgykNiLOsYGbL_GITL_GQ]L!iWG^JKQnV|cSINiWNTR¢T_GJ[^FHJ[VKi\^S$v¤w F¥è
GIiWGSbLOT_NFKU\SIQnd!NT_vXfT_GJcL|jKU\SI^iiW|cT_GIjKT_GQOGIFL_Qn¸`jXNQOUxL_UkG¸^`FHJVKiW^S$vYL|jKUWS^`iWi|YT_GIjKT_GQOGIFL$Qn¸FKGIp^lLOUWkGw ¸tNGQ
LOZHUWQsYG^FL_ZH^lLL_ZKGYTOGRJ0L_GQ]LiWG^J0NFe^kNixL_sBGILOGTrd
UWiWi Õ¾ × Õ ZÀ
`ú VXGcSbNFHFKGSbLOGJLONLOZHGcjaNQ]ULOUWkGYQ]U\JPGYN`D!^
kNixL$^`pGtQ]NhKT$SbGt^FHJL_ZKGtVKi\^S$vuL_GQ]LriWG^J Õ¾ × Õ ZÀ `ú SbNFKFKGRSLOGRJL_N[LOZHGFKGp^`LOUWkGRÖçÃDnSINhKT$Q]GtFKN`LRûr· ZHNGkGT
hHQOGQLOZKGokNiLOsYGbL_GITU\Q
D{T_GIGoLONSINFKFKGRSLUL^SbT_NQ_Q
^ckNixL$^`pGgQONhKT$SbGgZHNldnGkGITL_ZKGI|ujKiWG^Q]Gw!· Za^lLL_ZKGoL_GQ]L
¿+Õ¼ ¿ P¿ i»
iWG^JºSbNiWNT$QtJKNU\QtjKT_NlkUWJKG^ü c ü O ü OI $ D{NTLOZKGusc^lL_ZKGIsc^lL_UWS^`iQ]UWpFºN`D
LOZHGuJPU\QOjKiW^z|GJkNiL_^pG
ªKñýP þÜ
ÿ2o¨ b
P§" å î
Test lead colors provide a frame of reference
for interpreting the sign (+ or -) of the meter’s
indication.
V A V A
V A V A
OFF OFF
A COM A COM
6V 6V
ã ç
¡UWvGd
UWQOGf ì µã ç
^FHJ jXNi\^`T_UxL|sY^TOvUWFKpQ!D{NT^FqíkNiL_^`pGgQ]NhKT_SIGo^`T_GgpUWkGFqQOUWsBjHi|LON[jHTONlkU\JPGg^
Ú
D{T$^`sYGtNDTOGID{GIT_GIFHSIGgD{NTrUFL_GIT_jKTOGILOUWFKpcL_ZH^lLgQ]NhKT$SbG QQ]L_^`LOGRJjKZH^Q]GB^`FKpiGwFHN`LOZHGITrUiWihaQL_T_^`LOUWNFsc^z|qZKGIiWj
dß
UWFehHFHJPGIT$Q]L_^`FaJPUFHpL_ZKU\QIw PhKjKjXNQOGYLOZH^`LgLdnNqhKFKi\^`VXGIiWGJmgÄkNiL_^pGYQ]NhKT$SbGQ^TOGcSbNFKFKGRSLOGRJMLONpGbL_ZKGITgUWF
QOGIT_UGRQIf^`FaJ0d!Gd^`FLL_NL_TO|qL_NuJKGbLOGTOsYUWFKGYd
ZH^lLrLOZHGtL_N`L_^iTOGRQ]hKiL_^FLrkNiL_^`pGoU\QV|T_G^JPUFHp[LOZHGBkNiL_^pG
ã ç
^SITONQOQG^S$Z0NFKG {UWFHJPUWkUWJKhH^`iWi| d
UxL_Ze^kNixL_sBGILOGTfXLOZHGIFeGIULOZKGT^JKJPUWFKpNTrQOhKVPL_T_^SL_UFKpusc^lL_ZKGIsc^lL_UWS^`iWi|
LONBHFaJuLOZKGg^`FaQ]d!GITRw}UWT$QLRfPdnGgd!NhKi\JsBGR^QOhKT_GL_ZKGgkNixL$^`pGrN`DNFHGQONhHT_SIG¢
å[¦ §
¨ ©n
ǻH¬
®0n©¯°±®0©n
²
V A
V A
OFF
A COM
Source 1 Source 2
Total voltage?
¦
ZKU\Q!HT$QL
sYG^Q]hKT_GIsYGFLN`Dì l§ ^SITONQOQLOZKGgiWGbDLOZa^`FHJkNixL$^`pGQONhKT$SbGLOGii\QhHQ!LOZa^lLLOZKGgVHiW^S$vciGR^JN`D
LOZHGBsYGILOGITT_G^iiW|qUWQrL_NhHS$ZKUWFKpLOZKGYFKGp^lL_UkGQOUWJKGBNDkNixL$^`pGQONhKT$SbG [îf¡^`FHJ0LOZKGYT_GJiGR^J0NDLOZHGBsYGILOGIT
T_G^`iWiW|[UWQ!L_NhHS$ZHUFKpBL_ZKGgjaNQ]ULOUWkGw}ZhaQIfKd!GvFKNld¬QONhKT$SbG îgUWQ
^BVH^`L]L_GIT_|cD
^SIUFKpcUWFLOZKU\Q
NT_UWGIFL_^`LOUWNF¡¢
24 V
Source 1 Source 2
Total voltage?
V A
V A
OFF
A COM
Source 1 Source 2
Total voltage?
rÕþ MØ ã ç æ
ZKU\QQOGSINFHJqkNiLOsYGbL_GITT_G^JPUFHpHfHZHNldnGkGITRfPU\Q^ ¤ l { î kNiL_QfHd
ZKU\S$ZqLOGii\QhHQLOZa^lLL_ZKGtVKi\^S$v
LOGRQL}iWG^JtU\Q}^SbLOhH^iiW|LONhHS$ZKUWFKpL_ZKG
jXNQOUxL_UkG!QOUWJKG!NDakNiL_^`pGnQONhKT$SbG ¦ f`d
ZHUiWG!LOZKGT_GJtLOGQ]L}iGR^JUWQ}^SL_hH^`iWi|
LONhHS$ZKUWFKpBLOZKGgFHGIp^`LOUWkGwZhHQfPd!GrvFKNldíLOZH^`LQ]NhKT$SbG ¦ +½[½ À Mþ
U\Q
^BVH^lLOLOGTO|D
^SbUWFKpYUWFL_ZKG K E JPUT_GSbLOUWNF¡¢
24 V 17 V
Source 1 Source 2
- +
Total voltage = 7 V
ÃFKiW|c^lDLOGT
SbNT_T_GIi\^lLOUWFKpokNiLOsYGbL_GITT_G^JKUFKpQd
ULOZLOGRQLiGR^JNT_UGFL$^lL_UNFSI^Fd!GJPGILOGIT_sYUFHGL_ZH^lL!LOZHGQOG
Ld!NkNiL_^pG[QONhKT$SbGRQo^`T_GcNjHjaNQ]UWFKpG^S$ZN`L_ZKGITRfT_GQOhKiLOUWFKp0UWF^qLONL_^ikNixL$^`pGcN`D æ pã ¦
kNixL$Q `§ kNixL$Qî æ
ç
kNixL$Q w
Vã ç
ZKGjXNQOUxL_UkG Eì *ã ç
^`FHJFKGIp^lL_UkG { jXNi\^`T_UxL|[sc^TOvUWFKpQ!^Q_Q]NPSIUW^`LOGJd
UxL_Z^`FqçkNixL$^`pGQONhKT$SbGQ]GTOkG
Ú ¥è
LOZHGQ_^`sYG!jKhKT_jaNQ]G
^QL_ZKGTOGRJt^FHJtVHiW^S$voSbNiWNT$QN`DX^rgmkNixL_sYGbLOGT QLOGRQL}iWG^JHQIw EDHL_ZKGIT_Gnd^QQOhHS$ZY^L_ZKUFHp
ã
^Q^u¸`jKZa^QOGIsYGbL_GIT$¸cLOZa^lLoSbNhKiWJeJPUWTOGRSL_i|UWFHJPU\SI^`LOGYjKZH^Q]GY^`FKpiG {ULod!NhKi\J0T_G hKUWTOGY^uQ]GRSbNFaJ°kNiL_^pG
ç
QONhKT$SbGrLON[^SL^Q
^YTOGID{GIT_GIFHSIGrUWFuLOUWsYG faUxLrSbNhHiWJujKT_NlkUWJPGrLd!NcJPUxŤGIT_GIFLUWFHJPU\SI^`LOUWNFHQ
NDjHZH^QOGo^`FKpiGd
ZKUWiWG
sYG^Q]hKT_UWFKptL_ZKGgd^zkGbD{NTOsõNDL_ZKGoQO^sYGíQONhKT$SbGfJKGIjXGIFHJPUWFKpcNFuZHNldíd!GSINFKFHGSL_GJLOZKGL_GQ]LiGR^JKQ¢
å`§ §
¨ ©n
ǻH¬
®0n©¯°±®0©n
²
"phasemeter"
- 0 deg +
black red
red
180 deg
black
+ -
"phasemeter"
ßNafPd
ZKGIFq|NhuQOGIGg^Fu¦kNixL$^`pGJPGRQ]UWpFH^`LOGRJ^Q!QOhHS$Zmw
w
w
8V
0 deg
- +
ww
w}UxL
sYG^FHQ!LOZa^lL
NhKT
Z|jXN`LOZHGbLOU\SI^i¸`jKZH^Q]GsYGbLOGT_¸d!NhKi\J[T_G^J³´jKZa^QOGQOZKUDL
d
UxL_ZuUL_Q
¸FKGIp^lL_UkG¸
ã{VHiW^S$v ç LOGRQLiGR^JBL_NhHS$ZKUWFKptLOZKGriGIDL!d
UWT_G^`FHJ[UxL$Q!¸jaNQ]ULOUWkGR¸pã{T_GJ ç LOGRQLiWG^JcLONhaS$ZKUFHpgLOZKGrT_UpZLnd
UT_GfLOZHG
ãì ç ^FHJã ç Q]|sVaNiWQ
sYGTOGi|[jHTONlkU\JPUFHpY^D{T$^`sYGgN`DT_GbD{GIT_GIFaSbGrD{NT
L_ZKGgjKZH^Q]Go^FKpiWGrHphHTOGw%èELdnNhKi\J^iWQON
VXGojaGT]D{GRSL_i|Nvl^z|cLONcT_GIjHTOGRQ]GFLL_ZH^lLkGIT_|QO^sYGoQ]NhKT_SIG Ú QjKZH^Q]GiWUvGLOZKU\Q
ã FKN`L_UWSIGLOZKGtQOd
UL_S$ZqUFqjXNi\^`T_UxL|
sc^`T_vUFKpQ ç ¢
8V
180 deg
+ -
VÂ
? Ð ÎÔ3ÊËPÌ *
Ó ÌÉ!A¥Î(Å£ÒÓÓjÇ$A%Ç\Î*È
è ã
EDakGSbLONT$Qd
UxL_ZhHFHSbNsBsYNFB^FKpiWGQ^`T_G!^JKJPGRJflLOZHGIUWT}sY^pFKULOhaJPGQ
iGFKp`L_ZHQ ç ^JKJthHj hKULOG
JPUÅXGTOGFLOiW|gLOZH^F
LOZa^lLN`DQOS^`i\^`Tsc^`pFKUxL_hHJPGRQI¢
Vector addition
length = 10
à
angle = 53.13
degrees à
length = 8 +
ê
6 at 0 degrees
8 at 90 degrees
angle = 90 degrees
10 at 53.13 degrees
length = 6
à
è
EDLd!N«kNiL_^pGQ
angle = 0 degrees
ò ³´gNhPLN`DjKZa^QOG 0^`T_Gt^JKJKGJL_NpGbLOZHGITrV|VXGIUWFKpqSbNFKFKGSbLOGRJUFeQ]GTOUWGQfXLOZKGUT
è
kNixL$^`pGBsc^pFKULOhHJKGQtJKNFKN`LJKUT_GSbLOiW|e^JKJmNTtQOhKVPL_T_^SLt^Qgd
UxL_ZºQ_SI^`i\^`TgkNiL_^pGQUWFgw FHQ]LOGR^JfLOZHGQOG
§
ªK
«Ä
©¨ a Y±
2 a I § § å»
kNixL$^`pG hH^FL_UxL_UGRQ^`T_G
SbNsBjHiGI hH^`FL_UxL_UGRQIf^FHJ~hHQ]LiUWvG!L_ZKG^`VXNlkG!kGRSL_NT$QIf`d
ZHUWS$Zc^JHJhHjBUWFc^rLOT_UpNFKN
sYGbL_TOU\SD
^QOZKUWNF¡fa^ Ì kNixLQONhKT$SbGg^`L³´^JKJPGJL_N^`F ä kNixLrQ]NhKT_SIGg^lL ò ³´TOGRQ]hHixL$Q
UFîR³YkNixL$Q^lL^cjHZH^QOG
`å å
^`FHpiWGrND » wWî ´ ¢
6V 8V
0 deg 90 deg
- + - +
- +
10 V
53.13 deg
Ú
nNsYjH^TOGRJuLONu°SIUT$SbhHUxLg^`FH^i|PQOUWQfaLOZKU\QU\QrkGTO|qQL_T_^FKpGtUFHJKGIGJ¡wóN`L_GoLOZa^lLUxL QrjXNQ_Q]UWVKiWGoLONNVPL$^`UWF
kNixL_sYGbLOGTUWFHJPU\SI^`LOUWNFHQN`D Ì ^FHJ ä kNiL_QfT_GQOjaGRSLOUWkGi|f^SbT_NQ_QLOZKGLdnN kNiL_^pGQONhKT$SbGRQIf|GbL!NFKiW|BTOGR^J
î³BkNiL_QnD{NT^L_N`L_^ikNixL$^`pGû
Ú
ZKGTOGUWQ!FKNYQ]hHUxL$^`VKiWGgç^FH^`iWNp|BD{NT!d
ZH^lL
d!G TOGrQ]GGIUWFKpZHGIT_Gd
ULOZLdnNYykNixL$^`pGQQOiWUpZL_i|cNhPLN`D
jKZH^Q]GwgkNiL_^pGRQS^`FYNFHi|tJKUT_GSbLOiW|^`U\JBNTJPUWT_GSL_i|tNjKjXNQOGf`d
ULOZcFHN`LOZHUFKpgUWFYVaGILdnGGIF¡w· ULOZ[flLd!N
þ Õ #Ö `¿
kNixL$^`pGQS^`FoVXG^`U\JPUFHpNTNjKjXNQOUWFKpNFKGn^FKN`L_ZKGIT E `Hú E O$ VaGILdnGGIFgD{hKiWiW|^`U\JPUWFKp^FHJgD{hHiiW|NjKjaNQ]UWFKpaf
ã ç
UWFHSbiWhHQOUkGw· UxL_ZKNhKLnL_ZKGhHQOGND¡kGRSLONT SbNsYjKiWGbcFhKsVaGT FKN`L$^lLOUWNF[LONJKGQ_SbT_UVXG hH^FL_UxL_UGRQIfUL!d!NhKi\J
Ø P¿
VXG z ú JKU [SbhHixLL_NYjaGT]D{NTOsÿsc^`LOZKGsY^`LOU\SI^iSI^iWSIhKiW^`LOUWNFHQnD{NT¦SIUT$SbhKUL^`FH^i|PQOUWQw
è Ú
FYLOZHGFKGILnQ]GRSL_UNF¡fd!G iWiaiWG^TOFcZKNldyL_NtT_GIjKT_GQOGIFLkGRSL_NT hH^FL_UxL_UGRQUWFQO|stVXNiWUWS
T$^lL_ZKGITLOZH^F[pT$^`jHZP
U\SI^`iD{NTOsqw }GSL_NTg^`FaJ0L_TOU\^`FKpiGYJPU\^`pT_^sYQrQOh [SbGBLONqUWiiWhHQ]LOT$^lLOGBL_ZKGYpGIFHGIT$^`iSbNFaSbGIjKLf¡VKhKLosBNTOGBjKT_GSIUWQOG
sYGbL_ZKNPJKQNDQO|stVXNiWUWQOsôshHQLVXGohHQOGJuUD^`F|QOGIT_UNhHQ
SI^iWSIhKiW^`LOUWNFHQ
^TOGL_NcVaGtjaGT]D{NTOsYGJNFuL_ZKGQOG hH^`FK
LOULOUWGQw
ƺÇÈÉÊbÈË&%
Æ kNiL_^pGRQSI^FNFKiW|gGIULOZKGTJKUT_GSbLOiW|t^`U\JoNTJKUT_GSbLOiW|gNjKjXNQOGnGR^S$ZN`LOZHGITd
ZKGIFYSbNFKFKGRSLOGRJoUWFBQOGIT_UWGQw
þ Õ Ö -¿
çkNixL$^`pGQ!sc^z|^`U\JNT
NjKjXNQOG E lHú E __ JPGIjXGIFHJKUFKpcNFL_ZKGgjKZH^Q]GgQOZKUDLVaGILdnGGIFuLOZKGsqw
VÂÃ
? Ä Î(ËPÒÅ£Ò#ÈÓ Å%ÌÉ!A¥Ò#ÈBCË\ÒÅÈÎoA¥ÒrA%Ç\Î(È
èF0NT_JPGT
LONdnNTOvd
UxL_ZLOZHGQOGSbNsYjKiGIuFhKsVaGT_Qd
UxL_ZKNhKLrJPT$^zd
UFHpckGSbLONT_QfHd!GgHT$QLFKGIGRJ0Q]NsYGovUFHJ0N`D
Q]L_^`FaJK^`T$JYsc^lLOZHGIsc^lL_UWS^`iHFHN`L_^`LOUWNF¡w}ZKGTOG^`T_G
LdnNtVH^QOUWSD{NT_scQN`DSINsYjKiWGbYFhKstVXGIT!FKN`L$^lL_UNF¡¢ H ½ ¾Õ¿ ^FHJ
O¿ »Pþ ` Õ éb¾oÕ¿ w
ëNi\^`TD{NT_s UWQrd
ZKGTOGB^SINsYjKiWGbFhKstVXGITU\QrJKGIFKNLOGJV|L_ZKG ¾ b-þ{# {ã NLOZKGTOd
U\Q]GvFKNld
F^QLOZHG ¼HIÕ Á
HMnþ é
¼ Ö éb¾ éÀ0ç ^`FaJL_ZKG lÕ -¾W N`DUxL$Q
kGRSL_NT#{ã haQ]hH^iiW|JKGIFKNLOGJV|^Fq^FKpiWGgQ]|sVaNi
Ö f Õ £:IÀ ¢¾ ébEþ ØZÕ-¾ éH fHNT c
LOZa^lL
iNNvQiWUWvGLOZKU\QI¢ ç wNYhHQOGL_ZKGgsc^`jq^`FH^iNp|fjXNi\^`T
FKNL_^`LOUWNF[D{NTLOZKGgkGSbLONT!D{T_NsÿóGId¬ÂNT_vnUxL|
LONtK ß ^`FmUWGIpNdnNhKiWJMVXGQ]NsYGbLOZHUFKpqiWUvG[¸ `¦ § ³³sYUiWGQfQONhPL_ZdnGRQLRw ¸ á GTOG[^TOGLd!NGbK^`sYjKiWGQND!kGSL_NT$Q
^`FaJ[L_ZKGIUWTjXNi\^`T
FKNL_^lL_UNFHQ¢
åÌ §
¨ ©n
ǻH¬
®0n©¯°±®0©n
²
(8.06
8.06 ∠ -29.74
∠ 330.26 )
o
o
8.49 ∠ 45o
∠ -129.81 ) o
µ o
180o 0
270o
(-90o)
GRSL_^FKphHiW^TD{NTOsqf¡NFL_ZKGcN`L_ZKGITgZa^`FHJfUWQd
ZHGIT_GY^SINsYjKiWGbFhKsVaGTgUWQgJKGIFKNLOGJeV|0UL_QgT_GQOjXGSL_UkG
Û ¥è
ZKNTOU INFL$^`iH^FHJckGITOLOU\SI^`iaSbNsYjXNFKGFL_Qw FGQ_Q]GFHSbGfL_ZKG^FKpiWGJYkGSL_NTU\QL_^`vGIFYL_NtVXGLOZHGZ|jaNLOGIFhHQOGND¡^
T_UpZLLOT_UW^FKpiWGfXJPGQ_SbT_UVXGJqV|LOZKGiGFKp`L_ZHQNDLOZKGB^Jz~]^SbGIFL^FHJqNjHjaNQ]ULOGtQOU\JPGQw^lL_ZKGITLOZH^FJPGRQOSITOUWVKUWFKp
Ú
^[kGSbLONT QiWGIFKpLOZe^`FHJ0JKUT_GSbLOUWNFV|JPGFKN`L_UFKpusc^`pFKUxL_hHJPGY^`FHJ^`FKpiGfXULUWQJPGRQOSITOUWVaGRJ0UWF0L_GIT_sYQN`D!¸`ZKNld
!
D
^`T
iWGbDL zT_UpZL_¸Y^`FHJu¸`ZHNld D
^`ThHj lJPNld
Fw ¸
ã Û ç oÛ
ZKGRQ]G
Ld!NtJPUWsYGIFHQOUWNFH^iHHphKT_GQ
ZKNT_U INFL$^`ia^FHJYkGT]L_UWS^`i ^`T_GQO|stVXNiWU GJcV|BLdnNtFhHsBGTOU\SI^iKHphKT_GQw
è Û
FBNT$JPGITLONJPU\QL_UFKphKU\Q]ZtLOZKGZKNTOU INFL$^`i^`FHJtkGT]L_UWS^`iJPUsYGFHQ]UWNFaQD{T_Ns2GR^S$ZN`LOZHGITRfzLOZKGkGT]L_UWS^`iUWQjKT_GbHGRJ
§
ªK
«Ä
©¨ a Y±
2 a I § § åæ
ã ç ã ç
d
ULOZ0^YiWNldnGT]SI^Q]G¸`U\¸ {UWFjKhKT_GgsY^`LOZKGsc^lLOU\SIQ NT¸~]¸ {UWFGIiWGSbLOT_NFKU\SIQ w!ZKGQOGgiWNldnGT]SI^Q]GriGIL]L_GIT$QJPNcFKNL
pã oÛ
T_GIjKT_GQOGIFL^cjKZ|PQOUWS^`i¡kl^`T_U\^`VKiWG
QOhHS$Z0^QUFHQ]L_^FL_^`FHGINhaQSbhKT_T_GIFLfX^`i\Q]N[QO|stVXNiWU GJuV|u^ciWNld!GITOES^QOGiWGbLOLOGIT
ç Ú
¸`U\¸ fVKhPLgT$^lLOZHGIT^`T_Gsc^lL_ZKGIsc^`LOU\SI^`i}¸NjXGIT$^lLONT_Q_¸YhHQOGJLONqJPU\QL_UFKphKU\Q]ZLOZKGYkGRSL_NT QkGT]L_UWS^`iSbNsYjXNFKGFL
Û oÛ
D{T_Ns«UxL$QZKNTOU INFL_^`iSbNsYjXNFKGFLwQ^SbNsYjKiWGbL_GSbNsYjKiGIgFhHstVXGITRfL_ZKGZHNT_U NFL_^i^`FHJkGITOLOU\SI^i hH^`FLOULOUWGQ
^`T_Gd
TOUL]L_GIFq^Q
^cQOhKsq¢
4 + j0
4 + j4 "4 right and 0 up/down" -4 + j4
"4 right and 4 up" "4 left and 4 up"
-4 + j0
4 - j4 "4 left and 0 up/down" -4 -j4
"4 right and 4 down" "4 left and 4 down"
+ "imaginary"
+j
- "real" + "real"
-j
- "imaginary"
oÛ
ZKGZHNT_U NFL_^iSbNsYjaNFKGIFLU\QT_GbD{GTOT_GJrL_N^QLOZHG O
¿ Õ¾
SbNsBjXNFHGIFLflQOUFHSIGL_ZH^lLJPUsYGFHQ]UWNFtUWQSbNsYjH^`LOUWVKiWG
Uã ç
d
ULOZíFHNT_sY^ifrQOS^`i\^`T
¸`T_G^iW¸ FhKstVXGIT$QwZHGMkGITOLOU\SI^`iSbNsYjaNFKGIFLqUWQTOGID{GIT_TOGRJçLONç^QLOZHG I ú M¼HÕ iÕ-¿
SbNsYjaNFKGIFLfQ]UWFHSIGYLOZH^`LJPUWsBGFHQOUNFeiWUWGQgUWF^JPUxŤGIT_GIFLtJPUWT_GSL_UNF¡fLON`L$^`iWi|M^`iWUGFML_NqLOZKGQOS^`iWGBNDnL_ZKG[T_G^i
å`ä §
¨ ©n
ǻH¬
®0n©¯°±®0©n
²
FhKstVXGIT$Qw
&5
(4
%3
"imaginary"
number line '2
1
-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 4
-1
-2
-3
-4
-5
ULOZHGITtsYGILOZKNPJNDFKN`L$^lLOUWNFºUWQkl^`iWUWJmD{NTSINsYjKiWGbFhKstVXGIT$QIwMZKGjKT_UWsY^TO|eT_G^QONFmD{NTtZH^zkUWFKpLd!N
sYGbL_ZKNPJKQND}FKN`L$^lLOUWNFU\QD{NTGR^QOGgN`DiWNFKpZH^`FaJuS^`i\SbhKi\^lL_UNF¡fXTOGRSL_^FKphHiW^TD{NT_sÕiWGIFHJKUFKpUxL$Q]GixD}L_N^JHJPUxL_UNF
^`FaJQOhKVPL_T_^SLOUWNFfK^`FHJujXNi\^`T!D{NT_sôiWGIFHJKUFKpYUL_QOGIiDL_NcsthKiLOUWjKiWUWS^lL_UNFq^FHJuJPUkU\Q]UWNFw
nNFkGIT$Q]UWNFVXGbLd!GIGFºL_ZKGuLdnNmFKNL_^lL_UNFH^`i!D{NTOscQBUFkNiWkGQBQOUsYjKiWGuLOT_UpNFKNsBGILOT_|wºNSbNFkGITOLtD{T_Ns
jXNi\^`TLONmTOGRSL$^`FKphKiW^TfHFaJL_ZKGqTOGR^`i
SbNsBjXNFHGIFLBV|shKixL_UjHi|UWFKpL_ZKGqjaNiW^TYsY^pFKULOhaJPGV|mL_ZKGSbNQOUWFKG
N`D}L_ZKGY^`FKpiGfX^FHJqLOZHGUWsc^`pUWFH^TO|uSbNsYjXNFKGFLV|qsthKiLOUWjKiW|UWFKpLOZKGjaNiW^Tsc^pFKULOhHJKGtV|uLOZKGBQ]UWFKGtNDLOZHG
^`FHpiWGw
ZKU\Qsc^z|VXGthKFaJPGIT$QL_NNJqsYNTOGgT_G^JPUiW|V|qJPT$^zd
UFKpYL_ZKG hH^FL_UxL_UGRQ^QQOUWJPGRQND}^[TOUWpZL
LOT_U\^`FKpiGf
%ã
LOZHGZ|jaNLOGIFhHQOGNDXL_ZKGL_TOU\^`FHpiWG
TOGjKTOGRQ]GFLOUWFKpLOZKGkGRSLONTUL_QOGIiD
UxL$QiWGIFHp`LOZ^`FHJc^FKpiWG
d
UxL_Z[T_GQOjaGRSLL_NoLOZHG
Û ç Û
ZKNTOU INFL$^`iHSINFHQ]LOULOhKLOUWFKpgLOZHGjXNi\^`TD{NTOs fL_ZKGZKNTOU INFL_^`iK^FHJckGITOLOU\SI^`iaQ]U\JPGQTOGjKT_GQOGIFLOUWFKpLOZHG¸`T_G^iW¸^FHJ
¸`UWsc^`pUFH^TO|P¸tTOGRSL_^FKphHiW^TSINsYjXNFKGFL$QIfPT_GQOjXGSL_UkGIiW|¤¢
§
ªK
«Ä
©¨ a Y±
2 a I § § åò
length = 5
+j3
angle =
36.87o
+4
)5 ∠ 36.87 o
(polar form)
4 + j3 (rectangular form)
NSbNFkGITOLaD{T_Ns¬TOGRSL_^FKphHiW^T¤LON
jXNi\^`TRfbHFHJrL_ZKGjXNi\^`T¡sc^pFKULOhHJKGLOZKT_NhKpZL_ZKGhHQOG}N`DL_ZKGë|L_ZH^`pNT_G^`F
ã
ZKGNT_GIs L_ZKGjaNiW^Tsc^pFKULOhHJKG!U\QLOZKGZ|jaNLOGFhaQ]G!N`Da^T_UpZLLOT_U\^`FKpiGf`^`FHJoLOZKGT_G^`iP^FHJoUWsc^`pUWFH^TO|gSbNsB
ç
jXNFKGFL$Q^TOGoLOZKGB^Jz~]^SbGIFL^`FHJqNjKjaNQ]ULOGBQ]U\JPGRQIfXTOGRQ]jXGSbLOUWkGi| f¤^`FaJqLOZKGB^`FKpiGtV|uL$^`vUFHpcLOZKGY^`T$SL$^`FKpGIFL
N`DLOZHGgUsc^`pUFa^`T_|[SbNsYjXNFKGFL
JKUkU\JPGJuV|cLOZHGgTOGR^`i¡SbNsYjaNFKGIFL¢
*4 + j3 (rectangular form)
+c = ,a 2
+ b2 (pythagorean theorem)
polar magnitude =
*42
+ 32
polar magnitude = 5
)
)5 ∠ 36.87 o
(polar form)
ƺÇÈÉÊbÈË&%
ÆD{- TONsõ
¾oÕ-¿ FKNL_^lL_UNF[JPGIFHN`LOGRQn^tSbNsYjKiWGbYFhKstVXGIT!UWFcLOGTOscQnN`DUxL$QkGSbLONT Ú QiWGIFKpLOZ^FHJc^`FKphKi\^`TnJKUT_GSbLOUWNF
LOZKGoQ]L_^T]L_UFHpBjXNUWFLwP^sYjKiG¢¥ÝH| §» sYUWiGRQ ¦ ³ å ´ ã{·eGQ]LV|dßNhKLOZdnGRQL ç w
Æ èFeT_GSbL_^FKphKi\^`TgFHN`L_^`LOUWNF¡fLOZKG[HT_Q]L hH^`FL_UxL|MUWQL_ZKG¸TOGR^`i\¸uSINsYjXNFKGFLã
ZKNT_UÛINFL$^`iJPUWsYGIFHQOUNFmN`D
kGSbLONT ç ^`FHJLOZKGgQOGSINFHJ ha^`FLOUL|[U\Q!LOZKGg¸`UWsc^`pUFH^TO|P¸oSINsYjXNFKGFL#ã
kGITOLOU\SI^iXJKUsYGIFaQ]UWNFuN`DkGSbLONT ç w
ZKGUsc^`pUFa^`T_|YSINsYjXNFKGFL
U\QjKT_GSbGRJPGJV|^BiNld!GITOSI^QOG¸b~bf ¸YQONsYGbL_UsYGQ
S^`iWiGRJ[L_ZKGg¸~!NjXGIT$^lLONTw ¸
Æ ánNLOZYjXNi\^`Tn^FHJBTOGRSL$^`FKphKiW^T}D{NT_scQ}N`DFKNL_^`LOUWNFYD{NTn^oSbNsBjHiGIFhKstVXGIT!SI^FcVaGT_GIi\^lL_GJYpT_^jKZKU\SI^`iWiW|
Dã
UFLOZKGD{NTOsôN`D^BT_UpZL!L_TOU\^`FHpiWGfPd
ULOZLOZKGgZ|jaNLOGFhaQ]GT_GIjKT_GQOGIFLOUWFKpLOZKGgkGSbLONTUL_QOGIiD
jaNiW^T!D{NT_su¢
10 Û 20 ç oÛ
Z|jXN`L_GIFhHQOG
iGFKp`L_Z ísY^pFKULOhaJPGP^`FHpiWG
d
UxL_Z[TOGRQ]jXGSbLLONZKNT_U INFL$^`iHQOUWJKG ¬^`FKpiG fLOZKGZKNT_U NFL_^i
Q]U\JPG0T_GIjKT_GQOGIFL_UFKpmL_ZKG0T_GSbL_^`FHphKi\^`T¸TOGR^`i\¸mSbNsYjXNFKGFLf^`FaJçLOZKGkGITOLOU\SI^iQOUWJKG0TOGjKT_GQOGIFLOUWFKpmLOZHG
TOGRSL_^FKphHiW^T!¸Usc^`pUFa^`T_|¸SbNsBjXNFHGIFLw
VÂ
3
? Ð ÎÔ3ÊËPÌ ÈCÔ54UÌÅ´ÒÅÇA76Ô Ì
A~Ç\É
ß UWFHSbGMSbNsYjKiWGbçFhKstVXGIT$Q[^TOGiWGIpUxL_Usc^lL_G0sc^lL_ZKGIsc^lL_UWS^`iGFLOULOUWGQf~hHQLuiUWvGMQOS^`i\^`TcFhKstVXGIT$QfnL_ZKGI|çSI^F
VXGY^JKJPGRJf¡Q]hHVPLOT$^SbLOGJ¡f¡sthKiLOUWjKiWUGRJfJPUWkUWJKGJfQ hH^`T_GJ¡fXUWFkGT]L_GJf¡^FHJQOhHS$Z¡f~hHQ]LoiWUvGB^F|qNLOZKGTrvUWFHJMN`D
ß
FhKstVXGITRw NsYGQOSIUGFLOUaSSI^`i\SbhHiW^`LONT$Q^TOGjKT_NpT$^`sYsYGJcLONYJPUT_GSbLOiW|cjaGT]D{NTOsL_ZKGQOGrNjXGIT$^lLOUWNFaQNF[Ld!NNT
sYNT_GcSbNsYjKiWGbMFhHstVXGIT$QIfVKhPLgLOZHGQOGcNjXGIT$^lLOUWNFaQgSI^`Fm^`i\QONuVXG[JPNFKGc¸`V|0ZH^FHJw ¸ZKUWQtQ]GRSLOUWNFed
UWiiQOZKNld
~è ¾
|Nh[ZKNld L_ZKGVH^QOU\SNjXGIT$^lL_UNFHQ!^`T_GjXGITOD{NT_sBGRJw EL
UWQ #xz# xú T_GSINsYsYGIFHJKGJYL_ZH^lL
|Nh[G hKUWju|NhHT_QOGIiD¡d
UxL_Z
~è
^tQ_SbUWGIFL_UxaSSI^iWSIhKiW^`LONTnSI^jH^`VHiGN`DjXGITOD{NT_sYUFKp^`T_UxL_ZKsYGbLOU\SD{hKFHSL_UNFHQnG^QOUWi|YNFSbNsYjKiWGbcFhKsVaGT_Qw EL!d
UWii
Ú
sc^`vGo|NhKTQ]LOhHJK|N`D«SbUWT$SbhKULshHS$Z0sYNT_GojKiWG^QO^FLLOZH^FUD|Nh T_GgD{NT$SbGRJqLONuJPN^iiSI^iWSIhKi\^lLOUWNFaQ
LOZHG
iWNFKpGITd!^z|w
JHJPUxL_UNF^FHJoQOhKVPLOT$^SbLOUWNFod
ULOZYSbNsYjKiGIgFhHstVXGIT$QUWFtT_GSbL_^`FHphKi\^`TD{NT_s«U\QG^Q]|wKNT^JKJPULOUWNF¡f`QOUWsBjHi|
^JHJghKjgL_ZKGT_G^iSbNsYjaNFKGIFL_QN`DPL_ZKGnSINsYjKiWGbFhKstVXGIT$Q¡L_NJPGILOGTOsYUWFKG}LOZHGnT_G^iSbNsYjaNFKGIFLNDPLOZKGQ]hHsufl^FHJ
^JHJhHjqLOZKGoUWsc^`pUFH^TO|SbNsYjXNFKGFL_Q
NDL_ZKGoSbNsYjKiGIuFhKsVaGT_Q
LON[JPGILOGIT_sYUFHGgLOZKGgUWsc^`pUFH^TO|SbNsYjXNFKGFL
N`DLOZHGoQ]hKsq¢
82 + j5
9+ *4 - j3 9+175 - j34
820 ++ j82
9+-36 j10
:6 + j2 80 - j15
255 - j49 -16 + j92
· ZKGFuQOhKVPL_T_^SLOUWFKpYSbNsBjHiGI[FhHstVXGIT$QnUWFuTOGRSL_^FKphHiW^TD{NTOsqfKQOUsYjKiW|[Q]hHVPLOT$^SbL!L_ZKGTOGR^`iSbNsYjaNFKGIFLN`D
LOZHG[Q]GRSbNFaJeSINsYjKiWGbeFhHstVXGITD{T_NsÑL_ZKG[T_G^iSbNsYjXNFKGFLNDnL_ZKGcHT$Q]LgLON0^`T_T_UkGB^`LgLOZKGcT_G^iSbNsYjXNFKGFL
N`D!LOZHG[JPUxŤGIT_GIFaSbGf^`FaJMQOhKVPL_T_^SLgLOZHGcUsc^`pUFa^`T_|SbNsBjXNFHGIFLgN`D!LOZKGQOGSINFHJeSbNsYjKiGIFhKstVXGIToD{TONsÑLOZHG
UWsY^pUWFH^`T_|[SbNsYjaNFKGIFL
N`DLOZKGaT_Q]LLON[^`T_T_UkGLOZHGgUsc^`pUFa^`T_|[SbNsYjXNFKGFLN`DL_ZKGoJPUÅXGTOGFHSbG¢
82 + j5
* 175 - j34
8
-36 + j10
- 4 - j3
-2 + j8
;
- 80 - j15
95 - j19
- 20 + j82
-56 - j72
KNTYiNFKpZH^FHJshKixL_UjHiU\SI^`LOUWNFç^`FHJyJPUWkU\QOUNF¡fjXNi\^`TYUWQL_ZKGuD
^zkNT_GJFKN`L$^lLOUWNFºLONmd!NT_ved
ULOZw · ZKGF
¼ b¾ þ ½¾
sthHixL_UjKiW|UFHpuSINsYjKiWGb0FhKstVXGIT$QUFejaNiW^TD{NTOsqf¡QOUsYjKiW| ²é ú L_ZKGBjaNiW^Tsc^`pFKULOhHJPGRQrN`DL_ZKGcSbNsYjKiWGb
FhKstVXGIT$QLON JKGbLOGTOsYUWFKG0L_ZKGjXNi\^`Tusc^`pFKUxL_hHJPGMN`DgLOZHGjKT_NPJPhHSLRf^FHJ Õ`Ö[Ö
L_ZKGm^`FKpiGRQ[N`DgL_ZKGmSbNsYjKiWGb
FhKstVXGIT$Q!LON[JKGbLOGTOsYUWFKGrLOZKGo^FKpiWGN`DLOZKGgjHTONPJPhHSbL¢
=<
ªK «¨
®0©¯°[±®0©
°
®0© I¨ P§ § § î
(3 ∠ 30o)(5 ∠ -30o) = 15 ∠ 0o
UkU\Q]UWNFNDjaNiW^T]D{NT_sôSbNsYjKiGIFhHstVXGIT$QU\Q^`i\QON[G^Q]|¤¢Q]UWsYjKi|qJPUWkUWJPGtLOZKGjaNiW^Tsc^`pFKULOhHJPGtN`D}LOZHG
HT$QLSINsYjKiWGbqFhKstVXGITV|LOZKGojXNi\^`TsY^pFKULOhaJPGgN`DLOZHGtQ]GRSbNFHJqSbNsYjKiWGbuFhKstVXGIT
L_N^`T_T_UkG^`L
LOZKGtjaNiW^T
sc^`pFKUxL_hHJPGN`DLOZHG hKNLOUWGIFLfa^`FHJuQ]hHVPLOT$^SbL!L_ZKGg^`FKpiGNDLOZHGoQ]GRSbNFaJSINsYjKiWGbFhKsVaGTD{TONsõLOZKGo^FKpiWGrN`D
LOZHGHT_Q]LSbNsBjHiGIFhKstVXGITL_Nc^`T_TOUWkG^lLLOZHGo^`FKpiGN`DLOZHG hHN`LOUWGIFLR¢
35 ∠ 65o >
= 3.5 ∠ 77o
10 ∠ -12o
124 ∠ 250o
= 11.273 ∠ 150o
11 ∠ 100o
)53∠∠-30
30 o
?
= 0.6 ∠ 60o
o
ã @ ç Sã
NNVPL$^`UWFgLOZHGT_GSbUWjKT_NPSI^`ifRNT¸UFkGITOL_¸ î R fl^SbNsYjKiWGbFhKstVXGITRflQ]UWsYjKiW|JKUkU\JPGL_ZKGFhKsVaGT
UFjaNiW^T
D{NT_s ç UWFL_N0^0Q_SI^`i\^`Tgkl^ihKGcNDgîfd
ZKUWS$ZU\QgFKNLOZKUWFKp0sYNTOGYL_ZH^`F^SINsYjKiWGbMFhKsVaGTtd
ULOZFKNUsc^`pUFa^`T_|
#ã A0
SbNsYjaNFKGIFL
^FKpiWG Û³ ¢ ç
1
=
1 ∠ 0o
= 0.02857 ∠ -65o
?
35 ∠ 65o 35 ∠ 65o
1
=
1 ∠ 0o
= 0.1 ∠ 12o
?
10 ∠ -12o
10 ∠ -12 o
µ
1
= µ
1 ∠ 0o >
= 312.5 ∠ -10o
0.0032 ∠ 10o 0.0032 ∠ 10o
ZKGRQ]Gt^TOGoLOZKGVH^QOUWSoNjXGIT$^lLOUWNFaQ|Nhd
UiWiFKGIGRJqLONvFHNld«UWF0NT_JPGTL_N[sc^`FKUWjKhKi\^lL_GSbNsYjKiGIFhHstVXGIT$Q
WU F L_ZKG^`FH^i|PQOUWQBNDrôSbUWT_SIhKUxL$QIw¦ÃjXGIT$^lLOUWNFaQd
ULOZ SINsYjKiWGbºFhKsVaGT_QY^`T_GqV|FKNmsYG^`FaQiWUWsBULOGRJM~hHQL
LONu^JKJKUxL_UNF¡fXQOhKVPL_T_^SL_UNF¡fashKiLOUWjKiU\SI^`LOUWNF¡f¤JPUWkUWQOUNF¡f¤^`FHJUWFkGT_QOUNF¡fHZHNldnGkGITRw UWT]L_hH^`iWiW|q^F|u^TOULOZKsYGILOU\S
NjXGIT$^lL_UNFyLOZH^`LSI^`F VXGJPNFKGd
ULOZ¦Q_SI^`i\^`TcFhKsVaGT_QSI^`FçVXGJPNFKG0d
ULOZ¦SbNsYjKiGI FhKsVaGT_QfUFHSIihaJPUFHp
B
jXNldnGT_QfnT_NN`L$QIf
QONiWkUWFKpQOUshKiL_^`FHGINhaQcG hH^`LOUWNFHQd
UxL_Z¦SbNsYjKiWGb SbNG cSIUGFL_Qf^FHJçGIkGIFçL_TOUWpNFKNsYGbL_TOU\S
ã +½ \¿ -¾ Ô»
D{hKFHSbLOUWNFHQ ^`iLOZKNhKpZLOZHUWQUWFkNiWkGRQ^d
ZKNiGFKGdºjXGIT$Q]jXGSbLOUWkG!UFBLOT_UWpNFHNsYGbL_TO|gSI^iiWGJ #ú H I£$ ü éP
` i»Pþ FÀ
ç Ú
d
ZKU\S$Z UWQ[dnGiiVXGI|NFHJyL_ZKG0Q_SbNjXG0NDL_ZKUWQJPU\QOSIhHQOQOUWNF w‡!GQOhKTOGqL_ZH^lL[|Nh T_GqD
^`sYUiWU\^`T[d
ULOZçL_ZKG0VH^Q]U\S
Ú
^`T_ULOZKsYGbL_UWSuNjaGT_^`LOUWNFHQBN`D^JKJKUxL_UNF¡f!QOhKVPL_T_^SL_UNF¡fshKixL_UjHiU\SI^`LOUWNF¡f!JPUkU\Q]UWNFf!^FHJºUWFkGT_QOUNF¡f^FHJº|Nh iWi
ZH^zkGiWUxLOLOiWGgLOT_NhHVKiGd
ULOZíSbUWT_SIhKUxL^FH^`iW|PQ]U\QIw
r¦
§ §
¨ ©n
ǻH¬
®0n©¯°±®0©n
²
ƺÇÈÉÊbÈË&%
Æ No^JKJYSbNsYjKiWGbBFhKstVXGIT$Q}UWFBT_GSbL_^FKphKi\^`TD{NTOsqf^JKJLOZHGTOGR^`iKSINsYjaNFKGIFL$Q^`FHJc^JKJLOZKGUsc^`pUFa^`T_|
%ß
SbNsYjXNFKGFL_Qw PhKVPLOT$^SbLOUWNFuUWQQ]UWsYUi\^`TRw
Æ NBsthKiLOUWjKiW|SbNsYjKiGI[FhKstVXGIT$Q!UFujaNiW^T!D{NT_sufshKixL_UjHi|cL_ZKGsc^`pFHUxL_hHJPGQ^FHJ^JKJcL_ZKGg^`FKpiGRQIwN
JPUkU\JPGfKJKUkU\JPGLOZKGgsc^pFKULOhHJKGQ
^`FaJuQOhKVPL_T_^SL
NFHG^FKpiWGrD{TONsõLOZHGgN`LOZHGITRw
VÂDC
? Î
å BÔ Ì ÌdÒoÔ3ÊËPÌÍþÒ¶Ç$A#6÷Î Ð ÉÇ\Å%ÉCÇA¥Í
Ú
¡GIL QtSINFKFKGRSLoL_ZKT_GIG¥kNiL_^`pGcQ]NhKT_SIGQgUWFºQOGIT_UGRQo^`FaJmhHQ]GSbNsYjKiWGbmFhKstVXGIT$QgL_NJPGILOGIT_sYUFHG^JKJKUxL_UkG
kNixL$^`pGQwiWiL_ZKG[T_hKiGRQo^`FaJMi\^zdQgiWG^TOFKGRJeUFeLOZHGQL_hHJP|eN`DgÄSIUT$SbhHUxL$Qo^`jKjHi|LONÄSbUWT_SIhKUL_Qo^QgdnGii
ã Ú % ¡ Ú ~ ç
ÃZHs Q ^zdgf UWT$S$ZKZKN`Å Q ^zdQflFKGbLd!NT_vo^`FH^i|PQOUWQsYGbL_ZKNPJKQ fd
ULOZLOZKGGIPSIGIjPL_UNFNDajXNldnGTS^`i\SbhKi\^lL_UNFHQw
ZKGoNFKiW| hH^`iWUaSI^`LOUWNFqUWQLOZH^`L^`iWikl^TOU\^`VKiWGQ Vé ¼ À:þ
VXGoGbPjKT_GQ_QOGJuUF0SINsYjKiWGbD{NT_sufHL_^vUWFKpcUWFLON^SISbNhKFL
ã
jKZH^Q]G^Q
d!GIiWi^Q
sc^`pFHUxL_hHJPGf¤^`FaJ^`iWi¡kNixL$^`pGRQ^`FaJSbhKT_TOGFL_QsthaQLrVaGoNDLOZKGBQO^sBGD{T_G hKGFHSb| {UWFNT$JPGT
LOZa^lL
LOZHGIUWT
jKZH^QOGgT_GIi\^lLOUWNFaQ]ZKUWjHQ!T_GIsc^`UWFuSINFHQ]L_^FL w ç
822 V ∠ -64 o
+
E1
-
+ load
12 V ∠ 35o E2
-
+
15 V ∠ 0o E3
-
ZKGjXNi\^`T_UL|tsc^`T_vPQD{NT!^`iWiKLOZHTOGGkNixL$^`pG
QONhKT$SbGRQ^`T_G
NT_UWGIFLOGRJYUF[QOhHS$Z[^gd^z|oL_ZH^lLnLOZKGUT!QL$^lLOGRJYkNixLO
^`pGQ!Q]ZHNhKi\J^JKJcL_NYsY^vGLOZKGrL_N`L_^ikNixL$^`pGr^SITONQOQLOZKGiWN^JTOGRQ]U\Q]LONTRwóN`L_UWSIGrLOZH^`L
^ixL_ZKNhHpZsc^pFKULOhHJKG
è
^`FaJ0jKZH^Q]GB^`FKpiGUWQrpUkGIFD{NTGR^S$Z«kNiL_^pGtQONhKT$SbGfaFHND{T_G hKGFHSb|qkl^`iWhKGBUWQQOjaGRSbUHGJw EDLOZKU\QrUWQLOZHG
SI^Q]GfUxLgU\Q^Q_Q]hKsYGRJLOZa^lLo^`iWiD{TOG hHGIFHSIUGRQr^TOGBG hH^if¤L_ZhHQsYGIGbL_UFHpNhKT ha^`iWUxaS^lL_UNFHQD{NTg^`jKjHi|UWFKpug
Vã ç
T_hKiGRQ
L_N^`FM«SbUWT_SIhKUxL
^iiHphHTOGRQpUWkGFUFMSbNsYjKiWGbqD{NTOsqf¤^`iWiN`D}L_ZKGYQO^sBGoD{TOG hHGIFHSI| wZKGBQ]GILOhKjN`D
NhHT
G hH^lL_UNFL_NBHFHJLONL_^`ikNiL_^pG^`jKjXG^T_Q^Q
Q]hHS$Z¢
EE total = E1 + E2 + E3
EE total = (22 V ∠ -64o) + (12 V ∠ 35o) + (15 V ∠ 0o)
ârT$^`jKZKU\SI^iiW|fL_ZKGgkGRSLONT_Q^JKJuhKjqUFLOZKU\Q
sc^`FHFKGITR¢
GF P§
ªK Py²¡®0©ç©¯r®0n©!²Ü0 2o¨¬¨
¨r± }² P§ rå
§
22 ∠ -64o
15 ∠ 0o
12 ∠ 35o
Hresultant vector
22 ∠ -64o
15 ∠ 0o
12 ∠ 35o
è Ú
FqNT$JPGIT!L_N[JPGbL_GIT_sBUWFKGgd
ZH^`L
LOZKGgT_GQOhKiL_^FL
kGSL_NT Q!sc^`pFKULOhHJPGo^FHJq^`FKpiGg^TOGd
ULOZKNhPLTOGRQ]NT]L_UFHptL_N
pT$^`jHZKUWSUWsc^`pGQf`dnGSI^`FcSINFkGT]LGR^S$ZYNFKG
ND¤LOZKGRQ]GjXNi\^`TOD{NT_sÄSbNsBjHiGIBFhKsVaGT_Q}UWFLONoT_GSbL_^FKphKi\^`TD{NTOs
^`FaJ^JHJwo
GIsYGstVXGITRfdnG T_G Ú Õ[Ö`Ö l LOZHGQOGtHphKT_GQLONpGbL_ZKGITrVXGSI^hHQOGtL_ZKGjXNi\^`T_UL|usc^TOvPQD{NTrLOZKGLOZHTOGG
kNixL$^`pGrQONhKT$SbGRQ^`T_GrNTOUWGIFL_GJ[UWF^`F^JHJPUxL_UkGsY^FKFKGT¢
§§ §
¨ ©n
ǻH¬
®0n©¯°±®0©n
²
15 V ∠ 0o = 15 + j0 V
15 + j0 V
¶
9.8298 + j6.8829 V
¶
>34.4740 - j12.8906 V
+ 9.6442 - j19.7735 V
è å ä `¦
FjXNi\^`T
D{NTOsqfKL_ZKU\QG hH^`LOGRQLON Ì w ³ » kNiL_Q I ¦ ä
³Kw » ³Hî ´Iw· ZH^`LLOZHUWQsYG^`FaQ
UFT_G^iLOGTOscQUWQLOZH^`L
å ä [¦
LOZHGkNixL$^`pG
sBGR^QOhKT_GJY^SITONQOQL_ZKGQOG
L_ZKTOGGkNixL$^`pGQ]NhKT_SIGQ}d
UWiWiaVXG Ì w ³ » kNiL_Qfi\^`ppUWFKpLOZKGî » kNiL
³´ ã
ç ¦ ä
jKZH^Q]GTOGID{GIT_GIFHSIG V| ³Hw » ³Kî ´w¬kNixL_sYGbLOGTnSINFKFKGRSL_GJ[^SbT_NQ_QLOZKGRQ]GjaNUFL$QUWF^gT_G^iaSbUWT$SbhKULnd!NhKi\JYNFHi|
ã å ä `¦
UWFHJPU\SI^lL_GYLOZKGjaNiW^TgsY^pFKULOhaJPG[N`D!LOZHG[kNixL$^`pG Ì w ³ » ç
kNiL_Q fFKN`LtLOZKG^FKpiWGwFNQ_SbUWiWiNQOSINjXGBSINhKi\J
VXGBhaQ]GRJ0L_NqJKUWQOjKi\^z|qLdnNukNixL$^`pGd!^zkGbD{NTOscQr^`FHJLOZhHQjKT_NlkUWJKG^ujKZH^Q]GYQ]ZHUxDLosYG^Q]hHTOGsBGFLfVKhPLoFHN`Lg^
kNixL_sYGbLOGTwoZHGBQ_^`sYGtjHTOUWFHSbUWjKiWGZHNi\JKQLOT_hKGtD{NTg°^`sYsYGbL_GIT$QI¢
L_ZKGI|UWFHJPU\SI^`LOGLOZKGYjXNi\^`Trsc^`pFHUxL_hHJPGBN`D
LOZHGoSbhKT_TOGFLfPFKNL!L_ZKGgjKZH^Q]Gg^FKpiWGw
ZKU\Q!UWQGIL_TOGsYGIiW|cUsYjXNTOL_^`FL
UWFT_GIi\^lL_UFKpYSI^iWSIhKi\^lLOGRJcHphKT_GQ!N`DkNiL_^pGr^`FHJuSbhKT_T_GIFLnL_NT_G^iSbUWT_SIhKUxL$QIw
iLOZHNhKpZuT_GSbL_^FKphKi\^`TFKNL_^`LOUWNFqUWQSbNFkGIFKUWGIFLD{NT^JKJPULOUWNF^`FaJuQOhKVPL_T_^SL_UNF¡fK^`FHJud^QUWFHJPGGJuLOZHGHFH^`i
Q]LOGIjUF0NhKTQ_^`sYjKiWGojKT_NVHiGsÕZKGTOGfaULU\QFKN`LkGIT_|u^jKjKiWUWS^`VKiWGgL_NjKT$^SbLOU\SI^`isBGR^QOhKT_GIsYGIFL_Qw
GRSL_^FKphHiW^T
#ã
HphKTOGRQsthHQ]LVXGtSbNFkGITOLOGRJcL_N[jaNiW^THphHTOGRQ
QOjaGRSbUaSI^iiW|jXNi\^`T ¼HÕ Mþ
Ö +ç
IH né VXGbD{NTOGL_ZKGI|qSI^FuVXGoT_GIi\^lL_GJ
LONc^SLOha^`iSIUT$SbhKUL
sYG^QOhKT_GIsYGIFL$QIw
*ß è è KJ
·eGSI^FhHQOG Pë O!çLON[kGIT_UxD{|LOZHG^SSbhKT$^SI|NDNhKTTOGRQ]hKiL_Qw FL_ZKU\QL_GQ]LrSbUWT$SbhKULfaLOZKGî³cv «T_GQOUWQ]LONT
è Ú ß è
kl^`iWhKGtU\Q hHUxL_G^`T_VKULOT$^`T_|w EL QLOZHGIT_GQONcLOZH^`L Pë O!íJPNGRQFKNLrJPGRSbi\^`T_Gt^`F0NjaGFPSbUWT_SIhKUxLrGIT_TONT^`FaJ0^`VXNTOL
pã áÛ ç
^`Fa^`iW|QOU\QIwiWQONHfRL_ZKGnS$ZKNUWSIGN`DPD{T_G hKGFHSbUWGQD{NTLOZKG!Q]UWsthHiW^`LOUWNF Ì ³ U\Q hHUxL_Gn^`T_VKULOT$^`T_|fRVaGRSI^hHQ]GTOGRQ]U\QL_NT$Q
T_GQOjaNFHJ¦hKFHUxD{NTOsYiW|çD{NT^`iWirD{TOG hHGIFHSIUGRQNDþkNiL_^`pGM^FHJíSIhKTOT_GIFLRwôZKGIT_GM^TOGeN`L_ZKGITSINsYjaNFKGIFL$Q
ã ç
{FHN`L_^VKiW|SI^jH^SIUxL_NT$Q^`FHJBUWFHJPhHSbLONT$Q d
ZKUWS$ZcJPNFKNLTOGRQ]jXNFaJhHFKUxD{NTOsYiW|oL_NoJPUxŤGIT_GIFL}D{T_G hKGFHSbUWGQf`VKhPLLOZH^`L
U\Q
^`FKNLOZKGTQ]hKVK~GSLRû
GF P§
ªK Py²¡®0©ç©¯r®0n©!²Ü0 2o¨¬¨
¨r± }² P§ §»
3 3
822 V ∠ -64 o
+ LV
1
-
2
+ LV MR 10 kΩ
12 V ∠ 35o 2
1
-
1
15 V ∠ 0o
+ LV
3
-
0 0
NPO/QKRSUTNWVKXYN[Z[Z!\]T^\_R_`
Qbaca/dcNPOea]fcdhg\i`
QKjcjkalNPOea]jcmnfg\o`
QKmcmpjcNPOYjnjpq[rWshg\o`
tbalmpdua]dWv
w NPt!OY\o`SPTc\i`xNPO/alQrndcDm#rnddQ Dm7d NP{y g z}|N~^ZgX[\o`nnVNU~NSUTY[QtKNXWWS_~P~PXXU`^O]R[crnd
wXU`Z
w
7 ¦ A
hKT_GrGIFKNhKpZ¡fPd!GpGIL
^tLONL_^ikNiL_^pGrN`D Ì w KîkNixL$Q ³Hw » ´ d
UxL_ZqTOGID{GIT_GIFHSIGL_NL_ZKGYî » kNixL
QONhKT$SbGf
d
ZKNQ]GjKZH^Q]Gg^FKpiWGd!^Q!^TOVHUxL_T_^TOUWi|[Q]L_^`LOGRJu^`L IGIT_NcJPGIpTOGGQQONY^Q!LONYVXGLOZKGo¸TOGID{GIT_GIFHSIG¸d!^zkGbD{NT_s w
!L
HT$QLpiW^FHSbGfPLOZHUWQ
U\QSINhKFLOGT]EUWFL_hKULOUWkGw Nld«UWQ
ULjXNQ_Q]UWVKiWGrLON[NVPL_^UFq^BLONL_^`ikNiL_^pGN`DX~hHQ]LNlkGT
¦
Ì kNiL_Qgd
ULOZ î » kNiLfnî kNixLRf^FHJ ¦`¦
kNixLtQOhKjKjKiWUWGQoSINFKFKGRSL_GJeUFQOGIT_UWGQ$Ö°· UxL_ZºgfLOZKU\Qod!NhHiWJeVXG
UWsBjXNQ_QOUVKiWGf¤^QkNixL$^`pGaphKT_GQd
UiWiGUxL_ZKGITrJPUWTOGRSLOiW|^JKJqNTQOhKVPL_T_^SLf¤JPGjaGFHJPUWFKpNFjaNiW^TOUL|wá!hPLrd
UxL_Z
f¡NhKTt¸`jXNi\^`T_UL|¸ jHZH^QOG[Q]ZHUxDL gSI^Fekl^TO|^F|d
ZHGIT_GBUWFmVaGILdnGGIFeD{hKiWix^`U\JPUWFKp0^`FaJD{hHiiNjKjXNQOUFKpaf^FHJ
LOZHUWQ^iiWNldQnD{NTQOhHS$ZujH^`T$^JPNzPU\SI^iXQOhKsYsYUFKpaw
^ 1
· ZH^`L!UDd!GrLONNvYL_ZKGgQO^sBGSbUWT$SbhKUL^FHJ[T_GIkGIT$Q]GRJcNFHGNDLOZHGQOhKjKjHi| Q!SINFKFHGSL_UNFHQ$Ö EL_Q
SbNFLOT_UVKhKLOUWNF
LONBL_ZKGLONL_^`ikNiL_^pGrdnNhKi\J[L_ZKGIFqVXGLOZKGgNjKjaNQ]ULOGNDd
ZH^`L
UxLd^QVXGbD{NTOG¢
§Ì 7 ¡§©¢«ªP£¬¨
®¤¡¥©¯e¦±®¤§©¢²
¨
+
22 V ∠ -64o E1
-
Polarity reversed on
source E2 ! - load
12 V ∠ 35o E2
+
+
15 V ∠ 0o E3
-
¦ ^
óNLOGZKNldíLOZKGcî kNiLQ]hKjHjKi| Q
jKZH^Q]Gg^FKpiWGUWQ
Q]LOUWiiTOGID{GIT_TOGRJcLON[^Q » ´zfKGIkGIFLOZKNhKpZLOZHGgiGR^JKQZH^zkG
VXGIGIFcT_GIkGIT$Q]GRJw
GsYGIstVXGITLOZH^`L}LOZKGjKZH^QOG^`FHpiWG!ND¡^`F|okNixL$^`pGJKTONjBU\QQ]L_^`LOGJBUWFcTOGID{GIT_GIFHSIG!LONoUL_Q}FHN`LOGRJ
i
jXNi\^`T_UxL|w[kGFL_ZKNhHpZeLOZKG^`FKpiGYU\QoQL_UiWid
T_UxLOLOGFm^Q » ´zf¡L_ZKGckGRSL_NTgd
UWiiVXGJPT$^zd
Fyî ³´oNjKjXNQOUxL_GcN`D
d
ZH^`LUxLd^Q!VXGbD{NT_G¢
22 ∠ -64o
15 ∠ 0o
ZKG
T_GQOhKiL_^`FL Q]hKs kGSbLONTQ]ZKNhKi\JYVaGpUWFY^`LLOZHGhKjKjXGITOiWGbDLnjaNUFL NT_UpUFYN`D¤L_ZKG ¦`¦ D
kNiLkGRSLONT ^FHJ
LOGTOsYUWFH^lL_Gg^lL
LOZHGgTOUWpZL^`T_TONldçL_UjqNDL_ZKGcî » kNixL
kGSL_NTR¢
K£GF£y²¡®0©ç©¯2 ®¤¡¥©!²Ü¤¨P§7h o¨¬¨©¨ª¢¨r±«¨P§}²
ª ¬
§
22 ∠ -64o
resultant vector
15 ∠ 0o
¦
ZKGoSINFKFKGRSL_UNFuT_GIkGIT$QO^i¤NFuLOZKGcî kNixLQOhKjKjKiW|uS^`FqVXGgTOGjKTOGRQ]GFLOGJUWFqLdnNcJPUÅXGTOGFLd!^z|PQ!UWFjaNiW^T
i
D{NT_sq¢V|[^F^JKJPULOUWNFNDî ³´
LONBUxL$QkGSbLONT!^FKpiWG sc^`vUFHptULî kNiL_Q ¦ ¦
î » ´ fPNT!^T_GIkGT_Q_^`iaN`DQ]UWpF[NF
LOZHGcsY^pFKULOhaJPG sc^`vUWFKpULg$î kNiL_Q¦ » ´ bwcULOZKGTrd^z|fSbNFkGIT$Q]UWNFL_NqTOGRSL_^FKphHiW^TD{NTOsÑ|UWGIi\JKQrLOZHG
Q_^`sYGTOGRQ]hKiL¢
15
9+ j0 V
9+
-9.8298 - j6.8829 V
¶
9.6442 - j19.7735 V
F0jX14.8143
Ni\^`TD{NT_sufaLOZHUWQrG hH^`LOGRQ
LON1³Hw §òÌ`§
- j26.6564 V
Ì ³Hw ò Ì ´wÃFHSIG^p^`UWF¡fXdnGtd
UiWihHQ]G ë O! LONkGIT_UxD{|
LOZHGgTOGRQ]hKiL_QNDNhKT
SI^iWSIhKiW^`LOUWNFHQ¢
NPO/QKRSUTNWVKXYN[Z[Z!\]T^\_R_`
Qbaca/dcNPOea]fcdhg\i`
QKjua/jcNPOea]jcmnfg\o` ®KRWTKXYT[¯PXtKXWQXWt!gUNS/R[`KR[ZX`n~U|P°KXWt!gljpNU`KZua
QKmcmpjcNPOYjnjpq[rWshg\o` TKRhgn\ |P~S[NUTKXT[¯PXg]±PN n \o`VR[²O_RU`n`PXPO]T^\_RU`^g
tbalmpdua]dWv
w NPt!OY\o`SPTc\i`xNPO/alQrndcDm#rnddQ Dm7d
wXU`Z
w
§ 7 ¡§©¢«ªP£¬¨
®¤¡¥©¯e¦±®¤§©¢²
¨
· ZKGIFcT_GIkGIT$Q]UWFKprLOZKGrJPUWTOGRSLOUWNFYND^okGSbLONT G hHUkl^`iWGIFLL_NoT_GIkGT_QOUWFKpL_ZKGjXNi\^`T_UL|tN`D¡^F[kNiL_^pG
Æ
D
Q]NhKT_SIG
UFTOGiW^`LOUWNFYL_NtN`L_ZKGIT!kNixL$^`pGQ]NhKT_SIGQ fUxLSI^F[VaGGbPjKT_GQ_Q]GRJYUFGIULOZKGTnNDLdnNJPUxŤGIT_GIFLd!^z|PQ¢
i
^JKJPUWFKpqî ³´LONBLOZHGo^`FKpiGfPNT
T_GIkGT_QOUWFKpoL_ZKGoQ]UWpFuN`DLOZHGgsY^pFKULOhaJPGw
= Ê Ë Ì Í Ë Î Ì Ê Ë Î Ï
Ð Ñ Ê Ï Ë Î Ì Ê Ò Ð Î Ï Ó Ì Í ÐÔ Ê
ÕÖi× ØÚÙÜÛ#ÝÞ©ßBÞbà7áAÛâÙßBÛ#ÙãäßDà7Þ
Time
eL
e=
i=
+
Time
e=
i=
+
Time
-
tcurrent slope =
uvoltage = 0 0
tcurrent slope = max. (-)
uvoltage = max. (-)
LïKûþòKöWùöWç êçBõWçBò1ýúëUéç2ûþò[êçiéçoùªêû¸òKöúæïKçiòæç ìKíþë_êêïKçìë@æèçBéèå÷ëWéêïKû ùð ûþéDð ñKû¸ê
+`¦ .7 ¡§0/¢21K£l¢3/ .§P ¦ .0/ ¦"4h¨65¤¡7/84 ¦ .0/:9¨ª¦4<;=.§©¨?>@/
e=
i=
+ p=
F
Time
-
èçiðió_ñPùçûþòPùüêóUòWêDó_òKçiëUñPùì!ë@æèçBéû ùêïKçìPéëôñPð êë_å©êïKçûþòPùüêóUòWêDó_òKçiëUñPùõWëUí¸êóUöUç ó_òPô êïPçû¸òPùüêóUò[êó_òPçBëUñù
ð ñPééçBò[ê ì'Iû¸ç]H[êïPçì!ë@æçiéîçKWñó_í ùBçiéëAæïKçBòKçiõUçiéêïPçûþòPùüêó_ò[êDó_òKçiëUñPùð ñKééçiò[êl ¹ õWëUí¸êó_öWçû ùîiçBéë#@ïKçBòZv
çBõWçBéêïKç ûþòPùüêó_ò[êDó_òKçiëUñPùð ñPééçBò[êó_òPô õUëUí¸êóUöUç2ó_éç"D!ë_êï ì!ëWùûêû¸õWç ó-D!ë@õUçêïKç íþû¸òKç]HêïKç ìë@æèçBéèû ùì!ëWùû¸êûþõUç
ÿùèæû¸êï êïKç2éçoùüû ùüêëUéç!Kó_ýúìKíþçWêïPçì!ë@æçiéîû ùó_í ùüëì!ëWùû¸êûþõUç2æïKçBòêïKç2û¸òPùüêóUò[êó_òPçBëUñùðBñKééçBò[êóUòPôõWëUí¸êóUöUç
ó_é_ç D!ë_êïäòPçBöWó_êûþõUç Dçií¸ë@æêïPçAíþû¸òKç]Hë@æèçBõWçBéBD!çiðBóUñPùç êïKçIð ñKééçiò[êó_òPôõWëUí¸êó_öWç æèó]õWçiùó_éç* , q ëUñêë_å
ìKïPóWùüç [êïKçiéç ó_éçêû¸ýúçoùæïPçBò1ëUòKç2ûþùèì!ëWùûêû¸õWçæïPû¸íþçêïKç ë_êïKçBéû ùòPçBöWó_êûþõUçWéçiùñKí¸êûþòKöûþò1çK[ñPó_íþíþøå÷éçK[ñKçiò[ê
ëðBðBñKééçBòð çiùèëU=å º[·@» ¿D» · »· ' ½nS¿ ½ \ ¹
èñêæïPó_êôënçi_ ù º[·@» ìë@æèçBéýúçoó_$ò w¤êýúçió_òùèêïPó_êêïKçûþòPôñð
êëWéû ùéçií¸çoóUùû¸òKöúì!ë@æçiCé DPóUð êëúêïPç
ð ûþéDð ñKû¸ê æïKûþíþç óIì!ëWùûêû¸õWç ìë@æèçBéèýúçió_òùèêïPó_êû¸êû ù-ó DPùëUé DKûþòKöAì!ë@æçiéèå÷éëWýxêïKçðBû¸éDð ñKû¸ê û¸òPðBç2êïKç ì!ëWùûêû¸õWç
ó_òôòKçBö[ó@êû¸õWçìë@æèçBéèð øð íþçiùèó_éçç KWñó_í!û¸òýóUöUòKû¸êñPôKçó_òôôñKéDó@êû¸ëWòë@õUçié#êûþýúç [êïKç2ûþòPôñPð êëUéèéçBíþçióUùçiyù xªñPùªê
óUùýAñðDïìë@æèçB=é DPóWð AêëAêïKç2ðBû¸éDð ñPûêóUùîûê-ó DPùëUé DPùîë@õUçBéîêïKç ùìPó_òëUå«óAðBëUýúìKíþç êç2ðBønðBí¸ç 0ïPó@êèêïKû ùèýúçió_òù
ûþò1óIìKéDóUð êû ðBó_í ùçBòPùç2ûþùèêïPó@êêïPçéçoóUð
êDó_òPðBçëUå©ó_ò1ûþòPôñPð êëUéôKûþùùüûþìPó_êçiùóIòKçBêçiòKçBéöUøëUå«içBé#ë ZK[ñKûêç ñKòKíþû Wç
êïPçéçiùûþùüêóUòPð çëUå{óéçiùûþùüêëWé WæïKûþðDïôKûþùùüûþìPó_êçiùçBòPçBéöUøAûþòêïKçå÷ëWéýÄë_åbïPçió@ê azäû¸òôøUëW(ñ UêïKû ùîû ù#å÷ëWéì!çBéå÷çið ê
ûþòPôñPð êëUéDùëUòPí¸ø æïKûþðDïïPó]õWçòPëæû¸éç éçoùüû ùªêDó_òPðBç
ÿò1ûþòPôñPð êëUéo ùëUìKì!ëWùûêû¸ëWò êëðDïPó_òPöUç2û¸òäð ñPééçBò[êèêéDó_òPùíþó_êçoùèêëó_ò1ëUìKì!ëWùû¸êûþëUò êëó_í¸êçiéòPó_êûþòKöð ñKééçBò[ê
ûþò öUçiòKçBéDó_{í PæïPûþðDï¤û lù DnøôK!ç |PòKû¸êûþëUò ó_íþæèó]øùðDïó_òKöWû¸òKö û¸ò¤ûþòPùüêóUòWêDó_òKçiëUñPùýó_öUòPûêñPôçóUòPô ôKû¸éçið êûþëU(ò lLïKûþù
ëUìPìë[ùüû¸êûþëUò1êëóUíêçBéòPó@êû¸òPöð ñKééçiò[êû ùùû¸ýúûþíþóUéêëéçiùû ùªêDó_òPðBç BDKñKêôû }!çiéçiòWêûþòêïó@êû¸êó_íþæèó]øùéçiùñKí¸êùûþòäó
ìKïPóWùüçùïKû¸å¼ê DçBêªæçiçBò ð ñKééçiò[êóUòPô õUëUí¸êóUöUç bó_òPô ûêAôKûþùùüûþìPó_êçiù içBéë ì!ë@æèçBé èçiðió_ñPùçIë_åèêïKçôû }!çiéçiòPð ço
ù
û¸êAïPóUùóäôK~û }^çBéçBò[êAòPóUýúç ¹ [· » » · »
<oçióUð êóUòPð çúêë¤ÿ hû ù!ç ìKéçiùùçiô û¸òëWïKý
ù #xªñPùªêí¸&û UçéçiùûþùüêóUòPð çúû
ù
!ç KðBçBìêêïPó@ê2ûêDùýó_êïKçiýúó_êû ðBóUí«ùø[ý DëWí{û 3ù kû¸òPùüêçoóUôëU8å o_$L« ë D!çùìçoð û |-ð !éçoóUð êó_òð çóUùùënðBûþó_êçæû¸êï óUò
ûþòPôñPð êëUéû ùñPùñPóUí¸íþø ùø[ý DëWí¸ûþBçoXô DnøêïKçðBóUìKû¸êó_í íþç êêçi3é hæûêïäóíþç êêçié % óUùóùBñ DPùð éû¸ìê í¸&û Uç2êïKûþù a"0
ûþòPð çûþòPôñð
êëWéùAôéëWì õUëUí¸êóUöUçúûþòìKéëWìëWéüêû¸ëWò êëêïKç éó_êçë_åð ñPééçBò[êAðDïPóUòKöUç bêïPçBø æûþíþíôéëUì ýúëUéç
õUëWíêDó_öWçå÷ëUéå óWùªêçBsé vðDïó_òKöWû¸òKöðBñKééçBò[êD
ù [ó_òPôúíþçiùùõWëUí¸êó_öWçå÷ëUéèùüíþë@æçié v ðDïPóUòKöUûþòKöðBñKééçiòWêD
ù @ïPó_êîêïPûþùýúçió_òù
û ù©êïPó_êéçoóUð
êDó_òPðBçûþòúëUïKýù©å÷ëWéó_ònøûþòPôñPð êëUé#û ù#ôûþéçoð
êí¸øìKéëWìëWéüêû¸ëWòPó_íWêë êïKçå÷éç K[ñKçBòð øëUåPêïPçó_í¸êçBéòPó_êûþòKö
ð ñPééçBò[ê
XL = 2πfL
B
?J$BZ
=
N
B#?jsB
rZ' BN#?BH- g
NNrNNNNrNNNNrNNrrNrNNrrNrNNNNrNrrNN
¡8¢£r N¤N¤
NrNNNNrNNNNrNNrrNrNNrrNrNNNNrNrrN
?¥N £8¢¦r¡N¤N§
NrNNNNrNNNNrNNrrNrNNrrNrNNNNrNrrN
¥ ¦ N ¦N£8¢ £r¤N
NNrNNNNrNNNNrNNrrNrNNrrNrNNNNrNrrNN
1Z¨ gB¨©.«ª6¬"4X;h.§Cihj.@ª6k.l;TªP§am +®
ÿ ðBñKééçiòWê#ûþòó ùüûþýúìKí¸çûþòPôñð
êûþõUçðBû¸éDð ñPûêû ù#çK[ñPóUínêë êïKçõUëWíêDó_öUçk¯÷ûþòõUëWíêDù°©ôûþõnûþôKçiôDnøêïPçû¸òPôKñPð
êû¸õWç
éçióUð êóUòPð ç]¯÷ûþò ëWïKýù°!NxªñPùªêóUù ÿëWé_±keðBñKééçiòWê ûþò ó1ùüûþýúìKí¸çIéçiùûþùüêûþõUçIð ûþéðBñKûê û ùçK[ñPó_í©êë êïPçIõWëUí¸êóUöUç
¯÷ûþòõUëWíêDù °èôûþõnûþôçoô]D[øêïKçéçiùûþùüêóUòPð 粯 û¸òëUïPýúù°H
eL
³ 10 V 10 mH
60 Hz
´E
I=
X
µI = 10 V
3.7699 Ω
I = 2.6526 A
¶ë@æèçBõWçBé _æèçòKçiçiôúêëUçiçBìûþòýúû¸òôúêïPó_êõWëUí¸êó_öWçó_òôð ñKééçiò[êó_éçòKëUêûþòìKïPóWùüçïKçBéç7ÿùæèóWùîùïKë@æò
çióUéíþûþçBé7êïKç1õUëWíêDó_öUç ïPóUùIó ìKïPóUùçùüïKû¸å¼êë_åk·l* ,q æû¸êïéçiùìçoð
êIêë êïKçð ñKééçBò[꫸åæèç1éçiìKéçoùüçiò[êAêïPçiùç
ìKïPóWùüçIó_òKöWí¸çoùëUåõUëWíêDó_öUçó_òPô ð ñKééçiò[êýó@êïPçBýó@êûþðió_íþí¸øäûþòäêïPçAå÷ëWéýëUåîð ëUýúìKíþç!¤ònñKý Dçiéù!æç |PòPô¤êïPó_ê
ó_ò1ûþòPôñPð êëUé ¹ ùëUìKì!ëWùûêû¸ëWò êëð ñKééçBò[êïPóUùóIìKïPóWùüçóUòKöUíþçnêë[ë$
Voltage
Opposition =
Current
10 V ∠ 90o
Opposition =
2.6526 A ∠ 0ο
For an inductor:
À À
90o 90o
E
º
µI 0o
Opposition
z¤ó_êïKçiýúó_êû ðBóUí¸íþø oæçùó]øêïPó_êbêïKçìKïPóWùüçóUòKöUíþçë_åKóUòû¸òPôKñPð
êëUé¹ ù{ëUìKì!ëWùûêû¸ëWò2êëðBñKééçBò[ê{û ùb* ,q ]ýúçióUòKûþòKö
(XL)
êïó@ê#ó_òûþòPôñPð êëWé¹ ù©ëUìKì!ëWùûêû¸ëWòêë ð ñPééçBò[ê{û ù7óì!ëWùûêû¸õWçûþýó_öUûþòPóUéøkK[ñPó_ò[êû¸êªø@LïKû ù«ìPïPóUùçóUòKöUíþçîëUåKéçoóUð
êû¸õWç
ëUìPìë[ùüû¸êûþëUòêë ðBñKééçiòWê Dçoð ëWýIçoùúð éûêûþðió_íþí¸ø ûþýIì!ëUéêóUò[êIûþò/ðBû¸éDð ñKû¸êó_òPóUí¸øùûþù#çiùìçoð û ó_íþí¸ø å÷ëWéúðBëUýúìKíþç! ÿ
ð ûþéDð ñKû¸êù«æïKçBéçîéçióWð
êDó_òPðBçîó_òPôAéçoùüû ùüêó_òð çûþò[êçBéDóUð êT¸ê©æûþí¸í[ìKéë@õUçpD!çBòPç!|ðBûþóUíWêëéçBìKéçiùçBò[êCÁ#Âð ëUýúì!ëUòKçiò[ê¹ ù
ëUìPìë[ùüû¸êûþëUò êëð ñKééçiò[ê2ûþò¤êçBéýúù2ëUåèð ëWýúìKí¸
ç äò[ñPý D!çBéDùéDó@êïKçBé2êïPó_ò ùðió_í ó_ké KWñó_ò[êû¸êûþçiù2ë_åéçoùüû ùªêDó_òPðBçóUòPô
éçióUð êóUòPð ç
ýÄXÅ"Æ<Ç!Å"ÈÊÉ
ÃË 'Ì-Í »!Î ÏÁ »!Î Á » û ùêïKçAëWìKì!ëWùûêû¸ëWòêïPó_ê2ó_òäûþòPôñð
êëWéë}!çiéùêë óUíêçBéòPó@êû¸òPö ð ñKééçBò[êôñKçAêë û¸êù
ìKïPóUùç!v ùïKûå¼êçiô¤ùüêëWéóUöUçóUòPôäéçBíþçióUùçëUåçBòKçiéöWø ûþò¤û¸êù2ýó_öUòPç êû ðk|Pçiíþô(loçoóUð êó_òð çAû ù2ùüønýD!ëUíþû&ÐBçiôDnø
êïKçðió_ìKû¸êóUí í¸çBêüêçié3-lI óUòPô1ûþùýúçoóUùñKéçoô ûþòëUïKýù@xªñPùüêíþûWç2éçiùû ùªêDó_òPðBçѯÒo°H
à ¸ òPôñPð êûþõUç éçoóUð êó_òð ç ðBó_ò!D çðBóUíþðBñKíþó_êçoô ñPùûþòKöIêïKû ùå÷ëUéýAñPíþó#@ IÓ^Ô åÕ%
à ¸ òPôñPð êûþõUçéçióUð êóUòPð ç » ÏsÁ?Ö
!2Ö æû¸êïûþòPðBéçoóUùû¸òKö1å÷éç[K ñKçiòPð øX¸ ò ë_êïKçBéæèëUéDôKù êïPçïKûþöUïKçiéêïKçå÷éç
v
WK ñPçBòPðBøn êïPçýIëWéç û¸êëUìKì!ëWùçiùêïKçÿ×
ë@æcë_å7çBíþçið êéëUòPù
ÕÖDÕ Ø ÝÛßBÝÞ Û#ÝÞ7ß Þ{à©áAÛTÙ!ßRS¤ãÙèà©áÛâÙß Û#Ùãäß
à©Þ
¸ ò¤êïKçúìKéçBõnû¸ëWñPùùçið êûþëUò( æèçIç!ìKíþëUéçiôäæïPó_ê2æèëUñPíþôäïó_ìKì!çBò û¸ò ùüûþýúìKíþçéçiùûþùüêëWévëUòPí¸ø1ó_òPô û¸òPôKñPð
êëUésv}ëWòKí¸ø
ÿ lð ûþéðBñKûêD
ù 0Gë@ææèçæû¸íþíKýú~û êïKçêªæëð ëWýúìëWòKçBò[êù#êëUöWç êïKçBé#ûþòùüçiéûþçiù©å÷ëWéýkó_òPôIûþò[õWçiùüêûþöWó_êçèêïKçç!}^çið
êDù
L©-ó UçêïPûþùðBû¸éDð ñPûêóWùó_ò1!ç Kó_ýúìKíþç2êëúæëWsé æûê(ï
R
Ú
5Ω
eL
³ 10 V 10 mH
60 Hz
or
(5 + j0 Ω) + (0 + j3.7699 Ω)
èZ ³
= 5 + j3.7699 Ω 6.262 Ω ∠ 37.016o
¸ ýúìçoôKó_òð çû ùéçBí ó@êçoô êëäõUëWíêDó_öWçúóUòPôð ñPééçBò[êCxªñPùüêóUùøUëUñ ýúûþöUï[êAç!ì!çið ê©û¸ò óýó_òPòKçBéAùûþýIûþí ó_éêë
total or
éçiùûþùüêóUòPð ç2û¸òéAïKý¹ ù3%{ó]æ_
Ohm’s Law for AC circuits:
ê ë E ì E
E = IZ I= ì Z= ë
Z I
í
All quantities expressed in
¸ òYå óUð ê êïKûþù û ù ó å óUé ýúëUéç¤ð ëWýIìPéçiïKçBòPùûþõUçå÷ëUéý ë_åAïKý¹ ùX%{ó]æ êïó_òæïPó_ê æóUùúêDó_ñKöWïWê û¸òæ±_
complex, not scalar, form
Bç íþçið êéëUòKû ðBù ¯Õ`hI"¸6o°HxªñPùªêóUùû¸ýúì!çiôKóUòPð çûþùóå óUéýúëUéçAð ëWýúìKéçiïKçBòùüûþõUçç
nìPéçoùùû¸ëWòë_åëUìPìë[ùüû¸êûþëUòêëêïPç
Pë@æpë_å«çií¸çoð
êéëWòPùêïPóUò éçiùûþùüêóUòPð ç2û ù
7î"$Âéçoùüû ùüêó_òð ç ó_òPô1ó_ònøéçióWð
êóUòPð çùüçiìPó_éDó@êçBíþøIëWéû¸òäð ëWýDKûþòPó_êûþëUò
¯ ùçBéûþçiùHï]ìPóUéóUí¸íþçBí°HnðBóUò]D!çó_òô ùïKëUñPíþô<DçéçBìPéçoùüçiòWêçiô1óUùóúùû¸òKöWí¸ç ûþýúìçoôKó_òPðBçû¸òäóUò1ÿcð ûþéðBñKû¸ê
L«ëðió_í ð ñKí ó@êçð ñKééçBò[êû¸ò êïPç ó-D!ë@õUçúð ûþéðBñKû¸ê©æç|PéDùªêòPçBçiô êëäöUûþõUçó1ìKïPóWùüçóUòKöUíþçúéçBå÷çBéçBòPðBçå÷ëWéêïPç
õUëWíêDó_öWç ùëUñPéðBç KæïKû ðDïûþùöUçBòPçBéDó_íþí¸ø óWùùñKýúçiô êëDçÐBçBéë#"¯ÕLïKçìPïPóUùçó_òKöWí¸çoùë_å7éçiùûþùüêûþõUçóUòPô1û¸òPôKñPð
êû¸õWç
ûþýIì!çiôPó_òPðBçó_é²ç Á-ð \ ÁÂ?Ö ,rq ó_òP¿ô ·l* ,rq Kéçiùìçoð
êûþõUçií¸ø KéçBöWóUéôKí¸çoùùèë_å©êïPçöUûþõUçBò1ìKïPóWùüçóUòKöUíþçiùèå÷ëWéõUëWíêDó_öWçëWé
ð ñPééçBò[ê °!
´E
I=
Z
µI = 10 V ∠ 0o
³
6.262 Ω ∠ 37.016o
ûêïYêïKçAìK∠ñKé-37.016
ÿ Iù =æ1.597 çBíþø/ûþòPôñPð êûþõUç ðBû¸éDð ñPûêêïKç ðBñKééçiòWêæó]õUçäí ó_ö[ù²D!çBïKûþòPôêïPç õUëWíêDó_öWç1æó]õU端 ë_åêïPç
o
ùëUñKéDð ç?°HKó_í¸êïPëUñKöWïêïPûþùêû¸ýúç êïKçíþóUöúûþùòKëUêóUùöWéçoó@ê©ëUòPí¸ø ® ÜN ,Bn Þ q óWùëUìKì!ëWùçiô êëóå÷ñKíþíb* ,q óUùæóUùèêïPç
+Þ .0»©"¼§0/721B¨½3/7©.§#©"¬ .0/:©¬"4¾ª65¿¼7/843©"¬ .0/:9 ª6¬4<;=.§@ª?>@/
ðBóWùüç ûþò1êïKçìKñPéçií¸øûþòPôñð
êûþõUçðBû¸éDð ñPûê
phase shift =
37.016o
e=
+ i=
Time
-
ñKëWéêïKçúéçoùüû ùüêëUé ó_òôäêïPçIûþòPôñð
êëWé ^êïKçúìKïPóWùüçIéçiíþó_êûþëUòPùïKûþìP"ù DçBêªæçiçBò õWëUí¸êóUöUçóUòPô ðBñKééçiòWê ïPó]õWçBò(¹ ê
Dð ïPóUòKöUçoôy«ÿð éëWùù7õUëUí¸êóUöUçóUðBéë[ùù«êïKçéçoùüû ùüêëUé#û ù7ûþòìKïPóUùç_¯ ,rq ùüïKû¸å¼ê°#æûêïúêïKçðBñKééçBò[ê7êïPéëWñKöUïúû¸ê^nó_òPôêïPç
õUëWíêDó_öWçAóUðBéë[ùùêïKçIû¸òPôKñPð
êëUé2ûþù·l* , q ëUñKêë_åìKïPóUùçAæû¸êï êïKçIð ñKééçBò[êöWëUûþòKöêïPéëWñKöUï¤û¸êk çIðió_ò¤õWçBéûå÷ø
êïPûþùýó_êïKçiýúó_êû ðBóUí¸íþø
´E = IZ
ER = IRZR
´E = (1.597 A ∠ -37.016o)(5 Ω ∠ 0o)
R
ER = 7.9847 V ∠ -37.016o
EL = ILZL
´E = (1.597 A ∠ -37.016o)(3.7699 Ω ∠ 90o)
L
³
EL = 6.0203 V ∠ 52.984o
Etotal = 10 V ∠ 0o
%bçBê¹ ùðDïKçiðêïKçõ@ó_íþû ôûêªø ë_å7ëUñKéðió_í ð ñKí ó@êû¸ëWòPùèæûêïöõB÷p¸s=`3
øR
1
Ú 2
5Ω
eL
³ 10 V 10 mH
60 Hz
0 0
#
Nù Z?
$?y?
ú æ æ#2? g
(æ¥ ¦
ù ½¥û??
¢ # ù ü
¢þý
'Zæ# ú ?yÿs¥$ ú ¥aÿs$:( ú
¢þý
'Zæ# ú ý ?ÿ¥$ ú ý ¥aÿ$× ý ú
¢ Z
r
B ú ?ÿ¥$ ú ¥$ ( ú
8¢ rN Z' £8¢¤r§N¦ Zr p¢ N¥NZN ¢¦N¤r£ ZN
r
B ú ý yÿ¥$ ú ý ¥$ ý ú
8¢ rN Z' ¡ 8¢£ r¥ Z ¦p¢ ¥ ¤N§ Z ¢ B¡ ZN¥
ER = 7.985 V ∠ -37.02o
EL = 6.020 V ∠ 52.98o
I = 1.597 A ∠ 143.0o
G ëUêçêïPó_êTxªñùªêóUùæû¸êï±kð ûþéðBñKûêDù
BõZ÷8¸s=` ëWñêìKñKêùð ñPééçBò[ê8|öUñKéçiùèóUùêïPëUñKöWïêïPçBøæèçBéçòKçiöWó@êû¸õWç
¯ n ò ,rq ëWñêëUå7ìPïPóUùç°èæû¸êïêïKçAùñKìKìKíþø õWëUí¸êóUöUç8¸ òPùªêçióWôë_å#óúìKïPóUùçó_òPöUíþçë_å0v ® ÜN ,Bn Þ q PæèçöUçBêóð ñKééçBò[ê
ìKïPóWùüç ó_òPöUíþçëUå n ) ® q ¯v ® Ü q · n ò , q °HpL ïKû ùûþùèýúçBéçBíþø óUò û ôû¸ë[ùüønòPðBéóWùüøúëUå0õZ÷8¸s=`ló_òô ôënçoùòKë_êéçiìKéçiùçBò[ê
ó_ònø[êïPû¸òKöùüûþöUòKû| ðió_ò[êûþòêïPç2ðBû¸éDð ñKû¸êèùûþýAñKí ó@êû¸ëWòûêDùüçiíå6pG ë_êçïKë@æ×D ëUêï êïKçéçoùüû ùªêëUéèó_òPôûþòPôñð
êëWéõWëUí¸êóUöUç
ìKïPóWùüçéçióWôûþòKöWùýó@êDðDïëUñKéðió_í ð ñKí ó@êû¸ëWòPù_¯v ® ÜZ , Ó q ó_òPô + ÓZ *ò q éçoùüì!çið êûþõUçií¸øB°H-ªx ñPùªê2óUùæèçç! ì!çið
êçiô1êïKçBý
êë$
+ò .0»©"¼§0/721B¨½3/7©.§#©"¬ .0/:©¬"4¾ª65¿¼7/843©"¬ .0/:9 ª6¬4<;=.§@ª?>@/
û¸êïó_íþíêïKçiùçh|PöUñPéçoù©êë_UçiçBìIêéDóUðAë_å!å÷ëUéçiõUçBòùñPðDïó ùüûþýúìKí¸çð ûþéðBñKûêîóWù©êïKû ùWû¸êîæèëUñKí ôD!ç3D!çBòKç
|ð û ó_í
å÷ëUéñPùêë ñPùçêïKç<_êó-DPí¸çýIçBêïKëôy ÿìKìPí¸ønûþòKö óêDó-DKíþçêëäêïKû ùIùüûþýúìKí¸ç1ùüçiéûþçiùéçoùüû ùªêëUésv}ûþòPôñð
êëWéð ûþéðBñKû¸ê
æèëUñKí ô1ìKéëðBçBçiôóWùùüñPðDïb7ñ©û¸éDùüêôKéó]æpñKìäóIêó-DPí¸çå÷ëWé3`=ï¸sïçö|PöUñKéçiùóUòPôûþòPùüçiéüêóUí¸í«ð ëUýúì!ëUòKçiò[êõ]óUí¸ñPçiùûþò
êïPçiùçêçBéýùC¯÷ûþòúë_êïPçBé#æèëUéDôKù
WôëUò(¹ êûþòPùüçiéüêóWð
êñó_íéçiùûþùüêóUòPð çëUé#ûþòPôñð
êóUòPð çõ@ó_íþñKçoù#û¸òXAïKýù#óUòPôѶçBòPéøù
éçiùìçoð
êûþõUçií¸ø nû¸ò[êëêïPçêD-ó DKíþç ^néDó@êïKçBé ð ëUònõWçBéêîêïPçBý ûþò[êëúð ëUýúìKíþ!ç ²|öUñKéçiùë_å©û¸ýúì!çiôKóUòPð ç ó_òPô æéû¸êçêïPëWùç
ûþ$ò °H
R L Total
10 + j0
E Volts
10 ∠ 0o
I Amps
5 + j0 0 + j3.7699
Z Ohms
5 ∠ 0o 3.7699 ∠ 90o
ÿí¸êïPëUñKöWï ûêû ùüòb¹ êúòKçiðBçiùùóUéø0¸_|PòPôlûêïKçií¸ìå÷ñPíêë æéû¸êç ÎU êïPç éçið êó_òPöUñKí ó_éIó_òPôlìëWíþóUéAå÷ëWéýùë_å
çióWðDï«KWñó_ò[êû¸êªø ûþò êïKçêDó-DKíþç]¸åøUëUñóUéçñPùûþòKö¤óäðBóUíþðBñKíþó_êëWé êïPó_êïPóUù êïKç óDKû¸íþû¸êªø¤êë ìçiéüå÷ëWéý ð ëUýúìKíþç!
ó_éû¸êïKýúç êûþð æûêïKëUñKêAêïPç òKçiçiô å÷ëWéIðBëUònõUçiéùû¸ëWòED!ç êªæèçBçiò éçið
êDó_òKöWñKí ó_éAóUòPô ìëWíþóUéå÷ëWéýù«êïKçBòlêïKû ùç!nêéDó
ôëð ñPýIçiò[êó@êû¸ëWòúûþùð ëUýúìKíþç êçBíþøAñKòPòKçiðBçiùùóUéøT¶ë@æèçBõWçBé_û¸å^øWëUñó_éçèå÷ëUéDð çoôAêëì!çBéå÷ëUéýkð ëWýúìKí¸ç
IóUéû¸êïKýúçBêû ð
_íþëUòPöUïPóUòPBô X¯=óUôKôKûêû¸ëWòóUòPô1ùüBñ DKêéDóUð
êû¸ëWò ûþòéçoð
êóUòKöUñPíþóUéîå÷ëWé
ý Kó_òô ýñKíêû¸ìPí¸û ðBó_êûþëUòäó_òPô1ôûþõnûþùû¸ëWò ûþòìëWíþóUé
å÷ëUéý °HKæéû¸êûþòKöúçióUðDï K[ñPó_ò[êûêªøûþò DëUêï1å÷ëUéýùæû¸íþyí D!çñPùüçBå÷ñKíbûþòPôçiçiyô
Gë@æ êïPó@êúëUñP é UöUûþõUçB$ò |PöUñPéçoùAó_éç ûþòPùçBéêçoôû¸ò[êë êïKçBûþéúéçoùüì!çið êûþõUç íþëðBó_êûþëUòPùAû¸òlêïKç êó DKí¸ç æèç ðBóUò
ìKéëð çBçolô xªñPùüêóWùæû¸êXï ±_"ôç êçBéýIûþòKçêïKçêë_êDó_í!û¸ýúì!çiôKóUòPð çå÷éëWýuêïKç2û¸òPôKû¸õnû ôñPó_í!ûþýIì!çiôPó_òPðBçiù aõû¸òPðBçêïKûþù
û ùóúùüçiéûþçiùðBû¸éDð ñKû¸ê Pæ_ç nòKë@æcêïPó_êëUìKì!ëWùûêû¸ëWò1êëçBíþçið êéëU<ò
Pë@ æ ¯ éçoùüû ùüêó_òð ç ÏûþýIì!çiôPó_òPðBç °óUôPôKùêëIå÷ëWéý
êïPç êë_êDó_í ëWìKìë[ùüû¸êûþëUbò
R L Total
10 + j0
E Volts
10 ∠ 0o
I Amps
5 + j0 0 + j3.7699 5 + j3.7699
Z Ohms
5 ∠ 0o 3.7699 ∠ 90o 6.262 ∠ 37.016o
Rule of series
circuits
Ztotal = ZR + ZL
Gë@æ êïPó@êæèç<nòKë@æ êë_êDó_íõUëWíêDó_öWç ó_òPô êëUêó_íûþýúìçoôKó_òð çîæçðBóUò/ó_ìPìKí¸øAïPý]¹ ùÑ%{ó]æ ¯Õ¸sIl`=ïçy° êë
ôçBêçBéýúû¸òPç êë_êDó_íbðBñKééçBò[ê
1Z¨â1Z¨ãmZ/83ª6/7m<3/7mNªm§Cihäåª6¬"4X;h.§Cih.@ª6_.l;TªP§am +*
R L Total
10 + j0
E Volts
10 ∠ 0o
1.2751 - j0.9614
I Amps
1.597 ∠ -37.016o
5 + j0 0 + j3.7699 5 + j3.7699
Z Ohms
5 ∠ 0o 3.7699 ∠ 90o 6.262 ∠ 37.016o
Ohm’s
Law
E
I=
Z
WñPùªêóWù æûêïJ±k" êïKçúêëUêóUíîð ñKééçBò[ê2ûþòóäùüçiéûþçiùÿ²ð ûþéðBñKû¸êûþùùïPóUéçoô¤çK[ñPóUí¸íþøéDnø óUí¸íð ëUýúì!ëUòKçiò[êù
LïKû ùèûþùùüêûþí¸í!êéñKçlDçoðBóUñPùüç2ûþò óIùüçiéûþçiùèð ûþéðBñKû¸êêïKçBéçû ùèëUòKíþøóùûþòKöUíþçìPó_êï å÷ëUéèçBíþçið êéëUòPùîêë
Pë@æ_[êïKçiéçBå÷ëUéç
êïPçéó_êçë_åêïKçiû¸éa
ë@ælýAñùªêñKòPûå÷ëWéýhêïKéëUñKöWïKëUñê0ëWòPùüçK[ñKçBò[êíþøUæçðió_òêéDó_òPùüå÷çBé©êïPçh|PöUñKéçiù©å÷ëWéð ñKééçBò[ê
ûþòWêëIêïKçðBëUíþñKýúòPùå÷ëUéêïKçéçiùûþùüêëWéóUòPô û¸òPôKñPð
êëUéó_íþû&U ç
R L Total
10 + j0
E Volts
10 ∠ 0o
1.2751 - j0.9614 1.2751 - j0.9614 1.2751 - j0.9614
I Amps
1.597 ∠ -37.016o 1.597 ∠ -37.016o 1.597 ∠ -37.016o
5 + j0 0 + j3.7699 5 + j3.7699
Z Ohms
5 ∠ 0o 3.7699 ∠ 90o 6.262 ∠ 37.016o
Rule of series
circuits:
Itotal = IR = IL
R L Total
6.3756 - j4.8071 3.6244 + j4.8071 10 + j0
E Volts
7.9847 ∠ -37.016o 6.0203 ∠ 52.984o 10 ∠ 0o
1.2751 - j0.9614 1.2751 - j0.9614 1.2751 - j0.9614
I Amps
1.597 ∠ -37.016o 1.597 ∠ -37.016o 1.597 ∠ -37.016o
5 + j0 0 + j3.7699 5 + j3.7699
Z Ohms
5 ∠ 0o 3.7699 ∠ 90o 6.262 ∠ 37.016o
Ohm’s Ohm’s
Law Law
ÿòô æû¸êï êïPó@ê «ëWñKé êó DKí¸çúû ùð ëWýúìKí¸çBêç LïKçç!KóUð êAùóUýúçIéñKíþçiù æèçó_ìKìKíþûþçiô û¸ò êïKçó_òPóUí¸øùûþù ëUåh±_
E = IZ E = IZ
Ú
³ 10 V R 5Ω L 10 mH
60 Hz
I Amps
5 + j0 0 + j3.7699
Z Ohms
5 ∠ 0o 3.7699 ∠ 90o
LïKç ëUòPí¸ø ôK~û }^çBéçBòPðBç û¸ò1ëUñKéóUòPó_íþøùüû ùêçoðDïKòKû KWñPçêïKû ùêûþýúçûþùèêïPó@êæèç2æûþíþí{ó_ìKìPí¸øêïKç éñPí¸çoùë_å«ìó_éDó_íþí¸çií
ð ûþéDð ñKû¸êùû¸òPùüêçoóUôëUå©êïKçéñKíþçiùå÷ëWéùçBéû¸çoùð ûþéDð ñKû¸êùCLïKçAó_ìPìKéë[óUðDï1ûþùå÷ñKòPôKóUýúçBò[êóUí¸íþø êïKçùó_ýúçóWùå÷ëUél±k"
ç"nòKë@æêïó@êõUëUí¸êóUöUçû ùèùüïPóUéçoôúñKòKû¸å÷ëUéýúí¸øÑDnøó_íþí!ðBëUýúìëWòKçBò[êDùîûþò óAìPó_éDó_íþí¸çiíðBû¸éDð ñKû¸ênùëAæèçðBóUòêéDó_òùªå÷çié
êïPçk|PöUñKéç ë_å«êë_êDó_íbõWëUí¸êóUöUçѯ n, õWëUí¸êù ß ,q °êëó_íþíbð ëWýúìëWòKçBò[êùðBëUíþñKýúòPù
ÞÓ .0»©"¼§0/721B¨½3/7©.§#©"¬ .0/:©¬"4¾ª65¿¼7/843©"¬ .0/:9 ª6¬4<;=.§@ª?>@/
R L Total
10 + j0 10 + j0 10 + j0
E Volts
10 ∠ 0o 10 ∠ 0o 10 ∠ 0o
I Amps
5 + j0 0 + j3.7699
Z Ohms
5 ∠ 0o 3.7699 ∠ 90o
Rule of parallel
circuits:
Ohm’s Ohm’s
Law Law
E E
I= I=
WñPùªêóWùæûê¿
ï ±kpðBû¸éDð ñKû¸êù BDKéDó_òðDïðBñKééçiòWêDùû¸òäóúìPóUéóUí¸íþçBíbÿpðBû¸éDð ñKû¸êóUôPô êëúå÷ëUéý êïKçêëUêóUí{ð ñKééçBò[ê
Z Z
Rule of parallel
circuits:
ýÄXÅ"Æ<Ç!Å"ÈÊÉ
à ¸ ýIì!çiôPó_òPðBçiù ¯{çy° ó_éç¤ýó_òPóUöUçiô xªñùªêí¸&û Uç éçoùüû ùüêó_òð çiéù ¯Õo° û¸òpìPó_éDó_íþíþçBíðBû¸éDð ñPûêó_òPóUí¸øùûþù ìó_éDó_íþí¸çií
¸û ýúì!çiôKóUòPð çoùôûþýIûþòKû ùüïêëúå÷ëUéý êïKçêë_êóUíbûþýIì!çiôPó_òPðBçPñùüûþòKöúêïPçéçoð ûþìKéënðió_í^å÷ëWéýñKíþó#+
WñPùªê"DçAùñKéç
êëäì!çBéå÷ëUéý ó_íþíîðió_í ð ñKí ó@êû¸ëWòPù û¸òðBëUýúìKíþç!㯠òKë_êIùðió_í ó_éH°å÷ëWéýöç q-! I n ïZ¯ n ïç#"· n ïç$X·Qéé
n ïç%N°
à AïKý¹ ùC%«ó]æå÷ëUéÿð ûþéðBñKû¸êùp`:I¾¸sç½^Z¸CI `=ïçJ^$çMI¾`hï?¸
à ïKçBòéçiùû ùªêëUéDùîó_òôúû¸òPôKñPð
êëUéDùóUéçýúûçiôêëUöWç êïPçBéîûþòìPóUéóUí¸íþçBí!ð ûþéðBñKû¸êùl¯âxªñPùüêóWùîûþò ùçBéû¸çoùîðBû¸éDð ñKû¸êù°H
êïKç êë_êDó_íèû¸ýúì!çiôKóUòPð ç æû¸íþíèïPó]õUç ó ìKïPóWùüç óUòKöUíþç ùëUýúçBæïPçBéçD çBêªæçiçBò ,rq óUòPô½·l* r, q ELïKç1ð ûþéðBñKû¸ê
ð ñKééçiò[êèæûþí¸í{ïPó]õUçóIìKïPóWùüçó_òPöUíþç ùëUýúçiæïKçBéç"!D ç êªæèçBçiò , q ó_òPôXv * , q
à ÷#ó_éDó_íþí¸çií[ÿ ð ûþéðBñKûêDù#ç!ïKû&DKû¸ê7êïKçùó_ýúçèå÷ñKòPôKóUýúçBò[êóUíKìKéëUì!çBéêûþçiù7óUù7ìPóUéóUí¸íþçBíZ±_ ðBû¸éDð ñPûêDù
«õUëUí¸êóUöUçèûþù
ñKòKû¸å÷ëUéýhêïKéëUñPöUïKëWñê7êïKçð ûþéDð ñKû¸êDKéóUòPðDïðBñKééçiòWêDù#óUôKôAêë2å÷ëWéýhêïKçêëUêóUíKð ñKééçiò[êUóUòPôAûþýúìçoôKó_òð çiù
ôû¸ýúûþòKû ùü﫼¯ êïKéëUñKöWï êïKçéçoð ûþìKéënðió_í!å÷ëUéýAñPíþór°êëIå÷ëUéýxêïKç êë_êDó_íbûþýúìçoôKó_òPðBç
Þ-) .0»©"¼§0/721B¨½3/7©.§#©"¬ .0/:©¬"4¾ª65¿¼7/843©"¬ .0/:9 ª6¬4<;=.§@ª?>@/
ÕÖ87 9(RS¤ãÙèà7áAÛ;: ãäßBÛ1<Þ
¸ òäó_ò1ûþôKçió_í«ðBóUùçóUò1ûþòPôñð
êëWéóUð êùóUùóIìKñPéçií¸ø éçoóUð
êû¸õWç2ôKçBõnûþðBçpLïPó_êûþùKû¸êùëWìKìë[ùüû¸êûþëUò êëÿcð ñKééçBò[ê
û ùùªêéû ð
êí¸Xø DPóUùçiô ëUòûþòPôñPð êûþõUçéçióUð êûþëUò êëðDïPóUòKöUçoùûþòäð ñKééçBò[êKóUòPô1òKë_êçBíþçið êéëUò å÷éû ð
êû¸ëWòäóUùû ùêïKçðióUùç
æû¸êïäéçiùûþùüêûþõUçðBëUýúìëWòKçBò[êD
ù h¶ë@æèçBõWçBé û¸òPôKñPð
êëUéDùó_éçòKë_êlKWñPûêçAùüëìPñKéçûþòêïPçBûþééçióUð êûþõUçkD!çBïPó]õnûþëUé7L«ë
D!çBöUûþò æû¸ê(ï êïKçi'ø ¹ éç ýóUôç ë_åæûþéç ó_òPô æ< ç [òPë@ækêïPó@êó_íþíèæû¸éçì!ëWùùüçoùùçiùùüëWýIç ýúçióUùñKéD-ó DKíþç óUýIëWñKò[ê
ë_åéçiùûþùüêóUòPð ç ¯÷ñKòKíþçiùùû¸ê ¹ ù1ùüñKì!çBéDð ëWòPôñPð êûþòKö æûþé?ç °H LïKû <ù DKñKûþísê v}ûþòéçiùûþùüêóUòPð ç¤óWð
êù óUùêïKëWñKöUïû¸ê æèçBéç
ð ëWòKòKçoð
êçoô ûþòäùüçiéûþçiùæû¸êï1êïKçìçiéüå÷çoð
êûþòPôñPð êóUòPð çëUå{êïPçð ëUûþ{í í¸&û Uç êïKûþù
Equivalent circuit for a real inductor
=
Wire resistance
R
Ideal inductor
eL
ëUòùüç KWñPçBò[êíþø êïKç û¸ýúì!çiôKóUòPð ç ë_åóUònø/éçióUíûþòPôñPð êëWé1æûþíþí óUí¸æó]øù²D!ç ó/ð ëWýIìPí¸ç
ðBëUý DKû¸òó@êûþëUòcë_å
é çiùûþùüêóUòPð ç ó_òPô1ûþòPôñPð êûþõUçéçióWð
êóUòPð ç
ëUýúì!ëUñKòôû¸òPö êïKûþù ìPéëDKí¸çiýûþù ùëUýúç êïKûþòKö1ðió_íþí¸çoô¤êïKç]Ö?>½A@ »!Î bæïKû ðDï û ùÿ"¹ ùêçBòPôKçBòPðBøäêë]
Pë@æ
êïPéëWñKöUïcêïKç ëUñêçBéäó_éçióWù ëUåóð ëUòôñPð
êëUé¹ ù1ð éëWùùvùçið êûþëUòéDó@êïPçBé êïPóUòcêïKéëWñKöUïêïKç ýúûþôPôí¸ç ïKçiò
çBíþçið êéëUòP"ù
Pë@ækû¸ò óùüûþòKöWí¸çôûþéçoð
êû¸ëWò¯Õ±_h°H{êïKçiø¤ñPùçIêïKçúçBò[êû¸éçð éëWùù6v ùüçoð
êû¸ëWòPó_í7ó_éçió ë_åîêïKçð ëWòPôñPð êëWé
êë ýIë@õWç `íþçið êéëUòPùùæû¸êðDïKûþòKö ôûþéçið
êû¸ëWòPùëUå=
ë@æ_«ëWò êïKç ë_êïPçBéïPóUòPôy©êçiòPô êë ó]õUëWûþô êéDó]õUçií#êïKéëUñPöUï
êïPçõUçiéø ýIû ôKôíþçëUå#ó ð ëUòôñPð
êëUé Kíþû¸ýúû¸êûþòKöêïPç!ç }^çið êûþõUçAðBéë[ùù vùçið êûþëUòPóUí ó_éçióó]õ@ó_ûþíþó DKíþç 7LïPçAù nûþòä!ç }^çið ê
D!çið ëWýúçiùýúëUéç ìKéëWòKëUñPòPð çoô ó_êïPû¸öWïKçBéå÷éç K[ñKçiòPð ûþçiù
ÿí ù#ë [êïKç ó_í¸êçiéòó@êûþòKöýúóUöUòKçBêû 3ð |çBí ôë_å©ó_ò ûþòPôñð
êëWéçBòKçiéöWû Ðiçiôæû¸êï1ÿ ýó]øéóWôûþó_êç-ë }äû¸ò[êëIùìPóUðBç
óUù ìó_éê ëUåèóUò çií¸çoð
êéëWýúóUöUòKçBêû ðAæó]õUç çiùìçoð û ó_íþí¸ø ó@êïKûþöUï å÷éç KWñPçBòPðBû¸ço
ù LïKû ù éDóUôû ó@êçiô çBòKçiéöWø¤ôënçiù òKëUê
éç êñPéò êëúêïKçû¸òôñPð
êëUé Kó_òPô1ùëIû¸êýó_òKû¸å÷çiùüêùûêDùüçiíå#óUùéçiùûþùüêóUòPð Ñç ¯÷ì!ë@æèçBéôû ùùûþìPó@êû¸ëW$ò °û¸ò1êïPçð ûþéðBñKûê
ÿôPôçiô êë êïKçúéçiùûþùüêûþõUçí¸ë[ùùçiù2ëUåîæû¸éçúó_òPô éóWôû ó@êûþëUbò êïKçBéçó_éçAëUêïKçié2
ç }!çoð
êDùó@ê æëWsé ûþò ûþéëWZò v ð ëUéç
ûþòPôñPð êëUéDùæïKû ðDïýó_òKû¸å÷çiùüêêïKçiýùüçií¸õWçiùóWùóUôKôû¸êûþëUòó_íbéçiùûþùüêóUòPð lç D!ç êªæèçBçBòêïKçíþçióUôP
ù pïPçBò¤ó_ò1ûþòPôñPð êëUé
û ùçiòKçBéöU&û ÐBçoôäæûêï ÿ "êïKçúó_í¸êçiéòó@êûþòKöýóUöUòKçBêû _ð |PçiíþôKù2ìKéëôñPðBçiôêçBòPô¤êë ûþòPôñð çúð ûþéðBñKíþó_êûþòKö ðBñKééçBò[êDù
æû¸êïKûþòêïKçûþéëUòð ëWé7ç nòKë@æòóUhù ÌÌ » ÍZÏHÏs
Î Ö@LïKçiùçîçií¸çoð
êéû ðîðBñKééçBò[êDùbûþòêïKçèûþéëWòAð ëWéçïó]õUç#êëë@õUçiéðBëUýúç
êïPççií¸çoð
êéû ðBó_í[éçiùûþùüêóUòPð çë }!çiéçoô Dnø2êïKçèûþéëW(ò ]æïKûþðDïûþù©òKëUê©óWù{öWë[ëôó2ð ëWòPôñPð êëWé©óWù«ðBëUìKì!çBé T`ôKôøð ñKééçBò[ê
íþëWùùüçoùó_éçìKéûþýó_éû¸íþø ðBëUñKò[êçiéóWð
êçi<ô D[øôûþõnûþôûþòKöúêïKçûþéëWòðBëUéç ñKìäû¸ò[êëýúóUònøêïPû¸ò¤ùïKçBçBêù ¯ íþóUýúû¸òPó_êûþëUòPù °H
çióWðDï ëWòKçùüçiìPó_éDó@êçiôå÷éëUý êïKçë_êïKçBhé Dnø óêïPû¸ò1íþó]øWçBéë_å©çBíþçið êéûþðió_íþí¸øûþòPùñKíþó_êûþòKöIõ]óUéòPûþù(ï aû¸êï êïKçðBéë[ùù v
ùçið
êû¸ëWòAëUåPêïPçðBëUéçèôKû¸õnû ôçiôñKìIû¸ò[êë2ýó_ònøçBíþçið êéûþðió_íþí¸øû ùëUí ó@êçoôAùçið êûþëUòPù _ð ñKééçBò[ê7ðió_òKòPë_ê#ð ûþéðBñKíþó_êçèæûêïKûþò
êïó@êð éëWùù vùçið êûþëUòPóUí!óUéçoóóUòPôêïKçBéçæûþí¸(í D!çòKöë ¯÷ëWéõUçiéøíþûêêíþç °éçiùû ùªêû¸õWçíþëWùùüçoùèå÷éëWýxêïó@ê!ç }^çið ê
ÿùøUëUñ1ýúû¸öWï[êïPó]õUç !ç ì!çið êçi(ô PçiôPôø ðBñKééçBò[êíþëWùùüçoùû¸òýúç êDó_íþí¸û ðûþòPôñPð êëUéðBëUéçiùýó_òPûå÷çoùªêêïKçBýùçBíþõUçoù
ûþòêïKçå÷ëWéýkë_å^ïKçió_ê 0LïKç!ç }^çið êîûþùýIëWéçìKéëUòPëUñKòPðBçiôIó@êïKûþöUïPçBé#å÷éç K[ñKçiòPð ûþçiù Uó_òôIðió_Ñò D!çùüë
ç [êéçiýúçêïPó_ê
û¸êûþùùüëWýúç êûþýúçiù!ç ìKíþëUû¸êçiô1ûþò¤ýó_ònñå óWð
êñPéûþòKöìKéëð çiùùçiùèêë ïKçió_êýIçBêóUí{ë DBxªçið
êD4ù h¸ òå óWð
ê PêïKû ùìPéëð çoùùë_å
1Z¨CBr¨½ª6¬4<;=.§CihED;bª65Fm Þ+
_ûþòPôñð
êûþõUçAïKçió_êûþòKöúû ùë_å¼êçBòäñPùçiôûþòäïKûþöUïZvìKñKéû¸êªø ýúç êDó_í å÷ëWñKòPôéø1ëUì!çBéDó@êûþëUòù
KæïPçBéçýIçBêóUí¸íþûþðçBíþçBýúçBò[êù
ó_òô ó_íþíþë@ønùèýñPùªêh!D ç2ïPçió@êçiô û¸òóõ]óWð ñKñPýxçBònõnû¸éëUòKýúçiòWêèêëó]õWëUû ôð ëWòWêDó_ýúûþòPó@êû¸ëWòDnø ó_ûþéóUòPôêï[ñùæïKçBéç
ùüêó_òôKó_éDô ð ëWýKD ñùªêû¸ëWò ïKçió_êûþòKö êçiðDïPòKëUíþëUöWø æèëUñKí ôJ!D ç1ñPùüçií¸çoùù«¸ êúûþùúóéU òKëUòBv ðBëUò[êóWð
êäêçiðDïPòKëUíþëUöWø7êïPç
ïKçoó@êçoôùüñBD ùªêDó_òPðBç2òPë_êïPó]õnû¸òPöêëIêëUñðDï êïKçð ëWû¸íþ¯ ù° ìKéënôKñPð ûþòKöIêïKçýóUöUòKçBêû ð| çBí ôy
¸ ò ïKûþöUïZ}v å÷éç[K ñKçBòPðBø ùçBéõnûþðBç© çiôKôø ð ñKééçBò[êùðió_ò çBõWçBò ôçiõUçií¸ëWì æû¸êïPû¸ò êïKç ð éëWùùv ùçið êûþëUò ë_åèêïKç æû¸éç
û¸êùçBí¸å6 ð ëWò[êéûKD ñKêûþòKöIêëóUôPôûêû¸ëWòPó_í éçiùû ùªêû¸õWç2ç
!} çoð
êDù
8«L ëð ëWñKò[êçiéóWð
êêïKû ùêçBòPôçiòPð øP ùìçoð û ó_íbæûþéç ýóUôKçë_å
õUçiéø| òKç© û¸òôû¸õnû ôñPóUí¸íþø¤ûþòPùüñPíþó_êçiô ùüêéDó_òPôPù2ðió_íþí¸çoôJW0 Î Y \ Ïs¯ ùïKëUéê å÷ëUé W0 Î Y!ÌÏsÁ UNÎ ° ðBóUòE!D çñPùçiôyL ïPç
ûþòPùüñPíþó_êûþëUòùüçiìPó_éDó@êû¸òPö1ùüêéDó_òPôPù å÷éëWýÚçoóUðDï ë_êïPçBéìKéçBõWçBò[êçiôKôKø ð ñPééçBò[êù2å÷éëUý ð ûþéðBñKí ó@êûþòKö1êïPéëWñKöUï êïPç
æïKëWí¸ç æûþéç ¹ ùðBéë[ùù vùçið êûþëUòPóUí!óUéçoóB
ÿôPôûêû¸ëWòPó_íþíþø {óUò[øäýóUöUòKçBêû ðAïnøùªêçBéçiùûþùêïPó@êòKçiçiôKù2êë<D!çë@õUçiéðBëUýúçæû¸êï çBõWçBéø1éçBõWçBéDùóUí«ëUåîêïKçúû¸òZv
ôñPð êëWé ¹ ù#ýó_öWòKç êûþhð |çBí ôð ëWòPùªêûêñêçoùîóUòI
ç ìçiòPôû¸êñKéçëUå^çiòKçBéöUøAêïPó_êîýó_òKû¸å÷çiùüêùîûêDùüçiíå{óWù#éçiùûþùüêóUòPð çûþòêïPç
ð ûþéDð ñKû¸ê XõnëWýúçð ëUéçúýó@êçiéû ó_í Ñù ¯ ùñPðDïóUù2å÷çiééûêç ° óUéçúìPóUéüêûþðBñKíþóUéíþøäòKëUêëUéûþëUñPùå÷ëUéêïKçiû¸éïnøùªêçBéç êûþðúç
}!çoð
ê
ëUñPòWêçBéDóUð êûþòKöúêïKû ù
ç }!çoð
ê2ûþù DçoùªêôKëUòKç Dnø1ýúçió_òùë_å#ìKéëUì!çBé2ð ëUéçýó@êçBéûþóUí{ùüçií¸çoð
êû¸ëWòóUòPôíþû¸ýúû¸êùëUòêïPç
ì!çi-ó ýúóUöUòKçBêû "ð |PçBí ô1û¸ò[êçiòPùûêªø öUçBòPçBéDó@êçoôæû¸êïçióWðDï1ðBøð íþç
ÿí¸êëWöUçBêïKçié ]êïKçùªêéó]ø éçiùûþùüêûþõUçèìKéëUì!çBéêûþçiù©ë_åóéçió_ínûþòPôñPð êëW3é ¯÷æûþéçèéçoùüû ùüêó_òð ç @éDóUôKûþó_êûþëUòíþëWùùüço
ù @çoôKôø
ð ñPééçBò[êù Kó_òô ïnøùªêçBéçiùûþùèíþëWùùüçoù °èóUéç2!ç ìKéçiùùüçoô ñPòPôçBéêïKçùû¸òKöWí¸ç2êçBéý ë_aå _
ç }!çoð
êû¸õWç2éçiùû ùªêDó_òPðBç
Equivalent circuit for a real inductor
øR resistance
"Effective"
Ideal inductor
L
"DC resistance"
"AC resistance"
"AC resistance"
LïKç Bç íþçið êéûþðió_í éçiùûþùüêóUòPð ç2ë_å©êïPçð ëUòôñPð
êëUéæû¸êïäó_íþíbû¸êùð éëWùùvùçið êûþëUòPóUí!óUéçoóAûþòñPùüç û ùCnòKë@æòóUùèêïPç
±_²éçoùüû ùªêDó_òPðBç êïKçUÿhéçoùüû ùüêó_òð ç ë_åèêïPçùóUýIçðBëUòPôñð
êëWééçBå÷çBééûþòKö1êëäóïKûþöUïPçBék|PöWñKéçúéçiùñKí¸êûþòKö
å÷éëUý êïPç ùsnû¸ò ç!}^çið êÿùøWëUñ1ðBó_ò1ùüçiçó@êïKûþöUï å÷éçK[ñKçBòPðBû¸çoùêïKçÿYðBñKééçBò[êó]õUëWûþôKùêéDó]õUçiíêïKéëUñKöWïýúëWùüê
1Z¨[Z¨5½ih3/¾ih¬§0»/]\
mFkª6¬2/+^U^0/".§_\ ÞNÜ
ë_åèêïPç ð ëWòPôñPð êëUé¹ ùð éëWùù6v ùüçoð
êû¸ëWòPó_í7ó_éçió#XñKëWé êïKçìPñKéì!ëWùçúë_åð ëWòPôñPð êûþòKöäð ñKééçBò[ê{êïKçæûþéçýIûþöUï[êAóWù
æèçBíþyí DçïKëWí¸íþë@æ`
¸ òAùëUýúçéDóUôûþëóUìKìKíþûþðió@êûþëUòù8¯ óUò[êçBòPòPóUù]ýIë[ùªê©òKë_êDó-DKíþøB°^êïKûþù«ç!}^çið ê©û ù«ç!ìKíþëUû¸êçiô(@õnûþòPð çéóWôûþë-v}å÷éçKWñPçBòPðBø
ÿ kð ñKééçBò[êùæèëUñPíþôbò ¹ êêéó]õWçBí7êïKéëWñKöUï êïKç ýúû ôKôíþçë_åó¤ðBëUòPôñð
êëWéAó_ònønæó]ø bæïnø òKë_3ê xªñùªêAñùüçïPëUíþí¸ë@æ
ýúç êDó_í!éëôKùû¸òùªêçióUôë_å{ùëUíþûþôúýúç êDó_í^æûþéçoùîó_òôùó]õW3ç D!ë_êï æçiû¸öWïWêó_òPô ð ëWùüê w]zäë[ùªêó_ò[êçiòKòPóùªêéñPð êñKéçiùó_éç
ýóUôç ëUå©ïKëWí¸íþë@æcýúçBêó_í^êBñ D!çiùå÷ëWéêïKû ùéçióUùëUbò
LïKç2ôçBöWéçiçêëæïKû ðDïå÷éç K[ñKçBòð øó }^çið êùîêïKç2!ç }^çið êûþõUç2éçoùüû ùªêDó_òPðBçë_å{óæûþéç2ð ëUòôñPð
êëUéûþùèûþýIìóUð
êçi² ô Dnø
êïPçöWóUöUç ë_å7êïó@êæûþéç èÿùóúéñKíþç Pí ó_éöU
ç v}ö[ó_öWçæûþéçoù!ç ïK&û DKû¸êóúýúëUéçìKéëUòKëWñKòPð çoôù nûþòä!ç }^çið
ê ¯ ðDïPóUòKöUçûþò
éçiùûþùüêóUòPð çå÷éëWý ±kh°îêïPó_òùüýóUí¸í v}ö[ó_öWçæû¸éçiùó_êóUònøöUûþõUçBò å÷éç K[ñKçBòPðBø aLïKç ç K[ñPó_êûþëUò å÷ëUéó_ìKìPé?ë ûþýúó_êûþòKö
sù [ûþò1!ç }^çið
ê2ó@êïKûþöUï å÷éç KWñPçBòPðBû¸ço
ù ¯÷öWéçoó@êçiéèêïPóUò n z¿¶Ð°èû ùóUùèå÷ëWí¸íþë@æ
ù
øR = (RDC)(k)
a
f
AC
Where,
øR c
= AC resistance at given frequency "f"
AC
øR = Resistance at zero frequency (DC)
DC
b =
k = Wire gage factor (see table below)
øR = (25 Ω)(27.6) 10
AC
øR j
= 2.182 kΩ
AC
Þò .0»©"¼§0/721B¨½3/7©.§#©"¬ .0/:©¬"4¾ª65¿¼7/843©"¬ .0/:9 ª6¬4<;=.§@ª?>@/
÷íþçióWùüçéçiýúçB ý D!çBéêïó@êêïKû =ù |PöWñKéç2û "ù Î ûþýIì!çiôPó_òPðBç Kó_òôû¸êôKë[çolù ' Î ðBëUòPùû ôçBéó_ònøéçióUð êûþõUç!ç }^çið
êD
ù
þû òPôñPð êûþõUçëWéîðBóUìPóUðBûêû¸õWç0LïKûþùîûþùùüûþýúìKíþøIóUòçiùüêûþýúó_êçoô|PöUñKéçëUå^ìPñKéçéçiùû ùªêDó_òPðBçå÷ëUéêïKçðBëUòPôñð
êëWé"¯÷êïPó_ê
ëUìPìë[ùüû¸êûþëUò êëêïKçÿ2
ë@æuë_åçBíþçið êéëUòPù2æïKû ðDï ÌHÖôû ùùûþìPó@êçIì!ë@æèçBéûþò êïKçúå÷ëUéýâëUåèïKçoó@êH°H«ðBëUééçoð
êçiô
å÷ëUéùsnû¸ò ç
}!çoð
ê]oçióWð
êDó_òPðBç«óUòPô êïKç ðBëUý DKû¸òPçiô ç!}^çið
êDùëUåèéçióWð
êóUòPð çúó_òô éçiùû ùªêDó_òPðBç¯ û¸ýúì!çiôKóUòPð ç?°H7ó_éç
çBò[êû¸éçBíþø ôû }!çiéçiò[êýúó_êüêçBéD
ù
k lnmpoWqsrut v
w x y z { y | z x y | }
~ x } y | z x z y y z ~0{ Ô
~ x
Time
Time
C
'Z¨ gB¨©.æ.0©"¼y©.@ªP§Cih.@ª6_.l;bªP§am Ün
¸åæèçAæèçBéçêëìPí¸ëUêêïPçIðBñKééçBò[êóUòPôäõWëUí¸êó_öWç å÷ëUéêïKû ùõUçBéøùüûþýúìKí¸çIð ûþéðBñKû¸ê!ûê æëWñKí ôí¸ënëäùëUýúç êïKûþòKö
íþûWçêïKû ù
e=
i=
+
F
Time
e=
i=
+
Time
tcurrent
voltage slope = 0
=0
tcurrent
voltage slope = max. (-)
= max. (-)
ÿùèøWëUñ ýúûþöUï[êïPó]õUç2öUñKçoùùçi(ô UêïKçùóUýIç2ñKònñPùñPó_í^ì!ë@æçiéæèó]õWçêïPó_êæç ùó]æcæûêï êïKçùüûþýúìKí¸ç2ûþòPôñPð êëUé
ð ûþéDð ñKû¸êûþùìPéçoùüçiòWêûþò1êïKçùû¸ýúìKíþçðBóUìPóUðBûêëUéð ûþéDð ñKû¸ênêë[ë$
Ü-Ó .0»"©¼§0/7'Z¨½/8©.§$©¬ .0/ש"¬4 ª65é¼8/84©¬ .0/×9ö.0©¼y©.@ªP§@ª?>0/
e=
i=
+ p=
F
Time
-
ÿù7æû¸êïIêïKçùüûþýúìKíþçû¸òPôKñPð
êëUéð ûþéDð ñKû¸ê @êïK3ç * , ôçiöUéçBçèìKïPóWùüçùïKûå¼pê D!ç êªæèçBçiòúõUëUí¸êóUöUçó_òPôIð ñPééçBò[ê#éçoùüñPíêDù
ûþò óì!ë@æçiéîæó]õUçêïPó@êó_í¸êçiéòPó_êçoùçK[ñPóUí¸íþøÑDçBêªæçiçBòì!ëWùû¸êûþõUçóUòPôòKçiöWó_êûþõUç0LïKû ùîýúçoó_òPùêïPó_êóðBó_ìóUð û¸êëWé
ôënçiù©òKëUê7ôKûþùùüûþìPó_êçèìë@æèçBé7óUù©û¸ê7éçióWð
êDù«óUöWó_ûþòPùüê©ðDïPóUòKöUçoù{ûþòAõWëUí¸êóUöUç^@û¸ê#ýúçBéçBíþøó-DPùëUéDPù{óUòPôéçií¸çoóUùçiùbì!ë@æèçBé
ó_í¸êçiéòó@êçií¸ø
ÿ²ðió_ìPóWð û¸êëUé ¹ ùëUìKì!ëWùû¸êûþëUò1êë1ðDïPó_òKöWçû¸òäõWëUí¸êóUöUç êéDó_òùüí ó@êçiùêë ó_òäëWìKìë[ùüû¸êûþëUòêë ó_í¸êçiéòó@êûþòKöõWëUí¸êóUöUç
ûþò öWçBòKçiéóUÒí {æïKûþðDï û _ù Dnø ô
ç |PòKû¸êûþëUòó_íþæó]ønù ðDïPóUòKöUûþòKöûþò ûþòPùüêóUòWêDó_òKçiëUñPù ýóUöUòKû¸êñPôKçúóUòPô ôûþéçoð
êûþëUbò XñKëWé
ó_ònø öUûþõUçBò1ýó_öWòKûêñPôçëUå7ÿ cõWëUí¸êó_öWçó@êóúöUûþõUçiò1å÷éç KWñPçBòPðBø Póðió_ìPóWð û¸êëUéëUå©öWû¸õWçBòäùû Ðiçæû¸íþTí Wð ëUòôñPð
ê úó
ð çiéüêDó_ûþò ýó_öWòKû¸êñPôç ëUå«ÿ ðBñKééçBò[ê U
WñPùüêóWùêïKçðBñKééçBò[êêïKéëUñKöWï óIéçiùûþùüêëWéû ùóAå÷ñPòPð
êû¸ëWò ëUå{êïPç2õWëUí¸êóUöUç
óUðBéë[ùù©êïKçéçiùû ùªêëUéîóUòPôIêïKçéçoùüû ùüêó_òð ç-ë }^çBéçiô DnøêïKçéçoùüû ùªêëUé _êïKçÿ ð ñPééçBò[ê#êïPéëWñKöUïóðió_ìPóWð û¸êëWé#ûþùó
å÷ñKòPð êûþëUòë_å«êïKçÿ õUëUí¸êóUöUç óUðBéë[ùùûê Pó_òôêïKÑç ÏsÁ »
Î Á- » -ë }^çBéçiXô DnøêïKçðió_ìPóWð û¸êëWé 7ÿùæû¸êïûþòPôñPð êëUéDù
êïPçéçióWð
êóUòPð çë_å«óðBó_ìóUð û¸êëWéîû ùî
ç ìKéçoùùçiôû¸òëWïKýùó_òPôùøný D!ëUíþû Ðiçi²ô DnøIêïPçíþç êêçBhé ¯÷ëW7é
êë Dç2ýúëUéç
ùìçoð û |ð °!
õnûþòPð çðió_ìPóWð û¸êëWék
ù UðBëUòPôKñPð
ê äð ñKééçiò[ê ûþò ìKéëUì!ëUéêûþëUò êëäêïKçéó_êçëUåèõWëUí¸êó_öWçIðDïó_òKöWç bêïKçBø æû¸íþíîìóUùù
ýúëUéçAð ñPééçBò[êå÷ëWéå óWùªêçBsé vðDïPóUòKöUûþòKöúõUëWíêDó_öWçiù ¯=óUùêïKçiøðDïó_éöUçó_òô¤ôû ùðDïPóUéöWç êë êïKçIùóUýIçAõUëUí¸êóUöUçì!çió ù
ûþò íþçiùù2êûþýúç °H©ó_òPô í¸çoùùðBñKééçiòWê2å÷ëUéùíþë@æçié v ðDïPó_òPöUûþòKöõUëWíêDó_öUço
ù ïPó@ê êïPûþùýúçoó_òPù2û ù2êïPó_ê éçióWð
êDó_òPðBçûþò
ëUïPýúùèå÷ëWéó_ònø ðió_ìPóWð û¸êëUéû _ù
ÏÖ!
ðÝÂ2ìKéëUì!ëUéêûþëUòPóUíêëúêïKç å÷éç K[ñKçiòPð ø ë_å{êïKçó_í¸êçiéòó@êûþòKöð ñPééçBò[ê
L 1
XC = j
2πfC
B
?NãZ ý #N?B
=
N
B#?jsB
rZ' BN#?BH- g
NNrNNNNrNNNNrNNrrNrNNrrNrNNNNrNrrNN
¥ 8¢¦ ¥ ¦N§
NrNNNNrNNNNrNNrrNrNNrrNrNNNNrNrrN
?¥N ¡8¢ ¥ ¥ ¤
NrNNNNrNNNNrNNrrNrNNrrNrNNNNrNrrN
¥ ¦ N ¢ r¡N N
NNrNNNNrNNNNrNNrrNrNNrrNrNNNNrNrrNN
÷ íþçióWùüçIòKëUêçIêïPó_êêïKçéçBí ó@êû¸ëWòPùïKû¸ì ë_åðBóUìPóUðBûêû¸õWçéçióWð
êóUòPð çêë1å÷éçK[ñKçiòPð ø¤û ùç
óWð
êí¸øäëWìKìë[ùüû¸êçIå÷éëUý
êïó@êîëUå^ûþòPôñð
êûþõUçéçióWð
êDó_òPðBçpèó_ìPóWð û¸êûþõUçéçoóUð êó_òð ç¯÷ûþòëUïPýúù°7ôçoð éçióUùçiù7æû¸êï û¸òPðBéçoóUùû¸òPö ÿå÷éçK[ñKçBòð ø
ëUònõWçBéDùüçií¸ø« ûþòPôñPð êûþõUçéçióWð
êDó_òPðBçé÷¯ ûþò ëUïPýúù° ûþòPðBéçoóUùçiùæû¸êï ûþòPðBéçoóUùû¸òKö ÿhå÷éç[K ñKçiòPð øé¸ òPôKñPð
êëUéDùëUìBv
ì!ëWùçå óUùüêçiéèðDïó_òKöWû¸òKöð ñKééçiò[êùpnD øúìKéëôñPð ûþòKööUéçió@êçBéõWëUí¸êóUöUçôéëUìù
n^ ðBóUìPóUðBûêëUéDùëUìPìë[ùüçå óUùüêçBéèðDïPó_òPöUûþòKö
õUëWíêDó_öWç2ôéëUìùh[D ø ó_íþí¸ë@æûþòKöIöUéçió@êçBéð ñPééçBò[êù
ÿ ð ñKééçBò[ê{ûþòAóùû¸ýúìKíþçðió_ìPóWð û¸êûþõUçð ûþéDð ñKû¸ê«û ùbçWK ñó_í_êëêïKçîõWëUí¸êó_öWç3÷¯ ûþòõUëWíêDùb° ôû¸õnû ôçiô[D øêïPçðBóUìPóUðBûêû¸õWç
éçióUð êóUòPð ç]÷¯ ûþò ëWïKýù°!Nªx ñPùªêóUù ÿëWé_±keðBñKééçiòWê ûþò ó1ùüûþýúìKí¸çIéçiùûþùüêûþõUçIð ûþéðBñKûê û ùç[K ñPó_í©êë êïPçIõWëUí¸êóUöUç
÷¯ ûþòõUëWíêDùè° ôûþõnûþôçoô][D øêïKçéçiùûþùüêóUòPð 粯 û¸òëUïPýúù°H
'Z¨ gB¨©.æ.0©"¼y©.@ªP§Cih.@ª6_.l;bªP§am Ü®
³ 10 V C 100 µF
60 Hz
XC = 26.5258 Ω
µI = E
L
X
10 V
I=
26.5258 Ω
º
¶ë@æèçBõWçBé _æèçòKçiçiôúê ë UçiçBìûþòýúû¸òôúêïPó_êõWëUí¸êó_öWçó_òôð ñKééçiò[êó_éçòKëUêûþòìKïPóWùüçïKçBéç7ÿùæèóWùîùïKë@æò
I = 0.3770 A
çióUéíþûþçBéUêïKç2ðBñKééçiòWêèïPóUùèóìKïPóUùçùïKû¸å¼êë_å@·l* , æûêï éçiùìçoð
êèêëAêïKç õUëWíêDó_öWçb¸å©æçéçiìKéçiùçBò[êîêïKçiùçìPïPóUùç
ó_òPöUíþçiùëUåõUëWíêDó_öUçóUòPô ðBñKééçBò[êIýúó_êïKçiýó@êû ðBóUí¸íþø7æèç ðió_ò ðBóUíþðBñKí ó@êç êïKç ìKïPóWùüç1ó_òKöWí¸çëUåêïKç1ûþòPôñPð êëUé¹ ù
éçióUð êûþõUç2ëUìKì!ëWùû¸êûþëUò êëð ñPééçBò[ê
Voltage
Opposition =
Current
10 V ∠ 0o
Opposition = º
0.3770 A ∠ 90o
j
Opposition = 26.5258 Ω ∠ -90o
For a capacitor:
À
90o -90o
º
0o
E Opposition
Ú
Ztotal = 5 Ω (R) + 26.5258 Ω (XC)
èZ = (5 Ω ∠ 0o) + (26.5258 Ω ∠ -90o)
total
or
(5 + j0 Ω) + (0 - j26.5258 Ω)
èZ = 5 - j26.5258 Ω or
j
26.993 Ω ∠ -79.325o
total
'Z¨â1Z¨ãmZ/83ª6/7m<3/7mNªm§Cihäs.0©"¼y©.@ªP§Cih.@ª6_.l;bªP§am Ü+
¸ ýúìçoôKó_òð çû ùéçBí ó@êçoô êëäõUëWíêDó_öWçúóUòPôð ñPééçBò[êCxªñPùüêóUùøUëUñ ýúûþöUï[êAç!ì!çið ê©û¸ò óýó_òPòKçBéAùûþýIûþí ó_éêë
éçiùûþùüêóUòPð ç2û¸òéAïKý¹ ù3%{ó]æ_
Ohm’s Law for AC circuits:
ê ë E ì E
E = IZ I= ì Z= ë
Z I
í
All quantities expressed in
¸ òYå óUð ê êïKûþù û ù ó å óUé ýúëUéç¤ð ëWýIìPéçiïKçBòPùûþõUçå÷ëUéý ë_ å AïKý ¹ Xù %{ó]æ êïó_òæïPó_ê æóUùúêDó_ñKöWïWê û¸òæ±_
complex, not scalar, form
Pë@æëUåçBíþçið
êéëWòPùêïPó_òpùüûþýúìKí¸ç éçiùûþùüêóUòPð ç¤û ùkÿònøYéçiùûþùüêóUòPð ç óUòPôóUò[øYéçióWð
êóUòPð çùüçiìPó_éDó@êçBíþø/ëWé ûþò
ð ëWýDKûþòPó_êûþëUòM¯ ùçBéû¸çoùï@ìPó_éDó_íþí¸çií °![ðió_ò]DçóUòPôùüïPëUñKí ôXD!çéçBìKéçiùçBò[êçoô óWùóúùüûþòKöUíþç û¸ýúì!çiôKóUòPð ç
L«ëðió_í ð ñKí ó@êçð ñKééçBò[êû¸ò êïPç -ó D!ë@õUçúð ûþéðBñKû¸ê ©æ
ç |PéDùªêòPçBçiô êëäöUûþõUçó1ìKïPóWùüçóUòKöUíþçúéçBå÷çBéçBòPðBçå÷ëWéêïPç
õUëWíêDó_öWçùëUñKéDð ç [æïPûþðDï1ûþùèöWçBòKçiéóUí¸íþøóUùùüñPýIçoôêë D!_ç ÐBçié$ë =¯ÒLïKç ìKïPóUùçó_òKöWí¸çoùîëUå«éçiùûþùüêûþõUç ó_òô ðBóUìPóUðBûêû¸õWç
ûþýIì!çiôPó_òPðBçIóUé<ç Á-ð \ ÁÂ?Ö ,q óUòPô v * ,rq ^éçoùüì!çið êûþõUçBíþø ^éçBö[ó_éDôí¸çoùùë_å#êïPçöWû¸õWçBò¤ìKïóUùçó_òPöUíþçiùå÷ëWéõWëUí¸êóUöUçëWé
ð ñPééçBò[ê °!
E
I=
Z
10 V ∠ 0o
I=
26.933 Ω ∠ -79.325o
I = 370.5 mA ∠ 79.325o
ÿù©æû¸êïIêïPçèìPñKéçií¸øðió_ìPóWð û¸êûþõUçð ûþéðBñKû¸ê@êïKçð ñKééçiò[ê©æó]õUçûþù©íþçióUôKû¸òKöêïPçõUëUí¸êóUöUçæèó]õWç"¯÷ëUåPêïKçùüëWñKéðBç°!
ó_í¸êïPëUñKöWï êïKûþùêûþýIç êïKçôû}!çiéçiòPð ç û ù"Ü*# ® Ó +q ûþòPùªêçióWô ëUå©óå÷ñKíþíT* ,q
phase shift =
79.325 degrees
e=
+ i=
Time
-
ÿùæèçíþçió_éòKçoôúû¸òêïKç ÿ /û¸òPôKñPð
êDó_òPðBçðDïPóUìêçiéWêïKçl@êDó-DKíþçAýIçBêïKëôëUåbëUéöWóUòKûÐiû¸òPöð ûþéðBñKûêhK[ñPó_ò[êû¸êûþçiù
û ùóúõUçiéø ñPùç å÷ñKí{êënëUí å÷ëWéÿcó_òPóUí¸øùûþùaxªñPùªê2óUùû¸êû ùå÷ëUél±kpóUòPó_íþøùüû ù
=%bçBê¹ ùìKí óUðBçëUñênòKë@æò]|PöWñKéçiùå÷ëWé
êïPûþùùçBéûþçiùð ûþéðBñKû¸êû¸ò[êëóêóDKíþçó_òPô1ð ëWòWêû¸ònñKç êïKçó_òó_íþønùû ùñùüûþòKöIêïKû ùêë[ëWíÒ
ÜÞ .0»"©¼§0/7'Z¨½/8©.§$©¬ .0/ש"¬4 ª65é¼8/84©¬ .0/×9ö.0©¼y©.@ªP§@ª?>0/
R C Total
10 + j0
E Volts
10 ∠ 0o
68.623m + j364.06m
I Amps
370.5m ∠ 79.325o
5 + j0 0 - j26.5258 5 - j26.5258
Z Ohms
5 ∠ 0o 26.5258 ∠ -90o 26.993 ∠ -79.325o
ñKééçiò[ê«ûþòó2ùüçiéûþçiù©ð ûþéðBñKû¸ê©û ù7ùüïPóUéçoôçK[ñPóUí¸íþø_Dnøó_íþíð ëUýúì!ëUòKçiò[êù_ùüëêïKç=|PöWñKéçoù{ìPíþóWð çiôAû¸òAêïKçCL{ëUêó_í
ð ëWí¸ñPýIò1å÷ëWéð ñKééçiò[êðió_òDçôKûþùüêéûDPñêçoô êëó_íþí ë_êïPçBéð ëWí¸ñPýIòùóUùæèçBíþíÒ
R C Total
10 + j0
E Volts
10 ∠ 0o
68.623m + j364.06m 68.623m + j364.06m 68.623m + j364.06m
I Amps
370.5m ∠ 79.325o 370.5m ∠ 79.325o 370.5m ∠ 79.325o
5 + j0 0 - j26.5258 5 - j26.5258
Z Ohms
5 ∠ 0o 26.5258 ∠ -90o 26.993 ∠ -79.325o
Rule of series
circuits:
Ohm’s Ohm’s
Law Law
0 0
#
Z?
$?y?
ú æ æ#2? g
(æ¥ ¦
#½¥û?N-
¢ # ù ü
¢þý
'Zæ# ú ?yÿs¥$ ú ¥aÿs$:( ú
¢þý
'Zæ# ú ý ?ÿ¥$ ú ý ¥aÿ$× ý ú
¢ Z
r
B ú ?ÿ¥$ ú ¥$ ( ú
8¢ rN Z' ¢§r¦ ¥ Zr ¤p¢§ ¥ £ ZN ¡8¢£ ¦
r
B ú ý yÿ¥$ ú ý ¥$ ý ú
8¢ rN Z' £8¢¤r¡N¡ Z' ¢ N£ N ¢ N £ ZN¥
Interpreted SPICE results
´E = 1.852 V ∠ 79.33o
R
EC = 9.827 V ∠ -10.67o
I = 370.5 mA ∠ -100.7o
AòPðBçó_ö[ó_ûþò(ZõZ÷p¸s=`ð ëWòå÷ñPùû¸òKöWí¸øúìKéûþòWêDùêïKçð ñPééçBò[êìPïPóUùçóUòKöUíþç2ó_êóAõ@ó_íþñKççK[ñPó_í!êëêïPçéçióUí!ìPïPóUùç
ó_òPöUíþçAìKíþñPù n ò , q ¯ ëUé2ýIûþònñPù n ò , q °!k¶ ë@æçiõUçié! ûê¹ ù ó ùüûþýúìKí¸çIýó@êêçBé2êë ð ëWééçið êêïKûþù"P| öWñKéçó_òô¤ðDïKçið1 êë
ùçBçû¸å{ëWñKéîæèëUé û ùèð ëUééçið
êb¸ ò êïKû ùðióUùçW êïKç"v n,, âÜ q ëUñêìKñê=[D øõZ÷8¸s=`å÷ëWéð ñPééçBò[êìPïPóUùçó_òPöUíþçç[K ñPó_êçoù
êëóúì!ëWùûêû¸õWçÜ*B ®q P æïKûþðDïäôënçoùð ëUééçiùìëWòPôêëIëWñKéìKéçBõnûþëUñPùí¸øðió_í ð ñKí ó@êçiô<P| öWñKéç2ë_å8Ü*# ® Ó +q
ÿö[ó_ûþò(! ûê ýAñPùüê"!D çAçiýúìKïPóUùû&BÐ çiôäêïPó_êêïKçðió_í ð ñKí ó@êçiôP| öWñKéçiùðBëUééçoùüì!ëUòôû¸òPöúêë éçióUí~v íþûå÷çõUëUí¸êóUöUçóUòPô
ð ñPééçBò[êýúçióWùüñKéçBýúçiòWêDùAóUéçúêïKëWùçûþò ½ -ðÁÏ å÷ëWéý7 òKëUêAéçoð
êDó_òKöWñKíþóUéå÷ëUéý¿Kñ ëWéç!K ó_ýúìKíþç7 û¸åæç æçiéçúêë
óUð êñPóUí¸íþø²KD ñKûþí ôêïKûþùùçBéûþçiùèéçoùüû ùüêëUésv ðBó_ìóUð û¸êëWéîð ûþéDð ñKû¸êó_òPô ýIçoóUùñKéçõWëUí¸êó_öWçóWð éëWùùêïKç éçoùüû ùªêëUéW ëWñKéõUëWíêsv
ýúç êçBé©æëWñKíþôû¸òPôKûþðió@êçõWëUí¸êùo òPë_ê ® ) ® nn ýúû¸íþí¸ûþõUëWíêDù7¯ éçoó_í[éçoð
êDó_òKöWñKíþóUé° ëUé n òrÓ ,® õUëWíêDù8÷¯ ûþýó_öWû¸òPóUéø
éçið
êDó_òKöWñKí ó_éH°Hko çióUí©ûþòPùüêéñKýúçBò[êù ðBëUòKòKçoð
êçiôêë éçióUí©ðBû¸éDð ñKû¸êù2ìKéë@õnûþôKçû¸òôûþðió@êû¸ëWòPù ð ëUééçiùìëWòPôûþòKöêë êïPç
õUçoð
êëUéèí¸çiòKö_êïE÷¯ ýóUöUòKû¸êñPôKç° ë_åbêïKç ðBó_í ð ñPíþó_êçiôP| öUñPéçoù
@ ïKûþí¸ç2êïPç2éçið êóUòKöUñKí ó_éîå÷ëUéýxë_å«ðBëUýúìKíþç! ònñKý!D çBé
òKëUêó@êû¸ëWò û ùñPùç å÷ñPíå÷ëUéì!çBéå÷ëUéýúû¸òPöóWôKôû¸êûþëUòó_òô ùñBD êéóWð
êû¸ëWò(b û¸êAûþùAó ýúëWéçó-D ùªêéóWð
ê å÷ëUéýÚëUåèòKëUêó_êûþëUò
êïó_òìëWíþóUén æïKû ðDïäó_íþëUòKç ïPóWùôûþéçoð
êð ëWééçiùìëWòPôçiòPð çêëúêéñKç ýúçióWùüñPéçiýIçiò[êù
ýÄXÅ"Æ<Ç!Å"ÈÊÉ
ÃË ¼½ ÌÁ- » û ù2êïKçúêë_êDó_í#ýúçióWùüñKéçIë_åëWìKì!ëWùûêû¸ëWò êë1çií¸çoð
êéû ðúð ñKééçiò[êóUòPô ûþù2êïKçð ëWýIìPí¸ç
÷¯ õWçið
êëUéH°
ùüñKý ë_åC¯Õ_ éçióUí&r° éçiùû ùªêDó_òPðBç2óUòPôM¯Õ_ ûþýó_öWû¸òPóUéøZr#° éçióUð êóUòPð ç
Üò .0»"©¼§0/7'Z¨½/8©.§$©¬ .0/ש"¬4 ª65é¼8/84©¬ .0/×9ö.0©¼y©.@ªP§@ª?>0/
I Amps
5 + j0 0 - j26.5258
Z Ohms
5 ∠ 0o 26.5258 ∠ -90o
LïKû Cù D!çBûþòKö óìPóUéóUí¸íþçBíbðBû¸éDð ñPûêòPë@æ_Pæèç_[òPë@æcêïPó@êõWëUí¸êóUöUç ûþùùüïó_éçiô1çK[ñPóUí¸íþøXDnøó_íþí{ð ëWýIì!ëUòPçBò[êùùë
æèç ðió_ò1ìKí óUð ç êïKçk|PöWñKéçå÷ëUéêë_êDó_í õWëUí¸êó_öWç¯ n, õUëWíêDù ß ,q °èû¸òó_íþí êïPçð ëUíþñKýúòPù
'Z¨('Z¨¼y©3©*)#)T/+)M3/7mZªm§Cihä.0©¼y©.@ªP§Cih.@ª6_.l;TªP§am Ü-*
R C Total
10 + j0 10 + j0 10 + j0
E Volts
10 ∠ 0o 10 ∠ 0o 10 ∠ 0o
I Amps
5 + j0 0 - j26.5258
Z Ohms
5 ∠ 0o 26.5258 ∠ -90o
Rule of parallel
circuits:
Ohm’s Ohm’s
Law Law
E E
I= I=
WñPùªê#óUù©æû¸êÑ
ï ±k ð ûþéðBñKû¸êù DKéóUòPðDïðBñKééçiòWêDù{ûþòúóìPóUéóUí¸íþçBíÿ ðBû¸éDð ñPûêóUôPôñKìêë2å÷ëUéýeêïPçêë_êDó_íð ñKééçBò[ê
Z Z
Rule of parallel
circuits:
ýÄXÅ"Æ<Ç!Å"ÈÊÉ
à ¸ ýIì!çiôPó_òPðBçiù ¯{çy° ó_éç¤ýó_òPóUöUçiô xªñùªêí¸&û Uç éçoùüû ùüêó_òð çiéù ¯Õo° û¸òpìPó_éDó_íþíþçBíðBû¸éDð ñPûêó_òPóUí¸øùûþù ìó_éDó_íþí¸çií
¸û ýúì!çiôKóUòPð çoùôûþýIûþòKû ùüïêëúå÷ëUéý êïKçêë_êóUíbûþýIì!çiôPó_òPðBçPñùüûþòKöúêïPçéçoð ûþìKéënðió_í^å÷ëWéýñKíþó#+
WñPùªê"DçAùñKéç
êëäì!çBéå÷ëUéý ó_íþíîðió_í ð ñKí ó@êû¸ëWòPù û¸òðBëUýúìKíþç!㯠òKë_êIùðió_í ó_éH°å÷ëWéýöç q-! I n ïZ¯ n ïç " · n ïç $ ·Qéé
n ïç % °
à AïK ý ¹ Cù %«ó]æå÷ëUéÿ ð ûþéðBñKû¸êù p`:I¾¸sç½^Z¸CI `=ïçJ^$çMI¾`hï?¸
à ïKçBòúéçiùûþùüêëWéù#óUòPôúðBó_ìóUð û¸êëWéù7óUéçýú~û çoôAêëUöWç êïPçBéûþòúìPó_éDó_íþí¸çiíKð ûþéðBñKû¸ê3ù ¯ÝxªñPùªêèóUù#ûþòùüçiéûþçiù#ðBû¸éDð ñKû¸êù °H
êïKç1êëUêóUíû¸ýúì!çiôKóUòPð çäæûþí¸íïó]õUçó ìPïPóUùçäó_òKöWí¸çäùëUýúçBæïKçié]ç D!ç êªæèçBçBò ,q óUòPJô v * ,rq :LïKçäð ûþéðBñKû¸ê
ð ñKééçiò[êèæûþí¸í{ïPó]õUçóIìKïPóWùüçó_òPöUíþç ùëUýúçiæïKçBé"ç D!ç êªæèçBçiò ,q ó_òPöô ·l* ,rq
à ÷#ó_éDó_íþí¸çií[ ÿ ð ûþéðBñKûêDù#!ç ïK&û DKû¸ê7êïKçùó_ýúçèå÷ñKòPôKóUýúçBò[êóUíKìKéëUì!çBéêûþçiù7óUù7ìPóUéóUí¸íþçBZí ±_ ðBû¸éDð ñPûêD
ù «õUëUí¸êóUöUçèûþù
ñKòKû¸å÷ëUéýhêïKéëUñPöUïKëWñê7êïKçð ûþéDð ñKû¸ê DKéóUòPðDïðBñKééçiòWêDù#óUôKôAêë2å÷ëWéýhêïKçêëUêóUíKð ñKééçiò[ê UóUòPôAûþýúìçoôKó_òð çiù
ôû¸ýúûþòKû ùü«ï ¯¼êïKéëUñKöWï êïKçéçoð ûþìKéënðió_í!å÷ëUéýAñPíþró °êëIå÷ëUéýxêïKç êë_êDó_íbûþýúìçoôKó_òPðBç
'Z¨CBr¨ .0©¼y©.@ªP§CihD;bª6_Fm òn
, 87 Ö P/3/ÙßDà©áÛ: ãäßBÛ1<Þ
ÿùæûêïû¸òPôKñPð
êëUéDù
UêïKçû ôçióUíPðBóUìPóUðBûêëUé#û ùó ìKñKéçBíþøAéçióWð
êû¸õWçôKçBõnûþðBçUðBëUò[êóUû¸òPû¸òKöóDPùëUíþñêçií¸øÐiçBéë éçoùüû ùªêû¸õWç
¯÷ì!ë@æèçBéôKûþùùüûþìPó_êûþõUç °!ç }^çið êù "¸ òäêïKçIéçoó_í{æèëUéí ôyëUåîð ëWñKéùçòKë_êïKûþòKö û ù ùüëì!çBéå÷çið êk¶ë@æèçBõWçBéðBóUìPóUðBûêëUéDù
ïPó]õWçêïKçõnûþéüêñKçë_åöUçiòKçBéDó_íþí¸éø Dçiû¸òKö ½ ÍZÏs
ÏéçióWð
êû¸õWçúðBëUýúì!ëUòKçiòWêDù êïó_ò û¸òôñPð
êëUéDù
<¸êAû ùóí¸ëUêçióWùüûþçBé êë
ôçoùüûþöUò óUòPô ðBëUòPùüêéñPð ê2ó ðió_ìPóWð û¸êëWéæû¸êï í¸ë@æhûþò[êçBéòPóUí©ùçBéû¸çoùéçiùûþùüêóUòPð çAêïPóUò û¸ê2û ùêëôëêïKçIùó_ýúçIæûêï
ó_òûþòPôñPð êëUé :LïKçìKéDóUð
êûþðió_íéçiùñKí¸êúëUåêïKûþùúû ùúêïPó@êéçió_íðió_ìPóWð û¸êëWéùAêªønìKûþðió_íþí¸ølïPó]õUç1û¸ýúì!çiôKóUòPð çäìPïPóUùç
ó_òPöUíþçiù2ýúëUéçIðBí¸ë[ùüçií¸ø¤óUìKìKéëWóUðDïPû¸òK<ö * ,q ¯ óWð
êñPó_íþí¸ø yv * ,q °êïPó_ò ûþòPôñPð êëUéDù ÑëUòùüç KWñPçBò[êíþø ^êïKçBø¤æûþíþí#êçiòPô
êëôû ùùüûþìPó@êçí¸çoùùì!ë@æèçBéèêïPóUòäó_ò1ç K[ñKûþõ]óUí¸çiò[êû¸òPôKñPð
êëUé
èó_ìóUð û¸êëWéù«ó_í ùüëêçiòPôAêlë DçùýúóUí¸íþçBé7ó_òôAíþû¸öWï[êçBé©æèçBûþöUï[ê«êïPó_òêïPçBûþé©ç K[ñKû¸õ@óUí¸çiòWê7ûþòPôñPð êëUéðBëUñKò[êçBéìPó_éêù
ó_òô ùüûþòPðBçêïKçiû¸éIçBíþçið êéûþ²ð |PçBí ôKùIó_éç ó_íþýúëWùüêêëUêó_íþíþø ðBëUò[êóUû¸òPçiMô D!ç êªæèçBçBò êïKçBûþéIìKíþó_êço<ù ¯ ñKòKíþû Wç ûþòPôñPð êëUéDù
æïKë[ùüçýó_öWòKç êûþð |çBí ôKùòPó_êñKéDó_íþíþø¤êçiòPô êë !ç nêçiòPMô DçiøUëWòPô êïKç ôKû¸ýúçBòùüûþëUòPùAë_åèêïKç ð ëUéç °!{êïKçBø ó_éçíþçiùù
ìKéëUòKçêë êéDó_òPùýúûêêûþòKö ëWéAéçið çiû¸õnûþòKö¤çií¸çoð
êéëUýóUöUòKçBêû ð _òKëWûþùç 1êNë ï]å÷éëWý ëUêïKçiéðBëUýúìëWòKçBò[êD
ù ñKëUéêïPçiùç
éçióUùëUò
ù ð ûþéDð ñKû¸ê ôKçiùû¸öWòKçBéDùêçBòPô êë1å ó]õWëUéðió_ìPóWð û¸êëWéùë@õUçiéûþòPôñPð êëWéù2æïKçiéçiõUçBé2óôçiùû¸öWò ì!çBéýúûêDùçiûêïKçBé
ó_í¸êçiéòó@êûþõUç
èó_ìóUð û¸êëWéùîæûêï1ùûþöUòKû |ðBóUò[êèéçiùûþùüêûþõUç2!ç }^çið êùóUéç2ùóUûþôêÑë DÑç ðÖÖÂPû¸ò1éçBå÷çBéçBòPðBçêëêïKçBûþéèêçiòPôçBòð øêë
ôû ùùûþìPó@êç ¯ÕUí¸ë[ùüç °7ì!ë@æçiéíþû WçóéçiùûþùüêëWé 0LïKçùëUñKéDð çë_åbðBóUìPóUðBûêëUéíþëWùùû ùñPùñPóUí¸íþøIêïKç2ôû¸çií¸çoð
êéû ðýó@êçBéûþóUí
éDó@êïPçBéêïó_òó_ònøæûþéç éçiùûþùüêóUòPð ç KóUùæûþéç íþçBòKöUêï1û¸òäóúðBóUìPóUðBûêëUéûþùõUçBéøýúû¸òPû¸ýó_{í
±û¸çií¸çoð
êéû ðýó@êçBéûþóUíþùêçBòôêë éçoóUð êAêë ðDïPó_òPöUûþòKö¤çBíþçið êéûþ ð |PçBí ôKù Dnø ìPéëôñPðBû¸òPö ïKçoó@ê MLïKû ùAïPçió@êû¸òPö
!ç }^çið êéçiìKéçiùçBò[êù ó1í¸ë[ùù ûþò ìë@æèçBé {óUòPô û ùç KWñPû¸õ@ó_íþçBò[ê êëäéçiùû ùªêDó_òPðBçûþò êïKçðBû¸éDð ñKû¸ê LïPçI
ç }!çoð
êû ùýúëUéç
ìKéëUòKëWñKòPðBçiô ó@êAïKûþöUïPçBé å÷éç K[ñKçBòð ûþçiùóUòPô û¸ò å óWð
êAðBóUMò Dç ùë!ç nêéçBýúçúêïPó@êAû¸êAû ùùëUýúç êû¸ýúçiù!ç ìKíþëUû¸êçiô ûþò
ýó_ònñå óWð
êñPéûþòKöIìKéëðBçiùùüçoùêëïKçoó@êûþòPùüñPíþó_êûþòKöýó_êçBéû ó_í ùîíþû Wç ìKíþóWùªêûþð aLïKç ìKíþóWùªêûþðë DBxªçið
êèêÑë D!ç ïKçió_êçiô ûþù
ìKí óUðBçi²ô D!ç êªæèçBçiòêªæëAýIçBêóUí!ìPíþó_êçiù nð ëUòPòKçið êçiôêëóùüëWñKéDð çëUåbïKû¸öWZï v}å÷éç KWñPçBòPðBøIÿ /õWëUí¸êó_öWç 0L{çiýúìçiéó_êñKéç
û ùèðBëUò[êéëUíþíþçi²ô Dnøõ@ó_éønû¸òKöêïKç õUëWíêDó_öWçëUéå÷éç K[ñKçBòPðBøë_åbêïKçùüëWñKéDð ç nó_òôêïPçìKí ó@êçiùèòKçiõUçBéèïPó]õWçêëúð ëWò[êóUð ê
êïPçë DZxªçoð
Cê Dçiû¸òPöïKçió_êçi(ô
LïKû ù2!ç }^çið
ê û ù ñKòPôçoùüûþéó DKíþçå÷ëUéðió_ìPóWð û¸êëUéDùæïPçBéçæèç
ç ìçoð
ê2êïKçð ëWýúìëWòKçBò[ê2ê] ë DçiïPó]õUçIóUù óìKñPéçií¸ø
ÏsÁ »
Î Að ûþéðBñKûêçBíþçBýúçBò[ê ¿AòKçëUåèêïKçæó]øù2êë¤ýúû¸êûþöWó@êçúêïKç !ç }^çið
êë_åôûþçBíþçið
êéû ² ð _íþëWùù û ùêë¤ðDïKënëWùçó
ôûþçBíþçið êéûþðýó@êçiéû ó_í7íþçiùù ùüñPùð çiìê&û DKíþçIêë1êïKçú
ç }!çoð
ê GëUêóUí¸í#ôûþçBíþçið êéûþðIýó@êçBéûþóUíþù2ó_éçIç K[ñPó_íþíþ¿ø _íþëWùùüø ÿ
éçBí ó@êûþõUç ùðBó_íþç ë_å#ôûþçBíþçið
êéû ð2í¸ë[ùùèå÷éëUý í¸çoóUùüêèêëöUéçió_êçiùüêûþùöWû¸õWçBò ïKçBéç
B#N N NrNNNNrNNNNrN ZgZ g[g
?
B ù g NN
Z#
r-
d ù gng
Z
B?br
ù g r ' ù Q? N ù
B ý
e
Z?Tr
ù -TN Z
BNB ù ý ZB Z rN s erg Z gng
±û¸çií¸çoð
êéû ðäéçoùüû ùüêûþõ[û¸êªølýóUòKûå÷çoùªêDù û¸êùçBí¸å_DëUêïcóWù ó ùçBéûþçiùóUòPôóìPóUéóUí¸íþçBíéçiùû ùªêDó_òPðBçäæûêïêïKç ìKñKéç
ðBóUìPóUðBûêDó_òPðBç
òÓ .0»"©¼§0/7'Z¨½/8©.§$©¬ .0/ש"¬4 ª65é¼8/84©¬ .0/×9ö.0©¼y©.@ªP§@ª?>0/
Rseries
tcapacitor
Ideal Rparallel
w x y z { y | z x y | }
~ x } y | z x w y | } z
úÖi×
7 Ø ÝÛßBÝÞ W¡s¢£¡/RS P
øR
250 Ω
³
³ V
120 L 650 mH
60 Hz
C
1.5 µF
XL = 245.04 Ω
1
XC =
2πfC
L 1
XC =
(2)(π)(60 Hz)(1.5 µF)
ZR
250 Ω ∠ 0o
³ V
120 ZL 245.04 Ω ∠ 90o
60 Hz èZ
C
1.7684 kΩ ∠ -90o
Gë@_ æ ]æû¸êïúó_íþrí K[ñPóUò[êû¸êûþçiù«ë_åPëWìKìë[ùüû¸êûþëUòêë2çBíþçið
êéû ðîðBñKééçiòWê©ç!ìKéçiùùüçoôûþòóðBëUýúýúëUò(_ðBëUýúìKíþç!ònñKýD!çBé
å÷ëUéýó@ê_¯ óWùû¸ýúì!çiôKóUòPð çoù
KóUòPô òPë_êóUùèéçiùûþùüêóUòPð çoùëWééçoóUð
êDó_òPðBçiù°H[êïPçBø ðió_ò]Dç ïPóUòPôíþçiô û¸ò êïKçùó_ýúç2æèó]ø
óUù7ìPíþóUû¸òúéçiùûþùüêóUòPð çoù7û¸ò_ó ±_lðBû¸éDð ñPûê@LïKû ù#û ùó_òúû ôçióUíêûþýúçêëôéDó]ælñPìó_òúó_òPóUí¸øùûþù©êDó-DKíþçå÷ëUé#êïKû ùð ûþéðBñKû¸ê
ó_òô¤ûþòPùüçiéüêó_íþí«êïK²ç _öWû¸õWçB#ò ²|PöUñKéçiù¯¼êë_êDó_í7õUëWíêDó_öUç!óUòPôäêïKçúû¸ýúì!çiôKóUòPð çoù2ë_åêïKçéçiùû ùªêëUé!ûþòPôñð
êëWé óUòPô
ðBóUìPóUðBûêëUéH°H
Br¨§¨ãmZ/83ª6/7m<¥¤)1¤#©"¬4 . ò+
©R ªL ¬C « Total
E
120 + j0 ¨
Volts
120 ∠ 0o
I Amps
250 + j0 0 + j245.04 0 - j1.7684k
Z Ohms
250 ∠ 0o 254.04 ∠ 90o 1.7684k ∠ -90o
Ztotal = ZR + ZL + ZC
¯ ° 250 + j0 ± 0 + j245.04 ±
0 - j1.7684k
²
250 - j1.5233k
Z ° 250 ∠ 0o ° 254.04 ∠ 90o 1.7684k ∠ -90o 1.5437k ∠ -80.680o
Ohms
Rule of series
³Z circuits:
total = ZR + ZL + ZC
çúðió_ò òKë@ækóUìKìKíþøEAïKý¹ ù_%«ó]æ ¯Õ¸sIl`=ïo"°õWçBéêû ðBó_íþíþøäû¸ò êïPçÑL{ëUêóUí&1ð ëWí¸ñKýúò êë]|PòPô êë_êóUíð ñKééçBò[ê
å÷ëUéêïKû ùùüçiéûþçiùðBû¸éDð ñPûê
òÞ .0»"©¼§0/8]Br¨½/8©.§$©¬ .0/ש"¬4 ª65é¼8/84©¬ .0/:9¥¤)¦¤#©¬"4 .
R L
¬C Total
E
120 + j0 ¨
Volts
120 ∠ 0o
12.589m + 76.708m ®
I ´ 77.734m ∠ 80.680o Amps
250 + j0
± 0 + j245.04 ± 0 - j1.7684k 250 - j1.5233k
Z ° 250 ∠ 0o ° 254.04 ∠ 90o 1.7684k ∠ -90o 1.5437k ∠ -80.680o
Ohms
Ohm’s
Law
E
I= ³
èçBûþòKö¤ó ùçBéûþçiùðBû¸éDð ñKû¸ê#ðBñKééçBò[êAýñPùüêDç çK[ñPóUíêïPéëWñKöUï óUí¸íèð ëUýúì!ëUòKçiò[êù¿Lï[ñù
7æèç ðBóUò êó-WçêïPç
Z
Rule of series
¶I circuits:
3.1472 + j19.177 V ER
¹
-18.797 + j3.0848 V EL
+ 135.65 - j22.262 V EC
º
120 + j0 V Etotal
» ¼?½¿¾À¦ÁÃÂÄÅÇÆ_Èɽ[ÊËÄÁÉÂ?ÄÌÉ;½ÍÉÎ_ÀÂ?ÂÄÂÐÏÊ?ÑÉÀÒ¼-ÌÉÅÇÄÁÊ?ÑÉÀм-ÀÔÓÄÕ[ÊÆÎÀ+¾ÉÂ?ÄÖ¼#¾ÄÀмÀ×NÌÆÕØ ÓÚÙ
5 Ó ÄÕ[Ê¼Û ÷ À4Â?ÁÃÄÂÅÜÀ¾
ÄÍÆÜÝ4ÆÕÝ4ÌÉÕÆÚÊ?Ä ¯ ÖÉÂÀ¼?À4ÂÓ½[ÍÉÎÜÆÚÕÕ¾½Î½[ʼ ° ÏÊÑÉÀ3ÆÚͼ-ÞÒÀ4ÂàßÄÌáÞP½ÕÕÂ?ÀÐÝâÀ½[ÓÀ¼?ÑÉÄÌÕ¾áÈÀãä Áå Î ð~Â Ø ÓÚÙ·çæ-Ù ÓÄÕCÊ!¼4Û
è À3Ý4ÆÚÍÆÚÕ¿¼?Äé̼?À õZ÷8¸?êÒë ÊÄìÓÀ4½[ÁÃßOÄÌÉÂàíÎÌÉÂÀ¼ÔÁÃÄÂàÊÑɽ¿¼_Ýâ½ÂÝ4Ìɽ[Êî
øR
1 2
250 Ω
³
³ V
120 L 650 mH
60 Hz
C
0 3
1.5 µF
#
NùN :Z?
'??
ú ææ#2?¥N0ïZ
(æ¥æ¥ ¦
òò ð »"©¼§Uñ8]Br¨½5ñ8© ð §$©¬ ð ñש"¬5ò ªóé¼+ñ+ò©¬ ð ñõô¥¤)¦¤#©¬*ò ð
ù½ ¥ ¡æ N¦
# ¡ û ¢¦
¢ # ù ü
¢þý
'Zæ# ú ? yÿs¥$ ú ¥aÿ ¡ ú ¡ sÿ $:( ú
¢þý
'Zæ# ú ý ? ÿ¥$ ú ý ¥aÿ ¡ ú ý ¡ ÿ#: ý ú
¢ Z
r
B ú ? ÿ¥$ ú ¥aÿ ¡ ú ¡ ( ú
8¢ rNZ' ¢¤B¡ Z' ¢¤ ¦ Z ¢¡N£r¦ ZN¥ £8¢6£N£N¡ N¥
r
B ú ý yÿ¥$ ú ý ¥aÿ ¡ úý ¡ ý ú
8¢ rN Z' §8¢ N§ Z' ¢£ £ ZN¥ ¤8¢¡ ¥N ZN ¤ 8¢¤r¡ ¥ Z'
EL = 19.05 V ∠ 170.7o
´E = 137.5 V ∠ -9.320o
C
µI = 77.73 mA ∠ -99.32o (actual phase angle = 80.68o)
ö ÑÉÀ õZ÷8?¸ êÒë ¼?½Å÷ÌÉÕ¿Æøʽ[ÄÍù¼?ÑÉÄøÞ_¼ÒÄÌÉÂPÑÆÚ;úÝ4ÆÕÝ4ÌÉÕ¿ÆøÊ?ÀоÂÀ¼?ÌÉÕ[ʼÒÊÄûÈÀ3ÆÝÝâÌÉÂ!ÆøÊÀÛ
»5¼÷ßÄÌHÝ4ÆÚÍH¼?À4ÀÏ#ÊÑÉÀ4ÂÀO½¿¼÷Õ½[Ê-Ê?ÕÀá¾É½CüÀ4ÂÀ4ÍÝ4ÀOÈÀâÊÞÒÀ4À4ÍH» ê Ý4½[Â!Ýâ̽CÊéÆÍÆÚÕß¼-½¿¼3Æ; ±¥ê Ý4½[Â!Ýâ̽CÊéÆÍÆÚÕß¼-½¿¼Ï
ÀâýÉÝ4À4ÖÊPÊÑÆøÊ5ÆÕ[Õ#×NÌÆÍNÊ?½[Ê?½À¼PÄÁXÓÄÕ[ÊÆÚÎÀÏÉÝ4ÌÉÂ?ÂÀ4ÍNÊÐÏÉÆÚ;ùÂÀ¼?½¼-ÊÆÍÝâÀ ¯ ÆÝ8ÊÌÆÚÕÕ[ßÏþ ÿ ã ÌÁå ã ° Å÷̼-Ê5ÈÀ`ÑÆÚ;Õ[Àо
½ÍÝâÄÅûÖÕ[À4ýÜÂ!ÆøÊÑÉÀ4Â+Ê?ÑÆÍá¼Ý4ÆÕÆÂ1ÁÃÄÂÅE¼-Ä÷Ƽ¦ÊÄéÆÝ4ÝâÄÌÉÍNʦÁÃÄÂÒÖÉÑƼ-ÀÆÚÍÉÎÕ[ÀÛ ö ѽ¼Ô½¼ÔÎÄľϼ-½ÍÝ4À5½[ÊÒÅÜÀÆͼ+ÆÕ[Õ
ßÄÌ ¹ ÓÀ`ÕÀÆÚÂÍÉÀоùÆÈÄÌÊ ±`ê À4ÕÀÝ8ÊÂ?½¿Ý3Ý4½[Â!ÝâÌɽ[ʼ5ÆÚÖÉÖÉÕ½À¼PÊÄOÞPÑÆÚÊ5ßÄÌ ¹ ÂÀ¥Õ[ÀÐÆÚÂÍɽÍÉÎìÑÉÀ4ÂÀÛ ö ÑÉÀ÷ÄÍÉÕßÀ4ýÝ4À4Öʽ[ÄÍ
Ê?Ä÷Ê?Ñɽ¿¼àÝâÄͼ-½¿¼-Ê?À4ÍÝâßܽ¼+Ê?ÑÀÝÆÚÕ¿ÝâÌÉÕ¿Æøʽ[ÄÍOÄÚÁ#ÖÄøÞÒÀ4ÂÐÏÞPÑɽ¿Ý!ѽ¿¼Ô¼?Ä÷ÌÍɽ×NÌÉÀ*Ê?ÑÆøÊà½CÊP¾À¼?À4ÂÓÀм+ÆéÝ!ÑÆÚÖÊÀ4Âà¾À4ÓÄÚÊÀ¾
Ê?ÄûÊÑÆøÊ5¼?ÌÉÈ æ ÀÐÝ8Ê5ÆÚÕÄÍÀÛ
ýÄXÅ"Æ<Ç!Å"ÈÊÉ
à ¸ ÅûÖÀ¾ÆÚÍÝ4À¼àÄÚÁ1ÆÚÍ߽;ƾɾù½Íù¼?À4½[Àм4î ç
!
ç " ·ûç $ · ÛPÛPÛ ç %
à »_Õ[Ê?ÑÉÄÌÉÎÑs½ÅÜÖÀоÉÆÚÍÝâÀ¼¥Æ¾É¾s½Í ¼?À4½[Àм4ÏÊ?ÑÀ÷ÊÄÚÊÆÕU½[ÅÜÖÀ¾ÉÆÍÝâÀéÁÃÄÂ¥ÆÝ4½[Â!ÝâÌɽ[Ê`ÝâÄÍNÊ!ÆÚ½Íɽ[ÍÎÈÄÚÊ?Ñ ½[;ÌÝ8ú
ÊÆÚÍÝâÀOÆÚ; ÝÆÚÖÆÝâ½[ÊÆÍÝâÀìÅìÆßÈÀOÕÀ¼¼¥Ê?ÑÆÚÍ ÄÍÉÀÄÂ`ÅÜÄÂÀìÄÚÁàÊ?ÑÀO½[;½[Ó½¿¾ÌÆÕ¦½[ÅÜÖÀ¾ÉÆÍÝâÀм4ÏXÈÀÝ4Æ̼?À
¼-ÀÂ?½À¼½Í¾ÌÝâÊ?½ÓÀìÆÚ; Ý4ÆÖÆÝ4½Cʽ[ÓÀé½ÅÜÖÀоÉÆÚÍÝâÀ¼ÊÀ4; ÊÄÝÆÚÍÝ4À4Õ1ÀÐÆÝ!ÑÄÊ?ÑÉÀÂ`ÄÌÊÐÛ ö Ñɽ¼¥ÅìÆßJÕÀƾsÊÄ
ÓÄÕ[ÊÆÎÀ¥¾ÂÄÖ¼àÆÝ4Â?ÄN¼?¼àÝ4ÄÅÜÖÄÍÉÀ4ÍNÊ!¼àÀâýÉÝâÀÀ¾½ÍÉÎûÊ?ÑÉÀ3¼?ÌÉÖÉÖÕ[ßOÓÄÕ[ÊÆÎÀ
7 .0/1/324252çW¡¢£¡/
R L ³ C
³120 V 250 Ω 650 mH 1.5 µF
60 Hz
³120 V ZR ZL ZC
60 Hz
250 Ω ∠ 0o 1.7684 kΩ ∠ -90o
245.04 Ω ∠ 90o
è ½[Ê?ÑHÆÚÕÕÔÝ4ÄÅÜÖÄÍÉÀÍÊéÓÆÕ[ÌÀ¼`À4ýÖÂ?Àм?¼?À¾ Ƽ3½[ÅÜÖÀ¾ÉÆÍÝâÀм ¯{ç(° ÏXÞÔÀOÝÆÚÍH¼?ÀâÊ÷ÌÉÖHÆÍHÆÚÍÆÕ[ß¼?½¼Ê!ÆÚÈÉÕÀÆ;
ÖÉÂÄÝâÀ4Àо Ƽì½ÍçÊ?ÑÉÀsտƼ-ÊOÀâýÉÆÅûÖÕ[ÀJÖÉÂÄÈÕ[ÀÅùÏàÀ4ýÝ4À4ÖÊìÊÑɽ¿¼ìÊ?½ÅÜÀJÁÃÄÕÕÄøÞP½[ÍÉÎ ÊÑÉÀsÂÌÉÕ[ÀмìÄÚÁ¥ÖÆÂÆÕ[ÕÀ4Õ_Ý4½[Â!ÝâÌɽ[ʼ
½Í¼ÊÀƾÄÁU¼?À4½[Àм4î
©R ªL ¬C « Total
E
120 + j0 ¨
Volts
120 ∠ 0o
I Amps
R L
¬C Total
E
120 + j0 120 + j0 120 + j0 120 + j0 ¨
Volts
120 ∠ 0o 120 ∠ 0o 120 ∠ 0o 120 ∠ 0o
I Amps
250 + j0
± 0 + j245.04 ± 0 - j1.7684k
Z Ohms
250 ∠ 0o 254.04 ∠ 90 o
1.7684k ∠ -90o
Rule of parallel
circuits:
Etotal = ER = EL = EC
ÄøÞ`ÏÞÒÀÝÆÚÍùÆÚÖÉÖÉÕß!*ÑÉÅ ¹ ¼#"ËÆÞ ¯å¸ hë ïçy° ÓÀ4Â?Ê?½¿Ý4ÆÕ[Õßܽ[ÍùÀÆÝ!ÑÝâÄÕ[ÌÅûÍáÊ?ÄܾÀ4Ê?À4ÂÅܽ[ÍÀÝ4ÌÉÂ?ÂÀ4ÍNÊÒÊ?ÑÉÂÄÌÎÑ
ÀÆÝ!ÑùÝ4ÄÅÜÖÄÍÉÀÍÊÐî
Ù ð »"©¼§Uñ8]Br¨½5ñ8© ð §$©¬ ð ñש"¬5ò ªóé¼+ñ+ò©¬ ð ñõô¥¤)¦¤#©¬*ò ð
©R ªL ¬C « Total
E
120 + j0 120 + j0 120 + j0 120 + j0 ¨
Volts
120 ∠ 0o 120 ∠ 0o 120 ∠ 0o 120 ∠ 0o
$
480m + j0
0 - j489.71m 0 + j67.858m
I $ $ % Amps
480 ∠ 0o 489.71m ∠ -90o 67.858m ∠ 90o
° 250 + j0 ±
0 + j245.04
±
0 - j1.7684k
Z Ohms
250 ∠ 0o 254.04 ∠ 90o 1.7684k ∠ -90o
©R ªL ¬C « Total
120 + j0 120 + j0 120 + j0 120 + j0
E Volts
120 ∠ 0o 120 ∠ 0o 120 ∠ 0o 120 ∠ 0o
,
480m + j0
±
0 - j489.71m
±0 + j67.858m
$
480m - j421.85m ®
I - % Amps
480 ∠ 0o 489.71m ∠ -90o 67.858m ∠ 90o 639.03m ∠ -41.311o
¯ ° 250 + j0 ± 0 + j245.04 ± 0 - j1.7684k 141.05 + j123.96
Z ° 250 ∠ 0o ° 254.04 ∠ 90o 1.7684k ∠ -90o 187.79 ∠ 41.311o
Ohms
2 2 2 2
º º º
Vic Vil Vic
º /
4
Vi
øR
3 bogus 6
1 5
øR
0
L ³
C
³ V
120 250 Ω 650 mH 1.5 µF
60 Hz
0 0 0 0
µI = 480 mA ∠ 0o
R
IL = 489.7 mA ∠ -90o
IC = 67.86 mA ∠ 90o
p Ê5ÊÄÄ]JÆOÕ½CÊ?Ê?ÕÀéȽCÊ¥ÄÚÁ¦ÊÂ?½¿Ý)ÀÂ?ßÊ?ÄùÎÀ4Êrq8s p?êÒë ÞÔÄÂ(½ÍÉÎƼ5ÞÒÀ÷ÞÒÄÌÉÕ¿¾JÕ½tÀ÷ÄÍJÊ?Ñɽ¿¼¥Ýâ½ÂÝ4Ìɽ[Êouýͼ-ÊÆÕ[Õ½[ÍÎ
v ¾ÉÌÉÅÜÅ÷ß v ÓÄÕCÊ!ÆÚÎÀ¼?ÄÌÂÝ4À¼ì½Í ÀÆÝ!ÑõÈÉÂ!ÆÚÍÝ!ÑçÊ?Ä ÄÈÊ!ÆÚ½Í ÝâÌÉÂÂÀ4ÍNÊìíÎÌÂ?ÀмÆÚ; ½[ͼ-ÊÆÕ[Õ½ÍÉÎ Ê?ÑÀ v ¾ÉÌÉÅÜÅ÷ß v
ÂÀ¼?½¼-Ê?ÄÂ3½[ÍHÊ?ÑÉÀO½Í¾ÌÝ8Ê?ÄÂéÈÂÆÍÝ!Ñ Ê?ÄÖÂ?ÀÓÀ4ÍNÊ÷Æs¾É½[ÂÀÝâÊé½Í¾ÌÝâÊ?ÄÂ?ú Ê?ÄÚú ÓÄÕCÊ!ÆÚÎÀû¼?ÄÌÉÂ!ÝâÀÕ[ÄÄÖ#ÏXÞPѽÝ!ÑRq8s p?êÒë
Ý4ÆÍÉÍÉÄÊ1Ê?ÄÕÀ4Â!ÆøÊÀEwâÏÈÉÌÊÔÞÔÀ_¾½¿¾ÜÎÀ4Ê1Ê?ÑÉÀ5ÖÉÂ?ÄÖÀ¦ÂÀƾɽ[ÍÉÎN¼4Û ë ÓÀ4ÍÜÅÜÄÂÀÔÊÑÆÚÍÜÊÑÆøÊÐÏÈßé½[ͼ-ÊÆÕ[Õ½ÍÉÎ¥Ê?ÑÉÀ*¾ÌÉÅÜÅ÷ß
ÓÄÕCÊ!ÆÚÎÀ5¼-ÄÌÉÂ!ÝâÀ¼guÝ4ÌÉÂ?ÂÀ4ÍNÊÒÅûÀ4Ê?À¼)w1½ÍOÊÑÉÀ*ÖÂ?ÄÖÀÂÒ¾½ÂÀÝ8ʽ[ÄͼÏÞÒÀ5ÞÒÀ4ÂÀ*ÆÈÉÕ[À5Ê?ÄÜÆÓĽ¾ûÊÑÆøÊཾɽ[ÄN¼-ßÍÝ4ÂƼ-ßéÄÚÁ
q8s p?êÒë ÄÚÁÖɽÍʽ[ÍÎéÝâÌÂ?ÂÀ4ÍNÊ+íÎÌÉÂÀ¼5ØXx Ù ÄÌÊàÄÚÁÖÑƼ?ÀÛ ö Ñɽ¿¼ÔÞàÆßÏÄÌÉÂàÝâÌÂ?ÂÀ4ÍNÊ+ÖÉÑƼ?À5ÂÀƾɽ[ÍÉÎN¼¦Ý4ÆÅÜÀ5ÄÌÉÊ
Ê?ÄÜÀ4ýÆÝ8ÊÕ[ßOÅìÆÚÊÝ!ÑÄÌÉÂPÑÆÚ;ùÝ4ÆÕÝ4ÌÉÕÆÚÊ?½ÄͼÛ
y )z {|}e~}>: gG ?
C1
4.7 µF
L 650 mH
120
V R 470 Ω
60 Hz
C2 1.5 µF
1 XL = 2πfL
XC1 =
2πfC1
1 XL = (2)(π)(60 Hz)(650 mH)
XC1 =
(2)(π)(60 Hz)(4.7 µF)
1
XC2 =
2πfC2
1
XC2 = R = 470 Ω
(2)(π)(60 Hz)(1.5 µF)
XC2 = 1.7684 kΩ
ZR = 470 + j0 Ω or 470 Ω ∠ 0o
ÄøÞgÞÔÀ`ÝÆÚͼ-À4Ê_ÌÉÖùÊ?ÑÉÀ`½Íɽ[Ê?½¿ÆÚÕÓøÆÚÕÌÉÀ¼_½[ÍÄÌÂÔÊ!ÆÚÈÉÕÀî
«C ¬L «C R ª Total
1 2
E
120 + j0 ¦ Volts
120 ∠ 0o
I
§ Amps
©Z ¯ 0 - j564.38 ¯ 0 + j245.04 ¯ 0 - j1.7684k ® 470 + j0 ¨ Ohms
° 564.38 ∠ -90o
± 245.04 ∠ 90o 1.7684k ∠ -90 o ® 470 ∠ 0o
² À4½ÍÉÎéÆû¼?À4½[Àмú ÖÆÚÂ!ÆÚÕÕÀ4Õ å
ÿ³4þ :´µ þ
Ý4½[Â!Ýâ̽CÊÐÏNÞÒÀÅ÷̼-ÊPÂ?ÀоÌÝâÀ*½CÊàÊÄûÆ÷Ê?ÄÊÆÚÕ½ÅÜÖÀоÉÆÚÍÝ4À*½ÍùÅûÄÂ?À5Ê?ÑÆÍ
Ä ÍÀé¼-Ê?À4Ö#Û ö ÑÉÀéíÂ!¼Ê¥¼ÊÀ4Ö ½¼5Ê?ÄùÝâÄÅéÈɽÍÉÀ¶" ÆÚ; ê#· ƼƼ?À4½À¼5Ý4ÄÅéÈɽ[ÍÆøÊ?½ÄÍÄÚÁ¦½ÅûÖÀ¾ÆÚÍÝ4À¼ÏÈßsƾɾ½ÍÉÎ
Ê?ÑÀ4½Â_½[ÅÜÖÀ¾ÉÆÍÝâÀмPÊÄÎÀ4Ê?ÑÉÀÂÛ ö ÑÉÀ4ÍÏÊ?ÑÆÚÊ5½ÅûÖÀ¾ÆÚÍÝ4À3ÞP½[ÕÕÈÀ÷ÝâÄÅ÷ÈɽÍÉÀоá½ÍJÖÆÂÆÕ[ÕÀ4ÕÞP½[Ê?ÑÊÑÉÀ3½ÅûÖÀ¾ÆÚÍÝ4À
ÄÚÁÊÑÉÀ5ÂÀ¼?½¿¼ÊÄÂÐÏÚÊ?ÄûÆÚÂÂ?½ÓÀ_ÆÚÊÔÆÚÍÄÚÊ?ÑÀ4ÂÔÝ4ÄÅéÈɽ[ÍÆøÊ?½ÄÍìÄÁ½[ÅÜÖÀ¾ÉÆÍÝâÀм4Û ¸X½ÍÆÚÕÕ[ßÏÊÑÆøÊP×NÌÆÚÍNʽCÊßûÞP½[ÕÕÈÀƾɾÀо
Ê?ÄûÊÑÉÀ`½[ÅÜÖÀ¾ÉÆÍÝâÀ`ÄÁ ê+¹ ÊÄìÆÚÂÂ?½ÓÀ¥ÆøÊàÊ?ÑÀ¥Ê?ÄÚÊ!ÆÚÕ½ÅÜÖÀоÉÆÚÍÝâÀÛ
p ÍOľÀÂ+ÊÑÆøÊàÄÌÂ+Ê!ÆÚÈÉÕÀ5ÅìÆßÜÁÃÄÕÕÄøÞ ÆÕ[ÕÊÑÉÀ¼?À¼-Ê?ÀÖ¼ÏN½[ÊàÞP½[ÕÕÈÀÍÉÀÝ4À¼¼?ÆÂ?ßéÊ?ÄÜƾ¾OƾɾɽCʽ[ÄÍÆÚÕÝâÄÕ[ÌÉÅÜͼ
Ê?Äá½CÊ`¼?ÄìÊ?ÑÆÚÊÀÐÆÝ!Ñs¼-Ê?ÀÖÅìÆßáÈÀûÂ?ÀÖÉÂ?Àм-ÀÍNÊ?À¾Û5»5¾É¾É½[ÍÉÎùÅÜÄÂÀ÷ÝâÄÕ[ÌÅûͼ5ÑÉÄÂ?½»º4ÄÍNÊÆÚÕÕßÊÄOÊ?ÑÀ÷Ê!ÆÚÈÉÕÀé¼?ÑÉÄøÞPÍ
ÆÚÈÄøÓÀPÞÒÄÌÕ¾ûÈÀ_½[ÅÜÖÉÂ!ÆÝâÊ?½¿Ý4ÆÕÁÃÄÂ+ÁÃÄÂÅÜÆÚÊ-ʽ[ÍÉÎ`ÂÀƼ-Äͼϼ-Ä p ÞP½Õ[ÕÖÉÕ¿ÆÝâÀ*Æ¥ÍÉÀ4Þ ÂÄøÞ ÄÁÝ4ÄÕÌÉÅÜͼ1ÌÉ;À4ÂÍÉÀÆÚÊ?ÑÏ
ÀÆÝ!ÑùÝ4ÄÕÌÉÅÜÍù¾ÉÀ¼?½[ÎÍÆøÊÀ¾áÈNßá½CÊ!¼àÂ?Àм-ÖÀÝâÊ?½ÓÀ`ÝâÄÅÜÖÄÍÉÀ4ÍNÊ5ÝâÄÅ÷ÈɽÍÆÚÊ?½ÄÍî
¼ ð¾½ fl¿Uñ`hTLiRh5ñ`f ð ¿jflk ð ñGfgk5ònmó+ñ+òlflk ð ñõôohr£j¡e£3flk*ò ð
Á Â Ã Total
L -- C2 R // (L -- C2) C1 -- [R // (L -- C2)]
E Volts
À
I Amps
Z Ohms
à Total
L -- C2 R // (L -- C2) C1 -- [R // (L -- C2)]
120 + j0
E Volts
120 ∠ 0o
I Amps
Æ
0 - j1.5233k 429.15 - j132.41 429.15 - j696.79
Z Ç Ohms
1.5233k ∠ -90o 449.11 ∠ -17.147o 818.34 ∠ -58.371o
qCÈXÈÉ»ÊËÌ]Í`ÎÏÑÐGÏ]ÒÓ`Í(ÈXÔÏ]Ê3ÕoÖ)Ì×Ø»ÈlÔÏ]ÊLÖ'Ì]ÉtÊ3Í`ÌÔÏØtÒÙÊÚÏÓ v]Û ÏÖ)ÌØÝÜ v Ð#ÈlÔXÌÊÍ'ÌÑÚÈػ޶ÕÉ»Í'ÔÌ]Ó'ÕoÖ'Î3ÌÑÖÔÏ]Ø»ÒÙÊ
ÚÓ'Ï]ÙßÖ'ÎÈ#à3Ó'ÍWÖ¾Ö'Ì]×ØtÈá Û Î3ɻ;ËÉtâÈXÍãÒ3;Ï]Ê3ÈÖ)Ì×Ø»ÈäÐ+ÉåÖ'ÎoÚÏ]ÒÓeÔÏ]Ø»ÒÙÊ3;ÌÊ3ÕoÌÊÏ]Ö(ÎÈXÓ¾Ö'Ì]×ØtÈäÐ+ÉtÖ(ζÖ(ÎÓ'ÈÈ+ÔÏ]Ø»ÒÙÊ3Íá
æ ÏÑÐAÖ'Î3ÌÑÖrÐ#ȶçCÊÏÑÐAÖ'ÎÈoÖ(ÏÖ)ÌØãÉtÙè:ÈXÕÌ]Ê3ÔÈéu xêXx3á ¤]¼!ëíì îdï x á ¤Lð êEñ)wgÌÊ3ÕÖ(ÎÈoÖ(Ï]Ö'Ì]ØãâÏ]ØtÖ'Ì]Ë]È|uWêEòó|â]ÏØåÖ)Í
ì óñwÜ\ÐÈôÔXÌÊÌ]èèØ»ÞõgÎÙ ÍgöVÌ9Ð÷u p(øùäú \w+â]ÈÓ(Ö(ÉûÔÌ]ØtØ»Þ|É»ÊÖ'ÎÈ v Û Ï]Ö'Ì]Ø v ÔÏ]Ø»ÒÙÊéÖ(ÏüÌÓ'Ó(É»â]ÈÌÖÌàjË]ÒÓ'ÈÚÏÓ
(Ö Ï]Ö'Ì]Ø>ÔÒÓ'Ó(ÈXÊLÖXý
Lþ8þJ8ÿdÿ g¡V¡ ÿ`¡r£j¡ £
ï
Á Â Ã Total
L -- C2 R // (L -- C2) C1 -- [R // (L -- C2)]
120 + j0
E Volts
120 ∠ 0o
76.899m + j124.86m À
I Amps
146.64m ∠ 58.371o
0 - j1.5233k 429.15 - j132.41 429.15 - j696.79
Z
1.5233k ∠ -90o
449.11 ∠ -17.147 o
818.34 ∠ -58.371o
Ohms
Ohm’s
Law
E
I=
Z
#Ö>Ö'ÎÉ»ÍVèjÏÉtÊLÖVÐ#È`ÌÍWçgÏ]ÒÓ)ÍWÈXØtâÈXÍ:Ö'ÎÈ+×LÒÈXÍWÖ(É»Ï]ÊVý>ÌÓ'ȾÖ(ÎÈXÓ(È`Ì]ÊCÞgÔÏÙèjÏÊÈÊLÖ'Í>Ï]ÓVÔÏ]ÙèjÏÊÈÊLÖ ÔÏ]Ù¶×ÉtÊjÌÑÖ(É»Ï]ÊjÍ
Ð+ÎÉûÔ)ÎRÍ(Î3ÌÓ'ÈÈÉtÖ(Î3ÈÓ¶Ö(ÎÈ|Ö(ÏÖ)ÌØ#â]ÏØåÖ)ÌË]È|Ï]ÓÖ'ÎÈ!Ö(ÏÖ)ÌØ#ÔÒÓ'Ó(ÈXÊLÖ p Ê Ö(ÎÉûÍÔÌÍWÈÜã×:ÏÖ'Î ¹ ÌÊ3Õ Ö'ÎÈ|èjÌÓ)ÌØ»ØtÈXØ
ÔÏÙô×É»Ê3ÌÖ(É»Ï]Ê| úú u ö
· wÍWÎjÌÓ'È}Ö(Î3ÈrÍ'ÌÙÈou Ö(Ï]Ö'Ì]Øûw#ÔÒ3Ó(Ó'ÈÊLÖXÜCÍ(ÉtÊ3ÔÈlÖ'ÎÈÖ(Ï]Ö'ÌØ:É»Ùoè:ÈXÕ3ÌÊ3ÔÈÉûÍäÔÏÙoè:ÏÍ(ÈXÕÏÚ
Ö(Î3ÈÖdÐÏÍ(ÈÖ)ÍÏÚäÉtÙè:ÈXÕÌ]Ê3ÔÈEÍÉ»Ê Í(ÈÓ'É»ÈXÍXá Û ÎLÒjÍÜãÐÈÔXÌÊ¢Ö(Ó)ÌÊ3ÍWÚÈÓrÖ'ÎÈà3ËÒÓ'ȶÚÏÓÖ(Ï]Ö'Ì]Ø`ÔÒÓ'Ó'ÈÊLÖÉtÊLÖ(Ïé×:ÏÖ'Î
ÔÏØtÒ3ÙoÊjÍý
C 1
L C 2 R
E Volts
$ 76.899m + j124.86m
I Amps
146.64m ∠ 58.371o
Z " 0 - j564.38 " 0 + j245.04 " 0 - j1.7684k ! 470 + j0
# 564.38 ∠ -90 o
245.04 ∠ 90o 1.7684k ∠ -90o 470 ∠ 0o
Ohms
Rule of series
%I circuits:
total = IC1 = IR//(L--C2)
L -- C2 R // (L -- C2)
C1
Total
-- [R // (L -- C2)]
120 + j0
E Volts
120 ∠ 0o
$ 76.899m + j124.86m & 76.899m + j124.86m
I Amps
146.64m ∠ 58.371o 146.64m ∠ 58.371o
Z "
0 - j1.5233k 429.15 - j132.41 429.15 - j696.79
Ohms
1.5233k ∠ -90o 449.11 ∠ -17.147o 818.34 ∠ -58.371o
Rule of series
%I circuits:
total = IC1 = IR//(L--C2)
C L
C R
$ 70.467 - j43.4001 2
Ohm’s
7 Law
E = IZ
L -- C 2 R // (L -- C2)
C
1
Total
-- [R // (L -- C2)]
E : 65.857
49.533 + j43.400 120 + j0 8 Volts
∠ 41.225 o
120 ∠ 0o
& 76.899m + j124.86m & 76.899m + j124.86m 9
I Amps
146.64m ∠ 58.371o 146.64m ∠ 58.371o
" 0 - j1.5233k
Z
1.5233k ∠ -90o
! 449.11
429.15 - j132.41
∠ -17.147 o
429.15 - j696.79
818.34 ∠ -58.371o
Ohms
Ohm’s
Law
E = IZ
£×LÒÉûÔ)çÕ8Ï]Ò3×ØtÈ î Ô)Î3ÈXÔ)çÏÚ>ÏÒÓÐ#Ï]Ó'çÌÑÖ`Ö'ÎÉûÍè:Ï]É»ÊLÖ#Ð#Ï]Ò3Ø»Õ×:ÈgÖ(϶Í(ÈÈÐ+ÎÈÖ(ÎÈXÓÏÓÊÏ]Ö`Ö'ÎÈgâÏ]ØtÖ'Ì]Ë]ÈlÕ8Ó'Ï]èjÍ
Ì ÔÓ(ÏLÍ(Í ¹ Ì]Ê3Õ¶Ö(ÎÈlÍ(ÈÓ'É»ÈXÍ î è3Ì]Ó'Ì]ØtØ»ÈØCÔÏÙô×É»Ê3ÌÖ(É»Ï]ÊoÏÚ\ ú]ú uö
· wãÉtÊ3ÕÈÈXÕÌÕÕ¶ÒèÖ(ÏrÖ'ÎÈäÖ(Ï]Ö'ÌØÝá;lÔÔÏ]Ó)Õ8É»ÊË
]
Ö(Ï=<rÉ»Ó'Ô)Î3ÎÏ?>+ ÍA@ Ï]ØtÖ'ÌËÈöVÌ9ÐÜCÖ(Î3ÈÞ!Í(ÎÏÒØ»Õ>Å
B
Etotal should be equal to EC1 + ER//(L--C2)
C
70.467 - j43.400 V
+ 49.533 + j43.400 V
120 + j0 V Indeed, it is!
Û Î3ÌÖäØûÌ]ÍWÖ}ÍdÖ'ÈèÐäÌ]ÍäÙÈÓ'ÈØ»Þ|ÌoèÓ'ÈXÔÌ]Ò8Ö(É»Ï]ÊVá p ÊéÌoèÓ'Ï]×Ø»ÈÙíÐ+ÉåÖ'ÎÌÍäÙÌÊCÞ|ÍWÖ(ÈèjÍ+Ì]Í#Ö(Î3É»Í+ÏÊÈrÎ3Ì]ÍXÜCÖ(Î3ÈÓ'È
ÉûÍÙ¶Ò3Ô)ÎüÏ]èè:Ï]Ó(Ö(ÒÊ3ÉåÖdÞÚÏÓ#ÈXÓ(Ó'Ï]ÓEáeõÔÔÌÍWÉ»Ï]ÊjÌØjÔÓ(ÏLÍ(Í î Ô)ÎÈXÔ)ç8Íeػɻç]ÈgÖ(Î3ÌÖäÏÊÈrÔÌÊüÍ(Ì9âÈg̶èjÈXÓ'Í(Ï]ÊüÌôØ»ÏÖ+Ï]Ú Ð#Ï]Ó'ç
ÌÊjÕ|ÒÊ3ÊÈXÔÈXÍ'Í(Ì]Ó(ÞÚÓ'Ò3ÍWÖ(Ó)ÌÑÖ'ÉtÏÊ|×CÞ|ÉûÕ8ÈÊLÖ'ÉåÚÞCÉ»ÊËèÓ(Ï×Ø»ÈÙÍäèÓ'ÉtÏÓäÖ(ÏoÖ(ÎÈràjÊ3ÌØVÍWÖ(ÈXè!Ï]Ú Ö'ÎÈèÓ'Ï]×Ø»ÈÙá
+Ú Ö'ÈÓÎ3Ì9âCÉtÊËÍ(Ï]Ø»â]ÈEÕoÚÏ]Óâ]Ï]ØtÖ'Ì]Ë]È+Õ8Ó'Ï]è3ÍÌ]ÔÓ(ÏLÍ(
Í ¹ ÌÊ3ÕoÖ'ÎÈlÔÏÙô×É»Ê3ÌÖ(É»Ï]Ê úú u ö
· wÜCÐ#ÈlÌËLÌÉ»ÊÌÍWç
Ï]Ò3Ó'Í(ÈØ»â]ÈEÍeÖ'ÎÈ`×Ò3ÈXÍWÖ(É»Ï]Ê>ý¾Ð+Î3ÌÖäÏ]Ö(ÎÈXÓ+ÔÏ]Ùè:Ï]ÊÈXÊLÖ'ÍäÍWÎjÌÓ'ÈlÖ'ÎÈÍ(Ì]ÙoÈâ]ÏØåÖ)ÌËÈlÏ]Ó+ÔÒÓ(Ó'ÈÊLÖD p Ê|Ö'ÎÉ»Í+ÔXÌ]Í(È]ÜLÖ(Î3È
Ó'ÈXÍ(É»ÍWÖ(ÏÓgugw`Ì]Ê3ÕÖ(Î3ÈgÔÏÙô×É»Ê3ÌÖ(É»Ï]ÊÏÚVÖ(ÎÈgÉtÊ3ÕÒ3ÔÖ'Ï]ÓäÌÊ3ÕÖ'ÎÈrÍWÈEÔÏ]ÊjÕÔÌèjÌ]ÔÉtÖ(ÏÓgu ö
· wÍWÎjÌÓ'È+Ö(ÎÈrÍ'ÌÙÈ
â]ÏØåÖ)ÌËÈ]Ü×:ÈXÔXÌÒ3Í(È+Ö(Î3ÏÍ(ÈlÍWÈÖ'Í`ÏÚ>É»Ùoè:ÈXÕ3ÌÊ3ÔÈXÍ`Ì]Ó(È+É»Êè3Ì]Ó'Ì]ØtØ»ÈØ3Ð+ÉåÖ'ÎÈXÌÔ)ÎoÏ]Ö(ÎÈXÓXá Û ÎÈXÓ(ÈÚÏ]Ó'È]Ü]Ð#ÈlÔXÌÊÖ(Ó)ÌÊjÍdÚÈXÓ
Ö(Î3Èâ]Ï]ØtÖ'Ì]Ë]Ègà3Ë]Ò3Ó(F È EdÒ3ÍWÖlÍWÏØtâÈXÕ|ÚÏ]Ó+É»ÊLÖ(ÏoÖ(ÎÈÔÏ]Ø»ÒÙÊ3Í#ÚÏ]Ó}AÌ]Ê3Õ ö
· ý
Lþ8þJ8ÿdÿ g¡V¡ ÿ`¡r£j¡ £
ð
C L
C
H 49.533 + j43.400
R
& 70.467 - j43.400
1 2
E
82.760 ∠ -31.629o
: 65.857 ∠ 41.225 o Volts
& 76.899m + j124.86m 9 Amps
I
146.64m ∠ 58.371o
Z " 0 - j564.38 " 0 + j245.04 " 0 - j1.7684k
# 564.38 ∠ -90 o G 245.04 ∠ 90
o
1.7684k ∠ -90o
! 470 + j0
470 ∠ 0 o
Ohms
Rule of parallel
7E circuits:
R//(L--C2) = ER = EL--C2
L -- C 2 R // (L -- C2)
C
1
Total
-- [R // (L -- C2)]
E : 65.857
49.533 + j43.400
I 65.857
49.533 + j43.400 120 + j0 8 Volts
∠ 41.225 o
∠ 41.225 o
120 ∠ 0o
& 76.899m + j124.86m & 76.899m + j124.86m 9
I Amps
146.64m ∠ 58.371o 146.64m ∠ 58.371o
" 0 - j1.5233k
Z
1.5233k ∠ -90o
! 449.11
429.15 - j132.41
∠ -17.147 o
429.15 - j696.79
818.34 ∠ -58.371o
Ohms
Rule of parallel
7E circuits:
R//(L--C2) = ER = EL--C2
æ ÏÑÐGÐ#È] Ó(È}Ì]ØtØ:ÍWÈÖ`ÚÏÓÔÌ]Ø»ÔÒØûÌÑÖ(É»ÊËÔÒÓ(Ó'ÈÊLÖeÖ'ÎÓ'Ï]ÒËÎÖ(ÎÈgÓ(ÈEÍWÉûÍdÖ'Ï]Ó`Ì]Ê3ÕoÖ(Î3Ó(ÏÒË]ÎÖ'ÎÈlÍ(ÈÓ'ÉtÈEÍ`ÔÏÙô×É»Ê3ÌÖ(É»Ï]Ê
ö
· á}Ø»Ø>ÐÈrÊÈXÈXÕ!Ö(ÏÕÏoÉûÍ+Ìè3èØtÞéõgÎÙ Í+ö Ì9Ð u p(øù#ú >weâÈÓ(Ö(ÉûÔÌػػÞÉtÊ×:ÏÖ'ÎüÏ]ÚVÖ'ÎÏÍ(ÈÔÏ]Ø»ÒÙÊ3ÍXý
C L
C R
& 70.467 - j43.400
1 2
8 Volts
E
82.760 ∠ -31.629o
I 49.533 + j43.400
65.857 ∠ 41.225 o
Ohm’s
% 7J
Law
E
I=
Z
x ¿¾ÿTLþ*lÿ++¿, -¾ÿ.
/10`ÿ -¾ÿ324r£j¡e£
5
½ l
L -- C2 R // (L -- C2)
C Total
-- [R // (L -- C2)]
! 49.533 + j43.400 ! 49.533 + j43.400 1
8 Volts
E I 65.857 ∠ 41.225 o I 65.857 ∠ 41.225 o
120 + j0
120 ∠ 0o
&
-28.490m + j32.516m 76.899m + j124.86m
& 76.899m + j124.86m 9
I Amps
43.232m ∠ 131.22o 146.64m ∠ 58.371o 146.64m ∠ 58.371 o
Ohm’s
Law
% J
I=
E
Z
105.39m + j92.341m
+ -28.490m + j32.516m
C
76.899m + j124.86m Indeed, it is!
qCÉ»Ê3ÔÈôÖ(ÎÈoöRÌ]Ê3M Õ · Ì]Ó(ÈôÔÏ]ÊÊ3ÈXÔÖ'ÈXÕéÉ»ÊÍ(ÈÓ'ÉtÈEÍÜ:ÌÊ3ÕÍWÉ»Ê3ÔȶÐÈôçLÊ3ÏÑÐHÖ'ÎȶÔÒÓ'Ó(ÈXÊÖlÖ(ÎÓ'Ï]ÒËÎÖ(ÎÈXÉtÓrÍ(ÈÓ'ÉtÈEÍ
Ô ÏÙô×É»Ê3ÌÖ(É»Ï]Ê ÉtÙè:ÈXÕÌ]Ê3ÔÈÜ Ð#ÈÔÌ]Ê Õ8É»ÍWÖ(Ó'É»×Ò8Ö(ÈÖ'Î3ÌÑÖoÔÒÓ'Ó(ÈXÊLÖàjË]ÒÓ'ÈÖ(ÏÖ'ÎÈ|ö6ÌÊjÕN · ÔÏ]Ø»ÒÙÊ3ÍrÚÏØtØ»ÏÑÐ+É»ÊË
Ö(Î3ÈÓ(ÒØ»ÈrÏÚ ÍWÈXÓ(É»ÈXÍäÔÉtÓ)ÔÒÉtÖ'Í}Ð+ÎÈÓ'È×CÞÍ(ÈÓ'ÉtÈEÍ+ÔÏ]Ùè:Ï]ÊÈXÊLÖ'Í+Í(Î3ÌÓ'ÈlÖ'ÎÈÍ'ÌÙÈÔÒÓ'Ó(ÈXÊLÖXý
C L C R
& 70.467 - j43.400
1 2
8 Volts
E
82.760 ∠ -31.629o
I 49.533 + j43.400
65.857 ∠ 41.225o
& 76.899m + j124.86m -28.490m + j32.516m -28.490m + j32.516m 105.39m + j92.341m 9 Amps
I
146.64m ∠ 58.371o 43.232m ∠ 131.22o 43.232m ∠ 131.22o 140.12m ∠ 41.225o
" 0 - j564.38 " 0 + j245.04 " 0 - j1.7684k
Z # 564.38 ∠ -90 o G 245.04 ∠ 90 o
1.7684k ∠ -90o
! 470 + j0
470 ∠ 0o
Ohms
Rule of series
%I circuits:
L--C2 = IL = IC2
C L C R
& 70.467 - j43.400
1
R 57.501 + j50.382
2
! 49.533 + j43.400
E
82.760 ∠ -31.629o
-7.968 - j6.981
10.594 ∠ 221.22o 76.451 ∠ 41.225
I 65.857 ∠ 41.225o Volts
& 76.899m + j124.86m
I
146.64m ∠ 58.371o
!
-28.490m + j32.516m -28.490m + j32.516m
43.232m ∠ 131.22o 43.232m ∠ 131.22o
! 105.39m + j92.341m
140.12m ∠ 41.225o
Amps
Ohm’s Ohm’s
Law Law
E = IZ E = IZ
æ ÏÑÐÜ8Ø»ÈÖE Í#Ö'ÒÓ'Ê!Ö'Ï|q8s p ù ÚÏ]Ó}ÌÔÏ]ÙèÒ8Ö'ÈÓ+âÈÓ'ÉåàjÔXÌÑÖ'ÉtÏÊ|ÏÚ¾Ï]Ò3Ó#Ð#Ï]Ó'çý
0 0 0
UVXW)YQZ\[]YWQ^?_U)Z`UbacadYcaeZ`^cac^`VfVb[gZ,Vgh[gi
j'kXkmlXUVnkgoclpWb[rq
j\[giskmotUVl
j\[)abV.u3vpUV3l
j\[gZtutwtUVl
Vk*otu3vFxzy?h
a.vn{twc{clg|
V)oX{tl}k~xz{?h
Zpwtlfv`ycl
xzUV.a[qk*wclXwcl
x_bZ[rqbiXUVmjoK
u,Njd_o;u,3['
j[gi\3[r_zj\[gi\
x_bZ[rqbiXUVmj
v
{,Njd_
v{,3['
j[)a`Vb.[_
j\[)abVb
x_bZ[rqbiXUVmj{K
l,Njd_{;l,3['
j[)a`Vb.[_
j\[)abVb
êXóó ¿¾ÿTLþ*lÿ++¿, -¾ÿ.
/10`ÿ -¾ÿ324r£j¡e£
5
½ l
x_bZ[rqbiXUVmjwK
l,Njd_w;l,3['
j[gZ\3[r_zj\[gZ\
xzY)qb
`Z YQ jo;u, jQ_oKu ['
j\[ri\ [r_
j\[gi\ k
wxzldlclQbblk xzodycwQbblk^duxkgwcuQbcl\k k~xv`wdwQ^dl\k {x1cucyQbcl\k
Z`YQ j
v{, jQ_
v{ ['
j\[?a`Vb [r_
j\[)a`Vc
wxzldlclQbblk k~xzld{cQbblk^k~x1uccQbclco vFxzucoduQ^dlco k~x1u\kgoQbclco
Z`YQ j{ jQ_{, ['
j\[?a`Vb [r_
j\[)a`Vc bo
wxzldlclQbblk yxzw)v`{Qbblk vxkgocoQcbl\k vFxzucoduQ^dlco k~x1u\kgoQbclco
Z`YQ jw jQ_w, ['
j\[rZ\ [r_
j\[gZ\
wxzldlclQbblk wxz{dcwQbblk vxkgocoQcbl\k k~xv`lk^dl\k vFxkgocoQbcl\k
ù ÌÔ)ÎôØ»ÉtÊ3È+ÏÚ:Ö(ÎÈlq8s p ù Ï]Ò8Ö'èÒ8ÖeػɻÍWÖ(É»ÊËË]É»â]ÈEÍ Ö(ÎÈ+âÏ]ØtÖ'ÌËÈ]ÜÑâÏ]ØtÖ'ÌËÈè3Î3Ì]Í(È}ÌÊËØtÈÜÔÒÓ'Ó'ÈÊLÖXÜ]Ì]Ê3ÕÔÒÓ'Ó'ÈÊLÖ
èÎ3ÌÍWÈoÌÊËØtÈôÚÏ]Ó+ ¹ Ü>ö`Ü' · Ü\ÌÊ3Õ ÜÉtÊÖ(Î3ÌÖÏÓ'Õ8ÈXÓXálÍÞ]ÏÒÔÌ]ÊÍ(ÈÈ]Ü:Ö'ÎÈXÍ(ÈôàjË]ÒÓ'ÈXÍÕ8Ï!ÔÏ]Ê3ÔÒÓÐ+ÉåÖ'ÎÏ]Ò3Ó
Î3Ì]Ê3Õ î ÔÌØûÔÒ3Ø»ÌÖ(ÈXÕ|à3ËÒÓ(ÈEÍ#ÉtÊüÖ(Î3ÈÔÉ»Ó'ÔÒÉåÖlÌ]Ê3ÌØ»Þ8ÍWÉûÍÖ'Ì]×ØtÈá
lÍ`ÕÌÒÊLÖ'ÉtÊ˶ÌÖ'Ì]Í(çÌ]ÍeÍ(ÈÓ'ÉtÈEÍ î è3Ì]Ó'Ì]ØtØ»ÈbØ 5ÔÉ»Ó'ÔÒÉtÖÌÊ3Ì]ØtÞ8Í(ɻ;ÙÌ9ÞoÌèè:ÈXÌ]ÓXÜÉåÖ`Ù¶Ò3ÍWÖ`×jÈlÈÙèÎ3ÌÍWÉ»ºÈEÕoÖ(Î3ÌÖ
Ö(Î3ÈÓ'ȶÉûÍÊÏÖ'ÎÉtÊ3Ë!Ó'ÈXÌ]ØtØ»ÞÊÈÐnËÏ]É»ÊË|ÏÊÎÈXÓ(ȶ×jÈEÍWÉûÕ8ÈEÍlÖ'ÎÈÒ3Í(ȶÏ]ÚÔÏÙoè3ØtÈ ÊCÒÙ¶×jÈXÓ'ÍXá¶õgÎÙ Íö Ì9Ð÷uÉ»Ê ÉtÖ'Í
ÊÈXÐßÚÏ]Ó'Ù ÏÚ ù#øgp \wlÍdÖ'ÉtØ»Ø ÎÏ]ØûÕÍgÖ(Ó'ÒÈÜ>Ì]ÍrÕ8Ï!Ö(ÎÈâ]ÏØåÖ)ÌËȶÌÊjÕÔÒ3Ó(Ó'ÈÊLÖö Ì9Ð}ÍÏ Ú <rÉ»Ó'Ô)Î3Î?Ï >¾á O ÎÉ»ØtÈoÖ(Î3ÈÓ'È
ÉûÍgÙÏÓ(ÈoèjÏ]Ö(ÈXÊÖ'É»Ì]ØãÚÏ]ÓrÎCÒÙÌÊÈXÓ(Ó'Ï]ÓÉ»Ê ÔÌ]Ó(Ó'ÞCÉtÊ3Ë|Ï]ÒÖgÖ'ÎÈÊÈXÔÈXÍ'Í(Ì]Ó(ÞÔÏÙoè3ØtÈ ÊLÒ3Ùô×:ÈÓÔÌ]Ø»ÔÒØ»ÌÖ(É»Ï]Ê3ÍXÜÖ(Î3È
×3ÌÍWÉûÔèÓ(É»Ê3ÔÉtèØ»ÈXÍ+Ì]Ê3Õ!Ö(ÈEÔ)ÎÊÉ¿×Ò3ÈXÍäÏÚ Í(ÈÓ'ÉtÈEÍ î è3ÌÓ)ÌػػÈØÔÉ»Ó'ÔÒÉåÖ+Ó'ÈXÕ8ÒjÔÖ(É»Ï]ÊÌÓ'ÈrÈ Ì]ÔÖ(Ø»ÞÖ(Î3ÈÍ(Ì]ÙoÈá
*
¢¡
}Ê3Ì]ØtÞ8Í(ɻ;Ï]Ú:Í(ÈÓ'ÉtÈEÍ î è3ÌÓ)ÌػػÈØc ÔÉ»Ó)ÔÒÉtÖ'Í Éû;ÙôÒjÔ)ÎôÖ'ÎÈ}Í(Ì]ÙÈäÌÍ ÍWÈXÓ(É»ÈXÍ î è3ÌÓ)ÌØ»ØtÈXØ R
ÔÉ»Ó'ÔÒÉåÖ)Íá Û ÎÈäÏ]Ê3ØtÞ
ÍWÒ×jÍdÖ)ÌÊLÖ(É»â]ÈrÕ8É£:
> ÈXÓ(ÈXÊ3ÔÈÉûÍ#Ö(Î3ÌÖlÌØ»Ø\à3ËÒÓ(ÈEÍäÌÊ3ÕÔÌ]Ø»ÔÒØûÌÑÖ(É»Ï]ÊjÍ#Ì]Ó(ÈrÉ»ÊüÔÏ]ÙèØ»È uÊÏ]ÖlÍ(ÔXÌØûÌÓw ÚÏÓ(Ùá
pô Ö É»ÍôÉtÙè:Ï]Ó(Ö'Ì]ÊÖôÖ(ÏÓ'ÈÙÈÙ¶×jÈXÓÖ'Î3ÌÑÖô×:ÈÚÏÓ(È!ÍWÈXÓ(É»ÈXÍ î èjÌÓ)ÌØ»ØtÈXØ Ó(ÈEÕ8Ò3ÔÖ'ÉtÏÊ6uÍ(ÉtÙèØ»Éåà:ÔÌÑÖ'ÉtÏÊjwÔXÌÊ ×:ÈËÉtÊ>Ü
Þ]Ï]ÒéÙ¶Ò3ÍWÖÕ8ÈÖ(ÈÓ'ÙÉtÊ3ÈôÖ'ÎÈôÉ»ÙèjÈEÕÌÊ3ÔÈüu\w+Ï]Ú`ÈâÈÓ'Þ!Ó'ÈXÍ(ÉûÍdÖ'Ï]ÓEÜ3É»Ê3Õ8Ò3ÔÖ(Ï]ÓEÜ\ÌÊ3ÕÔÌèjÌ]ÔÉtÖ(ÏÓXá Û Î3ÌÑÖÐ#Ì9ÞÜ
ÌØ»Ø ÔÏÙèjÏÊÈÊLÖgâÑÌ]ØtÒÈEÍlÐ+É»Ø»Ø ×:ÈôÈ Cè3Ó(ÈEÍ(Í(ÈXÕÉ»Ê ÔÏ]ÙÙÏ]ÊÖ(ÈXÓ(ÙÍouÝ\w}ÉtÊjÍdÖ'ÈXÌ]ÕÏÚ`ÌÊÉtÊ3ÔÏ]Ùè3ÌÖ(É»×ØtȶÙɤ
ÏÚ Ó'ÈXÍ(ÉûÍdÖ)ÌÊ3ÔÈou lwÜjÉtÊ3ÕÒ3ÔÖ)ÌÊ3ÔÈuö wÜ3ÌÊjÕ!ÔXÌè3ÌÔÉtÖ'ÌÊjÔÈ¥u äwá
Í(Ï]ÒÓ)ÔÈ4 á }Ú Ö(ÈÓÖ(Î3ÌÖXÜVè3Ó(Ï8ÔÈXÈXÕ Ð+ÉåÖ'΢Ö(ÎÈÍ'ÌÙÈÍdÖ'Èè3ÍÌ]Ê3Õ ÍdÖ'Ó'ÌÖ(ÈXË]É»ÈXÍØtÈEÌÓ'ÊÈXÕÚÏ]ÓÌ]Ê3ÌØ»ÞCºÉ»ÊË TÔÉ»Ó'ÔÒÉåÖ)ÍÜ
Ò3Í(ÉtÊ3˶Ö'ÎÈ v Ê3ÈÐ v ÚÏ]Ó'Ù÷ÏÚ`õgÎÙ Í+öVÌ9Ðý ù#øgp ¹¸ p(øù#ú e¸3Ì]Ê3Õ øù#ú9p
+ÈXÙoÈXÙô×:ÈÓrÖ'Î3ÌÑÖÏ]Ê3ØtÞéÖ'ÎÈÔÌ]Ø»ÔÒØûÌÑÖ(ÈEÕàjË]ÒÓ'ÈXÍÈ8èÓ'ÈXÍ'Í(ÈXÕÉ»ÊPº`»?¼ ´]½ ÚÏ]Ó'Ù Ì]èèØ»ÞÕ8É»Ó(ÈEÔÖ(Ø»ÞéÖ'ÏéÈÙèÉ»Ó(ÉûÔÌ]Ø
ÙÈXÌÍWÒÓ'ÈÙÈXÊÖ)ÍrÏÚ+â]ÏØåÖ)ÌËÈÌ]Ê3Õ ÔÒÓ'Ó'ÈÊLÖXáü+ÈXÔÖ'ÌÊ3Ë]ÒØûÌÓÊÏ]Ö'ÌÖ(É»Ï]Ê É»ÍôÙÈÓ'ÈØ»Þ ÌÒ3Í(ÈÚÒØ`Ö(ÏCÏ]ØeÚÏ]ÓÒ3ÍÖ(ÏÌÕÕ
ÌÊjÕÍWÒ3×8Ö(Ó)Ì]ÔÖÔÏÙèØtÈ s×ÒjÌÊLÖ(ÉtÖ(É»ÈXÍlÖ(ÏË]ÈÖ'ÎÈÓEágs¾ÏØ»Ì]Ó}ÊÏ]Ö'ÌÑÖ'ÉtÏÊ>ÜÐ+ÎÈÓ'ÈÖ'ÎȶÙÌ]Ë]ÊÉtÖ(Ò3ÕÈ!uØ»ÈÊ3ËÖ(Î ÏÚeâÈXÔÖ'Ï]Ów
Õ8É»Ó(ÈEÔÖ'ØtÞ!Ó(ÈXØ»ÌÖ(ÈXÍ+Ö(ÏÖ(Î3ÈÙÌË]Ê3ÉåÖ'Ò3Õ8ÈÏÚ¾Ö'ÎÈâ]ÏØåÖ)ÌË]ÈrÏÓlÔÒÓ'Ó'ÈÊLÖ+ÙoÈEÌ]Í(ÒÓ'ÈXÕ\Ü3Ì]Ê3Õ!Ö(ÎȶÌÊËØtÈÕ8É»Ó'ÈXÔÖ'ØtÞ!Ó(ÈXØ»ÌÖ(ÈEÍ
Ö(ÏÖ(ÎÈüèÎ3ÌÍWÈüÍWÎ3ÉåÚ ÖÉ»ÊRÕ8ÈËÓ(ÈXÈXÍXÜ É»ÍôÖ(Î3È!ÙÏÍWÖ¶è3Ó'ÌÔÖ(ÉûÔÌ]ØÐäÌ9Þ Ö(ÏÈ 8èÓ(ÈEÍ(ÍoÔÏÙèØtÈ H×ÒjÌÊLÖ(ÉtÖ(É»ÈXÍôÚÏ]ÓÔÉ»Ó'ÔÒÉtÖ
ÌÊjÌØ»ÞCÍ(ÉûÍá
êXóLò ¿¾ÿTLþ*lÿ++¿, -¾ÿ.
/10`ÿ -¾ÿ324r£j¡e£
5
½ l
¾ ¿ÁÀÃÂÅĶÆÈÇ É
Ê Ë Ì Í Î Ï Î Ð Ë
Ñ=¦Ò ÓÕÔ×ÖgÖØFÙ;¬e~Ø
ÖÔÛÚ¶¨é¨ª©
Battery momentarily
connected to start the cycle e= e
i=
+
i Time
-
e=
i=
+
Time
-
êXó ¤
êXó ¼ ¿¾ÿséþm}ÿ'êA
4¾ÿ
½ l
e=
i=
Time
e=
i=
-
Time
+
e=
i=
-
Time
+
e=
i=
-
Time
+
e=
i=
Time
e=
i=
+
Time
-
e=
i=
+
Time
-
ízero kinetic
maximum potential energy,
energy
mass
potential energy =
kinetic energy =
*
¢¡
éþ öþJc10¡VÿJg¡V¡Vÿ¡p÷¿,
ø
è1´~¿µùlÿ'êA
-¾ÿ êXó ð
ÄÔXÌè3ÌÔÉtÖ(Ï]ÓoÌÊ3Õ ÉtÊ3ÕÒ3ÔÖ'Ï]ÓÕ8ÉtÓ'ÈXÔÖ(Ø»Þ ÔÏÊÊÈXÔÖ(ÈEÕ Ö(ÏË]ÈÖ'ÎÈÓ¶ÚÏ]Ó'Ù ÍWÏÙÈÖ(Î3ÉtÊË¢ÔÌ]ØtØ»ÈXÕ5Ì µ ´]äcôeÞÝð½
ÞãbÝ µ Ü
Ð+ÎÉ»Ô)ÎüÏÍ'ÔɻػػÌÖ(ÈXÍuÏ]Ó ½
â Ü» ä´Ñµâ ÜWwäÌÑÖ}ÏÊÈrè3ÌÓ(Ö(ÉûÔÒ3Ø»Ì]ÓäÚÓ(ÈÐ×Ò3ÈÊ3ÔÞ]áK#Ö+Ö(Î3ÌÖ+ÚÓ(ÈÐ×LÒÈÊ3ÔÞ]ÜÈXÊÈÓ'Ë]ÞÉûÍ}Ì]ØåÖ'ÈÓ î
Ê3ÌÑÖ'ÈØ»Þ|ÍWÎCbÒ úÈEÕ!×:ÈÖdÐ#ÈÈXÊüÖ(ÎÈÔXÌè3ÌÔÉtÖ(Ï]Ó+Ì]Ê3Õ!Ö(ÎÈÉ»Ê3Õ8Ò3ÔÖ(ÏÓ}ÉtÊüÖ'ÎÈrÚÏ]Ó'Ù÷ÏÚ ÌØtÖ(ÈXÓ(ÊjÌÑÖ(É»ÊËâ]ÏØåÖ)ÌËÈÌ]Ê3Õ
ÔÒÓ'Ó(ÈXÊLÖ óoÕÈË]Ó'ÈÈEÍ#Ï]Ò8Ö}Ï]Ú èÎ3ÌÍWÈrÐ+ÉtÖ(ÎéÈEÌ]Ô)Î|Ï]Ö(ÎÈXÓXá
O ÎÈÊRÖ(ÎÈè:ÏÑÐÈXÓoÍ(ÒèèØ»Þ ÚÓ'È×LÒÈÊjÔÞ¢ÚÏ]ÓÌÊ ÔÉ»Ó)ÔÒÉtÖoÈÌ]ÔÖ'ØtÞ ÙÌÑÖ)Ô)ÎÈXͶÖ'Î3ÌÑÖÔÉ»Ó'ÔÒÉtÖX ͶÊjÌÑÖ(Ò3Ó'Ì]Ø
ÏÍ'ÔÉ»ØtØûÌÑÖ'ÉtÏÊÚÓ'È×LÒÈXÊ3ÔÞ Ì]ÍÍ(ÈÖ¶×LÞÖ(ÎÈüö6ÌÊ3Õ* ÔÏ]ÙèjÏÊÈÊLÖ)ÍܾÌÔÏÊ3Õ8ÉtÖ(É»Ï]Ê ÏÚ ½
â Ü» ä´]äÞâ Ð+ÉtØ»Ø`Î3Ì9âÈ
×jÈXÈÊÓ(ÈEÌ]Ô)ÎÈEÕ\á
10 µF 100 mH
p Ê Ö'ÎÈ!Ì]×jÏÑâÈ|ÔÉ»Ó'ÔÒÉtÖXܾÐÈ!Î3Ì9â]È!Ì êXó >¸ßÔXÌè3ÌÔÉtÖ(ÏÓôÌÊ3ÕRÌ êXóóéÙ=ó÷É»Ê3Õ8Ò3ÔÖ(Ï]ÓEá¢q8ÉtÊ3ÔÈ|Ð#È|çCÊÏÑÐ Ö(Î3È
È×LÒ3ÌÖ(É»Ï]Ê3ÍôÚÏ]ÓÕ8ÈÖ(ÈÓ'ÙÉtÊ3ÉtÊËÖ(ÎÈüÓ'ÈXÌ]ÔÖ'Ì]Ê3ÔÈÏ]Ú}ÈXÌÔ)ÎRÌÑÖÌËÉtâÈÊ ÚÓ'È×LÒÈÊjÔÞ]ÜeÌ]Ê3Õ Ð#È] Ó'ÈØtÏCÏçLÉ»ÊËÚÏ]Ó¶Ö(Î3ÌÖ
è:Ï]É»ÊÖ#Ð+ÎÈÓ'È+Ö'ÎÈ}ÖdÐ#ÏÓ'ÈXÌ]ÔÖ'Ì]Ê3ÔÈEÍeÌÓ'È+È×LÒ3Ì]ØÖ(϶ÈXÌÔ)ÎoÏ]Ö(ÎÈXÓXÜLÐ#ÈlÔÌ]ÊÍWÈÖ`Ö(Î3È}ÖdÐ#ÏÓ(ÈEÌ]ÔÖ'ÌÊjÔÈäÚÏ]Ó'ÙôÒ3Ø»Ì]È}È×LÒ3Ì]Ø
Ö(ÏÈEÌ]Ô)ÎüÏÖ(Î3ÈÓ}ÌÊjÕüÍ(Ï]Ø»â]ÈgÚÏ]ÓäÚÓ'È×LÒÈXÊ3ÔÞ!ÌØ»Ë]È×3Ó'Ì]É»ÔXÌØ»ØtÞý
êXóx ¿¾ÿséþm}ÿ'êA
4¾ÿ
½ l
1
XL = 2πfL XC =
2πfC
.representing
. . setting the two equal to each other,
a condition of equal reactance
(resonance) . . .
1
2πfL =
2πfC
1
f=
2π LC
ÏrÖ'ÎÈÓ'È+ÐÈ+ÎjÌ9â]ÈäÉåÖEýãÌÚÏÓ(Ù¶ÒØûÌÖ(ÏrÖ(ÈXØtØjÒ3;Ö'ÎÈ}Ó'ÈXÍ(Ï]Ê3Ì]ÊÖ¾ÚÓ'È×LÒÈXÊ3ÔÞ¶ÏÚ>ÌÖ'Ì]Êç¶ÔÉtÓ)ÔÒÉtÖXÜË]É»â]ÈXʶÖ'ÎÈ+âÑÌØ»ÒÈXÍ
ÏÚÉtÊ3ÕÒ3ÔÖ)ÌÊ3ÔÈ ö gÉ»ÊólÈÊÓ'Þ8ÍgÌ]Ê3Õ ÔXÌè3ÌÔÉtÖ'Ì]Ê3ÔÈ ¥ gÉtÊ ¸3Ì]Ó'ÌÕÍXá eØ»ÒË]ËÉtÊË!ÉtÊÖ(ÎÈâÑÌØ»ÒÈEÍgÏ]Ú#öJÌÊ3ÕeAÉ»Ê
Ï]Ò3Ó+È ÌÙèØ»ÈÔÉ»Ó'ÔÒÉåÖEÜÐ#ÈrÌ]Ó(Ó'É»â]ÈgÌÖlÌoÓ(ÈEÍWÏÊ3ÌÊLÖ#ÚÓ(ÈÐ×Ò3ÈÊ3ÔÞÏÚäê ï á»ê ï]ï ó}ºá
XL = 2πfL
XL = 100 Ω
1
XC =
2πfC
X =
1
C
(2)(π)(159.155 Hz)(10 µF)
XC = 100 Ω
lÍgÞ]ÏÒéÙÉtËÎÖÎ3Ì9â]ÈËÒÈXÍ'Í(ÈXÕ\Ü }Ô)ÎÏÍ(ÈÖ'ÎÈXÍ(ȶÔÏ]ÙèjÏÊÈÊLÖlâÑÌ]ØtÒÈEÍ}Ö'Ï|ËÉtâÈÓ(ÈEÍWÏÊ3ÌÊjÔÈÉ»Ùoè:ÈXÕ3ÌÊ3ÔÈXÍlÖ(Î3ÌÖ
Ð#ÈÓ'È|ÈXÌÍWÞ¢Ö'ÏÐ#Ï]Ó'ç¢Ð+ÉtÖ(Î dêEó]ó ë ÈX]
â ÈXÊ á æ ÏÑÐÜ`ÐÈ!Ò3ÍWÈ!Ö(Î3È!è3Ì]Ó'Ì]ØtØ»ÈØÉtÙè:ÈXÕÌ]Ê3ÔÈ!ÚÏ]Ó'ÙôÒ3Ø»ÌÖ(Ï ÍWÈXÈ|Ð+Î3ÌÖ
Î3Ì]èèjÈXÊ3ÍäÖ'϶Ö'ÏÖ)ÌØ ãý
¥ 1
Zparallel =
1
+
1
ZL ZC
1
Zparallel =
1 + 1
100 Ω ∠ 90o 100 Ω ∠ -90o
¥
Zparallel = 0.01 ∠ -90o 1+ 0.01 ∠ 90o
¥
Zparallel = 01 Undefined!
1 1
Rbogus 1 pΩ
2
C1 10 uF L 100 mH
1
0 0
0 0
i`U)q/Vc[gZVgh[ri Z`YdQh`Y)q\VXW YcY)_
j'kXkmlXUVnk3Wc[rq
VkXkml}kgl)h
! #Z "%$'&dhWf[dWmq`YV)YWcW?UQZ .(i $XYba[D|µ[rqUQibY.UX,[gZ`YV]ita'$$)_
! "YQ#i YdY)qfj'k*U)q`tak) *[QV *+',.-]dnV?U)0q /z1 i *U)qb`adY
Z#"%$2&dh\Wtk*oskgYc^kgo
ak*otl}kglclr|
xzUV.a[qÈocl/kgldltocldl
x_,'a $QitUVX['
j'kQ
xzY)qb
Z`YQ ['zj'kQ uxkgwdoQ^dlQv k~x1lclclQ^Qlcu uxkgwco)^dlcu k~xzlQ^Qlco
^X^t^t^t^X^t^X^X^p^X^t^X^t^X^p^X^X^t^X^t^t^t^X^X^t^X^p^X^t^X^X^p^
k~xzldlclQbbldo x1wcucoQ^Qlcu x x x x !
k~xzld{cuQbbldo x1{clcwQ^Qlcu x x x x ! x
k~xkrlc{Qbbldo yxv`{c{Q^Qlcu x x x x ! x
k~xkr{cQbbldo wxv`yclQ^Qlcu x x x x ! x
k~xzokckbbldo {x1{Qv`oQ^Qlcu x x x x ! x
k~xzodwcuQbbldo vFx1wcwcuQ^Qlcu x x x x ! x
k~xzukgwQbbldo ux1cocQ^Qlcu x x x x! x
k~xzudwcQbbldo ux1lcucuQ^Qlcu x x x !x x
k~xvbo\kbbldo ox1ocy\k^Qlcu x x x ! x x
k~xvbyQvcbbldo k~x1{Qv`lQ^Qlcu x x x ! x x
k~xz{docwQbbldo x1ucycuQ^QlQv
x x ! x x x
k~xz{dycQbbldo k~x1{cclQ^QlQv
x ! x x x x
k~xzwducoQbbldo vFx1cwcQ^QlQv
x x ! x x x
k~xzwdQvcbbldo k~xkgucoQ^Qlcu x x x ! x x
k~xzyducyQbbldo k~x1yQv`Q^Qlcu x x x ! x x
k~xzydcQbbldo ox1uc{clQ^Qlcu x x x ! x x
k~xz)v`oQbbldo ox1cuQvc^Qlcu x x x !x x
k~xzdc{Qbbldo ux1{clc{Q^Qlcu x x x x! x
k~xz)v`yQbbldo vFx1lcwcuQ^Qlcu x x x x ! x
oxzldlclQbbldo vFx1wclcQ^Qlcu x x x x ! x
éþ8þJc10¡VÿG8ÿ®dÿ#¯}ÿ'êA
4¾ÿ ê]êê
^X^t^t^t^X^t^X^X^p^X^t^X^t^X^p^X^X^t^X^t^t^t^X^X^t^X^p^X^t^X^X^p^
3
Û ÎÈ¢ê!è3É»ÔÏ î Ï]ÎÙ Wêüè ë ôÓ'ÈXÍ(ÉûÍdÖ'Ï]ÓoÉ»ÍoèØûÌ]ÔÈXÕ É»Ê5Ö(ÎÉûÍ
ù ÌÊjÌØ»ÞCÍ(ÉûÍÖ'Ï¢ÏÑâÈÓ)ÔÏÙoÈ!ÌØ»ÉtÙÉtÖ'ÌÖ(É»Ï]ÊJÏÚ
4
ù ýLÊ3ÌÙÈØ»Þ]ÜLÖ'Î3ÌÑÖäÉåÖ}ÔXÌÊÊÏ]Ö#Ì]Ê3ÌØ»ÞCºÈgÌoÔÉ»Ó)ÔÒÉtÖ#ÔÏ]ÊLÖ'Ì]ÉtÊÉ»ÊËo̶Õ8É»Ó'ÈXÔÖäÉ»Ê3Õ8Ò3ÔÖ(Ï]Ó î â]Ï]ØtÖ'Ì]Ë]È}Í(Ï]ÒÓ)ÔÈgØtÏCÏè>áK
â]ÈXÓ(ÞØ»ÏÑÐ?Ó'ÈXÍ(ÉûÍdÖ)ÌÊ3ÔÈâÑÌ]ØtÒÈrÐäÌ]Í+Ô)ÎÏLÍWÈXÊ!Í(ÏÌ]Í#Ö(ÏÎjÌ9â]ÈÙoÉ»ÊÉ»ÙÌØ>È >:ÈEÔÖ}Ï]ÊÔÉ»Ó)ÔÒÉtÖ}×jÈXÎ3Ì9âCÉtÏÓXá
Û ÎÉûÍ
ù Í(ÉtÙ¶ÒØûÌÑÖ(É»Ï]Êéè3ØtÏ]Ö'ÍÔÉ»Ó'ÔÒÉåÖrÔÒÓ'Ó'ÈÊLÖlÏÑâ]ÈXÓlÌÚÓ'È×LÒÈXÊ3ÔÞüÓ)ÌÊËÈÏÚ}êEó]óÖ'Ïüòó= ó ó}ºoÉtÊÖdÐÈXÊÖdÞ
5
ÈâÈÊ ÍWÖ(ÈXè3Í WêXó]ó Ì]Ê3Õ òóN 6
ó ó}ºÉ»Ê3ÔØtÒ3Í(É»â]È s á ÒÓ'Ó(ÈXÊÖÙÌ]Ë]ÊÉtÖ(Ò3ÕÈÏ]ÊGÖ'ÎÈËÓ'Ì]èÎGÉtÊ3ÔÓ(ÈEÌ]Í(ÈXÍoÚÓ'Ï]Ù ØtÈÚ Ö|Ö'Ï
Ó'ÉtËÎÖEÜÐ+ÎÉtØ»ÈoÚÓ(ÈÐ×LÒÈÊ3ÔÞÉtÊ3ÔÓ(ÈEÌ]Í(ÈXÍlÚÓ(ÏÙ Ö(ÏèÖ(Ïü×:ÏÖWÖ'Ï]Ùá Û ÎÈÔÒ3Ó(Ó'ÈÊLÖrÉtÊÖ(ÎÉûÍrÔÉ»Ó'ÔÒÉåÖÖ'Ì]ç]ÈEÍÌ!ÍWÎjÌÓ'è Õ8É»è
ÌÓ'Ï]Ò3Ê3ÕoÖ(ÎÈrÌÊjÌØ»ÞCÍ(ÉûÍeè:Ï]É»ÊÖ#ÏÚeê ïð á ólº]ÜCÐ+ÎÉûÔ)ÎÉ»Í`Ö(Î3ÈÔØtÏLÍWÈEÍdÖÌ]Ê3ÌØ»Þ8ÍWÉûÍeè:Ï]É»ÊLÖÖ'ÏôÏÒÓ`èÓ'ÈXÕÉ»ÔÖ(ÈXÕ|Ó(ÈEÍWÏÊ3ÌÊjÔÈ
ÚÓ'È×LÒÈÊjÔÞÏ]Ú#ê ï á»ê ïï ó}ºá Ö}ÉûÍ+ÌÑÖ+Ö(Î3É»Íäè:Ï]É»ÊLÖ+Ö(Î3ÌÖ+Ö(ÏÖ)ÌØ>ÔÒÓ(Ó'ÈÊLÖäÚÓ'Ï]ÙYÖ'ÎÈèjÏÑÐ#ÈÓ}Í(Ï]Ò3Ó'ÔÈlÚÌ]ØtØûÍäÖ(ϺXÈÓ'Ï3á
Ê3ÔÉ»Õ8ÈXÊLÖ'ÌػػÞ]Ü#Ö(ÎÈ Ë]Ó)ÌèÎGÏÒ8Ö(èÒÖ|èÓ'ÏCÕÒ3ÔÈEÕG×LÞ5Ö(Î3É»Í
ù ÔÏ]ÙèÒ8Ö'ÈÓ!Ì]Ê3ÌØ»Þ8ÍWÉûÍÉûÍÙÏ]Ó'ÈË]ÈXÊÈÓ)ÌػػÞ
87 9
çCÊÏÑÐ+ÊÌ]Í}Ì
» â º¼£» µ á Ò3Ô)ÎË]Ó)ÌèÎjÍäèØtÏ]ÖlÌÙèØ»ÉåÖ'Ò3Õ8ÈÏÓ+èÎ3Ì]Í(ÈÍ(ÎÉåÚ ÖgÏ]ÊüÏ]ÊÈ?Ì CÉûÍ+ÌÊjÕ|ÚÓ'È×LÒÈXÊ3ÔÞ!Ï]ÊüÖ(Î3È
:
ÏÖ'ÎÈÓEá Û ÎÈ|ÍWÖ(ÈXÈèÊ3ÈXÍ'ÍÏÚlÌ ² Ï8Õ8È|èØtÏ]Ö¶ÔÒ3Ó(âÈ|Ô)Î3ÌÓ)Ì]ÔÖ(ÈXÓ(É»ºÈEÍÌÔÉ»Ó'ÔÒÉtÖX Í ÑÚÓ'È×LÒÈXÊ3ÔÞ Ó(ÈEÍWè:Ï]ÊjÍWÈÜ ÏÓôÎÏÑÐ :
Í(ÈÊ3Í(ÉåÖ'ÉtâÈrÉåÖ}ÉûÍäÖ(ÏÔ)Î3Ì]ÊË]ÈEÍ#ÉtÊüÚÓ'È×LÒÈÊjÔÞ]á
*
¢¡
+ÈXÍ(Ï]Ê3Ì]Ê3ÔÈÏ8ÔÔÒÓ'ÍäÐ+Î3ÈÊéÔÌ]è3Ì]ÔÉåÖ'ÉtâÈÌ]Ê3Õ|É»Ê3Õ8ÒjÔÖ(É»â]ÈÓ'ÈXÌÔÖ)ÌÊ3ÔÈXÍäÌÓ'ÈrÈ×LÒ3ÌØÖ'ÏÈXÌ]Ô)ÎüÏÖ'ÎÈÓEá
1
fresonant = =2π LC
Û Î ÈäÖ(Ï]Ö'ÌØ3ÉtÙè:ÈXÕÌ]Ê3ÔÈ+Ï]ÚÌrè3Ì]Ó'Ì]ØtØ»ÈØö; ÔÉtÓ)ÔÒ3ÉåÖÌ]èèÓ'ÏÌÔ)ÎÈXÍ ÉtÊà3ÊÉtÖdÞoÌ;Ö(ÎÈ+è:ÏÑÐ#ÈÓeÍ(ÒèèØ»ÞôÚÓ'È×LÒÈXÊ3ÔÞ
ÌèèÓ'ÏÌÔ)ÎÈXÍÓ'ÈXÍ(Ï]Ê3Ì]Ê3ÔÈá
>7
»69 â º¼£» µ É»ÍôÌ|ËÓ'Ì]èÎ è3ØtÏ]ÖWÖ(É»ÊËÐäÌ9â]ÈÚÏÓ(Ù Ì]Ùoè3ØtÉtÖ(Ò3ÕÈÏ]ÓrèÎ3ÌÍWÈÏ]Ê¢Ï]Ê3ÈÌ?8É»ÍrÌÊjÕÚÓ'È×LÒÈXÊ3ÔÞéÏÊ
Ö(ÎÈÏ]Ö(ÎÈXÓXá
10 µF
100 mH
ê]ê9ò ONQPSR¾ÿséþm}ÿ0T'êA
4¾ÿ
VZ = ZL + ZC
series
VZ = (0 + j100 Ω) + (0 - j100 Ω)
series
VZ =0Ω
Ö(ÎÖ'ÎÈ}Ö'ÏÖ)ÌØÍWÈXÓ(É»ÈXÍ`ÉtÙè:ÈXÕÌ]Ê3ÔÈÈWLÒ3Ì]Ø3Ö'϶ó ë ÌÖ`Ö'ÎÈgÓ'ÈXÍ(Ï]ÊjÌÊLÖ ÚÓ(È6WLÒÈÊ3ÔÞÏÚeê ï á»ê ïï H
O Étseries ó K]ÜLÖ'ÎÈlÓ'ÈXÍ(ÒØtÖ
ÉûÍgÌÛÜYX» ½[ZÞÝð½
ÞãbÝJZ Ì]ÔÓ(ÏLÍ(Í+Ö(ÎÈ4HèjÏÑÐ#ÈÓlÍ(Ï]Ò3Ó'ÔÈôÌÑÖlÓ'ÈXÍ(Ï]ÊjÌÊ3ÔÈ]á\ ÊéÖ'ÎȶÔÉtÓ)ÔÒÉtÖÕÓ'Ì9Ð+ÊÌ]×jÏÑâÈ]Ü8Ö'ÎÉ»ÍÐ#Ï]ÒØûÕ
ÊÏ]Ö×jÈËÏLÏ8Õ\á ][^
Ø»Ø`Ì]ÕÕ ÌÍ(ÙÌ]ØtØ`Ó(ÈEÍWÉûÍdÖ'Ï]ÓrÉ»Ê Í(ÈÓ'É»ÈXÍÌØ»Ï]Ê3ËüÐ+ÉtÖ(΢Ö'ÎÈÔÌ]è3Ì]ÔÉåÖ'Ï]ÓÌÊ3Õ 'Ö ÎÈÉtÊjÕ8Ò3ÔÖ'Ï]ÓÖ'Ïéç]ÈXÈè
Ö(Î3ÈlÙÌ]8É»ÙôÒÙ ÔÉ»Ó'ÔÒÉtÖÔÒÓ'Ó'ÈÊLÖÍ(Ï]ÙÈÐ+Î3ÌÖ`Ø»ÉtÙÉtÖ(ÈXÕ>ÜCÌ]Ê3Õè:ÈÓ(ÚÏ]Ó'Ù Ì]ÊÏÖ'ÎÈÓ
ù Ì]Ê3Ì Ø»Þ8ÍWÉûÍ ÏÑâ]ÈXÓ Ö(Î3ÈgÍ'ÌÙÈ
W
Ó)ÌÊËÈgÏ]Ú ÚÓ'È LÒÈXÊ3ÔÉ»ÈXÍXý
R1
1 2
1Ω _C 10 µF
1
1V 3
L1 100 mH
0 0
W)YQZ[?YWa`VXVb[gZVrh[gi
j'kXkmlXUVnk3Wc[rq
Z'kXkmo}k
Vk*otu}kgl)h
ak*utl}kglclr|
xzUV.a[qÈocl/kgldltocldl
x_,'a $QitUVX['
j'kQ
xzY)qb
`Z YQ ['zj'kQ uxkgwco)^dlco k~xzlclcl)^dl\k uxkgwdoQ^dl\k k~xzl
^X^t^t^t^X^t^X^X^p^X^t^X^t^X^p^X^X^t^X^t^t^t^X^X^t^X^p^X^t^X^X^p^
k~xzldlclQbbldo k~x1lcucQ^Qlco ! x x x x
k~xzld{cuQbbldo k~xkgycwQ^Qlco x ! x x x x
k~xkrlc{Qbbldo k~x1'u `'k^Qlco x ! x x x x
k~xkr{cQbbldo k~x1'{ ``{Q^Qlco x ! x x x x
k~xzokckbbldo k~x1c'l `c^Qlco x ! x x x x
k~xzodwcuQbbldo oxk ``c^Qlco x ! x x x x
k~xzukgwQbbldo ox1w\kck^Qlco x ! x x x x
k~xzudwcQbbldo ux1occwQ^Qlco x x! x x x
éþba8þcTc10dP0eVÿfT8ÿ®dÿgT¯}ÿ0T'êA
4¾ÿ ê]ê6h
k~xi`bo\kbbldo `Fx1uccQ^Qlco x x ! x x x
k~ix `b'y `cbbldo wxj``ycQ^Qlco x x ! x x x
k~xz{docwQbbldo k~xkgcwQ^Ql\k}x x x ! x x
k~xz{dycQbbldo {x1uco'`c^Ql\k}x x x x ! x
k~xzwducoQbbldo k~x1cycuQ^Ql\k}x x x ! x x
k~xzwd' `cbbldo x1yccyQ^Qlco x x ! x x x
k~xzyducyQbbldo {x1yclcyQ^Qlco x x ! x x x
k~xzydcQbbldo `Fx1oc{coQ^Qlco x x ! x x x
k~xz2 ``oQbbldo uxj``lcwQ^Qlco x x! x x x
k~xzdc{Qbbldo ox1c{coQ^Qlco x !x x x x
k~xz2 ``yQbbldo oxj``w\k^Qlco x ! x x x x
oxzldlclQbbldo oxkgwcQ^Qlco x ! x x x x
^X^t^t^t^X^t^X^X^p^X^t^X^t^X^p^X^X^t^X^t^t^t^X^X^t^X^p^X^t^X^X^p^
W
lÍl×jÈÚÏ]Ó'È]Ü:ÔÉ»Ó'ÔÒÉåÖÔÒÓ'Ó(ÈXÊLÖlÌÙèØ»ÉåÖ'Ò3Õ8ÈÉ»Ê3ÔÓ'ÈXÌÍWÈEÍäÚÓ'Ï]ÙíØ»ÈÚ ÖgÖ(ÏÓ'É»Ë]ÎLÖXÜÐ+Î3ÉtØ»ÈÚÓ'È LÒÈÊjÔÞüÉtÊ3ÔÓ(ÈEÌ]Í(ÈXÍ#ÚÓ'Ï]Ù
W HK
Ö(ÏèéÖ(Ï!×jÏ]ÖWÖ'Ï]Ùá Û Î3Èôè:ÈXÌçÉûÍgÍWÖ(ɻػØãÍ(ÈÈXÊéÖ(Ï!×jÈoÌÑÖlÖ'ÎÈoèØtÏ]ÖWÖ'ÈXÕÚÓ'È LÒÈXÊ3ÔÞè:Ï]É»ÊÖÏÚ}ê ïð á ó Ü:Ö(ÎÈÔØ»ÏÍ(ÈXÍWÖ
#K HK
ÌÊjÌØ»Þ XÈXÕôèjÏÉtÊLÖ¾Ö(ÏrÏ]Ò3Óãè3Ó(ÈEÕ8É»ÔÖ(ÈEÕôÓ'ÈXÍ(Ï]Ê3Ì]Ê3ÔÈèjÏÉtÊLÖ ÏÚãê ï á»ê ï]ï ó ]á Û ÎÉû;ÐÏÒØûÕ¶Í(ÒË]ËÈXÍWÖVÖ'Î3ÌÑÖ Ï]Ò3Ó Ó(ÈEÍWÏÊ3ÌÊLÖ
W
ÚÓ'È LÒÈÊjÔÞÚÏÓ(Ù¶ÒØ»ÌgÎÏØ»Õ;ÌÍãÖ(Ó'ÒÈ#ÚÏ]Ó ÍWÉ»ÙèØ»ÈäÍ(ÈÓ'É»ÈX;è ö ÔÉ»Ó'ÔÒÉåÖ)Í Ì];ÉtÖeÕ8ÏCÈXÍãÚÏ]Ó Í(ÉtÙèØ»Èäè3ÌÓ)ÌػػÈØ8öè ÔÉ»Ó'ÔÒÉåÖ)ÍÜ
Ð+ÎÉûÔ)ÎÉ»Í#Ö'ÎÈÔÌÍWÈý
kf =
1
resonant
2π LC
GÐ#Ï]Ó)ÕôÏ]Ú:ÔÌ]Ò8Ö(É»Ï]ÊÉûÍ É»ÊoÏÓ'ÕÈÓ¾Ð+ÉåÖ'ÎÍWÈXÓ(É»ÈXÍ ö; Ó'ÈXÍ(Ï]Ê3Ì]ÊLÖ ÔÉtÓ)ÔÒ3ÉåÖ)Íý ×jÈEÔÌÒjÍWÈäÏÚ:Ö(Î3È}ÎÉ»Ë]ÎÔÒÓ'Ó(ÈXÊLÖ';Ð+ÎÉûÔ)Î
ÙÌ9Þô×:È+èÓ'ÈXÍ(ÈÊLÖeÉtÊÌÍ(ÈÓ'É»ÈXÍ öèR ÔÉ»Ó)ÔÒÉtÖÌÑÖeÓ'ÈXÍ(Ï]ÊjÌÊ3ÔÈ]ÜÉtÖeÉ»Í`èjÏLÍ(Í(É»×ØtÈäÖ'ÏèÓ'ÏCÕÒ3ÔÈ}ÕÌ]ÊË]ÈXÓ(ÏÒ3Í(ØtÞÎÉ»Ë]ÎâÏ]ØtÖ'Ì]Ë]È
Õ8Ó'Ï]è3Í ÌÔÓ'ÏÍ'Í Ö(ÎÈ}ÔXÌè3ÌÔÉtÖ(Ï]Ó Ì]Ê3Õ¶Ö(ÎÈ+É»Ê3Õ8Ò3ÔÖ(ÏÓXÜ]Ì;ÈXÌÔ)ÎoÔÏ]ÙèjÏÊÈÊLÖeè:ÏÍ'ÍWÈEÍ(Í(ÈX;Í(ÉtËÊÉtàjÔÌ]ÊÖ É»ÙèjÈEÕÌÊ3ÔÈ]á O È
ÔÌ]Ê ÈEÕ8ÉtÖÖ(ÎÈ
4
ù Ê3ÈÖ(Ø»ÉûÍdÖÉ»Ê Ö'ÎÈÌ×:ÏÑâ]ÈoÈ ÌÙèØ»ÈoÖ(ÏÉ»Ê3ÔØ»Ò3Õ8ÈÌüèØ»ÏÖÏÚ#â]ÏØåÖ)ÌË]ÈÌ]ÔÓ(ÏLÍ(ÍlÖ(Î3ÈÔÌèjÌ]ÔÉtÖ(ÏÓ
ÌÊjÕ|É»Ê3Õ8Ò3ÔÖ(ÏÓ+Ö(ÏÕ8ÈXÙoÏÊ3ÍWÖ(Ó)ÌÑÖ(ÈrÐ+Î3ÌÖ}Î3Ìè3èjÈXÊ3Íý
W)YQZ[?YWa`VXVb[gZVrh[gi
j'kXkmlXUVnk3Wc[rq
Z'kXkmo}k
Vk*otu}kgl)h
ak*utl}kglclr|
xzUV.a[qÈocl/kgldltocldl
x_,'a $QitUVX['
j'kQ¹joKu,Nju,
xzY)qb
adY'&bY)q`0l
! lP['
j'k)
0ljoK
u,
m lju,
^X^t^t^t^X^t^X^X^p^X^t^X^t^X^p^X^X^t^X^t^t^t^X^X^t^X^p^X^t^X^X^p^
! ?^c^c^c^c^d^c^c^c^c^d^Xk~x1lclclQ^Qlco uxkgwcoQ^Qlco k~x1lclclQ^Ql\k lxzu\krwco k
^X^t^t^t^X^t^X^X^p^X^t^X^t^X^p^X^X^t^X^t^t^t^X^X^t^X^p^X^t^X^X^p^
?^c^c^c^c^d^c^c^c^c^d^Xk~x1lclclQbclcl uxkgwcoQbclcl k~x1lclclQbcl\k u\k~xzwdoÈkglcl
ê]ên ONQPSR¾ÿséþm}ÿ0T'êA
4¾ÿ
^X^t^t^t^X^t^X^X^p^X^t^X^t^X^p^X^X^t^X^t^t^t^X^X^t^X^p^X^t^X^X^p^
m ?^c^c^c^c^d^c^c^c^c^d^Xk~x1lclclQ^Ql\k k~x1lclclQbclcl k~x1lclclQbcl\k kgldlskgldlcl
^X^t^t^t^X^t^X^X^p^X^t^X^t^X^p^X^X^t^X^t^t^t^X^X^t^X^p^X^t^X^X^p^
Z`YQ [
j'kQ
^X^t^t^t^X^t^X^X^p^X^t^X^t^X^p^X^X^t^X^t^t^t^X^X^t^X^p^X^t^X^X^p^
k~xzldlclQbbldo k~x1lcucQ^Qlco ! m x x x x
k~xzld{cuQbbldo k~xkgycwQ^Qlco x ! mx x x x
k~xkrlc{Qbbldo k~x1'u `'k^Qlco x ! m x x x
k~xkr{cQbbldo k~x1'{ ``{Q^Qlco x ! xm x x x
k~xzokckbbldo k~x1c'l `c^Qlco x ! x m x x x
k~xzodwcuQbbldo oxk ``c^Qlco x ! x m x x x
k~xzukgwQbbldo ox1w\kck^Qlco x ! m x x x
k~xzudwcQbbldo ux1occwQ^Qlco x x! m x x x
k~ix `bo\kbbldo `Fx1uccQ^Qlco x x ! m x x x
k~ix `b'y `cbbldo wjx ``ycQ^Qlco x x !m x x
k~xz{docwQbbldo k~xkgcwQ^Ql\k}x x xm ! x x
k~xz{dycQbbldo {x1uc'o `c^Ql\k}x x x m x o x
k~xzwducoQbbldo k~x1cycuQ^Ql\k}x x x m o x x
k~xzwd' `cbbldo x1yccyQ^Qlco x x o m x x
k~xzyducyQbbldo {x1yclcyQ^Qlco x x ! m x x x
k~xzydcQbbldo `Fx1oc{coQ^Qlco x xÛ ! m x x x
k~xz2 ``oQbbldo ujx ``lcwQ^Qlco x x ! m x x x
k~xzdc{Qbbldo ox1c{coQ^Qlco x ! x m x x x
k~xz2 ``yQbbldo ojx ``w\k^Qlco x ! x m x x x
oxzldlclQbbldo oxkgwcQ^Qlco x ! x m x x x
^X^t^t^t^X^t^X^X^p^X^t^X^t^X^p^X^X^t^X^t^t^t^X^X^t^X^p^X^t^X^X^p^
ÔXÔÏÓ'Õ8É»ÊË Ö'Ï
4
ù Ü`âÏ]ØtÖ'Ì]Ë]ÈÌ]ÔÓ(ÏLÍ(ÍÖ(ÎÈ ÔÌ]è3Ì]ÔÉåÖ'Ï]Ó|Ì]Ê3Õ6É»Ê3Õ8Ò3ÔÖ(Ï]ÓpèØ»ÏÖ(Ö(ÈEÕ
l Ð+ÉtÖ(Î ÌÊ3Õ ø q:rS: 1: :
s
(Í ÞLÙ¶×jÏØ»ÍXÜeÓ'ÈXÍ(èjÈEÔÖ'ÉtâÈØ»Þ ôÓ'ÈXÌ]Ô)Î5Ì è:ÈXÌ]ç ÍWÏÙÈÐ+ÎÈXÓ(È!×jÈÖdÐÈXÈÊFêXó]ó ÌÊ3ÕHêXóó]óéâÏ]ØtÖ'Í ÙÌ]Ó(çÈXÕ ×CÞ Ö'ÎÈ ] : (:
Ð+ÎÈXÓ(ÈôÖ(ÎȶË]Ó)ÌèÎ3ÍlÏÑâ]ÈXÓ(ØûÌè tM SW
Û ÎÉûÍÉ»Í LÒÉåÖ'ÈôÉ»ÙèÓ(ÈEÍ(Í(É»â]ÈÚÏÓÌ|èjÏÑÐ#ÈÓÍWÒè3èØtÞÖ'Î3ÌÑÖÏ]ÊØ»ÞË]ÈXÊÈÓ)ÌÑÖ'ÈXÍê¶â]ÏØåÖEá
æ ÈXÈXÕ8Ø»ÈXÍ'Í#Ö(ÏÍ'Ì9Þ]Ü8ÔXÌÒ8Ö'ÉtÏÊüÉûÍäÉ»ÊüÏÓ'ÕÈÓäÐ+ÎÈÊÈCè:ÈÓ'É»ÙoÈXÊLÖ(É»ÊËÐ+ÉåÖ'ÎÔÉtÓ)ÔÒ3ÉåÖ)Í+ÍWÒ3Ô)ÎéÌÍ#Ö(ÎÉûÍá
*
¢¡
Û Î È|Ö'ÏÖ)ÌØäÉtÙè:ÈXÕÌ]Ê3ÔÈÏ]ÚgÌ Í(ÈÓ'É»ÈXÍoöè K
ÔÉtÓ)ÔÒÉtÖÌèèÓ'ÏÌÔ)ÎÈXÍ ÈXÓ(Ï Ì]ÍôÖ(ÎÈè:ÏÑÐÈXÓoÍ(Òèè3ØtÞ ÚÓ'È LÒÈXÊ3ÔÞ W
ÌèèÓ'ÏÌÔ)ÎÈXÍÓ'ÈXÍ(Ï]Ê3Ì]Ê3ÔÈá
Û W
Î È+Í(Ì]ÙoÈÚÏ]Ó'ÙôÒ3Ø»ÌgÚÏ]Ó Õ8ÈÖ(ÈXÓ(ÙÉ»ÊÉtÊ3ËÓ(ÈEÍWÏÊ3ÌÊLÖVÚÓ'È LÒÈXÊ3ÔÞôÉtÊÌÍWÉ»ÙèØtÈäÖ)ÌÊç¶ÔÉ»Ó'ÔÒÉåÖeÌ]èèØ»ÉtÈEÍãÖ(ÏÍWÉ»ÙèØ»È
ÍWÈXÓ(É»ÈXÍäÔÉ»Ó)ÔÒÉtÖ'Í+ÌÍäÐÈXØtØÝá
}|
ó}ÏÑÐ#ÈâÈÓEÜÖ'ÎÉûÍVÉûÍVÊ3ÏÖVÖ'ÎÈÔXÌ]Í(È]á +ÈXÍ(Ï]Ê3Ì]Ê3ÔÈ ÉûÍãÌ}â]ÈXÓ(ÞâÑÌØ»Ò3Ì×3ØtÈeè3Ó(ÏèjÈXÓWÖdÞÏÚÓ'ÈXÌÔÖ(É»â]È¢ÔÉ»Ó'ÔÒÉåÖ)ÍÜ9ÈXÙoè3ØtÏÑÞÈXÕ
É»ÊÌoâÑÌÓ'É»ÈÖdÞÏ]ÚãÌè3èØtÉûÔÌÖ(É»Ï]Ê3ÍXá
W
õgÊÈ Ò3Í(È ÚÏÓVÓ'ÈXÍ(Ï]Ê3Ì]Ê3ÔȾÉûÍ\Ö(ÏlÈXÍWÖ'Ì×3ØtÉûÍWÎÌ+ÔÏ]Ê3ÕÉåÖ'ÉtÏÊÏÚÍdÖ)Ì×Ø»È ÚÓ'È LÒÈXÊ3ÔÞÉtÊÔÉtÓ)ÔÒ3ÉåÖ)ÍVÕ8ÈEÍWÉ»Ë]ÊÈEÕÖ(Ï+èÓ'Ï8Õ8Ò3ÔÈ
~ (
Í(ÉtËÊ3ÌØûÍXá lÍ(Ò3ÌػػÞ]Ü]Ìlè3ÌÓ)ÌØ»ØtÈXØ Ö'Ì]Êç VÔÉtÓ)ÔÒÉt־ɻÍãÒ3Í(ÈXÕÚÏ]Ó Ö(ÎÉû;èÒÓ'èjÏLÍWÈÜ9Ð+ÉåÖ'ÎôÖ'ÎÈ#ÔXÌè3ÌÔÉtÖ(ÏÓãÌ]Ê3ÕÉ»Ê3Õ8Ò3ÔÖ(Ï]Ó
}
Õ8É»Ó(ÈEÔÖ'ØtÞoÔÏ]Ê3ÊÈXÔÖ(ÈXÕôÖ(ÏË]ÈÖ(ÎÈXÓXÜÈ Ô)Î3ÌÊ3Ë]É»ÊËgÈXÊÈÓ'Ë]Þô×jÈÖdÐÈXÈÊÈXÌÔ)ζÏ]Ö(ÎÈXÓXá ]Ò3ÍWÖ`Ì]Í`Ìgè:ÈÊjÕ8ÒØ»ÒÙ ÔXÌÊ×:È+Ò3ÍWÈEÕ
K W ^
Ö(ÏÍdÖ)Ì×É»Ø»É XÈeÖ(Î3È`ÚÓ'È LÒÈXÊ3ÔÞrÏÚ3ÌgÔØ»Ï8Ô)çÙÈEÔ)Î3ÌÊÉûÍ(Ù Í>ÏLÍ(ÔÉtØ»ØûÌÑÖ(É»Ï]ÊjÍÜÑÍ(ÏgÔÌ]ÊôÌ+Ö)ÌÊçÔÉtÓ)ÔÒÉtÖ ×:È#Ò3ÍWÈEÕrÖ(ÏÍdÖ)Ì×É»Ø»É XÈ K
W
Ö(Î3ȶÈXØtÈEÔÖ(Ó'ÉûÔÌØ ÚÓ'È LÒÈÊjÔÞÏÚÌ]M Z
Ê »]Ü ÞÝ ¼ð¼ » ½ ÔÉ»Ó)ÔÒÉtÖX W
á lÍÐäÌ]ÍgÊÏÖ'ÈXÕé×:ÈÚÏÓ(ÈÜÖ(ÎȶÚÓ'È LÒÈÊjÔÞéÍWÈÖg×CÞÖ(Î3È
Ö'Ì]ÊçÔÉ»Ó'ÔÒÉåÖgÉ»ÍgÍWÏØtÈXØtÞüÕ8Èè:ÈÊ3ÕÈÊLÖgÒè:Ï]ÊÖ'ÎÈôâÑÌ]ØtÒÈEÍ+ÏÚeö5ÌÊ3¶ Õ gÜÌÊ3ÕÊÏ]ÖlÏ]ÊüÖ'ÎÈôÙÌËÊÉtÖ(Ò3Õ8ÈEÍ}Ï]Ú¾âÏ]ØtÖ'Ì]Ë]È
Ï]Ó}ÔÒÓ'Ó(ÈXÊÖäèÓ'ÈXÍ(ÈÊLÖ+ÉtÊüÖ'ÎÈÏÍ'ÔÉ»ØtØûÌÑÖ'ÉtÏÊ3ÍXý
...
the natural frequency
... to the rest of of the "tank circuit"
circuit
the "oscillator" helps to stabilize
oscillations
...
}Ê3ÏÖ(Î3ÈÓÒ3ÍWÈôÚÏ]ÓÓ(ÈEÍWÏÊ3ÌÊjÔÈÉûÍÉtÊÌ]èèػɻÔXÌÑÖ'ÉtÏÊ3ÍlÐ+Î3ÈÓ'ÈÖ(Î3ȶÈ>:ÈEÔÖ'ÍÏ]ÚeË]Ó'ÈXÌÑÖ'ØtÞüÉ»Ê3ÔÓ'ÈXÌÍWÈEÕéÏ]ÓÕ8ÈXÔÓ(ÈEÌ]Í(ÈXÕ
É»Ùoè:ÈXÕ3ÌÊ3ÔÈôÌÑÖgÌè3ÌÓ(Ö(ÉûÔÒØûÌÓäÚÓ'ÈWLÒÈXÊ3ÔÞüÉûÍlÕ8ÈEÍWÉ»Ó(ÈEÕ\áAn
Ó'ÈXÍ(Ï]Ê3Ì]ÊÖ}ÔÉtÓ)ÔÒÉtÖgÔXÌÊé×:ÈÒ3Í(ÈXÕüÖ(Ï):×Ø»Ï8Ô)ç:èÓ(ÈEÍWÈXÊLÖ
% 6W W
ÎÉ»Ë]ÎGÉ»Ùoè:ÈXÕ3ÌÊ3ÔÈéÖ(ÏÑÐäÌÓ)Õ oÌ¢ÚÓ(È LÒÈÊ3ÔÞRÏÓÓ'Ì]ÊË]ÈéÏ]ÚgÚÓ'È LÒÈXÊ3ÔÉ»ÈXÍXÜ#Ö(ÎCÒ3ÍÌÔÖ(É»ÊË ÌÍÌ ÍWÏÓWÖÏ]ÚÚÓ'È LÒÈXÊ3ÔÞ W
: @: W d
ÑàjØåÖ'ÈÓ Ö(Ï¢ÍdÖ'Ó'Ì]ÉtÊRÔÈÓ(Ö'Ì]ÉtÊ ÚÓ'È LÒÈXÊ3ÔÉ»ÈXͶÏ]Ò8ÖoÏÚlÌÙoÉ£ ÏÚlÏ]Ö(ÎÈXÓ'ÍXá ÊRÚÌ]ÔÖEܾÖ(ÎÈEÍWÈ!è3ÌÓ(Ö(ÉûÔÒ3Ø»Ì]Ó¶ÔÉ»Ó)ÔÒÉtÖ'ÍoÌÓ'È
ÔÌ]ØtØ»ÈXÕ Z
¼ â½ ÜÜ3ÌÊ3Õ|Ö(Î3ÈÉ»ÓlÕ8ÈXÍ(É»Ë]ÊÔÏ]ÊjÍdÖ'ÉåÖ'Ò8Ö(ÈEÍ+ÌÕ8É»Í'ÔÉ»èØ»ÉtÊ3ÈÏ]Ú¾ÍWÖ(ÒjÕ8Þ!Ì]ØtØ\×CÞÉtÖ'Í(ÈØtÚdý
AC source of
mixed frequencies
load
Tank circuit presents a
high impedance to a narrow
range of frequencies, blocking
them from getting to the load
Ê¢ÈXÍ'ÍWÈXÊ3ÔÈÜÖ(ÎÉûÍrÉ»ÍrÎ3ÏÑÐTÌÊ3Ì]ØtÏË|Ó)Ì]Õ8É»ÏüÓ(ÈEÔÈÉ»â]ÈXÓlÖ'ÒÊÈXÓÔÉ»Ó'ÔÒÉåÖ)ÍÐÏÓ(çÖ'Ï|à3ØtÖ(ÈXÓXÜVÏ]ÓÍWÈXØtÈEÔÖEÜ>Ï]ÊÈÍWÖ'ÌÑÖ'ÉtÏÊ
W W
ÚÓ'È LÒÈÊjÔÞÏÒ8Ö}ÏÚ Ö(ÎÈÙÉ£!ÏÚ Õ8É£>:ÈXÓ(ÈXÊLÖäÓ)Ì]ÕÉtÏÍWÖ'ÌÑÖ'ÉtÏÊ|ÚÓ'È LÒÈXÊ3ÔÞ!ÍWÉ»Ë]Ê3Ì]Ø»Í#É»ÊLÖ(ÈÓ)ÔÈXè8Ö(ÈEÕü×LÞÖ(ÎÈÌ]ÊÖ'ÈÊÊjÌá
*
¢¡
|+ÈXÍ(Ï]Ê3Ì]Ê3ÔÈäÔÌ]Ê×jÈ+ÈXÙoè3ØtÏÑÞÈXÕôÖ(ÏÙÌÉ»ÊLÖ'ÌÉ»Ê= 6W
ÔÉtÓ)ÔÒ3ÉåÖeÏLÍ(ÔÉtػػÌÖ(É»Ï]Ê3;ÌÖ`ÌÔÏ]Ê3ÍWÖ'Ì]ÊLÖ ÚÓ(È Ò3ÈÊ3ÔÞ]DÜ EdÒ3ÍWÖÌÍ
̶è:ÈÊjÕ8ÒØ»ÒÙÄÔXÌÊ×jÈÒjÍWÈEÕÖ'ÏÙÌ]ÉtÊLÖ)ÌÉ»ÊüÔÏ]Ê3ÍWÖ'Ì]ÊÖ+ÏLÍ(ÔÉtػػÌÖ(É»Ï]ÊüÍWè:ÈÈEÕ!É»Êé̶Ö(É»ÙoÈXç]ÈXÈèÉ»ÊËÙÈXÔ)Î3Ì]ÊÉ»Í(Ùá
kf 1
resonant = =2π LC
ó}ÏÑÐ#ÈâÈÓEÜãÌͶÍ(ÏCÏ]ÊRÌͶÍ(É»Ë]ÊÉtàjÔÌ]ÊLֶػÈâ]ÈXػͶÏÚgÓ(ÈEÍWÉûÍdÖ)ÌÊ3ÔÈ!Ì]Ó(ÈÉ»ÊLÖ(Ó'Ï8Õ8Ò3ÔÈEÕ É»ÊLÖ(ÏÙÏLÍdÖöè ÔÉtÓ)ÔÒÉtÖ'ÍXÜ Ö'ÎÉ»Í
'^
Í(ÉtÙèØ»ÈÔÌ]Ø»ÔÒØûÌÑÖ(É»Ï]ÊJÚÏÓÓ(ÈEÍWÏÊ3ÌÊjÔÈ×jÈEÔÏÙoÈEÍÉ»ÊLâÑÌ]ØtÉûÕ\á O È Ø»ØlÖ)ÌçÈÌ ØtÏCÏ]çJÌÑÖ!Í(ÈâÈÓ)ÌØ}ö;÷ÔÉtÓ)ÔÒÉtÖ'Í|Ð+ÉåÖ'Î
Ì]Õ3Õ8ÈXÕ Ó(ÈEÍWÉûÍWÖ'ÌÊjÔÈ]Ü\ÒjÍWÉ»ÊË!Ö(ÎÈÍ'ÌÙÈâ9Ì]ØtÒ3ÈXÍgÚÏ]ÓÔXÌè3ÌÔÉtÖ'ÌÊjÔȶÌ]Ê3Õ ÉtÊ3ÕÒ3ÔÖ)ÌÊ3ÔÈÌÍ×jÈÚÏ]Ó'È]ýêXó )
ÌÊjÕ êXóó
Ù=óÜ:Ó(ÈEÍWè:ÈXÔÖ(É»â]ÈXØtÞF W W
á gÔÔÏÓ'ÕÉtÊËÖ'ÏÏ]Ò3ÓlÍWÉ»ÙèØ»ÈôÈ LÒ3ÌÖ(É»Ï]Ê>Ü3Ö(ÎÈôÓ(ÈEÍWÏÊ3ÌÊLÖ+ÚÓ'È LÒÈÊjÔÞ!Í(ÎÏÒØ»Õ×:Èê ï á»ê ïï ó ]á HK
O ÌÑÖ'Ô)ÎVÜ8Ö(ÎÏÒË]ÎVÜ8Ð+ÎÈÓ'ÈÔÒÓ'Ó(ÈXÊLÖäÓ'ÈXÌÔ)ÎÈXÍ#Ù]Ì 8É»ÙôÒÙíÏ]Ó+ÙÉtÊ3ÉtÙ¶ÒÙíÉ»ÊüÖ(ÎÈrÚÏØtØ»ÏÑÐ+ÉtÊ3Ë
ù ÌÊ3Ì]ØtÞ8Í(ÈXÍXý
1 1
R 100 Ω
V 1
1 1V
_C 10 µF
2
L
1 1 100 mH
0 0
0 0
Z`YW$)qU)qbitVb[gZVgh\[gi
j'kXkmlXUVnk3Wc[rq
VkXkml}kgl)h
Z'kXkmo}kglcl
ak*otl}kglclr|
xzUV.a[qÈocl/kgldltocldl
x_,'a $QitUVX['
j'kQ
xzY)qb
`Z YQ ['zj'kQ yxzlcyc)^dlcu yxz'``u)^dlcu xz\kgu)^dlcu
^X^t^t^t^X^t^X^X^p^X^t^X^t^X^p^X^X^t^X^t^t^t^X^X^t^X^p^X^t^X^X^
k~xzldlclQbbldo yx1uccyQ^Qlcu x x ! x x
k~xzld{cuQbbldo yx1'o ``oQ^Qlcu x x ! x x
k~xkrlc{Qbbldo yxkckg{Q^Qlcu x x! x x
k~xkr{cQbbldo yx1lclcyQ^Qlcu x !x x x
éþLþm}ÿ0T~êA 4¾ÿ1 T8ÿ®dÿgT(P<eeVÿ0eè1´µvRwT ê]ê ð
k~xzokckbbldo wx1co\k^Qlcu x ! x x x
k~xzodwcuQbbldo wx1c{cQ^Qlcu x ! x x x
k~xzukgwQbbldo wx1cocuQ^Qlcu x ! x x x
k~xzudwcQbbldo wx1\kguQ^Qlcu x ! x x x
k~ix `bo\kbbldo wx1cuclQ^Qlcu x ! x x x
k~ix `b'y `cbbldo wx1cy'`c^Qlcu x ! x x x
k~xz{docwQbbldo wx1'``wQ^Qlcu x ! x x x
k~xz{dycQbbldo yx1l'``c^Qlcu x !x x x
k~xzwducoQbbldo yxkgwcyQ^Qlcu x x! x x
k~xzwd' `cbbldo yx1u\kg{Q^Qlcu x x ! x x
k~xzyducyQbbldo yxj``c{Q^Qlcu x x ! x x
k~xzydcQbbldo yx1wcycwQ^Qlcu x x ! x x
k~xz2 ``oQbbldo yx1ccwQ^Qlcu x x !x x
k~xzdc{Qbbldo xkck`c^Qlcu x x x ! x
k~xz2 ``yQbbldo x1uc{cQ^Qlcu x x x ! x
oxzldlclQbbldo x1w\kgwQ^Qlcu x x x ! x
^X^t^t^t^X^t^X^X^p^X^t^X^t^X^p^X^X^t^X^t^t^t^X^X^t^X^p^X^t^X^X^
[rq\[|h)|sVghcZcZ`Y)qbi3UQi krucwxzf sÈ[rq\Wgi`YcUd $ kg{cxzc o sg
1 1
R 100 Ω
V 1V
1 Rbogus
_C 3
1
1
2
10 µF L 100 mH
1
0 0
Z`YW$)qU)qbitVb[gZVgh\[gi
j'kXkmlXUVnk3Wc[rq
Z'kXkmo}kglcl
Vk*otl}kgl)h
Z#"%$2&dh\Wtk*uskgYc^kgo
ak*utl}kglclr|
ê]ê6 ONQPSR¾ÿséþm}ÿ0T'êA
4¾ÿ
xzUV.a[qÈocl/kgldl``ldl
x_,'a $QitUVX['
j'kQ
xzY)qb
R1
1 2
1Ω
_C 10 µF
V 1V
1
1
3 3
L 100 mH R2
100 Ω
1
0
0 0
Z`YW$)qU)qbitVb[gZVgh\[gi
j'kXkmlXUVnk3Wc[rq
Z'kXkmo}k
Vk*otu}kgl)h
ak*utl}kglclr|
Z`oXutl}kglcl
xzUV.a[qÈocl/kgld l ``ldl
x_,'a $QitUVX['
j'kQ
xzY)qb
`Z YQ ['zj'kQ k~xzldlclQ^dldo k~xzoc{dQ^dlco k~xz{cd{Q^dlco
^X^t^t^t^X^t^X^X^p^X^t^X^t^X^p^X^X^t^X^t^t^t^X^X^t^X^p^X^t^X^X^p^
k~xzldlclQbbldo jx ``cQ^Qlcu x ! x x x
k~xkr{cQbbldo k~x1lc'u `c^Qlco x x ! x x
k~xzukgwQbbldo k~x1oc'l `c^Qlco x x ! x x
k~ix `b'y `cbbldo k~x1ucucwQ^Qlco x x x ! x
k~xzwducoQbbldo k~jx `'kg{Q^Qlco x x x ! x
k~xzydcQbbldo k~jx ```yQ^Qlco x x x ! x
k~xz2 ``yQbbldo k~jx ```{Q^Qlco x x x ! x
oxkrlc{Qbbldo k~jx ``'o `c^Qlco x x x ! x
oxzodwcuQbbldo k~x1uccuQ^Qlco x x x ! x
oix `bo\kbbldo k~x1ucwclQ^Qlco x x x ! x
oxz{dycQbbldo k~x1ucocyQ^Qlco x x x ! x
oxzyducyQbbldo k~x1occwQ^Qlco x x x ! x
oxzdc{Qbbldo k~x1ocwcQ^Qlco x x ! x
uxzld{cuQbbldo k~x1'o ``c^Qlco x x !x x
uxzokckbbldo k~x1ococoQ^Qlco x x ! x x
uxzudwcQbbldo k~x1oclcoQ^Qlco x x ! x x
uxz{docwQbbldo k~xkgc{Q^Qlco x x ! x x
uxzwd' `cbbldo k~xkgwcQ^Qlco x x ! x x
êEò]ó ONQPSR¾ÿséþm}ÿ0T'êA
4¾ÿ
0 0
Z`YW$)qU)qbitVb[gZVgh\[gi
j'kXkmlXUVnk3Wc[rq
Z'kXkmo}k
Vk*otu}kgl)h
Z`oXotu}kglcl
ak*utl}kglclr|
xzUV.a[qÈocl/kgldltocldl
x_,'a $QitUVX['
j'kQ
xzY)qb
Z`YQ ['
j'k)
Z`YQ ['zj'kQ k~xzoc{c)^dlco k~xi`'kgu)^dlco k~xz{cc{)^dlco
^X^t^t^t^X^t^X^X^p^X^t^X^t^X^p^X^X^t^X^t^t^t^X^X^t^X^p^X^t^X^X^
k~xzldlclQbbldo k~x1ucucwQ^Qlco x x ! x x
k~xzld{cuQbbldo k~x1ucwcuQ^Qlco x x ! x x
k~xkrlc{Qbbldo k~x1uccyQ^Qlco x x ! x x
k~xkr{cQbbldo k~jx ``lcQ^Qlco x x ! x
k~xzokckbbldo k~jx ``ocwQ^Qlco x x x! x
k~xzodwcuQbbldo k~jx ``ucQ^Qlco x x x ! x
k~xzukgwQbbldo k~jx ```yQ^Qlco x x x ! x
k~xzudwcQbbldo k~jx ``{clQ^Qlco x x x ! x
k~ix `bo\kbbldo k~jx ```yQ^Qlco x x x ! x
k~ix `b'y `cbbldo k~jx ``ucQ^Qlco x x x ! x
éþLþm}ÿ0T~êA 4¾ÿ1 T8ÿ®dÿgT(P<eeVÿ0eè1´µvRwT êEòê
k~xz{docwQbbldo k~xj``o'`c^Qlco x x x! x
k~xz{dycQbbldo k~xj``lc{Q^Qlco x x !x x
k~xzwducoQbbldo k~x1uccoQ^Qlco x x ! x x
k~xzwd' `cbbldo k~x1uc{c{Q^Qlco x x ! x x
k~xzyducyQbbldo k~x1ucoc{Q^Qlco x x ! x x
k~xzydcQbbldo k~x1occuQ^Qlco x x ! x x
k~xz2 ``oQbbldo k~x1oc{cQ^Qlco x ! x x
k~xzdc{Qbbldo k~x1ococ{Q^Qlco x ! x x x
k~xz2 ``yQbbldo k~xkgclQ^Qlco x ! x x x
oxzldlclQbbldo k~xkg{c{Q^Qlco x ! x x x
^X^t^t^t^X^t^X^X^p^X^t^X^t^X^p^X^X^t^X^t^t^t^X^X^t^X^p^X^t^X^X^
'U o[|h)|sVghcZcZ`Y)qbi3UQi krucwxzf sÈ[rq\Wgi`YcUd
$ kg{cxzc o sg
Û ÎÈlÖ(ÈÊjÕ8ÈÊ3ÔÞÚÏ]ÓäÌ]ÕÕÈXÕÓ'ÈXÍ(É»ÍWÖ'Ì]Ê3ÔÈlÖ(ÏoÍWçÈÐGÖ(Î3Ègè:Ï]É»ÊLÖäÌÖÐ+ÎÉûÔ)Î|É»ÙèjÈEÕÌÊ3ÔÈlÓ'ÈXÌÔ)ÎÈXÍÌôÙÌ]8É»ÙôÒÙ ÏÓ
Z
Ù ÉtÊ3ÉtÙ¶ÒÙ É»ÊÌÊöèRÔÉ»Ó)ÔÒÉtÖ`ÉûÍeÔÌ]ØtØ»ÈXÕ ä Ýð½
â Ü» ä äÞâ á Û ÎÈlÌ]ÍWÖ(ÒÖ(È+Ï]×jÍWÈXÓ(âÈÓ¾Ð+ÉtØ»ØÊÏ]Ö(ÉûÔÈ}Ìrè3ÌÖWÖ'ÈÓ'Êo×:ÈÖdÐ#ÈÈXÊ
Ö(Î3È|ÚÏÒÓ
ù ÈÌÙèØ»ÈXͶË]É»â]ÈÊ5Ì×:ÏÑâ]È]Ü¾É»Ê Ö'ÈÓ'ÙͶÏÚgÎÏÑÐYÓ(ÈEÍWÉûÍWÖ'ÌÊjÔÈ|Ì?>:ÈEÔÖ'ÍôÖ(Î3È!Ó'ÈXÍ(Ï]Ê3Ì]ÊLÖ¶è:ÈXÌç Ï]ÚlÌ
ÔÉ»Ó)ÔÒÉtÖXý
c¸¨#¦´¡¨¹º°g±»²'´¼¦²2µ}´¼¬Q¡
|?É»Êè3ÌÓ)ÌØ»ØtÈXØ\Ð+ÉåÖ'Îéöeý8Ó'ÈXÍ(Ï]Ê3Ì]ÊÖ#ÚÓ'ÈWLÒÈÊjÔÞ!Í(ÎÉtÚ Ö(ÈEÕ ã º
|?É»Êè3ÌÓ)ÌØ»ØtÈXØ\Ð+ÉåÖ'ÎMgý8Ó(ÈEÍWÏÊ3ÌÊLÖäÚÓ(È6LW ÒÈÊ3ÔÞ|Í(ÎÉåÚ Ö'ÈXÕ¶9)»· ä
}ËLÌÉ»Ê>Ü8Ö'ÎÉ»Í}ÉtØ»ØtÒjÍdÖ'Ó'ÌÖ(ÈXÍ+Ö(ÎÈôÔÏ]ÙèØ»ÈÙÈÊLÖ)ÌÓ'ÞÊ3ÌÑÖ'ÒÓ'ÈÏ]ÚeÔÌèjÌ]ÔÉtÖ(ÏÓ'ÍäÌ]Ê3ÕüÉtÊ3ÕÒ3ÔÖ'Ï]Ó)ÍýeÎ3ÏÑÐHÓ'ÈXÍ(É»ÍWÖ'Ì]Ê3ÔÈrÉ»Ê
W
(Í ÈÓ'ÉtÈEÍäÐ+ÉåÖ'ÎüÏÊÈÔÓ'ÈXÌÖ(ÈXÍäÌ]ÊÌ]ÊLÖ(É»Ó(ÈEÍWÏÊ3ÌÊ3ÔÈlÈ>:ÈEÔÖ}È LÒÉ»âÑÌØ»ÈÊLÖ+Ö(ÏÓ'ÈXÍ(É»ÍWÖ'Ì]Ê3ÔÈrÉ»Êè3ÌÓ)ÌØ»ØtÈXØÐ+ÉåÖ'Î!Ö'ÎÈÏÖ'ÎÈÓEá Úw
Þ]ÏÒØtÏCÏçôÈâÈÊÔØtÏLÍWÈXÓ Ö(ÏôÖ(ÎÈ+ÚÏÒÓ
^ 6W
ù È8Ì]ÙèØtÈEÍeËÉtâÈÊ>ÜÞ]Ï]Ò Ø»ØjÍ(ÈÈ+Ö'Î3ÌÑÖ`Ö(ÎÈlÚÓ(È Ò3ÈÊ3ÔÉtÈEÍ`ÌÓ'È}Í(ÎÉåÚ Ö'ÈXÕ×CÞ
Ö(Î3+ v Z
È Ü ï=â ï » ãbä ÜCÌÊ3ÕoÖ'Î3ÌÑÖÖ(ÎÈÍWÎjÌè:È}ÏÚÖ(Î3ÈgÔÏÙèØtÈXÙÈÊLÖ'Ì]Ó(ÞoË]Ó)ÌèÎjÍeÌÓ'È+ÙÉtÓ'Ó(ÏÓ î É»ÙÌ]Ë]ÈE;ÏÚ\ÈXÌÔ)ÎÏÖ(Î3ÈÓ 6M
W
}ÊLÖ'ÉtÓ'ÈXÍ(Ï]Ê3Ì]Ê3ÔȶɻÍrÌ]Ê È >:ÈEÔÖrÖ(Î3ÌÖÓ(ÈEÍWÏÊ3ÌÊLÖÔÉtÓ)ÔÒ3ÉåÖÕ8ÈEÍWÉ»Ë]ÊÈXÓ'ÍgÙôÒjÍdÖ×:ÈÌ9ÐäÌÓ'ÈÏ]Údá Û ÎÈÈ LÒ3ÌÖ(É»Ï]Ê3ÍgÚÏÓ
g: @: }
Õ8ÈÖ(ÈÓ'ÙÉtÊ3ÉtÊËÌ]ÊLÖ(É»Ó(ÈEÍWÏÊ3ÌÊ3ÔÈ ÍWÎ3ÉåÚ Ö ÌÓ'ÈäÔÏ]ÙèØ»È \Ü]Ì]Ê3ÕoÐ+ÉtØ»Ø3ÊÏ]Öe×jÈ}ÔÏÑâ]ÈXÓ(ÈEÕÉ»ÊÖ(ÎÉûÍ ×Ó'ÉtÈÚ:Ø»ÈXÍ'Í(Ï]Ê>á Ö`ÍWÎ3Ï]ÒØûÕ
Í(b Ò °ÔÈ+Ö'ÎÈl×:ÈËÉtÊÊ3ÉtÊËoÍdÖ'Ò3Õ8ÈXÊÖ#ÏÚ\ÈØ»ÈXÔÖ(Ó'Ï]ÊÉûÔÍeÖ(ÏÒ3Ê3Õ8ÈÓ)ÍWÖ'ÌÊjÕoÖ(Î3ÌÖ`Ö(Î3ÈlÈ >ÈXÔÖÈ CÉûÍWÖ'ÍXÜLÌ]Ê3ÕÐ+Î3ÌÑÖ#ÉåÖ)ÍeËÈÊÈXÓ'Ì]Ø
Ö(ÈXÊ3Õ8ÈXÊ3ÔÉ»ÈXÍ}Ì]Ó(Èá
lÕ3Õ8ÈXÕ¢Ó'ÈXÍ(É»ÍWÖ'Ì]Ê3ÔÈoÉtÊ Ì]Ê¢;ö ßÔÉ»Ó)ÔÒÉtÖÉ»ÍrÊ3ÏÌÔÌÕ8ÈÙÉûÔ¶ÙÌÖWÖ(ÈXÓXá O ÎɻػÈÉåÖÉûÍrèjÏLÍ(Í(É»×ØtÈoÖ'ÏéÙÌ]ÊCÒ8ÚÌ]ÔÖ(ÒÓ'È
ÔÌ]è3Ì]ÔÉåÖ'Ï]Ó)ÍoÐ+ÉåÖ'ÎJÊ3ÈË]ػɻË]É»×ØtÈÒÊCÐäÌÊLÖ(ÈEÕRÓ'ÈXÍ(ÉûÍdÖ)ÌÊ3ÔÈXÍXÜeÉtÊjÕ8Ò3ÔÖ'Ï]Ó)ÍÌÓ'ÈüÖdÞLè3É»ÔXÌØ»ØtÞ è3Ø»Ì]Ë]ÒÈEÕRÐ+ÉtÖ(Î6Í(Ò×3ÍWÖ'ÌÊLÖ'É»Ì]Ø
ÌÙÏÒÊLÖ'Í#ÏÚ¾Ó(ÈEÍWÉûÍWÖ'ÌÊjÔÈrÕ8ÒÈÖ(ÏoÖ(Î3ÈØtÏÊ˶ػÈÊ3ËÖ(ÎjÍäÏÚ Ð+É»Ó'ÈÒjÍWÈEÕ|É»ÊüÖ(ÎÈXÉtÓ}ÔÏ]Ê3ÍWÖ(Ó'Ò3ÔÖ'ÉtÏÊ>á O Î3ÌÑÖ+ÉûÍäÙÏ]Ó'È]ÜCÖ(Î3È
W
Ó'ÈXÍ(É»ÍWÖ'Ì]Ê3ÔȶÏÚÐ+É»Ó'ÈôÖ'ÈÊ3ÕÍÖ'Ï!É»Ê3ÔÓ(ÈEÌ]Í(ȶÌ]ÍgÚÓ'È LÒÈXÊ3ÔÞéËÏLÈEÍÒè>ÜVÕ8Ò3ȶÖ'ÏüÌüÍWÖ(Ó)ÌÊËȶèÎ3ÈÊÏÙoÈXÊÏ]Ê çCÊÏÑÐ+Ê ÌÍ
Ö(Î3+ ½ vZ
È Ü ô]ÝðäMâ âÞ Ð+ÎÈXÓ( È JÔÒÓ'Ó'ÈÊLÖeÖ(ÈXÊ3ÕÍ`Ö(϶×jÈÈ ÔØ»Ò3Õ8ÈEÕÚÓ'Ï]Ù Ö(Ó)Ì9â]ÈXØ8Ö(ÎÓ'Ï]Ò3Ë]ÎÖ'ÎÈlâÈÓ'ÞoÔÈÊLÖ(ÈXÓÏ]ÚVÌÐ+É»Ó(ÈÜ
2^
Ö(Î3ÈÓ'È×CÞ|Ó'ÈXÕ8ÒjÔÉ»ÊËoÖ(ÎÈÐ+É»Ó'È Í+È >ÈXÔÖ(É»â]ÈÔÓ'ÏÍ'Í î Í(ÈXÔÖ(É»Ï]Ê3Ì]ØÌ]Ó(ÈEÌá Û ÎCÒ3ÍXÜÉ»Ê3Õ8Ò3ÔÖ(ÏÓ'Í+Ê3ÏÖ}Ï]Ê3ØtÞ!Î3Ì9â]ÈrÓ'ÈXÍ(É»ÍWÖ'Ì]Ê3ÔÈÜ
(X ¾¿ @À
×Ò8Ö Þ ädá)Ýðädá ½
â ãâä\Þ tÁ 9 9 %Z â º âä âä Ó(ÈEÍWÉûÍdÖ)ÌÊ3ÔÈÌÖ+Ö(Î3ÌÖXá
êEòò ONQPSR¾ÿséþm}ÿ0T'êA
4¾ÿ
6^ ^
lÍoÉtÚlÖ'ÎÈ!Ó'ÈXÍ(ÉûÍdÖ)ÌÊ3ÔÈ|ÏÚrÌÊ5ÉtÊ3ÕÒ3ÔÖ'Ï]Ó Í¶Ð+ÉtÓ'ÈüÐÈXÓ(ÈXÊ ÖÈÊ3Ï]ÒËÎ Ö(Ï ÔÌ]Ò3Í(È|èÓ'Ï]×Ø»ÈÙÍXÜeÐ#ÈüÌ]Ø»Í(ÏÎ3Ì9âÈÖ'Ï
S: Y:
Ô ÏÊLÖ(ÈÊjÕÐ+ÉåÖ'ÎÖ(ÎÈ ]ÔÏÓ(ÈäØ»ÏÍ'ÍWÈEÍ rÏ]Ú\ÉtÓ'Ï]Ê î ÔÏÓ(ÈäÉ»Ê3Õ8Ò3ÔÖ(ÏÓ'ÍXÜ]Ð+ÎÉûÔ)ÎÙÌÊÉtÚÈXÍWÖeÖ'ÎÈÙÍ(ÈØ»â]ÈXÍÌ]ÍeÌÕÕ8ÈEÕÓ(ÈEÍWÉûÍdÖ)ÌÊ3ÔÈ
É»ÊÖ(Î3È#ÔÉtÓ)ÔÒÉtÖXá É»Ê3ÔÈ#ÉtÓ'Ï]ÊÉû;ÌlÔÏ]Ê3Õ8ÒjÔÖ(ÏÓVÏ]Ú3ÈØ»ÈXÔÖ(Ó'É»ÔÉåÖdÞÌ]ÍVÐÈXØtØ8ÌÍVÌlÔÏ]Ê3ÕÒ3ÔÖ'Ï]ÓãÏÚÙÌËÊÈÖ'É»Ô å Òb\ÜÔ)Î3ÌÊ3Ë]É»ÊË
å bÒ oèÓ'ÏCÕÒ3ÔÈEÕ¶×CÞoÌØtÖ(ÈÓ'Ê3ÌÖ(É»ÊËÔÒÓ'Ó'ÈÊLÖ¾Ö(ÎÓ'Ï]ÒËÎoÖ(ÎÈ}ÔÏ]É»ØÐ+ÉtØ»ØÖ'ÈÊ3Õ¶Ö'ÏÉtÊ3ÕÒ3ÔÈ}ÈXØtÈEÔÖ'Ó(ÉûÔ+ÔÒÓ'Ó'ÈÊLÖ';ɻÊÖ(ÎÈ}ÔÏ]Ó'È
g 9'9 %Z
ÉtÖ'Í(ÈØtÚ â Þãb½D½
âä Ü á Û Î3É»ÍäÈ >:ÈEÔÖ}ÔÌ]Ê!×:ÈÖ(ÎÏÒË]ÎLÖäÏÚãÌÍÖ(ÎÏÒË]Î|Ö(ÎÈÉ»Ó(ÏÊ!ÔÏ]Ó'ÈlÏÚ Ö(ÎÈÖ'Ó'Ì]Ê3ÍdÚÏÓ(ÙÈXÓÐ#ÈÓ'È
ÌÍ(Ï]Ó(Ö}ÏÚeÍWÈEÔÏÊ3ÕÌÓ'ÞÖ'Ó'Ì]Ê3ÍdÚÏÓ(ÙÈXÓ}ÔÏ]É»Ø>è:ÏÑÐÈXÓ(É»ÊËÌÓ'ÈXÍ(É»ÍWÖ(É»â]ÈrØ»ÏÌÕ\ýeÖ'ÎÈØ»ÈXÍ'Í î Ö(Î3Ì]Ê î èjÈXÓWÚÈEÔÖlÔÏÊ3Õ8Ò3ÔÖ(É»âCÉåÖdÞ!ÏÚ
ÂK
Ö(Î3È+ÉtÓ'Ï]ÊoÙÈÖ'Ì]Ø á Û ÎÉûÍ È >ÈXÔÖ'ÍeÔXÌÊo×jÈ+ÙÉ»ÊÉ»ÙoÉ ÈEÕÐ+ÉåÖ'ÎØ»Ì]ÙoÉ»Ê3ÌÖ(ÈXÕoÔÏÓ(ÈEÍÜ]Ë]ÏCÏ8Õ¶ÔÏ]Ó'È#Õ8ÈEÍWÉ»Ë]ÊÌÊjÕ¶Î3ÉtËÎ î ËÓ'ÌÕ8È
ÙÌÑÖ'ÈÓ'É»Ì]Ø»ÍXÜ8×Ò8Ö}ÊÈXâ]ÈXÓäÔÏ]ÙèØ»ÈÖ'ÈØ»Þ|ÈػɻÙoÉ»Ê3ÌÖ(ÈXÕ>á
W
õgÊÈÊ3ÏÖ'Ì]×Ø»ÈÈ ÔÈXè8Ö(É»Ï]ÊÖ'ÏÖ(Î3ÈôÓ'ÒØtÈôÏÚ`ÔÉ»Ó)ÔÒÉtÖlÓ'ÈXÍ(É»ÍWÖ'Ì]Ê3ÔÈôÔXÌÒ3Í(É»ÊËÌÓ'ÈXÍ(Ï]Ê3Ì]ÊÖ+ÚÓ'È LÒÈXÊ3ÔÞÍ(ÎÉåÚ ÖÉ»ÍlÖ(Î3È
H:2| g:'
ÔÌÍWÈgÏÚ Í(ÈÓ'É»ÈXÍÓ(ÈEÍWÉûÍdÖ'Ï]Ó î É»Ê3Õ8ÒjÔÖ(ÏÓ î ÔÌ]è3Ì]ÔÉåÖ'Ï]Ó };
ö eÔÉtÓ)ÔÒ3ÉåÖ)Íá ÏoØtÏÊ˶ÌÍ ]¼ð¼CÔÏ]Ùè:Ï]ÊÈXÊLÖ'Í#ÌÓ'ÈgÔÏÊÊÈEÔÖ(ÈEÕ
6W
É»ÊÍ(ÈÓ'É»ÈXÍ#Ð+ÉåÖ'ÎéÈXÌÔ)Î|ÏÖ'ÎÈÓEÜCÖ(Î3ÈÓ(ÈEÍWÏÊ3ÌÊLÖ#ÚÓ(È Ò3ÈÊ3ÔÞ|ÏÚ Ö(ÎÈÔÉtÓ)ÔÒ3ÉåÖ}Ð+É»ØtØ\×:ÈÒÊ3?Ì >:ÈEÔÖ'ÈXÕü×CÞÖ(Î3ÈÓ(ÈEÍWÉûÍdÖ)ÌÊ3ÔÈ]ý
R1
1 2
100 Ω
_C 10 µF
V 1V
1
1
3
L1 100 mH
0 0
W)YQZ[?YW¹Za`VfVb[rZVgh[gi
j'kXkmlXUVnk3Wc[rq
Z'kXkmo}kglcl
Vk*otu}kgl)h
ak*utl}kglclr|
xzUV.a[qÈocl/kgldltocldl
x_,'a $QitUVX['
j'kQ
xzY)qb
`Z YQ ['zj'kQ yxz'``uQ`^dlcu xz\kguQ`^dlcu k~x1lclclQ^Qlco
^X^t^t^t^X^t^X^X^p^X^t^X^t^X^p^X^X^t^X^t^t^t^X^X^t^X^p^X^t^X^
k~xzldlclQbbldo yx1oclcoQ^Qlcu ! x x x
k~xzld{cuQbbldo yx1w\kgyQ^Qlcu x ! x x x
k~xkrlc{Qbbldo x1l\kgyQ^Qlcu x x! x x
k~xkr{cQbbldo x1uccwQ^Qlcu x x ! x x
k~xzokckbbldo x1'y ``yQ^Qlcu x x ! x x
k~xzodwcuQbbldo x1lcwcuQ^Qlcu x x x ! x
k~xzukgwQbbldo x1ucucQ^Qlcu x x x ! x
éþLþm}ÿ0T~êA 4¾ÿ1 T8ÿ®dÿgT(P<eeVÿ0eè1´µvRwT êEò2h
k~xzudwcQbbldo x1{cyclQ^Qlcu x x x ! x
k~ix `bo\kbbldo x1yc{coQ^Qlcu x x x ! x
k~ix `b'y `cbbldo x1ccuQ^Qlcu x x x !x
k~xz{docwQbbldo x1cwc{Q^Qlcu x x x x
k~xz{dycQbbldo x1ccQ^Qlcu x x x !
k~xzwducoQbbldo x1ccQ^Qlcu x x x !
k~xzwd' `cbbldo x1cucwQ^Qlcu x x x !x
k~xzyducyQbbldo x1c{clQ^Qlcu x x x ! x
k~xzydcQbbldo x1ycuc{Q^Qlcu x x x ! x
k~xz2 ``oQbbldo x1{cc{Q^Qlcu x x x ! x
k~xzdc{Qbbldo xj``ucyQ^Qlcu x x x ! x
k~xz2 ``yQbbldo x1ocwc{Q^Qlcu x x x ! x
oxzldlclQbbldo x1lccoQ^Qlcu x x x ! x
^X^t^t^t^X^t^X^X^p^X^t^X^t^X^p^X^X^t^X^t^t^t^X^X^t^X^p^X^t^X^
'U o[|h)|sVghcZcZ`Y)qbi3UQi kr{cxzf o sq$)q\V?YX2U &`U,[r\ q
æ Ï]Ö(ÈrÖ'Î3ÌÑÖ}Ö'ÎÈè:ÈXÌ]ç|ÏÚãÖ(Î3ÈôÔÒÓ'Ó'ÈÊLÖ+Ë]Ó)ÌèÎÎ3ÌÍ+ÊÏÖlÔ)ÎjÌÊËÈXÕ|ÚÓ(ÏÙíÖ'ÎÈÈXÌ]Ó(Ø»ÉtÈXÓ}ÍWÈXÓ(É»ÈXÍlöè?ÔÉ»Ó'ÔÒÉåÖ Ö(ÎÈ
[
Ï]Ê3ÈÐ+ÉåÖ'ÎéÖ(Î3È|ê ë Ö(Ïç]ÈXÊéÓ(ÈEÍWÉûÍdÖ)ÌÊ3ÔÈÉ»ÊéÉåÖ ÜÈâÈÊÖ(Î3Ï]ÒËÎÖ(ÎȶÓ(ÈEÍWÉûÍdÖ)ÌÊ3ÔÈÉ»ÍgÊÏÑÐ êXóóoÖ(É»ÙÈXÍ}ËÓ(ÈEÌÑÖ'ÈÓEá Û Î3È
\: Ã:
Ï]Ê3ØtÞÖ'ÎÉ»ÊËÖ(Î3ÌÖ¾ÎjÌ];Ô)Î3ÌÊ3Ë]ÈXÕôÉ»ÍãÖ'ÎÈ ]Í(Î3ÌÓ'èÊÈEÍ(Í }Ï]Ú3Ö'ÎÈ+ÔÒÓ'â]Èá¾õg×CâCÉtÏÒ3ÍWØ»Þ]Ü9Ö'ÎÉûÍ ÔÉ»Ó'ÔÒÉåÖeÕ8ÏCÈE;ÊÏÖ Ó'ÈXÍ(Ï]Ê3ÌÖ(È
L : 6:'
Ì]ÍäÍWÖ(Ó'Ï]ÊËØtÞÌÍÏÊÈÐ+ÉåÖ'Î!Ø»ÈXÍ'Í+ÍWÈXÓ(É»ÈXÍÓ'ÈXÍ(É»ÍWÖ'Ì]Ê3ÔÈ ÉtÖ+É»ÍäÍ'ÌÉûÕÖ'϶×:È Ø»ÈXÍ'Í#Í(ÈØ»ÈXÔÖ(É»â]È ÜC×ÒÖ+ÌÖ#Ø»ÈXÌÍdÖ+ÉtÖ+Î3Ì]ÍÖ(Î3È
6W .M
Í'ÌÙÈrÊ3ÌÑÖ'ÒÓ'Ì]ØÚÓ(È LÒÈÊ3ÔÞ
Ö ÉûÍ ÊÏÖ'ÈÐ#Ï]Ó(Ö(ÎCÞ}Ö'Î3ÌÑÖ¾ÌÊLÖ(É»Ó(ÈEÍWÏÊ3ÌÊjÔÈ Î3ÌÍ\Ö(Î3ÈÈ >:ÈEÔÖ Ï]Ú3ÕÌÙè:ÈÊÉ»ÊËlÖ(ÎÈÏÍ'ÔÉ»ØtØûÌÑÖ'ÉtÏÊ3Í\ÏÚ8ÚÓ'ÈÈ î Ó'ÒÊÊ3ÉtÊËgè ö
O
ÔÉ»Ó)ÔÒÉtÖ'ÍäÍ(Ò3Ô)Î|Ì]ÍÖ)ÌÊçÔÉ»Ó)ÔÒÉtÖ'ÍXá ÊÖ(Î3È×:ÈËÉtÊ3ÊÉtÊ3˶Ï]Ú>Ö(ÎÉûÍäÔ)Î3ÌèÖ(ÈÓ#Ð#ÈgÍ'Ì9Ð6ÎÏÑÐ?ÌôÔXÌè3ÌÔÉtÖ(ÏÓ#Ì]Ê3ÕÉ»Ê3Õ8Ò3ÔÖ(Ï]Ó
ÔÏÊÊÈEÔÖ(ÈEÕÕ8É»Ó(ÈEÔÖ'ØtÞüÖ(ÏË]ÈÖ(ÎÈXÓgÐ#Ï]ÒØûÕéÌ]ÔÖrÍ(Ï]ÙÈÖ(ÎÉ»ÊËØ»ÉtçȶÌ|èjÈXÊ3Õ8ÒØ»ÒÙÜ\È Ô)Î3Ì]ÊË]É»ÊËâÏ]ØtÖ'ÌËÈôÌÊjÕÔÒÓ'Ó'ÈÊLÖ
è:ÈXÌç8
Í EdÒ3ÍdÖoØtÉ»ç]ÈÌèjÈXÊ3Õ8ÒØ»ÒÙ È Ô)Î3Ì]ÊË]ÈEÍrçCÉtÊÈÖ(ÉûÔ|Ì]Ê3Õ èjÏ]Ö(ÈXÊÖ'É»Ì]Ø`ÈXÊÈÓ'Ë]Þá Ê ÌèjÈXÓWÚÈEÔÖôÖ)ÌÊç ÔÉ»Ó)ÔÒÉtÖ Ê3Ï )
Ó'ÈXÍ(É»ÍWÖ'Ì]Ê3ÔÈ ÜÖ(Î3É»ÍrÏLÍ(ÔÉtػػÌÖ(É»Ï]Ê ÐÏÒØ»Õ ÔÏÊÖ'ÉtÊCÒÈoÚÏÓ(ÈXâ]ÈÓEd Ü EdÒ3ÍWÖÌÍÌÚÓ'ÉûÔÖ(É»Ï]Ê3ØtÈEÍ(Íè:ÈÊ3Õ8Ò3ØtÒÙ ÐÏÒØûÕ ÔÏ]ÊLÖ(É»ÊCÒÈ
6W Ä
Ö(ÏÍ(Ð+É»ÊËÌÑÖ}ÉtÖ'Í+Ó'ÈXÍ(Ï]ÊjÌÊLÖäÚÓ(È Ò3ÈÊ3ÔÞÚÏ]Ó'ÈâÈÓEá #Ò8Ö+ÚÓ(ÉûÔÖ'ÉtÏÊØ»ÈXÍ'Í+ÙÌ]Ô)ÎÉ»ÊÈXÍ+Ì]Ó(ÈÕ8£É °ÔÒØtÖ}Ö'Ïà3Ê3ÕÉ»Ê!Ö'ÎÈÓ'ÈXÌ]Ø
Ð#Ï]Ó'Ø»Õ\Ü>Ì]Ê3ÕÍ(ÏÌÓ'ȶػÏÍ'ÍWØ»ÈXÍ'ÍlÖ'ÌÊ3çÔÉ»Ó'ÔÒÉåÖ)Íá ù ÊÈXÓ(ËÞØtÏLÍdÖÖ(ÎÓ'Ï]Ò3Ë]ÎÓ'ÈXÍ(ÉûÍdÖ)ÌÊ3ÔÈ Ï]ÓrÉtÊjÕ8Ò3ÔÖ'Ï]ÓÔÏÓ(ÈoØ»ÏÍ'ÍWÈEÍlÏÓ
b
Ó)Ì]Õ8ÉûÌÑÖ'ÈXÕ ÈØ»ÈXÔÖ(Ó'Ï]ÙÌËÊÈÖ'É»ÔÐäÌ9â]ÈEÍÏ]Ó!á á á AÉ»ÊRÌÖ'Ì]Êç ÔÉ»Ó'ÔÒÉtÖôÐ+ÉtØ»ØäÔÌÒjÍWÈÖ'ÎÈ|ÏLÍ(ÔÉtØ»ØûÌÑÖ(É»Ï]ÊjÍÖ(Ï Õ8ÈXÔXÌ9Þ É»Ê
<
ÌÙèØ»ÉtÖ(Ò3Õ8ÈoÒÊLÖ(É»Ø Ö(ÎÈXÞÌ]Ó(ÈôÊÏ|ÙÏ]Ó'È]á ÚeÈÊÏÒË]ÎéÈXÊÈÓ'Ë]ÞüØ»ÏÍ'ÍWÈEÍlÌÓ'ÈèÓ'ÈXÍ(ÈÊLÖÉtÊÌÖ'Ì]ÊçéÔÉ»Ó'ÔÒÉåÖEÜjÉtÖrÐ+ÉtØ»ØVÚÌ]ÉtØ
Ö(ÏÓ'ÈXÍ(Ï]Ê3ÌÖ(ÈÌÑÖ}Ì]ØtØÝá
'^
}ÊLÖ'ÉtÓ'ÈXÍ(Ï]Ê3Ì]Ê3ÔÈ ÍlÕÌÙè:ÈÊÉ»ÊË|È >:ÈEÔÖrÉ»ÍgÙÏ]Ó'ÈÖ(ÎjÌõ 5W
Ê EdÒjÍdÖrÌ|ÔÒ3Ó(É»ÏÍ(ÉåÖdÞýäÉtÖÔÌ]Ê×:ȶÒ3Í(ÈXÕ Ò3ÉåÖ'ÈôÈ >ÈXÔÖ(É»â]ÈXØtÞ
Ö(ÏüÈػɻÙoÉ»Ê3ÌÖ(È ãbä ·4 Z 9 ä â ôÏÍ'ÔÉ»ØtØûÌÑÖ'ÉtÏÊ3ÍgÉtÊ¢ÔÉ»Ó'ÔÒÉåÖ)ÍrÔÏ]ÊLÖ)ÌÉ»ÊÉtÊ3Ë!ÍWÖ(Ó)Ì9ÞüÉ»Ê3Õ8ÒjÔÖ'Ì]Ê3ÔÈEÍrÌÊ3Õ ú Ï]ÓÔÌèjÌ]ÔÉtÖ'Ì]Ê3ÔÈEÍÜ\ÌÍ
|
ÌØ»ÙÏÍWÖ}ÌØ»Ø>ÔÉ»Ó'ÔÒÉåÖ)Í}Õ8Ïjá Û ÌçÈrÊÏÖ'ÈÏ]Ú Ö'ÎÈrÚÏ]ػػÏÑÐ+ÉtÊËö ú HÖ(É»ÙoÈÕÈØûÌ9ÞÔÉ»Ó'ÔÒÉåÖEý
switch
R
L
: 6:
Û ÎÈ+ÉûÕ8ÈXÌÏÚ:Ö(ÎÉûÍ`ÔÉtÓ)ÔÒÉtÖ`ÉûÍeÍ(ÉtÙèØ»È]ýãÖ(Ï Ô)Î3ÌÓ'Ë]È }Ö'ÎÈ}É»Ê3Õ8Ò3ÔÖ(ÏÓeÐ+ÎÈÊÖ'ÎÈlÍ(Ð+ÉåÖ)Ô)ÎÉ»ÍÔØ»ÏÍ(ÈXÕ\á Û ÎÈ}Ó)ÌÑÖ'È+ÏÚ
|
É»Ê3Õ8Ò3ÔÖ(Ï]Ó}Ô)ÎjÌÓ'Ë]É»ÊËôÐ+É»ØtØV×jÈÍ(ÈÖ+×CÞÖ(Î3ÈÓ'ÌÖ(É»Ïoö ú Ü8Ð+ÎÉûÔ)ÎüÉ»Í#Ö'ÎÈrÖ(É»ÙÈÔÏ]ÊjÍdÖ)ÌÊLÖ#Ï]ÚVÖ'ÎÈÔÉ»Ó'ÔÒÉtÖäÉ»ÊéÍWÈEÔÏÊ3ÕÍXá
S
ó}ÏÑÐ#ÈâÈÓEÜÉtÚVÞÏ]Ò|Ð#ÈÓ'È}Ö'϶×3ÒÉtØûÕ|Í(Ò3Ô)Îü̶ÔÉtÓ)ÔÒÉtÖXÜCÞÏ]Ò|ÙÉ»Ë]ÎLÖ#à3Ê3ÕÒ3ÊÈ8è:ÈXÔÖ'ÈXÕ!ÏÍ'ÔÉ»ØtØûÌÑÖ'ÉtÏÊ3Í ß ÏÚVâÏ]ØtÖ'Ì]Ë]È
êEòn ONQPSR¾ÿséþm}ÿ0T'êA
4¾ÿ
'^
Ì]ÔÓ(ÏLÍ(Í+Ö(ÎÈÉ»Ê3Õ8ÒjÔÖ(ÏÓgÐ+Î3ÈÊÖ(Î3ȶÍ(Ð+ÉåÖ)Ô)ÎÉ»ÍgÔØ»ÏÍ(ÈXÕ\á O ÎCÞÉûÍ+Ö(Î3É»Í Û ÎÈXÓ(È ÍlÊÏ|ÔXÌè3ÌÔÉtÖ(Ï]ÓlÉtÊéÖ'ÎȶÔÉtÓ)ÔÒ3ÉåÖEÜ:Í(Ï
ÎÏÑÐFÔÌÊüÐ#ÈÎjÌ9â]ÈrÓ(ÈEÍWÏÊ3ÌÊLÖäÏÍ'ÔÉ»ØtØûÌÑÖ'ÉtÏÊ|Ð+ÉtÖ(ÎLEdÒ3ÍWÖlÌÊüÉ»Ê3Õ8Ò3ÔÖ(Ï]ÓEÜ8Ó'ÈXÍ(É»ÍWÖ(ÏÓXÜ8ÌÊjÕ!×jÌÑÖWÖ'ÈÓ'Þ`
AC + DC
voltage
êzëãì<í)îtì<ïñð
ê 1Û Ù(ÑvÈåÒÊ(ÆÌYÇÂÕ(ÆÂѺÏYÇÈ%ÑÝ Ð ä2ÑtÓ¼Í'ÎYÒ]ÏHÐ2ÎYÑyÒLÇösÑÉdÌYÍ'Ö2ÑtÌÃÙ(ÑvÎ#?¡Ð'ÏQÇÚÏSÍÓJÌYÑÈdÌÃÙ(ÑyËÐ2ÏYÑÇÂÈ5ÒÊÏ«ÇÚËAtØÌÃÙ(ѺÆÍÝgÑÏ«Ì
Ó¼ÎYÑLx'Ê%ÑvÈ%ËvÔLÏYÇÂÈ(Ñs
jÝgÐ ä'ÑHÇÚÏ\ËvÐÆÂÆÂÑÉ]ÌÃÙ(ÑB3sûQ6X :Lø û4h ù Ø(ÐÈ%ÉãÌYÙ(ÑSÍÌÃÙ(ÑvÎ\ÏYÇÈ%Ñs
jÝgÐ ä'ÑÏÝ\Ù%Í'ÏYÑHÓ¼ÎÃÑx#Ê(ÑvÈËtÇÂÑÏ ÐÎÃÑ
Ý\Ù(Í2ÆÂÑs
jÈÊ(Ò Þ ÑvÎ ÒÊ%ÆÌÃÇÕ(ÆÂÑÏHÍÓ}ÌYÙ(ÑßÓ¼Ê(ÈÉ(ÐÒLÑvÈ#Ì@ÐÆÝ Ð ä2ÑßÐÎÃÑßËÐÆÂÆÑ6É,4 ó2: ôû1¡÷[ú[×
2Ý ÞOßO*,àJ$'áâàtã#áåä%æsç#,àEèsä
/ ÌHÙ%Ð'Ï Þ ÑÑvÈÓ¼Í2Ê%È%É)ÌYÙ%ÐÌ. û4ßT ÎÃÑvÕÑÐÌYÇÂÈ(Ö%ØsÈ(Í'ÈHi
Ï«ÇÂÈÊ%Ï«Í'ÇÂÉ%ÐÆ.ÝgÐ ä'ÑtÓ¼Í'ÎYÒ ËÐÈ Þ Ñ ÑL#x Ê%ÐÌÃÑÉ)ÌYÍ8ÐLËtÍ'Ò Þ ÇÂÈ%ÐÌYÇÂÍ2ÈÍÓ
; àáä'Í2ÆÌÃÐÖ'Ñ2ØÏYÇÂÈ(Ñ]ÝgÐ ä'ÑÏØÐÈ%ÉQP Í2Î ËvÍ'ÏYÇÈ(ÑLÝ Ð ä2Ñ6Ï#?Ï«ÇÂÈ(Ñ]Ý Ð ä2Ñ6Ï<Ý\ÇÌYÙ¶ÐféyÉ(ÑvÖ2ÎÃÑvÑLÕ(ÙÐ2ÏYÑLÏYÙ(ÇÓJÌA ÐÌ ä Ð2ÎYÇÂÍ2ÊÏ
ÐÒLÕ(ÆÂÇÌYÊ%ÉsÑ6Ï]ÐÈ%ÉzÓ¼ÎÃÑ#x Ê(ÑvÈËtÇÂÑÏ×cè Ù(ÇÚÏ]ÇÚϺÌYÎÃÊ(ÑÈ(ÍÜÒ]ÐÌ«ÌÃÑvÎ]Ù(ÍÝ ÏÌÃÎÃÐ2È(Ö2ÑÍ2Î]ËtÍ'Èä2Í2ÆÂÊsÌÃÑɶÌÃÙ(ÑÝ Ð ä2ÑtÓ¼Í'ÎYÒñÇÂÈ
#x Ê(ÑÏ«ÌYÇÂÍ2ÈzÒLÐ Ô Þ Ñ2×êC ÍåÆÍ'È(ÖåÐ'ÏÇ̺ÎÃÑvÕÑÐÌÃÏyÇÌ@Ï«ÑÆÓ<ÎYÑÖ2Ê(ÆÚÐÎÃÆÔpÍä2ÑÎÌÃÇÒLÑ2Ø4ÇÌLÇÂÏyÎÃÑÉsÊ%ËvÇ Þ ÆÑãÌYÍåÌYÙ(ÇÚÏLÏ«ÑÎYÇÂÑÏÍÓ
ÏYÇÈÊ%ÏYÍ2ÇÚÉ(ÐÆÝ Ð ä2Ñ6Ïv× / ÈÕÐÎYÌYÇÚËtÊ(ÆÚÐÎ6ØsÇÌHÙÐ2Ï Þ ÑvÑÈÓ¼Í2Ê(È%É)ÌÃÙ%ÐÌ<Ï#x Ê%ÐÎÃÑßÝgÐ ä'ÑÏ ÐÎÃÑ Ò]ÐÌÃÙ(ÑvÒ]ÐÌÃÇÂËÐÆÂÆÔãÑ#x Ê(ÇÂä Ð2ÆÑÈ#Ì
ÌYÍãÌYÙ(ѺϫÊ%Ò Í2Ó4Ð8ÏYÇÈ(ÑyÝgÐ ä'ÑÐÌ<ÌYÙ%ÐÌSÏÃÐÒLÑ Ó¼ÎÃÑ#x Ê(ÑvÈËtÔ2ØÕ(ÆÂÊ%ÏSÐÈÇÂÈH% È(ÇÌYÑLÏ«ÑÎYÇÂÑÏQÍÓwÍsÉ(ÉNj
ÒÊ(ÆÌYÇÂÕ(ÆÂÑÓ¼ÎÃÑ#x Ê(ÑÈ%ËtÔ
ÏYÇÈ(Ñ Ý Ð ä2Ñ6Ï0ÐÌQÉsÇÂÒºÇÂÈ(ÇÚÏ«Ù%ÇÈ(Ö8Ð2ÒLÕ(ÆÇÌYÊÉsÑX=
ac ëªc q l#mn[>_G^íì.[<î~^ q esrto>[<u q LVXé
1 V (peak) repeating square wave at 50 Hz is equivalent to:
ï
ð4π (1 V peak sine wave at 50 Hz)
ñ+ ðï4 (1/3 V peak sine wave at 150 Hz)
π
ñ+ . . . ad infinitum . . .
è Ù(ÇÚÏ0ÌYÎÃÊsÌYÙÐ Þ Í2ÊsÌ\Ý Ð ä2ÑvÓ¼Í2ÎÃÒLÏ0ÐBÌ %Î@ÏÌ Ò]Ð Ô8Ï«ÑÑvÒ>ÌÃÍͺϫÌYÎ@ÐÈ(Ö'ÑQÌÃÍ Þ ÑvÆÂÇÂÑvä2Ñ'D× zHÍÝgÑvä'ÑvÎ6Ø'ÇÓ}кÜÏ x#Ê%Ð2ÎYÑSÝ Ð ä2Ñ
ÇÚÏ]Ð2Ë[ÌÃÊ%ÐÆÂÆÂÔÐÈzÇÂÈH%È%ÇÌÃÑÏYÑvÎÃÇÂÑϺÍÓßÏ«ÇÂÈ(ÑÝgÐ ä'ÑãÙ%Ð2ÎYÒLÍ2È%ÇÂËϺÐ'É(ÉsÑ6ɶÌYÍ'Ö2ÑvÌYÙ(ÑÎØÇÌãÏ«ÌÃÐÈÉ(ÏyÌYÍpÎYÑ6Ð2ÏYÍ2ȶÌÃÙ%ÐÌ]ÝgÑ
ÏYÙ(Í2Ê(ÆÚÉ Þ ÑÐ Þ ÆÑ)ÌYÍÜÕ(ÎÃÍä2ÑãÌYÙ(ÇÚÏ Þ ÔÐ2É(É(ÇÈ(ÖpÌÃÍ2Ö2ÑvÌYÙ(ÑÎ]Ï«Ñä2ÑvÎ@ÐÆ ÏYÇÈ(ÑÝ Ð ä2ÑÙ%ÐÎÃÒLÍ2È(ÇÚËvÏÌYÍÜÕ(ÎÃÍsÉsÊ%ËtÑÐÜËtÆÂÍ'ÏYÑ
ÐÕ%Õ(ÎYÍ ösÇÂÒ]ÐÌYÇÂÍ2ÈåÍÓ\ÐÜÏ x#Ê%Ð2ÎYÑLÝ Ð ä2Ñ2×]è Ù(ÇÚÏ ÎÃÑÐ'Ï«Í'È(ÇÈ%Ö)ÇÚÏ È(Í2ÌßÍ'È(ÆÂÔåÏYÍ2Ê(È%ÉØ Þ ÊsÌÑ6Ð2ÏYÇÆÂÔ5ÉsÑÒLÍ2È%Ï«ÌYÎ@ÐÌÃÑÉpÝ\ÇÌÃÙ
CHU / -à òH×
ü ü ü
ÄSü ££N£ ² £ ¼ þ ü ÆN¼ ¢ ² £¯¢ûü
ü ü Êü ü
Å ü ££N£ ² £ ¼ ÿ ü Æ Ä¯¢ ² £¯¢ûü ü ü ü
Æ ü ££N£ ² £ ¼ ¢ýüs¢ ÃNÃ N£N£bü ü ü ü ü
Graphic Equalizer
*amplitude
frequency
+
load
-
0 0
The diode only allows electron
flow in a counter-clockwise
direction.
0 0
£S²ü ²££N²£ ²H£²£ ²£S²ü¿£N²£N£ ² N²£N£c² ²²²² ²²ü ²²²²²² ²²²² ²²²ü ²² ² ü
ÄSü ££N£ ² £ Ã » ü þ £ Å N£N£bü ü ü ü ü
¢ýü ££N£ ² £ ¼ ÄSü êþN¼ N£N£bü `ü ü ü ü
¢ýü Ä£N£ ² £ ¼ Æ ü ÿN»Nÿ N£N£bü ü ü ü ü
» ü ££N£ ² £ ¼ ¢ýü¿£¯¢ ¼ N£¯¢ûü
ü ü ü
» ü Ä£N£ ² £ ¼ ¢ýüs¢ ÿNþ N£¯¢ûü ü ü
w ü ü
¼ ü ££N£ ² £ ¼ ¢ýü ¼N¼Nþ N£¯¢ûü ü ü ü ü
¼ ü Ä£N£ ² £ ¼ ¢ýü ê¼ Ä N£¯¢ûü ü ü ü %ü
à ü ££N£ ² £ ¼ ¢ýü êÆNÅ N£¯¢ûü ü ü ü
à ü Ä£N£ ² £ ¼ ¢ýü ÃªÆ £ N£¯¢ûü ü ü ü %ü
ÄSü ££N£ ² £ ¼ ¢ýü à £ Å N£¯¢ûü ü ü ü Êü
ÄSü Ä£N£ ² £ ¼ ¢ýü »NÿNÿ N£¯¢ûü ü ü ü ü
Å ü ££N£ ² £ ¼ ¢ýüs¢ ¼Nÿ N£¯¢ûü ü Nü ü
Å ü Ä£N£ ² £ ¼ ÿ ü à ÄNÄ N£N£bü ü ü %ü ü
Æ ü ££N£ ² £ ¼ Æ üs¢N¢ ¼ N£N£bü ü
ü ü ü
acGFHc ÀJ] Ù ^`_Íì.[<î~^ qHÙ [>\S^ q ÎÉ
Æ ü Ä£N£ ² £ ¼ à ü¿Ä ÿ ¢ N£N£bü ü ü ü ü
þ ü ££N£ ² £ ¼ ¢ýü þÃ ¢ N£N£bü ü ü ü ü
þ ü Ä£N£ ² £ ¼ ² ÿ ü¢ ÆNÆ ² £Q¢ ü ü ~ü ü ü
ÿ ü ££N£ ² £ ¼ ² ¼ ü ÅþNÿ H££Íü ü ü ü ü
ÿ ü Ä£N£ ² £ ¼ ² Å ü »ÿNþ H££Íü ü ü ü
¢ýü ££N£ ² £ » ² þ ü Æ £¯¢ H££Íü ü ü ü ü
¢ýü £ÄN£ ² £ » ² ¢ýü £ ÆNÿ H£Q¢ ü %ü Sü ü ü
¢ýü¢L£N£ ² £ » ² ¢ýü »Xêÿ H£Q¢ ü ü ü ü ü
¢ýü¢LÄN£ ² £ » ² ¢ýü ¼ÆNÆ H£Q¢ ü ü ü ü ü
¢ýü » £N£ ² £ » ² ¢ýü Ã Ä ¼ H£Q¢ ü ü ü ü ü
¢ýü » ÄN£ ² £ » ² ¢ýü ÃHþN» H£Q¢ ü ü ü ü ü
¢ýü ¼ £N£ ² £ » ² ¢ýü Ã Ä » H£Q¢ ü ü ü ü ü
¢ýü ¼ ÄN£ ² £ » ² ¢ýü ¼ÆNþ H£Q¢ ü ü ü ü ü
¢ýü à £N£ ² £ » ² ¢ýü »Xêþ H£Q¢ ü ü ü ü ü
¢ýü Ã ÄN£ ² £ » ² ¢ýü £ þ ¢ H£Q¢ ü %ü Sü ü ü
¢ýü Ä£N£ ² £ » ² þ ü Åþ ¢ H££Íü ü ü ü ü
¢ýü ÄÄN£ ² £ » ² Å ü ¼» ¢ H££Íü ü ü ü
¢ýü Å £N£ ² £ » ² ¼ ü ÅÅNÅ H££Íü ü ü ü ü
¢ýü Å ÄN£ ² £ » ² ÿ ü ÃH¼N» ² £Q¢ ü ü ~ü ü ü
¢ýü Æ £N£ ² £ » ¢ýü þNÅ Ä N£N£bü ü ü ü ü
²²²²²²²²² ²²²²²² ²²²²²²²²²²²² ²²²²² ²
¹ ¶ ¬N¨¯·9©¨ú® ¶ 36 ¶ 4©9H´Q³ ¶ ¹´N¨ µ ¯³H·9©9H´¥¨ª©4³ ¶ ¯³X© ø 1 » ¼
®® ¶ 36 ¶ 4©XH ´ þ ü »NƼ H£N£
*4µ 8¨ 3 ¶ ·® ¹¨H©«¬4©XQ®5° ¹ ¶ ¬H¨¯·9©¨ ¶ 7¨ 3 µHº ·5¦H© *4µ ³X© ¶ ¨73 µHº ·¦H©
¶ 1 ¦ ® 3` 4©XN´ ® 36 ª©XH´ 1 © ³X©q1 ©
¢ Å ü £N*£N£ H£¯¢ Æ ¶ ü ££N¶£ ² £ » ¶ ¢ýü ¶£N££N£N£N£ ² ÿN¼ &\ü į ¢ ÿ *ªµ £S ü £&\£N£
» ¢ýü » £N£ H£ » ÄSü ÿÿNÆ H££ þ ÄSü ÅNÅÿà ¢Ä ² ÿ £Dü »N¼ £ ¼ ü »þNÿ
¼ ¢ýü þ £N£ H£ » Æ ü »Xà ¢ ² £ » ¢ýü £ ¼XÃNÃªÅ Ä ² ÿN¼ ü ÆNþNÆ ² £Sü »NÅÆ
à » ü à £N£ H£ » ¢ýü £Q¢ ¼ H££ ¢ à ü êŠį¢ Å ¢ ² ÿN» ü êÿN» ¢ýü £ »NÆ
Ä ¼ ü £N£N£ H£ » Æ ü ¼Åà ² £ » ¢ýü £NÄ » £ »N¼ ² ÿ ÄDü £ »NÅ ² ¢ýü ÄN£ Æ
Å ¼ ü Å £N£ H£ » ¼ ü ¼¼NÆ ² £Q¢ à ü ÆNÅÆN¼ ÄN£ ² ¢£N£Dü »NÆ ¢ ² Å üÆ Ä »
Æ Ã ü » £N£ H£ » Æ ü ÃHÿNÅ ² £ » ¢ýü £ Æ £ þN»NÆ ² ÿÃ ü £ »N¼ £Sü ÄN£ Ã
þ à ü þ £N£ H£ » ¢ýü à £ à ² £Q¢ » ü £N£ Å £ ê¼ ² ¢N¢ þ ü þN¼Nÿ ² »² ÄSü ¼ ¢ ÿ
ÿ ÄSü à £N£ H£ » Æ ü Ã Ä Æ ² £ » ¢ýü £ Å Ä »Ã £ ² ÿ £Dü ÿ £ Æ » üÅ ¢»
]6b7Vb:x`SZMTNZMd6hMZl>h!hH_TNx0Sfd`pV\_{CHU \/ a òGÒ U'` Ì _g`T\SfZMTVNTNbld6UWjk_lTNmXlYZ]6b4iZbEV7d6x]6b7TNmv_ld`SrhhH_lmvoy_ld`Z!dzV
V\_V\]`SrUY,b4iZHjk_lTNm2VN]6b8VLÒ U_8ilZ!T<Øv W V\Sfm~ZUVN]`Zvb7mvo`[fSVNg6x0Zs_lj>V\]`Z_lTNS$pS$dOb7[C a U\_lg`ThHZ.jkT\ZLx g6ZMd6hMey:]`Z.; a
hH_mvoO_d`ZMdzV_lj>V\]`SrUY,b4iZsUW]6_8YUg`obU|yZMSfd`p,` Ø {ÖVÂ5vÉ i_l[$VNU.L? b7[fmv_UWVVYSrhHZY]6b8V:SfUY,bUjk_TVN]`Zs]6bl[jÏ
Yb4ilZ
TNZ!h5VNS O ZMThHSfTNhMg`S$V~A Y]`Sf[$ZVN]`ZUWZhH_d6x]6blT\mv_d`SfhSrUb7[fmv_UWVY il_[VU~S$db7mvo`[fS$V\g6x0Z{ _7VNSfhMZwb7[f[V\]`Zw_lV\]`Z!T
]6blT\mv_ld6Sfh!U~jkg`TWVN]`ZMT_ldx0_8YdcV\]`ZnVb7|`[fZl{]6Zw_ux6x]Ob7TNm~_d`SrhMUb7TNZwblhHV\g6bl[$[feUWV\TN_ld`pZMTb8VU\_lmvZw_7j:V\]6Z
]`Sfpl]`Z!TjkT\ZLz x g`ZMd6hMS$ZU,V\]6bldV\]`Z!eb7TNZ^b8VV\]6Z^[$_8Y,ZMT,jkTNZzx g`ZMdOhHSfZ!U!X0Y]`Sfh]SrUS$dzVNZMTNZ!UWV\Sfd`p6{
Ue_lgvhMbld~U\ZMZX7Y]6b8VKmb4e.|yZMpS$dbU>bd6Z!b8VXlU\S$mvo`[fZ a U\Sfd`Zs
Y,b4iZmb4e.Z!d6x~g`oblU>bhH_m~o6[$ZMtsmvZ!UNU_7j
]6blT\mv_ld6Sfh!Ub7jV\ZMTo6bU\U\Sfd`p^V\]6T\_g`pl]sg6UVbsjkZMYZ![$Zh5V\TN_ld6Sfh:hH_m~oy_ld6ZMdzVNU!{ ]`S$[fZV\]`Z^hH_mvo`[$ZMtmvb7V\]`Z!mb8V\SrhMU
|yZM]`Sfd6x~b7[f[VN]`SrU~6 Ì _lg`TNSfZMTCV\Tb7d6UWjk_lTNmb8V\Sf_ld^SrUd`_7Vd`ZhHZ!UNUNb7TNejk_TVN]`Z|OZ!plSfd`d`Sfd`pUWV\gOx0ZMdzV>_7j6Z![$Zh5VNT\SrhhMS$ThHg`S$VNUCVN_
g`d6x`ZMTUVb7d6xX8S$V>SfU_lj`V\]6Z,g`V\mv_UWV>S$mvoy_lT\VNb7dOhHZV\_:T\Zb7[fSË!| ZKV\]6Z,o6T\Sfd6hHSfo`[fZ!Ub8V>Y,_lTN^b7d6x.V\_:plTblU\o^V\]`Zo`TblhHV\SrhMbl[
ÎÎ Z%Ù [>\>]%^`_baLcdfehgi^SjRÚ7k%_G^il#mn^So ZGp [ Zq esrto>[<u q
ZHZ!hHVNUVN]6b8V]6b7TNmv_ld`SrhUWSfpld6bl[fUmb4e]Ob4ilZ_ldwhHSfThHg`S$VNU!{]`Z^o`TblhHV\SrhMbl[ZHZ!h5VU_7j]6blT\mv_ld6SfhjkTNZz x g`ZMdOhHSfZ!USfd
hHSfThHg`S$VNUYSf[$[|yZZHt0o`[f_lTNZ!xS$dV\]6Z:[rblUWVUWZh5VNS$_d_ljV\]6SfUh]6blo0V\Z!T!Xu|`g`V|OZMjk_lTNZ:Y,Zx0_~V\]6b7VYZÒ [f[yVNb7Z^bhM[$_zUWZ!T
[f_z_b8VYb4ilZMjk_lTNmvUbld6xVN]`ZMSfTTNZ!U\oOZh5VNS$iZ]6blT\mv_d`Sfh!UM{
¡¢H £¥¤
û4T
c¦ Y,b4iZHjk_lTNmb8Vb7[f[§X4UW_[f_ld6pblUS$VSrUT\Z!oOZMV\S$V\SfilZX4h!b7d|yZKT\Zx0g6hMZ!xV\_bU\ZMTNSfZ!U_7j`U\S$dug6U\_lSrx`bl[8Y,b4iZHjk_lTNmU
%; s
blx`x0ZxVN_lpZHV\]6ZMT{ S$yZ!T\Z!dVYb4ilZUW]Ob7oyZ!U,hH_ldOUWSrUV_ljx0S$ZMTNZMdzV|`[fZMd6x`U_ljU\Sfd`Z Y,b4iZ]6blT\mv_d`Sfh!UM{
Ë
+Z!hHV\S OhMb7V\Sf_ld_7j^ a V\_ê; a SrUb¨iZMTNehH_m~mv_dU\_lg6TNhMZ_lj^]6b7TNmv_ld`SrhMUvYS$V\]`SfdSfd6x0g6UWV\TNSfbl[oy_8YZ!T
UWe0UWV\ZMmU!{
} ¾|
SfZMY,Z!xcYS$V\]bldc_zU\hMS$[f[f_UNhH_loyZlX,b}UWSfd`ZwYb4ilZn[f_z_0Uv[$SflZb¨Yb4iuehHg`TNilZVNTNbhHZ!xc]`_T\S M_dzVNb7[f[fe_ldcV\]6Z
¾| êF
UNhHTNZMZMd{¨]6Z]`_T\S M_dVb7[b8t0SrUs_ljV\]`SrU~_UNhHSf[$[f_UNhH_oOZx`SfU\o`[rb4eSrU~mb7TNlZ!xYSVN]V\]6ZY,_lTx lSfmvZ
b7d6xbld F
acG¯HcùdÀB_G^ÀBo q \S^ Z ]%_#mnd [<o<[>u pDq e q ÎNW
b7TNTN_8YqoO_S$dzV\Sfd`pS$dV\]6Znx`S$TNZ!hHV\Sf_ldc_7jVNS$mvZÒ Uvo`TN_lpT\ZU\U\Sf_ldE{}]`ZwhHg6T\iZS$VNU\ZM[$jX_ljhH_g`TUWZXKT\Z!o`TNZ!U\ZMdzVNUV\]6Z
hHe0hM[$Srh:S$d6hMT\ZblU\Z^b7d6xx0Z!hMT\ZblU\Z_lji_l[$VNblplZ:_8ilZMT,VNS$mvZl{
s
a [f_U\Zs_l|OUWZ!T\i8b8VNS$_dwT\Z!ilZb7[rUSfm~oyZMT\jkZ!hHV\Sf_ld6U:SfdVN]`Z~U\Sfd`Z Y,b4iZ.UW]Ob7oyZl{^]`SrUMXg`d`jk_lT\V\g`d6b7V\Z![$eXySrUbTNZ!U\g`[$V
Ë x N|
_7jVN]`ZU\oyZ!hHS OhZ zg`Sfo`mvZMdzVgOUWZx¨V\_b7d6bl[$e MZV\]`ZY,b4iZHjk_lTNmn{ a ]6b7TblhHV\Z!T\SrUVNSfh!U^[fS$ZV\]6Z!U\Zx0g`ZV\_ g6S$TN0U x
x ¸ 2 1 s ¡ú2=
_7jVN]`ZVNZ!UWVZ zg`Sfo`mvZMdzVblT\ZvVNZ!h]`d6Sfh!b7[f[$eud`_8YdblU 8° l± vo`]`Z!d`_lmvZMdObwZHt0SrUVNS$d`p
UW_[$Z![$e
|OZhMb7gOUWZ_ljb
x
oyZ!hHg6[$Srb7TNSVeS$dV\]6Z^Z zg`Sfo`mvZMdzVg6U\Z!xV\_oyZMT\jk_lTNmqV\]`Z^ZMt0oOZ!T\SfmvZMdzV!{
/ jYZiuS$Z!YVN]`SfUU\blm~Z^ a N| <x
il_[Vb7plZ:_ldnbvUWoyZ!hHV\TNg`m²bld6b7[fe MZ!T!XzV\]6Z^T\ZUWg`[$VSfU g6SVNZ.x0SZMTNZMdzV L=
Ë| #FXÌ x F
UKel_lgh!b7dUWZ!ZlXV\]`Z]`_lTNS !_ldzVNbl[`b8t0SrU>_7jyV\]`Zx0SfU\o`[rb4esSrUKmb7TNlZxsYS$V\]vVN]`ZY,_lTx `TNZ zg`Z!d6hHeX x0Z!d`_7VNS$d6p
V\]6Zx0_lmb7Sfd_7j,V\]`SrU^mvZ!bUWg`TNZMmvZ!dV{]`ZUWSfd`p[$ZvoyZ!b7
_ld
V\]`ZhMg`TNilZvT\Z!o`TNZ!U\ZMdzVNUV\]6Zo`T\Zx0_lmvSfd6b7dOhHZv_7jb
x x /
U\S$d`p[$ZjkTNZ zg`Z!d6hHeYSVN]`SfdnV\]`Z.Tb7d6plZ_7jjkTNZ zg`ZMdOhHSfZ!UhM_8ilZMTNZ!x|ueVN]`Z.YSrxuV\]w_ljVN]`Z.x0SrUWo6[fb4e{ jV\]`ZU\h!b7[fZ^_7j
N|
V\]6SfUbld6b7[fe MZMT,Sfd6UVNT\g6m~Z!dzVY,ZMTNZ:mvblT\Z!xYSVN]dug`m|OZ!TNU!X0el_gY,_lg`[rxU\ZMZ:V\]Ob8VV\]`SrUoyZ!b7_uh!hHg`TUb8V `{ GWXVXÉ ÖVXW
zG| )?
{K]`Z^]`Z!S$p]V_ljCVN]`Z^oOZb7TNZMo6T\ZUWZ!dVUV\]`Z.U\S$pd6b7[Eblmvo`[$S$V\gOx0Z ki_l[$VNb7pZ H{ LA
/ s
jEY,ZmvStVN]`TNZMZx`SZMTNZMdzV,U\Sfd`Z Y,b4iZV\_d`Z!UKV\_plZHVN]`ZMT,_ldV\]`Z:ZM[fZ!hHV\TN_ld`SrhlZ!eu|O_zb7Tx a f?
hò'
³~Xzb a mb8_T
4A |
h ]`_TNx ~bld6xcm~ZblU\g`TNZVN]`ZTNZ!U\g`[$V!X,|O_lV\]V\]6Zw_UNhHSf[$[f_UNhH_oOZwx0SrUWo6[fb4ebld6xV\]`ZU\oyZ!h5VNT\g6m´b7dOb7[fe !ZMTx0SrU\o`[fb4e
sÐ
TNZ 6Zh5VV\]`SrUSfd6hHTNZ!bUWZxhM_lmvo`[fZHt0S$Ve Q=
ÎY Z%Ù [>\>]%^`_baLcdfehgi^SjRÚ7k%_G^il#mn^So ZGp [ Zq esrto>[<u q
Õ?
A
]`Z_UNhHSf[$[f_UNhH_oOZx`SfU\o`[rb4e kV\Sfm~Z x`_lmb7Sfd UW]`_8YUbYb4ilZMjk_lTNmµYS$V\]mbldze¨mv_lTNZoyZ!bl0Usb7dOxi8b7[f[$Z!e0U
Lx
V\]Ob7d}|yZHjk_lTNZlX>bx`S$TNZ!hHVsT\ZUWg6[Vs_ljV\]`Zm~S$t0S$d6p_7jV\]6Z!U\ZV\]6T\Z!ZjkT\Z zg`ZMd6hMS$ZUM{wUse_lg¨YS$[f[,d`_7VNSfhMZlXUW_m~Z_7j
V\]6Z!U\Z^oOZb70Ub7TNZ]`S$p]`ZMTV\]6bldVN]`Z^oyZ!b70U_ljCVN]`Z._lTNSfplSfd6b7[U\S$d`p[$Z o6SVh]Yb4ilZMjk_lTNmXuY]`Sf[fZ._7VN]`ZMTUb7TNZ[$_8Y,ZMT{
]`SrUSrUbvTNZ!U\g`[V_ljV\]`Z^VN]`TNZMZ.x0S$yZ!T\Z!dzVY,b4iZHjk_T\mUb7[$V\Z!T\d6b7V\Z![$eT\Z!S$d0jk_TNhMS$d6pvbld6xnhMbld6hHZ![$Sfd`pZ!bh]n_7V\]6ZMTbU
V\]6ZMSfTT\ZUWoyZ!hHV\SfilZ:o`]6bUWZ^U\]`SjVUh]6bld`plZSfdVNS$mvZ{
? x
A =
]`Z.U\oOZh5VNT\g`m¶x0SrUWo6[fb4e jkTNZ zg`Z!d6hHe Ax0_lmb7Sfd ,SrUmsgOh]wZ!blU\SfZMTVN_S$dzV\Z!T\o6T\ZMV Zblh]no`S$VNh]SrUTNZMo`TNZ!U\ZMdzVNZ!x
acG¯HcùdÀB_G^ÀBo q \S^ Z ]%_#mnd [<o<[>u pDq e q ÎHÂ
|uevSVU_8YdoOZb7v_ldVN]`ZhHg`TNilZ{]`Z:x0S$yZ!T\Z!d6hHZ:S$d]`ZMSfpl]zV|OZMVYZ!ZMdVN]`Z!U\ZVN]`TNZMZoyZ!bl0USrUbld`_7VN]`ZMTb7T\V\S$jLblhHV
x = x Lx
_7j:V\]6ZnV\Z!UWVZ zg`Sfo`mvZMdzV
bhM_ld6U\Z zg`Z!d6hHZ_7j[fS$mvS$VNb8VNS$_d6UYS$V\]`SfdcV\]`ZwZ zg`S$o6m~Z!dzVg6UWZxVN_}plZ!d`ZMTb8VNZbld6x
|
b7dOb7[fe !ZVN]`Z!U\Z^Yb4ilZHjk_T\mU!Xzbld6xd`_7Vbvd`ZhHZU\UNb7TNeh]6b7TblhHV\Z!T\SrUVNSfh_7jV\]`Z^mg6U\Sfh!b7[Eh]`_TNxSVUWZ![j{
=
UY,bUUWVNb7V\Z!xn|yZHjk_T\ZX6VN]`Zsx0Z!iuSfhMZsg6U\Z!xVN_plZ!d`ZMTb8VNZ^V\]`ZUWZsY,b4iZHjk_lTNmUSfU:b7dwZ![$Zh5VNT\_d`SfhZMeu|y_b7Tx ,b
ªÐ GF F
msgOUWSrhMbl[0S$d6UWV\TNg`mvZMdzVx0ZUWSfpld6Z!xsV\_^mvS$mvSrh,V\]`ZVN_ld`ZU_7jmb7duesx0S$yZ!T\Z!dzVSfd6UWV\TNg`mvZMdzVNU!{]`Zo6b7d 6g0V\Z lil_SfhMZ
i {?
YblU,h]`_U\ZMdjk_TVN]`Z 6TUVx0ZMmv_ldOUVNTNb7V\Sf_ld6U|OZhMblg6UWZSVmv_UWV,hM[$_zUWZ![$evTNZ!U\ZMm|`[$Zxbso`g`TNZ:U\S$d6ZYb4ilZ §bU\Sfd`pl[fZ
x N| ªA DF ÜF
jkTNZ zg`ZMdOhHe^_ldV\]6ZU\oyZ!h5VNT\g6m®b7d6bl[$e !ZMTx0SfU\o`[rb4e 5{·VN]`ZMTmg6UWSrhMbl[uS$d6UWV\TNg`mvZMdzV 7i_lSrhHZU b7TNZd`_lV>bUUWSfmvo`[$ZbU
/ ×x
V\]6SfU_ld`ZX7V\]6_lg`p]E{ dvjLbh5VX7V\]6Zg`d`S zg`ZV\_d`Zo`TN_0x0g6hHZx~|ze fûT
S$d6UWV\TNg`mvZMdzVKSrUb:jkg`dOh5V\Sf_ld_ljyS$VNUY,b4iZ!U\]6b7oyZ
? x A DÌ Ò
k_TUWoyZ!hHV\TNg`m_ljjkTNZ zg`Z!d6hHSfZ!U 5{ 6_lTZHt`blm~o6[$ZX0[$ZMV UiuS$Z!YV\]6Z.UWSfpld6bl[jk_lTbV\TNg`mvoyZHVVN_ld`Z =
/ x
d6x0Z!Z!x^Y,Zx`_6C]6ZKjkg`d6x6b7mvZMdzVNbl[ljkTNZ zg`Z!d6hHe^hM_lmvoO_d`ZMdzV_7j WXVXÉ ÖVXWBz<|
`{
SrUCTNZMo6T\ZUWZ!dVNZ!x|ueV\]`Z,[$ZMjV mv_UWV
oyZ!b7XCYSVN]}Z!blh]¨U\g6hMhMZ!UNUWSfilZv]6blT\mv_ld6Sfh~TNZMo`TNZ!U\ZMdzV\Zx
bUSVU._8YdoOZb7b7[f_ld`pV\]6ZYSfxuVN]}_7j,V\]`Zb7d6bl[$e MZ!T N|
Lx
UNhHTNZMZMd{]`Z
UWZhH_ldOx]Ob7TNm~_d`SrhnSfUVYSfhMZwV\]`ZjkT\Z g6ZMd6hMe_lj:VN]`Zwjkg`dOx`b7mvZMdzVb7[ .? yXÎY ÖWzG|A
`{ 5XVN]`ZwV\]6S$Tx
]6blT\mv_ld6SfhsV\]`TNZMZ~VNS$mvZ!U:VN]`Z~jkg`d6x`blmvZMdzVNbl[G?¿LWXYXé ÖÂXW)zG|A
6{ #
5Xbld6xUW__ldE{v]`SrU^x0SrUWo`[rb4ew_ld6[$eU\]`_8YUV\]`Z 6TUWV
U\St]Ob7TNm~_d`SrhMU!X0|`g0VV\]6ZMTNZblT\Zmb7duemv_T\Z^hH_mvo`T\SrU\S$d`pV\]6SfUhM_lmvo`[fZHtVN_ld`Z{
#? A
CT\euSfd`p~b~x0S$yZ!T\Z!dzVS$d6UWV\TNg`mvZMdzVil_SfhMZ kV\]`Z.bhMhM_lTx0S$_d >_dVN]`Z^lZ!eu|O_zb7TxXY,Z_l|0Vb7SfdbvU\S$mvSf[fblT\[fehH_m #
? s
QA N| R? Lx
A
o`[fZHt_UNhHSf[$[f_UNhH_oOZ VNS$mvZ Ax0_mvblS$d o6[$_lVb7d6xnU\oOZh5V\TNg`mbld6b7[fe MZ!T kjkT\Z zg`ZMd6hMe x0_mb7Sfd ,x0SfU\o`[rb4e ¯=
acG¯HcùdÀB_G^ÀBo q \S^ Z ]%_#mnd [<o<[>u pDq e q Îé
i? A
_lV\ZVN]`Zx0SZMTNZMdOhHZ!US$dT\Z![fb7V\SfilZ]6blT\mv_d`Sfhb7mvo`[fSVNg6x0Z!U koyZ!bl]6ZMSfpl]zVNU >_dV\]`Z:UWoyZ!hHV\TNg`mqx0SrUWo`[rb4e0U>jk_T
Ñ S?
V\TNg`mvoyZHVbld6x^blh!hH_TNx0Sf_ld{ _lV\]^Sfd6UWV\TNg`mvZMdzVVN_ld`ZUhH_dzVNb7Sfd]6b7TNmv_ld`SrhMUb7[f[7V\]6ZYb4ejkTN_lm !UWV jkg`d6x6b7mvZMdzVNbl[ ×A
Y @? A !Ò ~ò ×x
V\_ 8VN] Lbld6x|yZMe_ld6xE HXz|6g0VVN]`Zo`TN_loy_lT\V\Sf_ld6Ub7TNZMd VVN]`Z:UNb7mvZ{ blh]Sfd6UWV\TNg`mvZMdzV,]OblU,b.g`d`S zg`Z:]6b7TNmv_ld`Srh
F F Ñ
lU\Sfpld6b7V\g`TNZ .V\_~SVU,V\_ld6Zl{ Z!blTSfdmvSfd6xV\]6b7Vb7[f[OVN]`SrUhH_lmvo`[fZHt0S$VeSfUSfdT\ZMjkZMTNZMd6hMZVN_ ,] ú1JûNM û 9
7ºf» y¼ »,o6[fb4eZ!x
ÁF
YS$V\]V\]6Z!U\ZnVY_¨Sfd6UVNT\g6m~Z!dzV 7i_lSrhHZ!U!{ F g6[VNS$o`[fZd`_lV\ZUvo`[fb4eZ!xc_ldb7dbhMhH_TNx`S$_dEXKjk_TZHt`b7mvo`[fZlXY,_lg`[rx
Lx
hHTNZ!b7V\Z^b~msg6h]mv_lTNZ^hH_lmvo`[fZHtm~S$tuV\g`TNZ^_7jCjkT\Z zg`ZMd6hMS$ZU,V\]6bldnY]6b8VSrUUWZ!ZMd]`ZMTNZl{
|
]`Z:b7d6bl[$ezV\SrhMbl[6oy_8YZ!TK_7jVN]`Z:_UNhHSf[$[f_UNhH_oOZbld6xU\oOZh5V\TNg`mqb7dOb7[fe !ZMToOZ!T\mvS$Vg6UV\_~x0ZMTNS$iZplZ!d`ZMTb7[OT\g6[$ZU
b7|y_lg`VY,b4iZHjk_T\mUb7d6xVN]`ZMSfT]Ob7TNm~_d`Srh^UWoyZ!hHV\Tb~jkT\_m²TNZ!bl[EY,b4iZHjk_T\m2ZMt`b7mvo`[fZ!U!{ Zsb7[fTNZ!blx`eud`_8Y9V\]6b7V
x
b7due}x0Z!izSrb8VNS$_d}jkTN_lm½bo6g`T\ZUWSfd`Z Yb4ilZTNZ!U\g`[$VNUS$dV\]`ZZ zg`Sfi8b7[fZMdzVv_7jb
m~S$tuV\g`TNZ_ljmsg6[VNS$o`[fZnUWSfd`Z Yb4ilZs
x z
Yb4ilZHjk_T\mUb7Vnx`SZMTNZMdzVblmvo`[$S$V\gOx0Z!Unb7dOxjkTNZ zg`ZMdOhHSfZ!U!{ _8YZ!ilZMTXhH[f_U\Z_|6UWZ!T\i8b7V\Sf_ldbl[$[f_8YUg6UV\_c|yZ
x
mv_lTNZUWoyZ!hMS OhVN]6b7dV\]6SfU!{ _lV\ZlXjk_lTZHt`blm~o6[$ZXEV\]6ZvV\Sfm~Z b7d6x
jkTNZ zg`Z!d6hHe Ax0_lmb7Sfdo6[$_lVNU:jk_lT.bYb4ilZMjk_lTNm
Üx
b7o6o`T\_4t0Sfmb8V\Sfd`pvbvU zg6blT\Z:Y,b4iZ X=
LWXy Z%Ù [>\>]%^`_baLcdfehgi^SjRÚ7k%_G^il#mn^So ZGp [ Zq esrto>[<u q
ºû
h!hH_TNx0Sfd`pV\_V\]`ZU\oOZh5VNT\g`m¾bld6b7[fe0UWSrU!XV\]`SrU:Y,b4iZHjk_lTNm¿hH_dVb7Sfd6U y¼sZMiZMd]Ob7TNm~_d`SrhMU!X_ld`[few_0x`x{[
!Ò Lx N
V\]6_lg`p]VN]`SrUx0SrUWo6[fb4ex0_uZ!U\d VU\]`_8Y9jkT\Z zg`ZMd6hMS$ZUo6bUVVN]`ZsU\StuV\]n]6blT\mv_d`SfhlX0V\]6Z.o6b8V\V\Z!T\dn_7j_0x`x _ld`[fe]Ob7T Ü
mv_ld`SrhMUSfd}x0Z!UNhHZ!d6x0Sfd`pb7mvo`[fS$V\g6x0ZhM_ldzV\Sfdug`Z!USfd6x0Z 6d`S$V\Z![$e{]`SrU.UW]6_lg`[rx
hM_lmvZblU^d6_nU\g`TNo`TNSfU\ZlXbUYZ iZ Ò
CªU / ò
b7[fTNZ!blx`eU\ZMZ!dYS$V\] x H
\a VN]6b8V^bU zg6b7TNZsYb4ilZsSfU:hH_m~o6T\SrUWZxw_7j,b7dSfd 6d6SVNg6x0Z~_7j_0x`x]6b7TNmv_ld`SrhMU!{:]6Z
Ô 9Ï
V\TNg`mvoyZHV^b7d6xwbhMhH_TNx`S$_dVN_ld`ZUMXy]`_8Y,ZMiZMTX6hH_dVb7Sfd`Z!x ¼ ZMiZMdb7dOxn_ux6xw]6b7TNmv_ld`SrhMU!{]`SrUx`SZMTNZMd6hMZsSfd
Ò
]6blT\mv_ld6SfhhH_dzV\ZMdzVKSrU>d`_lV\ZMY,_lT\V\]ue{CÀEZMV UKhH_dzV\Sfdzg6Z_lg`T>SfduilZ!UWV\Sfpb7V\Sf_ldYSVN]b7db7d6bl[$e0U\SfU_ljbVNT\Srb7d`p[$ZYb4ilZ=
acG¯HcùdÀB_G^ÀBo q \S^ Z ]%_#mnd [<o<[>u pDq e q LWª
/ = Ë x
dV\]`SrU>Yb4ilZHjk_T\mVN]`ZMTNZb7TNZ,o6TNbh5V\SrhMbl[$[fe^d`_ZMiZMd~]6b7TNmv_ld`SrhMU VN]`Z_ld`[fesU\S$pd`S OhMbldVjkTNZ zg`Z!d6hHe^oyZ!bluU_d
N| H
x
V\]6Z,U\oOZh5VNT\g`mÁbld6b7[fe MZ!Tx0SrUWo`[rb4e|OZ![$_d`pVN__0x`x dug`m|OZ!T\Zx^msg`[$V\Sfo`[fZ!UC_7j`VN]`Zjkg`d6x`blm~Z!dzVNb7[jkTNZ zg`ZMdOhHel{S$due
oyZ!b70UhMbld|yZvU\ZMZ!djk_TVN]`ZUWZhH_ldOxXyjk_lg`T\V\]EXEbld6xU\S$tzVN]]6blT\mv_d`Sfh!UMX|`g`V:VN]`SrUSrUx0g`Z~V\_Sfm~oyZMT\jkZ!hHV\Sf_ld6U:Sfd
E? x A
V\]6SfUo6b7T\V\SrhHg6[fblT>V\TNSfbld`pl[fZYb4ilZ!U\]6bloOZ L_ld6hMZb7pzb7SfdEXblTWVNSjLbh5VNU_7jV\]6ZV\ZUV,Z zg`Sfo`mvZMdzVg6U\Z!xS$dvVN]`SfU,b7dOb7[feuU\SrU H{
Üx /
oyZMT\jkZ!hHVVNT\Srb7d`p[$ZY,b4iZ!U\]6b7oyZo`TN_ux`g6hHZUKd`_ZMilZ!d]6b7TNmv_ld`SrhMU!X!g6UV,[$SflZ:b^oyZMT\jkZ!h5VU zg6blT\ZY,b4iZl{ VUW]6_lg`[rx
|yZ._l|uiuS$_g6UjkTN_lm²S$d6U\oyZ!h5VNS$_dnV\]6b7VV\]6Z.]6b7TNmv_ld`Srh^U\oOZh5V\TNg`m
_7jV\]`Z.V\TNSfbld`pl[fZ^Y,b4iZSfUd`_7VSrx0Z!dVNSfh!b7[VN_V\]6Z
LWV Z%Ù [>\>]%^`_baLcdfehgi^SjRÚ7k%_G^il#mn^So ZGp [ Zq esrto>[<u q
U\oOZh5V\TNg`m
_7j>VN]`ZsUxgOb7TNZ^Y,b4iZX=KVN]`Z.TNZ!U\oOZh5VNS$iZ.]6b7TNmv_ld`SrhoyZ!b70Ub7TNZ^_7jKx0S$yZ!T\Z!dV:]`ZMSfpl]zVUM{tz_8Y,ZMiZMTX0V\]6Z
VY,_vx`SZMTNZMdzVYb4ilZHjk_T\mU,b7TNZ:hM_lmvmv_ldS$dVN]`ZMSfT[rblh_ljCZMiZMd]6b7TNmv_ld`SrhMU!{
Ò
ÀEZMV UZHt`b7mvSfd`Zb7d`_lV\]`Z!T,Yb4ilZMjk_lTNmnXVN]`SrU_ld`ZilZ!T\eU\Sfm~Sf[rb7T,V\_~V\]6ZV\TNSfbld`pl[fZYb4ilZXZMt`hHZMo`V,VN]6b8VS$VNUTNSrUWZ
Ë
5ú ' 9Ï S98
V\SfmvZSrU:d`_7V:V\]6ZvUNb7mvZ~blUSVUjLbl[$[ V\Sfm~Z{s¹d`_8YdbUb 8I A¼!¼
I 4»MXES$VNU:_UNhHSf[f[$_zU\hM_loyZso`[f_7VT\Z!ilZb7[rUS$VVN_
|yZ.b7o0VN[$edOb7mvZ!x=
Rx
]`Z!dVN]`ZUWoyZ!hHV\TNg`m¾b7d6bl[$e0U\SfU:_ljKV\]`SrUYb4ilZHjk_T\m
SrUo`[$_lVWVNZ!xXEY,ZvUWZ!Z~bTNZ!U\g`[V:V\]Ob8V^SfU zg`S$V\Zx0S$yZ!T\Z!dzV
H
jkTN_lmÂV\]6b7V_ljV\]`Z:T\Z!plg`[rb7TKV\TNSfbld`pl[fZYb4ilZlXljk_lTV\]`SrU,b7d6bl[$e0U\SfUUW]`_8YUKV\]`Z:UVNT\_d`p.o`TNZ!U\ZMdOhHZ_ljEZMilZ!d dzg6ms|yZMTNZ!x
i? QA2=
]6blT\mv_ld6Sfh!U §UWZhH_d6xnb7d6xjk_lg`T\V\]
acG¯HcùdÀB_G^ÀBo q \S^ Z ]%_#mnd [<o<[>u pDq e q LWXÉ
]`Zx0SrUVNS$d6hHV\Sf_ld|OZMVYZ!ZMdnbsYb4ilZMjk_lTNm]6b4iuS$d`p~ZMiZMd]6b7TNmv_ld`SrhMUilZ!TNU\g6U,d`_~ZMilZ!d]Ob7TNm~_d`SrhMUT\ZUWSrx0Z!U,Sfd
V\]6Zx0SZMTNZMdOhHZ|yZHVY,ZMZMdbV\TNSrb7d`p[$ZYb4ilZ!U\]6bloOZb7d6xvbUNb4YV\_u_7VN]Yb4ilZUW]6bloOZ{C]6b7VKx0SZMTNZMdOhHZSrU ú2T :.: s 2T
» °
¾|
b7|y_8ilZ.bld6x|OZ![$_8YVN]`Z.]`_T\S M_dVb7[hMZMdzV\Z!T\[fSfd`Z^_7jV\]6ZsYb4ilZl{,QYb4ilZHjk_T\m2V\]6b7VSrUUWeumvmvZHVNT\SrhMbl[Cb7|y_8ilZ^bld6x
ê? HA âû
|yZM[f_8Y²S$VNUhHZMdzVNZMTN[$Sfd`Z VN]`ZU\]6b7oyZw_ld|y_7VN]UWSrx0Z!Um~SfTNT\_TZ!blh]_lV\]`Z!To`TNZ!hHSrU\ZM[fe ~YSf[f[hH_dVb7Sfd y¼nZ!ilZMd ª
dug`ms|yZMTNZ!x]6blT\mv_ld6Sfh!UM{
CHxzg6blT\ZYb4ilZ!U!XuV\TNSrb7d`p[$Z^Yb4ilZUMX`bld6xo`g`TNZ.UWSfd`Z.Yb4ilZU,bl[$[ZHt0]`Sf|`SVV\]`SrUU\eum~mvZMV\TNelXObld6xnb7[f[b7TNZ.x0Z!il_lSrx
_7j,ZMiZMd]6b7TNmv_ld`SrhMU!{ b4ilZMjk_lTNmvU[fS$ZVN]`Z~V\TNg`mvoOZMV^V\_d`ZlXVN]`Zblh!hH_TNx0Sf_ldV\_ld6ZlXbld6xVN]`ZUNb4YV\_u_7VN]Yb4ilZ
LW9Î Z%Ù [>\>]%^`_baLcdfehgi^SjRÚ7k%_G^il#mn^So ZGp [ Zq esrto>[<u q
b7TNZg`d6U\eum~mvZMV\TNSfh!b7[Eb7TN_lg6d6xVN]`ZMSfThHZ!dzV\ZMTN[fS$d`ZUb7d6xV\]6ZMTNZHjk_lTNZ)l6 ¼hM_ldzVNblS$dZMiZMd]6b7TNmv_ld`SrhMU!{
]`SrU^o`TNS$dOhHSfo`[$Z_ljhMZMdzV\Z!T\[fSfd`ZUWeumvmvZHVNT\eUW]`_g`[rx
d6_7Vs|yZhH_d0jkg6U\Z!xYS$V\]U\ezmvmvZHVNT\eb7TN_lg`dOxVN]`Z#»H°N¼
/ Ë| E|
f[ S$d`Z{ dV\]6Z.ZHt`b7mvo`[fZ!UU\]`_8YdEX`V\]`Z.]6_lTNS !_ldzVNbl[hMZMdzV\Z!T\[fSfd`Z^_7jV\]`ZsY,b4iZHjk_lTNmq]6blo`oOZ!d6UVN_|OZ !ZMTN_vil_l[$VNU_d
V\]6ZVNS$mvZ x0_mb7SfdplTb7o6]EX|`g0V:V\]`SrU]6blU:d`_lV\]`Sfd`pV\_nx0_YSVN]]6blT\mv_ld6Sfh~hH_dVNZMdzV!{.]6SfU:TNg`[$Z~_7j]6b7TNmv_ld`Srh
J? A
hH_dzV\ZMdzV kZ!ilZMd]6b7TNmv_ld`SrhMU_ld6[$eYS$V\]g`d6U\eum~mvZMV\TNSfh!b7[Y,b4iZHjk_T\mU >b7o`o6[$SfZ!U,Y]`ZMV\]`Z!T_lT,d`_7V,V\]`ZYb4ilZMjk_lTNm
û| ¸FX;
SrU:U\]`S$jV\Zxbl|O_8iZs_T|yZM[f_8Y !ZMTN_il_[VU:YSVN]b F¸Ì /
a hH_mvoO_d`ZMdzV!{ `_lT:jkg`T\V\]6ZMT^hH[rb7TNS yhMb8VNS$_dEX YSf[$[KU\]`_8Y
V\]6ZUNb7mvZU\ZHVUs_ljY,b4iZHjk_lTNmUMXU\]`SjVNZ!xYSVN] ù; a il_l[$VNblplZXbld6x}d`_lV\ZV\]6b7VsV\]6ZMSfT]6blT\mv_d`SfhhH_dVNZMdzVNUb7TNZ
g`d6h]Ob7d`pZ!x{
s
Ï
/
]ueSrUVN]`SrU]6b7TNmv_ld`SrhT\g`[fZ _7j V\]ug`m|bldSfm~oy_lT\VNbldzVTNg`[fZ:V\_~zd6_8YÄ VhMb7d]`ZM[fog6UhH_m~o6T\Z!]`ZMd6xV\]6Z
Ë tC
TNZM[rb8V\Sf_ldOUW]`Sfon|OZMVYZ!ZMdw]6blT\mv_d`Sfh!US$d a hMS$ThHg`S$VNUb7d6xwU\oOZhHS Oh.hMS$ThHg`S$VhH_mvoO_d`ZMdzVNU!{ uS$dOhHZ.mv_UWVU\_lg`ThHZU
s
H
_7j.U\S$d6Z Y,b4iZnx`SfUWV\_TWVNS$_dcSfd a oO_8Y,ZMThHSfTNhMg`SVUVNZMd6xcVN_|OZ
UWeumvmvZHV\TNSrhMb7[XZMiZMd dug`ms|yZMTNZ!xc]6blT\mv_ld6Sfh!U
ýÒ
b7TNZsTb7TNZM[fewUWZ!ZMd
S$d
V\]`_zUWZvb7o6o`[$SrhMb7V\Sf_ld6U!{.]`SrU:SfU:pl_u_0xwVN_ud`_8Y®Sj,el_lg TNZboO_8Y,ZMTU\euUWV\Z!m¾x0Z!U\Sfpld`Z!T:bld6x
!=
b7TNZ.o`[rb7d6d`S$d6pb7]6Z!blxjk_T]Ob7TNm~_d`Srh^T\Zx0g6hHV\Sf_ld el_g_ld6[$e]6b4ilZ.V\_hM_ld6hMZMTNdwel_g`TNU\ZM[$j>YSVN]mvS$V\Sfpb8VNS$d6pV\]6Z
x
_0x`x]Ob7TNm~_d`SrhjkTNZ zg`ZMdOhHSfZ!U!X>ZMilZ!d]6blT\mv_d`Sfh!U.|yZMSfd`po`TNbh5VNSfh!b7[f[$e¨d`_d`ZHt0SrUVNZMdzV!{}[rU\_6XKS$jel_g]6blo`oOZ!dVN_
N| x
mvZ!bUWg`TNZ.Z!ilZMd]6b7TNmv_ld`SrhMUS$dbld a hHSfThHg`S$VYS$V\]bUWoyZ!hHV\TNg`m¿b7d6bl[$e !ZMT_TjkTNZ zg`Z!d6hHenmvZHVNZMTXye_lgwud`_8Y
V\]Ob8VUW_mvZHV\]6S$d`p~SfdVN]6b8VhHSfThHg`S$V,mg6UWV|yZ 3sû(ú2T :#: 21 T s
» §° L± 7ºº :x`SfUWV\_TWVNS$d`pV\]6ZU\Sfd`Z Y,b4iZil_[Vb7pZ_lThMg`T\TNZMdzVX
?
b7dOxvV\]6b7V,hM[$g`Zmb4e~|yZ]6ZM[fo0jkg`[S$d[$_0hMb7V\Sfd`p.VN]`ZU\_lg6TNhMZ_7jb^o6T\_|`[$Z!m k[f_z_sjk_T,hM_lmvoy_ld`Z!dVUK_T,hM_ld6x0S$V\Sf_ldOU
Ï
mv_lTNZ[$SflZ![$eVN_x0SfUWV\_TWV_d`Z]6b7[$j AhHe0hH[fZ_7jVN]`Z. a Y,b4iZHjk_lTNmmv_lTNZVN]6b7dVN]`Z^_7VN]`ZMT 5{ 2A
_8YVN]6b8VY,Z]Ob4ilZVN]`SrUTNg`[fZVN_
pg`Srx0Z_g`TvS$dzVNZMTNo`T\ZMVNb7V\Sf_ld_ljd`_ldOUWSfdug6UW_Sfx6b7[,Y,b4iZHjk_lTNmUMXS$VmvbllZU
Ë
mv_lTNZU\ZMd6U\ZV\]Ob8Vb^Y,b4iZHjk_T\m[$SflZV\]6b7Vo`TN_0x0g6hHZxv|uevb.T\Zh5V\S 6Z!T,hMS$ThHg`S$VU\]`_lg6[fxhM_ldzVNblS$dU\g6h]UWV\TN_ld6p.ZMiZMd
]6blT\mv_ld6Sfh!UMXzV\]6ZMTNZ^|OZ!S$d`pd6_vU\eumvm~ZMV\TNeb8Vbl[$[bl|O_8iZ:bld6x|OZ![$_8YhHZ!dVNZMT{
¡¢H £¥¤
¾|
b4iZHjk_lTNmUV\]6b7Vb7TNZUWeumvmvZHVNT\SrhMbl[6b7|y_8ilZbld6x~|OZ![$_8YcV\]6ZMSfTK]`_lTNS M_ldzVb7[`hHZ!dzV\ZMTN[fS$d`ZUKhH_dzVNb7Sfdvd`_.Z!ilZMd ª
dzg6ms|yZMTNZ!x]6b7TNmv_ld`SrhMU!{
%; F ÜF E?
]`Z^b7mv_lg`dzV_7j a 7|6SfbU il_[Vb7plZ:o`TNZ!U\ZMdzV Lb~Yb4ilZHjk_T\m ,Ò U`F; a hH_mvoO_d`ZMdzVFA]6blUd`_vSfmvo6blhHV_d
Ò x
V\]6b7VYb4ilZ U,]6blT\mv_d`SfhjkTNZ zg`!Z d6hHehM_ldzV\Z!dzV!{
Lx
]`Z!db7d a hHSfThHg`S$VSrUU\g`|0Z!hHV\ZxnV\_bUW_g`TNhMZ^il_[Vb7plZ.hM_ld6U\SrUVNS$d`p_ljbmvStuVNg`T\Zs_7jjkT\Z zg`ZMd6hMS$ZUMXOV\]6Z
x
hH_mvoO_d`ZMdzVNUSfdVN]6b8V^hHSfTNhMg`S$V:TNZ!U\oO_d6xnVN_Zblh]hM_ld6UWV\S$V\g`Z!dzVjkTNZ zg`Z!d6hHenSfd
bx0SZMTNZMdzVY,b4e{^duenT\Zblh5VNS$iZ
×x
hH_mvoO_d`ZMdzVwUWg6h]blUbh!b7o6bhHS$V\_T_TbldSfd6x0g6hHV\_lTnYSf[$[^U\S$mg`[$VNb7d6ZM_lgOUW[feo`TNZ!U\ZMdzVbg`d`S zg`Zblmv_lg`dzVn_7j
x
Sfm~oyZ!x6b7d6hMZV\_Z!blh]bld6xvZMiZMTNe.jkTNZ zg`ZMdOhHe~o`T\ZUWZ!dzVS$dbshHSfTNhMg`SV{>]6b7d`zjkg`[f[felXV\]`Zbld6b7[fe0UWSrU>_ljU\g6h]hMS$ThHg`S$VNU
Q3LK K ú21ÏÓ1 û
SrUsmblx`ZTNZM[rb8V\SfilZ![$eZ!bUWe¨|ue}b7o`o6[$euSfd`pVN]`Z@ `»M° `¼ L¼ :
x
6»¼8°\» XT\Z!pb7Tx0Sfd`pwVN]`Zmg`[VNS$o6[$Z §jkTNZ zg`Z!d6hHe
s
Lx N|
U\_lg`ThHZ^blUbU\ZHV_ljU\Sfd`pl[fZ jkT\Z zg`ZMd6hMeil_[Vb7plZ^U\_lg`ThHZUhH_ld6d`Z!hHV\Z!xSfdUWZ!T\SfZ!U!X`b7dOxbld6b7[fe MSfd`pV\]`ZshMS$ThHg6SVjk_T
_ld6ZU\_lg6TNhMZb7VbsVNS$mvZX6UWg6m~mvSfd`pvV\]6Z^T\ZUWg`[$VNUb7VV\]`Z^Z!d6xV\_x0ZMV\ZMTNmvS$d6ZVN]`Z.b7pplTNZMpzb8V\ZV\_lVNb7[ =
R
2.2 kΩ
v605 Hz
È
V
É
C 1 µF
w905 VHz
È
|
dOb7[fe !S$d6pvhMS$ThHg6SVjk_lTGYyzG|.U\_lg`ThHZb7[f_ld`Z=
R
Ê
2.2 kΩ
v60È5 VHz
É
C 1 µF
Ë
XC = 2.653 kΩ
acÃc Z e¿_ Z mýe]ê^`k%k~^ Z ] q LWÂ
R C Total
2.0377 + j2.4569 2.9623 - j2.4569 5 + j0
E Volts
3.1919 ∠ 50.328o 3.8486 ∠ -39.6716o 5 ∠ 0o
926.22µ + j1.1168m 926.22µ + j1.1168m 926.22µ + j1.1168m
I Amps
1.4509m ∠ 50.328o 1.4509m ∠ 50.328o 1.4509m ∠ 50.328o
2.2k + j0 0 - j2.653k 2.2k - j2.653k
Z Ohms
2.2k ∠ 0o 2.653k ∠ -90o 3.446k ∠ -50.328o
|
dOb7[fe !S$d6pVN]`Z.hHSfThHg`S$Vjk_lTGéXyz<|.UW_g`TNhMZ:bl[$_d`ZX=
R
Ê
2.2 kΩ
É
C 1 µF
Ë
w
È XC = 1.768 kΩ
5V
90 Hz
R C Total
3.0375 + j2.4415 1.9625 - j2.4415 5 + j0
E Volts
3.8971 ∠ 38.793o 3.1325 ∠ -51.207o 5 ∠ 0o
1.3807m + j1.1098m 1.3807m + j1.1098m 1.3807m + j1.1098m
I Amps
1.7714m ∠ 38.793o 1.7714m ∠ 38.793o 1.7714m ∠ 38.793o
2.2k + j0 0 - j1.768k 2.2k - j1.768k
Z Ohms
2.2k ∠ 0o 1.768k ∠ -90o 2.823k ∠ -38.793o
Cug`oyZMTNSfm~oy_U\Sfd`p~V\]`Z^i_l[$VNb7pZ:x`T\_o6UblhMT\_zU\U,+b7d6x a X`Y,Z:pZHV L=
ER = [3.1919 V ∠ 50.328o (60 Hz)] + [3.8971 V ∠ 38.793o (90 Hz)]
U\_l[fSfx`b7V\ZVN]`ZMm¥SfdzV\_
bUWSfd`pl[fZi_l[$VNb7pZ6 plg6T\ZbU.Y,ZhH_g`[rx¨SjY,ZY,ZMTNZblx6x0S$d6pwV\_plZHVN]`ZMT.VY_i_l[$VNblplZ!U._7j
x0S$yZ!T\Z!dzV^blmvo`[$S$V\gOx0Zb7d6xQ4P _lTo`]OblU\Z~bld`pl[fZb8VV\]`ZUNb7mvZ~jkT\ZLz x g`ZMd6hMel{ a _lmvo`[fZHtdug`m|OZ!T^d`_7Vb8VNS$_d
pS$iZg6U
V\]6Zb7|6S$[fSVeVN_TNZMo`TNZ!U\ZMdzVYb4ilZMjk_lTNm²b7mvo`[fS$V\g6x0Z¸k? oy_l[rb7T:mb7pld6SVNg6x0ZL A b7d6xo`]6blU\Zbld`pl[fZOL? oO_[fblTb7d6pl[fZL5A Xy|`g0V
d`_lVjkT\ZLx g6ZMd6hMel{
]6b7VY,Z,h!b7dsV\ZM[f[ujkTN_lmV\]6SfU>blo`o`[fSfh!b8V\Sf_ld_7j`VN]`ZUWg6oOZ!T\oy_U\SVNS$_d.VN]`ZM_T\Z!mQSfUCV\]Ob8VV\]`Z!T\Z,YSf[$[0|yZbpT\Zb8V\Z!T
YXyz<.| il_[Vb7pZ.x0T\_o`oyZ!xnblhMT\_zU\U,VN]`Zh!b7o6bhHS$V\_lTVN]6b7dbOéXyzGs| il_l[$VNblplZ{,Ìg6UWVV\]`Z_lo`oy_U\SVNZ^SfUV\TNg`Z^jk_TV\]6Z
LWXØ Z%Ù [>\>]%^`_baLcdfehgi^SjRÚ7k%_G^il#mn^So ZGp [ Zq esrto>[<u q
Ò
TNZ!U\SfUWV\_T U:il_l[$VNblplZx0TN_loE{]`SfU.SfUsY_TWVN]zenVN_d`_lV\ZlXCZ!U\oOZhHSrb7[f[$e
S$d¨[fS$p]zV._7jV\]`ZvjLbh5V.VN]6b8V^VN]`ZVY,_wUW_g`TNhMZ
x / Lx
il_[Vb7pZ!UblT\ZsZ zg6b7[{ V:SrUVN]`SrUuSfd6xw_ljg`d`Z gOb7[hHSfTNhMg`SV:T\ZUWoy_ldOUWZsV\_U\Sfpld6bl[fU_7jx0S$ZMTNS$d`pjkT\Z zg`ZMd6hMeV\]6b7V Lx
YSf[$[E|yZ^_lg6TUWoyZ!hMS Ohjk_0hHgOUS$dVN]`Z^d`ZHtuVh]6blo0V\Z!T!{
Znh!b7db7[rUW_¨b7o6o`[$eV\]`ZwU\g`oyZMTNoO_zUWS$V\Sf_ldV\]`Z!_lTNZMm¸VN_V\]`Zbld6b7[fe0UWSrU~_7j:b¨hMS$ThHg`S$VoO_8Y,ZMTNZ!x|uebd`_ld ª
x / {Ì E? P
U\S$dug6U\_lSrx`b7[il_l[$VNblplZX`UWg6h]bUbU gOb7TNZ^Y,b4iZl{ j>Y,Z.ud`_8Y9V\]`Z 6_lg`TNSfZMTU\ZMTNS$ZU kmg`[$V\Sfo`[$ZUWSfd`Z 7hH_zUWSfd`Z^Yb4ilZ
x A ¿
Z zg`Sfi8b7[fZMdzV _7jV\]Ob8VYb4ilZX6Y,ZshMbldwT\Z!pblTNxS$V:blU_lTNS$pS$dOb8V\Sfd`pvjkTN_lm¿bU\ZMTNS$ZU AhH_d`d`Zh5V\ZxnUVNT\Sfd`p_ljKmsg`[$V\Sfo`[fZ
x
U\S$dug6U\_lSrx`b7[il_[Vb7plZUW_g`TNhMZ!Ub8VsVN]`Znb7o`o`TN_lo6T\Srb8VNZb7mvo`[fSVNg6x0Z!U!X>jkTNZ zg`Z!d6hHSfZ!U!XKb7d6xo`]6blU\ZU\]`S$jVNU!{ ZMZx0[$ZU\U
{? Üx
JÌ
V\_U\b4eX6VN]`SrU:h!b7d|yZb[fbl|O_T\Sf_lgOUVNbUWjk_TU\_lmvZsYb4ilZMjk_lTNmvU Lb7d
blhMhMg`Tb8V\ZU zg6blT\Z Yb4ilZ `_g`TNS$Z!T uZ!T\SfZ!USfU RC
S A
hH_d6U\Sfx0Z!T\ZxvV\_|OZZMtuo6T\ZU\U\Z!xv_g0VVN_sVN]`Z:d`S$dzVN]]6blT\mv_ld6SfhlX_T 6iZ:U\Sfd`ZYb4ilZU>Sfdb7[f[ HX0|`g0VSVSfU,oy_UNUWSf|`[fZl{ /
mvZMdzV\Sf_ld.V\]`SrUd`_7VCV\_UNhMblT\Zel_lgX|6g0VVN_Sfd0jk_lTNmel_lgs_7j0V\]6Zoy_7VNZMdzV\Srb7[uhH_m~o6[$ZMtuS$Ve:[$g`TNuS$d6p|yZM]`Sfd6xsU\ZMZ!mvS$d`p[$e
Üx
U\S$mvo`[fZ^Y,b4iZHjk_T\mU!{TNZ!bl[ [$S$jkZ^hHSfTNhMg`S$VYS$[f[ETNZ!U\oO_d6x.gOUVVN]`Z.U\blmvZVN_|OZ!S$d6poO_8Y,ZMTNZ!x|zebvU zg6blT\ZYb4ilZ
1Jû û41Ï N
x
blU~|yZMSfd`poO_8Y,ZMTNZ!x|zebld Í A»~UWZ!T\SfZ!U~_ljUWSfd`ZnYb4ilZ!Us_7j:_ux6x mg`[$V\Sfo`[$ZjkTNZ zg`Z!d6hHSfZ!U~b7d6xcx0SfmvS$d`SrU\]`S$d6p
b7mvo`[fS$V\g6x0ZUM{]`SrU]6bU|yZMZMdwud`_8YdV\_V\Tb7d6U\[fb7V\Z^SfdzV\_g`d`ZMt0oOZh5V\ZxwhHSfTNhMg`S$VT\ZUW_d6b7d6hMZ!U!XuV\Tb7d6UWjk_lTNmvZMTbld6x
Sfd6x0g6hHV\_lThH_T\Z_8iZMTN]`Z!b7V\Sfd`p}x0g`ZV\_Zx`x0ehHg`TNTNZMdzVNU!XZM[fZ!h5VNT\_mb7pld6ZHV\Srhnd`_SfU\Z_8ilZ!T|`TN_bxTb7d6plZ!U_7j^V\]6Z
x
jkTNZ zg`ZMdOhHevUWoyZ!hHV\TNg`mnXzbld6x~V\]`Z[$SflZ{CZ!h]6d`SfhMSfbld6Ubld6xvZMd6plSfd`ZMZ!TNU>d6ZMZ!xV\_.|yZmblx`Zb4Y,blT\Z_ljyVN]`Zoy_7VNZMdzV\Srb7[
H
ZHZ!hHVNU_ljCd`_d AUWSfdug6UW_Sfx6b7[Y,b4iZHjk_T\mU,S$dTNZ!blhHV\SfilZ^hHSfThHg`S$VNU!{
z blT\mv_d`Sfh!Ub7TNZ^ud`_8YdnV\_mb7d`S$jkZ!UWVV\]6ZMSfTZMyZh5VNUSfdnV\]`Zsjk_lTNm
_lj>ZM[fZ!h5VNT\_mb7pld6ZHV\SrhTblx0Srb8VNS$_dnbUY,ZM[f[§{
C 9|
zVNg6x0SfZ!U>]6b4iZ|OZ!ZMdoyZMT\jk_lTNm~Zxs_d~V\]`Zoy_7VNZMdzV\Srb7[`]Ob !blTNx6U_7jg6UWSfd`poy_lT\VNb7|6[$ZhM_lmvo`g0VNZMTU>b7|y_b7Txo6blUNUWZ!d`plZ!T
Ò x x s
fF HF
b7SfThHTb8jV!XhHS$V\Sfd`pVN]`ZjLbh5VV\]6b7VhM_lmvo`g0VNZMTU ,]`Sfpl]jkTNZ zg`Z!d6hHeU zg6b7TNZ Y,b4iZ lhH[f_0h }il_[Vb7plZ
UWSfpld6bl[fUb7TNZ
LÒ
hMblo6b7|6[$Z:_7jpZMd`Z!TNb7V\Sfd`psTblx`S$_~Y,b4iZ!UKV\]6b7VhM_lg`[rxS$dzV\Z!TWjkZ!T\Z:YS$V\]V\]`Z_loyZMTb8VNS$_d_7jCV\]`Z^blS$ThHTb8jV UZM[fZ!hHV\TN_ld`Srh
Lx / Ò Lx
d6b4iuSfpb8VNS$_dZ zg`S$o6m~Z!dzV!{ V UE|6bxZMd`_g`pl]VN]6b8VEVeuo`SrhMbl[lmvSrhHTN_lo`TN_0hHZ!UNU\_lThH[f_0hU\S$pd6b7[ljkT\Z g6ZMd6hMS$ZUEb7TNZ>YSVN]`Sfd
x
V\]6ZTb7d`pZ_ljb7SfTNhMTNb7jVTblx0Sf_^jkTNZ zg`ZMdOhHe|6bld6x`U!X|`g`VY,_lTU\ZelZMVSrUVN]`ZjLblh5V,V\]Ob8V,V\]`Z:]6b7TNmv_ld`Srhmg`[$V\Sfo`[$ZU,_7j
Lx
V\]6_U\Zjkg`d6x`blm~Z!dzVNb7[jkT\Z zg`ZMd6hMS$ZUU\o6b7dwb7dnZ!ilZMdn[rb7TNplZ!T,Tb7d6plZlXOx0g`ZV\_V\]`ZjLbh5VVN]6b8VhM[$_0hU\Sfpld6bl[Eil_[Vb7plZU
Üx
s
b7TNZ^U zg6blT\Z Yb4ilZS$dwU\]6b7oyZ^b7d6xd`_lVU\Sfd`Z Y,b4iZl{
ò -F ÜF
K[fZ!hHV\TN_lmb7pd`ZHVNSfh 7Z!mvSfUNUWSf_ldOU :_7jVN]`SfUKd6b8VNg`T\ZhMb7dv|yZbo`TN_l|`[fZMmS$dSfd6x0gOUVNT\Srb7[6blo`o`[fSfh!b8VNS$_d6UMX7V\_u_6XzYSVN]
Áx ¥? 2A
]6blT\mv_ld6Sfh!Ubl|O_g`d6x0Sfd`pS$dcilZ!T\e¨[rb7TNplZ zg6bldzV\S$V\SfZ!Uvx0g`ZV\_ kd6_ld`[fS$d6Z!b7T sZM[fZ!h5VNT\_d`SrhhM_ldzV\TN_l[,_7j:m~_lV\_T~bld6x
Lx
ZM[fZ!hHV\TNSfh>jkg`T\dOblhHZ>oy_8Y,ZMT{]`Z>jkg`dOx`b7mvZMdzVb7[loy_8Y,ZMTE[fS$d6Z>jkT\Z zg`ZMd6hMemb4e_ld`[fe|yZ `YytzG| lX4|`g`VEV\]`_zUWZ]6b7TNmv_ld`Srh
x H Lx
jkTNZ zg`ZMdOhHevmsg`[$V\Sfo`[fZ!UV\]6ZM_lTNZHVNSfh!b7[f[$evZMtzVNZMd6xS$dzVN_sSfd 6d`S$V\Z![$e]6S$p]jkT\Z zg`ZMd6hMeTNbld`plZUM{ÀE_8YjkTNZ zg`Z!d6hHevoy_8YZ!T x
!Ò
[fS$d`Zil_[Vb7plZb7d6xhMg`TNT\Z!dV~x0_uZ!U\d VvTblx0Srb8VNZS$dzVN_
U\o6blhMZilZ!T\eYZ![$[blUZM[fZ!hHV\TN_lmb7pd`ZHVNSfhvZ!d`ZMTNpleX|`g0Vv]`S$p]
x
jkTNZ zg`ZMdOhHSfZ!Ux0_O{
.F F s
[rU\_6X6h!b7o6bhHS$V\SfilZ.b7dOxSfd6x0gOh5V\SfilZ lhH_g`o`[fS$d6p hMblg6U\Z!x|uehH[f_U\Z o`TN_4t0S$mvS$VehH_ldOx0g6h5VN_lTUSrUg6U\g6b7[f[femv_lTNZ
Lx C ùF F
U\ZMilZ!T\Zwb7V]`Sfpl]cjkT\Z zg`ZMd6hMS$ZUM{ uSfpld6bl[YSfT\Sfd`p}d`Zb7TN|zeoO_8Y,ZMTYSfTNS$d`p}YSf[f[V\Z!d6xcV\_ 7o`Srhg`o ¨]6b7TNmv_ld`Srh
s
SfdVNZMT\jkZMTNZMd6hMZ~jkT\_m¾V\]6ZoO_8Y,ZMT^YSfTNS$d`pVN_bjLb7T.pT\Zb8V\Z!TZHtuV\Z!dV^VN]6b7d¨o`g6T\ZU\S$d6Z Y,b4iZSfdzV\ZMT\jkZMTNZMdOhHZl{]`SfU
o`TN_l|`[fZMm¶hMbldmb7d`S$jkZ!UWVS$VNU\ZM[$jKSfdS$dOx0g6UWV\TNeY]`Z!d_l[rxwmv_7VN_lT:hH_ldzVNT\_[fUblT\ZsT\Z!o`[fbhHZxYS$V\]
d`ZMY^XU\_l[fSfx AUWVNb8VNZ N
'C
ZM[fZ!hHV\TN_ld`Srhmv_7VN_lThM_ldzV\TN_l[rUo`TN_8izSrx0Sfd`pplTNZ!b7V\ZMT>Z!d`ZMTNpleZH/hHSfZMdOhHel{ ug6x6x0ZMd`[feV\]`Z!T\Zmb4e|OZY,ZMSfTxZ![$Zh5VNT\SrhMbl[
d`_SfU\Z|yZMSfd`p.Sfm~o6T\ZU\U\Z!xvg`oy_ldUWSfpld6bl[`YSfT\Sfd`p^VN]6b8V,d`ZMiZMTKg6U\Z!x~VN_s|yZV\]6ZMTNZlXz|OZhMb7gOUWZVN]`Z_[fxhM_ldzV\TN_l[rU>d`Z!ilZ!T
H
x
plZ!d`ZMTb8VNZ!x]6b7TNmv_ld`SrhMU!X`b7dOxVN]`_U\Z^]`Sfpl] jkTNZ zg`ZMdOhHe]6blT\mv_d`Sfh:i_l[$VNb7pZ!Ub7dOxhMg`TNT\Z!dVU,V\Z!d6xV\_Sfd6x0g6hHV\SfilZ![$e
)F F )YXy.zG|
b7dOxhMblo6blhMSVNS$iZM[fe lhM_lg`o`[fZ s|OZMVWVNZMTV\_~d`Zb7TN|zehM_ld6x0gOh5V\_TNUV\]Ob7dnb7due ^UWSfpldOb7[rUKjkTN_lmqVN]`Z:_l[rxhM_ldzV\TN_l[rU
g6U\Z!xV\_O{
¡¢H £¥¤
'? A H
Lx
dueTNZMpg`[fblT kTNZMoyZ!b8VNS$d6p 5X4d`_d AUWSfdug6UW_Sfx6b7[4Y,b4iZHjk_T\mSrUZ g6S$i8b7[fZMdzVVN_bo6b7T\V\SrhHg`[rb7TEU\ZMTNSfZ!U_ljuU\S$d6Z 8hM_U\S$d6Z P
Lx
Y,b4iZ!U_lj,x0S$ZMTNZMdzVjkT\Z g6ZMd6hMS$ZUMXo`]OblU\Z!U!XEb7d6xb7mvo`[fSVNg6x0ZUMXEo6[$g6Ub ,;
a _7U\ZHVil_l[$VNblplZSjd`Z!hMZ!UNU\blT\e{
Lx
]`Zmb7V\]`Z!mvb7V\SrhMbl[>o`T\_0hMZ!UNUjk_Tx`ZHV\Z!T\mvSfd`Sfd`pV\]`ZU\S$dug6U\_lSrx`b7[Yb4ilZMjk_lTNm²Z g6S$i8b7[fZMdzVjk_lT^bldzewYb4ilZ
jk_lTNm2SfUh!b7[f[$Zx
¼ 0° L»H° 93 21 {ûQ T úÚ1 ú
8º 5{
acÃc Z e¿_ Z mýe]ê^`k%k~^ Z ] q LWXé
g`[$V\Sfo`[$Z
§jkTNZxzg`Z!d6hHeil_l[$VNblplZ:UW_g`TNhMZ!U,hMbld|yZ^UWSfmsg`[rb8VNZ!xjk_lTbld6b7[fe0UWSrU|uehM_ld`d6Z!h5VNS$d6pvU\ZMiZMTb7[UWSfd`p[$Z
jkT\ZLx g6ZMd6hMei_l[$VNb7pZUW_g`ThHZ!US$dUWZ!T\SfZ!U!{d6b7[fe0UWSrUK_ljEil_[Vb7plZUKb7dOxhHg`TNT\Z!dzVNUKSrU,blhMhM_lmvo`[fSfU\]`Zxv|ze~g6U\S$d6p
V\]`ZUWg6oOZ!T\oy_U\SVNS$_dsVN]`ZM_T\Z!mn{ ·:tò<8= UWg`oyZMTNSfm~oy_U\Z!xsil_[Vb7plZUCbld6xshMg`TNT\Z!dVU_7jOx0S$ZMTNZMdzVjkT\ZL x g6ZMd6hMS$ZU
± û%û¼5
|OZblx6x0Z!xnVN_lpZHV\]6ZMT:S$d¨hH_m~o6[$ZMtndug`m|OZ!T:jk_lTNmXU\S$dOhHZvhH_lmvo`[fZHtdug`m|OZ!TNU_ld6[$ebhMhH_g`dzVjk_T
b7mvo`[fSVNg6x0Z.b7dOxo`]OblU\ZU\]`S$jV!X`d6_7VjkTNZz x g`ZMdOhHe
z b7TNmv_ld`SrhMUhMbldhMblg6U\Zo`TN_l|`[fZMmU|ueS$mvo`TNZ!UNUWSfd`pg`duY,bldVNZ!x?Ó7F d`_SfU\ZF>A i_l[$VNb7pZU\S$pd6b7[rUg6oO_dd`Zb7TN|ze
hHSfTNhMg`SVUM{>]`ZUWZ:g`duYb7dzV\ZxUWSfpldOb7[rUmb4ehH_m~Z:|ueY,b4ev_ljChMblo6blhMSVNS$iZhH_g`o`[fS$d6p6XuS$dOx0g6h5VNS$iZ^hH_lg6o`[$Sfd`pOX
ZM[fZ!h5VNT\_mb7pld6ZHV\SrhTNbx0Sfb7V\Sf_ldEXu_Tb~hM_lm|`S$dOb8V\Sf_ldV\]6ZMTNZM_7j{
Yy Z%Ù [>\>]%^`_baLcdfehgi^SjRÚ7k%_G^il#mn^So ZGp [ Zq esrto>[<u q
Î Ï´ÐÂѽÒÓQÔ Õ
Ö × Ø Ù Ú Û
f x
å V.SrU^UW_m~ZMV\SfmvZ!U^x0ZUWSfTNbl|`[fZsVN_w]6b4ilZvhHSfTNhMg`S$VNU^hMblo6b7|6[$Zv_7jUWZ![$Zh5VNS$iZM[fe 6[$V\ZMTNSfd`pn_ld`Z~jkTNZ zg`ZMdOhHe_T:Tb7d6plZ~_7j
x x
jkTNZ zg`ZMdOhHSfZ!U~_lg0Vv_7jbmvS$t_7j:x0SZMTNZMdzVvjkTNZ zg`ZMdOhHSfZ!U~S$dcb¨hHSfTNhMg`SV{¶hHSfTNhMg`S$Vvx0ZUWSfpld6Z!x}VN_¨oOZ!TWjk_T\m¥VN]`SfU
x Ï
jkTNZ zg`ZMdOhHeU\ZM[fZ!h5VNS$_dSrU:h!b7[f[$ZxbÍKº A»H°±Mæ°\±Hç0æ X_lTU\S$mvo`[febͺ A»H°5{.ÂhH_m~mv_dd`Z!Z!xwjk_T O[VNZMT^hHSfTNhMg`S$VNU:SfU <
H
x
Sfdw]`S$p] oOZ!TWjk_T\mb7dOhHZUVNZMTNZM_U\euUWV\Z!mUMX`Y]6ZMTNZhMZMT\VNblS$dnTb7d`pZ!U_7j>b7gOx0S$_vjkTNZ zg`Z!d6hHSfZ!Ud`ZMZxVN_|OZb7mvo`[fS 6Zx
ùx
_lTU\g`o`o`TNZ!UNU\Z!x¨jk_T~|yZ!UWVUW_g`d6x gOb7[fSVebld6xoy_8YZ!TZM/hHSfZMd6hMel{}K_gmb4e}|yZjLblm~Sf[fSfblT~YS$V\]Q» " ç 7ºèæ$#»H° 5X 4 @ú
Lx
Y]`Srh]b7[f[$_8YV\]`Zb7mvo`[fSVNg6x0Z!U_7jEU\ZMilZ!TNbl[ujkT\Z zg`ZMd6hMesTb7d`pZ!UVN_.|OZblx4g6UWV\Zx~V\_.U\g`S$VKV\]`Z[$SrUWV\ZMd6ZMT UVblUWV\Zbld6x LÒ
ú@ú ºû
blhM_lg6UWV\Srh^o`TN_loyZMT\V\SfZ!U_7j>VN]`Zs[fSrUVNZMd`Sfd`pblT\Zb`{K_gmb4enb7[rUW_|yZjLb7mvS$[fSrb7TYS$V\]±H°N¼ M¼8é8»H° y» §I¼7°\ê 5XY]`Srh] ú
Lx H
Lx
|`[f_0hchMZMT\VNb7SfdTb7d`pZ!U_lj^jkT\Z zg`ZMd6hMS$ZUjkTN_lmëT\Zblh]`Sfd`pU\oyZ!b7ZMTUM{Á¾VYZ!ZHVNZMT
ìL]`Sfpl] jkT\Z zg`ZMd6hMecU\oyZ!b7ZMT5í
B
x
SrUSfd`ZM/hMS$Z!dzVnb7VTNZMo`TN_0x0g6hMS$d`p[$_8Y jkTNZ zg`ZMdOhHeUWSfpldOb7[rUU\g6h]bUx`T\g`mî|yZ!b7VNU!XU\_cbhHTN_UNUW_8iZMThMS$ThHg6SVnSfU
4Ò B
x
hH_d`d`Zh5V\Zx|yZHVY,ZMZ!dVN]`ZVYZ!ZHV\Z!Tb7d6xV\]`ZwUWV\Z!T\Z!_ U_g0V\o6g0VvV\ZMTNmvS$dOb7[rUsVN_¨|`[$_0h}[f_8Y §jkTNZ zg`Z!d6hHe}U\S$pd6b7[rU!X
ª
x LÒ
_ld6[$ewo6bU\U\Sfd`p]`Sfpl] §jkTNZ zg`Z!d6hHewU\S$pd6b7[rUVN_VN]`ZUWoyZ!bllZMT UhH_d`d`Zh5V\Sf_ldV\Z!T\mvSfd6b7[rUM{^]`SrU:plSfilZU|yZHV\V\ZMT.blg6x0Sf_
Ñ x ¾|
U\euUWV\Z!m®ZM/hMS$Z!d6hHe~b7d6xsV\]ug6UK|OZMVWV\Z!ToyZMT\jk_lTNmb7d6hMZl{ _lV\]vZ zg6bl[$S MZ!TNUb7dOx~hMT\_zU\U\_8ilZ!TCd6ZHVY,_lTNuUblT\ZZHt`blm~o6[$ZU
~ ) Lx
_7j 6[$V\Z!TNU!X`x0Z!U\Sfpld`ZxVN_blhMhM_lmvo`[fSfU\] O[VNZMTNS$d`p_ljhMZMT\VNb7SfdjkT\Z g6ZMd6hMS$ZUM{
% H
d6_7V\]6ZMTo`TblhHV\SrhMbl[b7o`o6[$SrhMb7V\Sf_ldw_7j 6[$V\Z!ThMS$ThHg`S$VNUSfUS$dnVN]`ZïhH_d6x0S$V\Sf_ld`Sfd`pï~_ljd6_ld AUWSfdug6U\_lSrx`b7[Ei_l[$VNblplZ
Yb4ilZHjk_T\mUSfdoy_8Y,ZMThMS$ThHg6SVUM{ðu_lmvZ~ZM[fZ!h5VNT\_d`Srh.x0ZMiuSrhHZUblT\ZsU\ZMdOUWS$V\SfilZsV\_VN]`Z~o`T\ZUWZ!d6hHZs_7j]6blT\mv_d`Sfh!USfd
x
V\]6Zoy_8YZ!TsUWg6o`o`[fe
i_l[$VNb7pZlXb7d6x}U\_TNZ zg`SfT\Zoy_8YZ!TshH_d6x0S$V\Sf_ld`Sfd`pnjk_Tso`TN_loyZMT._oOZ!TNb7V\Sf_ldE{ å jbwx0SrUWV\_lT\V\Zx
x
U\S$d`Z Yb4ilZil_[Vb7plZ:|yZM]6b4iZ!U,[$SflZbvUWZ!T\SfZ!U,_ljC]6blT\mv_ld6Sfh:Yb4ilZHjk_T\mUblx`x0ZxV\_~V\]`Z:jkg`dOx`b7mvZMdzVb7[jkTNZ zg`ZMdOhHelX
Á
V\]6ZMd¨SVsU\]`_g`[fx
|yZ~oy_UNU\S$|`[fZ~V\_whH_d6UWV\TNg6h5V.b 6[$V\ZMT.hMS$ThHg6SV^VN]6b8V^_ld6[$ebl[$[f_8YUV\]`Zvjkg6d6x`b7mvZ!dVb7[>Yb4ilZMjk_lTNm
x Ü
x
jkTNZ zg`ZMdOhHeVN_o6blUNUV\]`TN_lg`p]EX0|`[f_0hzSfd`pb7[f[Kìk]6S$p]`ZMT §jkTNZ zg`Z!d6hHe`í]6blT\mv_ld6Sfh!UM{
Z^YS$[f[|yZ.UVNg6x0euSfd`pvV\]`Zx0Z!U\S$pdn_7j>UWZ!ilZMTb7[Z![$Z!mvZMdzVNblT\e O[VNZMThMS$ThHg`S$VNUS$dV\]6SfU[$ZU\U\_ldE{_TNZ!x0gOhHZV\]6Z
ò
[f_blx_7jmb8VN]_dV\]6ZTNZ!bx0ZMTX å YS$[f[mvbllZZHtuV\Z!d6UWSfilZg6U\Z_ljð0ñ å\a blU,b7db7d6bl[$e0U\SfUKV\_u_l[X`x0SrUWo`[rb4euS$d6p _ux`Z Ñ
Lx n Ñ
o`[f_7VU:ì§b7mvo`[fSVNg6x0ZilZ!TNU\g6UjkT\Z zg`ZMd6hMe`í>jk_TVN]`Zi8b7TNS$_g6UuSfd6x`U,_7j 6[$V\ZMTU!{ Zb7T,S$dmvS$d6xEXuV\]`_g`pl]EXzVN]6b8VV\]6Z!U\Z
N| x
hHSfThHg`S$VNUhMb7d|OZ~b7d6bl[$e MZx_8ilZMTUWZ!ilZMTb7[oO_S$dzVNU_7jjkTNZ zg`Z!d6hHen|ueTNZMoyZ!b7V\ZxwUWZ!T\SfZ!U oOb7Tb7[f[$Z![Eb7d6bl[$e0U\SfU!X6mg6h]
[fS$Z.V\]6Zso`TNZMiuSf_lg6UZHt`b7mvo`[fZ.YS$V\]VY,_U\_lg`ThHZU.ìLò bld6x y féXyÁzG| íHXSj>VN]`ZUWV\g6x`ZMdzV:SrUYS$[f[$Sfd`pVN_SfduilZ!UWV:b[$_lV
x
_7jV\SfmvZ^Y_T\uSfd`pvb7d6xT\Z Y,_lTNuS$d6phHSfThHg`S$VhMb7[rhHg6[fb7V\Sf_ld6U,jk_TZ!blh]jkTNZ zg`ZMdOhHel{
¡¢H £¥¤
Lx
}ÍKº A»H°CSfUb7dv a hMS$ThHg`S$VV\]6b7VUWZ!o6b7Tb8VNZ!UU\_lmvZ,jkT\Z g6ZMd6hMS$ZUjkT\_m®_7VN]`ZMTUS$dvYS$V\]`SfdmvSt0Zx §jkTNZ zg`Z!d6hHe N
x
UWSfpld6bl[fU!{
!òª
!òzó %Ù \i]%^öQ÷0øùúû!]%^öü
ô õ
0
LÒ 0
x
]`ZS$d6x`g6h5VN_lT US$mvoyZ!x`bld6hHZS$dOhHTNZ!blU\Z!UsYSVN]Sfd6hHTNZ!bUWSfd`pnjkTNZ zg`Z!d6hHe{]`SrU]`S$p]Sfm~oyZ!x6b7d6hMZSfdU\ZMTNS$ZU
H
Lx
V\Z!d6x`UVN_w|`[f_uh]`S$p] jkT\Z g6ZMd6hMeUWSfpldOb7[rUjkTN_lmµplZHV\V\Sfd`pnV\_nVN]`Z[f_blxE{v]6SfU.h!b7d|OZx`ZMmv_ld6UWV\Tb8VNZ!x
YSVN]}b
ð0ñ å\a cbld6b7[fe0UWSrUò
·L ¬¯®5´¯· ø © º¶ ÷u µ ³N³¹Q· º ´ª©¨
ø ¢¢¢ù¢ »£ µ¼ ®ú¢ó³N·L
¨º º¶dµ » £û!¢
ü µ ® º · » £ ¢ » £N£
ü º¶ ´ µ ® ø 1 »
ü ©X
¹¨ª©« ø 1 » £Dü » į¢ » S£ ü ¼Nÿþ ¢ £Sü ÅN¼ ¢ ¢
²¢ýü ²££N²£ ²H£²£ ²ÿ ²ü ÿN²ÿNþ ² ²£¯¢û²ü ²²²² ²² ²ü ²²²²²²ü ²²² ²²²²
¢ýü¢ ÃªÆ H£Q¢ ÿ ü ÆNÆà ²² £¯¢ûü ü ü %ü
» ü¢ ÿ Ä H£Q¢ ÿ ü »Ã £ ² £¯¢ûü ü ü bü
¼ ü »Xê» H£Q¢ þ ü¿Ä ¼N¼ £¯¢ûü ü ü ü
à ü »þNÿ H£Q¢ Æ ü ÆNÆNÅ ²² £¯¢ûü
ü ü ü
ÄSü ¼¼NÆ H£Q¢ Æ ü¿£NÄN£ ² £¯¢ûü ü ü ü
Å ü ¼þà H£Q¢ Å ü ¼Nÿ ¢ ² £¯¢ûü ü ü
Æ ü ÃH¼N» H£Q¢ ÄSü þ ¢£ ² £¯¢ûü ü ü ü
þ ü ÃHÆNÿ H£Q¢ ÄSü ¼ £ à ² £¯¢ûü ü ü ü
ÿ ü Ä »NÅ H£Q¢ à ü þNÅ Ä ² £¯¢ûü ü ü ü
÷0ø `øû ë `ÀEìÚ7\ õ ü`üùCúû!]%^öü !òÉ
¢ýü £Ä Æ H£ » à ü êþ Ä ² £¯¢ûü ü ü ü
¢ýü¢ ÅN» H£ » à üs¢Ä ¼ ² £¯¢ûü ü ü ü
¢ýü »ÅNÆ H£ » ¼ ü þNÅN¼ ² £¯¢ûü ~ü ü ü
¢ýü ¼ÆN» H£ » ¼ ü Å £ Æ ² £¯¢ûü ü ü ü
¢ýü ÃHÆNÅ H£ » ¼ ü ¼NþN» ² £¯¢ûü ü ü ü
¢ýü Ä þ ¢ H£ » ¼ üs¢ þ ¢ ² £¯¢ûü ü ü ü
¢ýü ÅþNÅ H£ » ¼ ü¿£N£ » ² £¯¢ûü ü ü ü
¢ýü Æÿ ¢ H£ » » ü þà ¢ ² £¯¢ûü ü ü ü
¢ýü þÿ Ä H£ » » ü ÅNÿNÅ ² £¯¢ûü ü ü ü
» ü ££N£ H£ » » ü¿Ä Åà ² £¯¢ûü ü ü ü
0
Ò 0
x
]`Zsh!b7o6bhHS$V\_T US$mvoyZ!x`bld6hHZx0Z!hMT\ZblU\Z!UYS$V\]wSfd6hHTNZ!bUWSfd`pvjkTNZ zg`Z!d6hHe{]6SfU[$_8YSfm~oyZ!x6b7d6hMZ.S$dwoOb7Tb7[f[$Z![
H
Lx
YS$V\]VN]`Z[f_bxTNZ!U\SrUVb7d6hMZV\ZMdOx`UKVN_sU\]`_lT\V_lg`V]`Sfpl] jkT\Z zg`ZMd6hMeU\S$pd6b7[rU!Xx0TN_lo`o6S$d`psm~_zUV_7jV\]`Zil_[Vb7plZpZHVU
blhMT\_zU\UU\ZMTNS$ZU,T\ZUWSrUVN_lT+ 8{
ò
cutoff
2πRC
å d6U\ZMT\V\Sfd`pVN]`Zi4bl[$g6Z!U~_7j+
b7dOx a kj TN_lm V\]6Z[rblUWVð0ñ å\a UWSfmsg`[rb8VNS$_dSfdzV\_VN]`SrU~jk_lTNmsg`[rb`X>Y,ZblT\TNSfilZ
Lx
b8V~bhHg0VN_7cjkT\Z zg`ZMd6hMe
_lj 0{ tÎ
ÎNÂ9É,zG| z
l{ 8_ Y,ZMilZ!T!XCY]`ZMdYZ[f_u_lb8VsVN]`Zo`[f_7V~plZ!d`ZMTb8VNZ!x|ueVN]`Zð0ñ å\a ò
ë `ÀEìÚ7\ õ
÷0ø `øû ü`üùCúû !]%^öü !ò
ÕÂ9y Â
U\S$mg`[fb7V\Sf_ldEX4Y,Z,U\ZMZV\]`Z,[f_blxi_l[$VNblplZKY,ZM[f[|yZM[f_8Y `{ _7j0V\]6Z,U\_lg`ThHZil_[Vb7plZì i_l[$VíEZMilZ!dsb8VbjkTNZ zg`Z!d6hHe x
blU:[f_8YbU iÉyÁz<| Ò
lXC|OZ![$_8YQVN]`ZhMbl[fhMg`[rb8V\ZxhMg0V\_loO_S$dzV{ ]6b7V UYT\_d`pzÄ9]`Zvo`TN_l|`[fZMmµ]`ZMTNZSrU:V\]Ob8V^V\]6Z
< ! x {
[f_blxnTNZ!U\SrUVb7d6hMZ._7j s b7yZh5VUVN]`ZsjkTNZ zg`Z!d6hHenTNZ!U\oO_d6U\Z._7j>VN]`Z O[VNZMTXyU\lZ!YS$d`pSV^x0_8YdwjkTN_lm¶Y]6b7VV\]6Z
jk_lTNmsg6[fbV\_[fx
g6U^S$V.Y,_lg`[rx|yZl{ S$V\]6_lg0V.VN]6b8V^[f_bxTNZ!U\SfUWVNbld6hHZvSfd
o6[fbhHZlXð0ñ å\a o`TN_0x0g6hMZ!U^b _ux`Z~o6[$_lV ò Ñ
Y]`_zUWZdug`ms|yZMTUmb7Z:mv_T\Z^U\ZMd6U\Z
® µ µ ®H·´¯· ø © º¶ ÷u µ ³N³¹· º ´ª©¨
ø¨!¢¢¢ù¢ £» µÄN£N®ú£ ¢ó³N·L
®4¢ » £ Æ ¬
¶ ´ª©S§) ¶º¶d ¨ª©4³H·³´ ¶ ¨#"
ü µ ® º · » £ Ã £µ ÄN£
ü º¶ ´ µ ® ø 1 »
ü ©X
¹¨ª©« ø 1 » £Dü ÅNÅ £ Æ £Sü ÅNÿ ¢ þ £Dü ÆN»ÃNà £Sü Æ Ä þNÅ
²Ãü ²££N²£ ²H£Q²¢ ²Æ ²ü¿ÄN£²þ ² ²£¯¢û²ü ²²²² ²²ü ²²²²²²²ü ²²² ²²² ² ü
à ü £Ä ¼ H£Q¢ Æ ü ÃªÅ Ä ²² £¯¢ûü ü ü ü
à ü¢L£NÄ H£Q¢ Æ ü ê»N¼ ² £¯¢ûü ü ü ü
à ü¢LÄ þ H£Q¢ Æ ü ¼Nþ £ ² £¯¢ûü ü ü ü
à ü » ¢N¢ H£Q¢ Æ ü ¼N¼Nþ ² £¯¢ûü ü ü ü
à ü »ÅN¼ H£Q¢ Æ ü »Nÿ Ä ² £¯¢ûü ü ü ü
à ü ¼ ¢ Å H£Q¢ Æ ü » Ä ¼ ² £¯¢ûü ü ü
à ü ¼ÅNþ H£Q¢ Æ ü » ¢N¢ ² £¯¢ûü ü %ü ü
à ü ÃH» ¢ H£Q¢ Æ üs¢ Æ £ ² £¯¢ûü ü ü ü
à ü ÃHÆà H£Q¢ Æ üs¢ »Nÿ ² £¯¢ûü ü ü ü
à ü Ä »NÅ H£Q¢ Æ ü¿£ þNÆ ² £¯¢ûü ü ü ü
à ü Ä ÆNÿ H£Q¢ Æ ü¿£ ꊲ £¯¢ûü ü ü ü
à ü żN» H£Q¢ Æ ü¿£N£ Å ² £¯¢ûü ü ü ü
à ü Åþà H£Q¢ Å ü ÿNÅ Ä ² £¯¢ûü ü
ü ü
à ü ƼNÆ H£Q¢ Å ü ÿN» Ä ² £¯¢ûü ü ü
à ü ÆþNÿ H£Q¢ Å ü þNþ Ä ² £¯¢ûü %ü ü ü
à ü þXê» H£Q¢ Å ü þꊲ £¯¢ûü ü ü ü
à ü þÿ Ä H£Q¢ Å ü þ £ Å ² £¯¢ûü ü ü ü
à ü ÿXÃªÆ H£Q¢ Å ü ÆNÅNÆ ² £¯¢ûü
ü ü ü
ÄSü ££N£ H£Q¢ Å ü ÆN»Nþ ² £¯¢ûü ü ü ü
²N´ ²Ã ²ÄSü ²»Å ²¤H¦² ²´
4²© ² ¶ ¬H²´z²¬H´²øª²¶H²º ´ ²µ ²© ²·³ ²µ ö²¶²ø © ²Æ £S²ü ²Æ 4²©¨²®X²©XH²´%$ ²²²²
N´ Ã ÄSü Æÿ ¤H¦
´ 4© ¶ ¬Hz´ ¬H´ øª¶Hº ´ µ © ·³ö4© º¶ ÷ Æ £Sü Æ 4©¨®X©XH´%$
- ´ ³ ¶ ¬ ºQ ö4©© P µ ®5´ º ° Æ £Sü
Æ & µ ´ à ÄSü êÆN¼ ¤N¦'"
]`Z!dx0Zb7[fS$d6pYS$V\]6 [$V\ZMT.hMS$ThHg6SVUMXES$V^SfU^bl[$Yb4e0USfmvoO_TWVb7dzVV\_nd`_7VNZsVN]6b8VVN]`ZvT\ZUWoy_ld6U\Z~_7jVN]`Z#6[$V\ZMT
x0Z!oOZ!d6x`U_ldcV\]`Z@6 [$V\ZMTLÒ UhH_mvoO_d`ZMdzVi8b7[fg`ZU ûþV\]6ZSfm~oyZ!x6b7d6hMZ_7jV\]6Z[f_blxE{ å j.bhMg0V\_l9jkTNZzx g`Z!d6hHe
Zz x g6b7V\Sf_ldjLblS$[rUVN_plSfilZhM_ld6U\Sfx`ZMTb8V\Sf_ldcVN_[$_zblxcSfm~oyZ!x6b7d6hMZlXS$VblUNU\g`mvZ!Ud6_[$_zblxb7dOxYS$[f[jLblS$[V\_pS$iZ
blh!hHg`Tb8VNZTNZ!U\g`[$VNU,jk_TbvT\Zb7[Ë
[fSjkZ>6 [$V\Z!ThH_d6x0g6hHV\Sfd`pvoO_8Y,ZMTVN_vb~[f_bx{
!òò %Ù \i]%^öQ÷0øùúû!]%^öü
ô õ
¡¢H £¥¤
B
. B
x
²[f_8Y o6blUNU 6[VNZMTbl[$[f_8YUjk_lTvZ!bUWeoOblUNU\blplZ_lj[f_8Y §jkTNZ zg`Z!d6hHeU\Sfpld6bl[fUjkTN_lm U\_lg`ThHZV\_¨[f_bxXbld6x
H
x
x0S/hMg`[VoOblUNU\blplZ:_7jC]6S$p] §jkTNZ zg`Z!d6hHeUWSfpld6bl[fU!{
å d6x0g6hHV\SfilZ^[f_8YB
o6bU\U`6[$V\Z!TNUS$d6U\ZMT\Vb7dnSfd6x0g6hHV\_TS$dU\ZMTNSfZ!UYS$V\]V\]`Zs[$_zblxô6h!b7o6bhHS$V\SfilZ[f_8YB
o6bU\U`6[$V\Z!TNU
S$d6U\ZMT\V.bT\ZUWSrUVN_lTSfd¨U\ZMTNSfZ!U^b7dOxbnh!b7o6bhHS$V\_lTSfd¨o6b7Tb7[f[$Z![YSVN]¨V\]`Z[f_bx{]`Zvjk_lTNmvZMTR6 [$V\Z!Tsx0Z!U\Sfpld
V\TNS$ZU,V\_ï7|`[f_0h0ï.VN]`Z^g`duY,bldzV\Z!xjkTNZz x g`ZMdOhHeU\S$pd6b7[Y]6S$[fZV\]`Z^[rb8V\V\Z!TV\TNS$ZU,V\_U\]`_lT\VSV_g0V!{
]`Z±HçHA ¼ê °N» " ç6»vûy±jk_Tbv[$_8YB
o6blUNU`6 [$V\ZMTSrUVN]6b8VjkTNZzx g`Z!d6hHeb7VY]`Srh]VN]`Z^_lg`V\o`g0VsìL[$_zblx6í,i_l[$VNblplZ
Zz x g6b7[rU>Â9`y { Â Â_ljVN]`Z.Sfd`o`g0VvìLU\_lg`ThHZ4í,il_[Vb7plZ{|y_8ilZ.V\]`ZshMg0V\_ljkTNZzx g`Z!d6hHeX`V\]6Z._lg0VNo`g0Vi_l[$VNblplZSfU
[$_8Y,ZMT,V\]Ob7dÂ5` y { Â _7jVN]`Z^Sfd`o`g0VXOb7dOxiuSrU\b9
iZMTU\b6{
ÜÝ ; (æç =)y?,àJä~² ä á@5è à~á ã'ä
²]`S$p]H
o6blUNUJ6 [$V\Z!TÒ UsVNblU\SfUg6UWVsVN]`Z_o`oy_U\SVNZ_7jb[$_8YB
o6bU\UE6 [VNZMT*vV\_
_7ZMT~Z!blU\eo6blUNU\blplZ_ljb]`Sfpl]ª
jkTNZxzg`ZMdOhHeU\S$pd6b7[b7d6xx0S$/hMg`[$Vo6blUNU\blplZVN_~b[f_8YB§
jkTNZz x g`Z!d6hHeU\S$pd6b7[{>U,_ld`Z:mvS$p]zV,ZMtuoyZ!hHV!XuVN]`ZS$d6x`g6h5VNS$iZ
b7dOxhMblo6blhMSVNS$iZiZMTUWSf_ld6U_7jEVN]`Z]`Sfpl]H
o6blUNUS6 [VNZMTb7TNZKgOUVV\]6Z_o`oO_zUWS$V\Z:_7jV\]`Z!S$TTNZ!U\oOZh5V\SfilZ:[f_8YB
o6bU\UD6 [$V\ZMT
x0ZUWSfpld6U
Capacitive high-pass filter
É
C1
1 2
+0.5 µF
V1 1V Rload 1 kΩ
0
]`ZhMblo6blhMSVN_lT
LÒ 0
Lx
U Sfm~oyZ!x6b7d6hMZ~Sfd6hMT\ZblU\Z!U:YSVN]x`Z!hHTNZ!bUWSfd`pjkT\Z zg`ZMd6hMel{v]`SrU]`S$p]
SfmvoOZx`b7dOhHZvS$d¨U\ZMTNS$ZU
B
Lx
V\Z!d6x`UVN_v|`[$_0h[f_8Y jkT\Z g6ZMd6hMeUWSfpld6bl[fU,jkTN_lmplZHV\V\Sfd`p~V\_[f_bx{
0
LÒ 0
Lx
]`ZS$d6x`g6h5VN_lT US$mvoyZ!x`bld6hHZvx0Z!hMT\ZblU\Z!UYS$V\]x0Z!hMT\ZblU\S$d6pjkT\Z zg`ZMd6hMel{:]`SfU[f_8YSfmvoOZx`b7dOhHZ~S$doOb7Tb7[f[$Z![
B
Lx
V\Z!d6x`UV\_UW]`_TWV_g0V[f_8Y jkT\Z g6ZMd6hMeU\S$pd6b7[rUjkTN_lm
plZMVWV\Sfd`pV\_VN]`Zs[f_bxnT\ZUWSrUVN_lT{U:bhH_d6U\Z zg`ZMdOhHZlXOmv_UWV x
_7jV\]6Z^il_l[$VNblplZ:plZMVNUx0TN_lo`oyZ!xblhMT\_zU\UU\ZMTNS$ZU,T\ZUWSrUVN_lT+ 8{
·L ¬¯®5´¯· ø .© · z µ ³N³ê¹· º ´ª©¨
ø¨!¢¢¢¢ù£»µ» £N®ú£ ¢ó³N·L
¢ » £û¢£N£ 3
¨º º¶dµ » £û!¢
ü µ ® º · » £ ¢ » £N£
ü º¶ ´ µ ® ø 1 »
ü ©X
¹¨ª©« ø 1 » ¢ýü ££N£ ² £ ¼ ¢ýü¿£N£N£ ² £ » ¢ýü £N£N£ ² £¯¢ ¢ýü¿£N£N£ N£N£
! òØ %ô Ùõ \i]%^öQ÷0øùúû!]%^öü
²¢ýü ²££N²£ ²H£²£ ²¼ ²üs¢ ê²» ² ²£ ¼ ²ü²² ²² ²ü ²²²²²²²ü ²²²² ²²² ü
¢ýü¢ ÃªÆ H£Q¢ ¼ ü Å £¯¢ ²² £ » ü ü ü ü
» ü¢ ÿ Ä H£Q¢ Å ü þNÆ ¢ ² £ » ü ü bü ü
¼ ü »Xê» H£Q¢ ¢ýü¿£¯¢N¢ ² £¯¢ûü ü ü
à ü »þNÿ H£Q¢ ¢ýü ¼N¼ £ ² £¯¢ûü ü ü ü
ÄSü ¼¼NÆ H£Q¢ ¢ýü ÅÃNà ² £¯¢ûü ü ü ü
Å ü ¼þà H£Q¢ ¢ýü ÿ ÄN£ ² £¯¢ûü ü ü ü
Æ ü ÃH¼N» H£Q¢ » ü »Ãªþ ² £¯¢ûü ü ü ü
þ ü ÃHÆNÿ H£Q¢ » ü¿Ä ¼NÆ ² £¯¢ûü ü ü ü
ÿ ü Ä »NÅ H£Q¢ » ü þ ¢ Æ ² £¯¢ûü ü ü ü
¢ýü £Ä Æ H£ » ¼ ü¿£ þNÅ ² £¯¢ûü ü ü ü
¢ýü¢ ÅN» H£ » ¼ ü ¼ÃNà ² £¯¢ûü ü ü ü
¢ýü »ÅNÆ H£ » ¼ ü¿Ä ÿ ¢ ² £¯¢ûü ü ü ü
¢ýü ¼ÆN» H£ » ¼ ü þN»Nþ ² £¯¢ûü ü ü ü
¢ýü ÃHÆNÅ H£ » à ü¿£NÄ ¼ ² £¯¢ûü ü ü ü
¢ýü Ä þ ¢ H£ » à ü »NÅNÆ ² £¯¢ûü ü ü ü
¢ýü ÅþNÅ H£ » à ü ÃªÆ £ ² £¯¢ûü ü ü ü
¢ýü Æÿ ¢ H£ » à ü ÅNÅN» ² £¯¢ûü ü ü ü
¢ýü þÿ Ä H£ » à ü þÃ Ä ² £¯¢ûü ü ü ü
» ü ££N£ H£ » ÄSü¿£¯¢ Æ ² £¯¢ûü ü ü ü
²
¶N²µQ²øH¶H²º ´²µ²© ²·L¯²®5²¨ª© ²µ ³X²©4³²÷²·´
û²²·L¯²®¨ª©²µ ²³H·² ²¹¨ª²©«²¬4²©X¯²®° ²²² ²²²
Lx
]`SrUV\SfmvZlXV\]`ZhMb7oOblhHS$V\SfilZx`Z!U\S$pd~SrU>VN]`ZU\S$mvo`[fZ!UWV!XT\Z zg`S$TNSfd`p^_ld`[fes_d`ZhH_mvoO_d`ZMdzVbl|O_8iZbld6x~|OZ!el_d6x
V\]6Z[f_blxE{d6xXKb7pzb7SfdEXEVN]`ZTNZ!bh5VNS$iZo`g`TNSVe_7jhMblo6blhMSVN_lTU_8ilZ!T^S$d6x`g6h5VN_lTU^V\Z!d6x`U.V\_wjLb4i_lT^VN]`ZMSfTsg6U\ZSfd
H
> x
6[$V\Z!T.x0Z!U\S$pdEXEZUWoyZ!hMSfbl[$[fewYSVN]¨]`S$p] o6blUNU 6[VNZMTUY]`ZMTNZ~]`S$p]jkTNZ zg`Z!d6hHSfZ!U^hM_lmvmv_ld`[fehMblg6U\Z~Sfd6x0gOh5V\_TNUVN_
|yZM]6b4iZUWV\Tb7d6plZM[fex0g`ZVN_~V\]`Z.U\uS$dnZHZ!hHVb7d6xZM[fZ!hHV\TN_lmb7pd`ZHVNSfh:hH_T\Z[f_UNUWZUM{
B
- H
B H / tû -
UYSVN][f_8Y o6bU\U O[VNZMTUMXO]`S$p] o6blUNU 6[$V\Z!TNU]6b4ilZ.bTb8VNZ!x±Mç ¼ °\» " ç6» ± 8Xb7|y_8ilZ^Y]6Sfh]nVN]`Zs_g0V\o`g`V
Â9y Â
il_[Vb7pZSfd6hHTNZ!bUWZUbl|O_8iZ `{ ²_ljV\]6ZS$d`o6g0V.il_[Vb7plZ{Ìg6UWV^bUS$d
V\]6ZhMblU\Z~_7jVN]`ZhMblo6blhMSVNS$iZ[f_8Y o6blUNU B
ª
` Ò Lx
6[$V\Z!ThHSfTNhMg`S$V!XuV\]6Z.hMb7oOblhHS$V\SfilZ]`Sfpl] o6bU\U 6[$V\Z!T UhHg`V\_7jkT\Z g6ZMd6hMehMbld|yZ^jk_lg6d6xYS$V\]nVN]`Z.UNb7mvZ:jk_lTNmsg`[rb 0
1
fcutoff =
2πRC
å dVN]`ZZMt`b7mvo`[fZhHSfThHg`S$V!XzV\]6ZMTNZSrUd`_T\ZUWSrUWVNb7dOhHZ_lV\]`Z!TVN]6b7dVN]`Z:[$_zblxTNZ!U\SfUWV\_T!XzUW_sV\]6b7VSrUV\]`Zi4bl[$g6Zjk_T
+S$dVN]`Zjk_lTNmsg`[rb`{
-U\Sfd`pbnUWV\Z!T\Z!_U\euUWV\Z!mµblUbo`TblhHV\SrhMb7[ZHt`blm~o6[$ZXbh!b7o6bhHS$V\_ThM_ld`d6Z!h5VNZ!xS$d¨UWZ!T\SfZ!U:YS$V\]V\]6ZVY,ZMZMV\Z!T
H
i
ìVNT\Z!|`[fZí^U\oOZb7ZMTYS$[f[U\ZMTNilZvblUsb]6S$p] oOblUNU 6[VNZMTXCSfmvoO_zUWSfd`pwbn]`Sfpl]¨Sfm~oyZ!x6b7d6hMZvV\_w[f_8Y §jkTNZ zg`Z!d6hHe|OblUNU B
x
U\S$pd6b7[rUMXEV\]`Z!T\Z!|zeo`T\Z!ilZ!dVNS$d6pVN]6b8V.oy_8YZ!T:jkT\_m¾|OZ!S$d6pwY,bUVNZ!x
_ld¨bU\oyZ!b7ZMTSfd`ZH/hHSfZMdzV^jk_T^T\Z!o`T\_0x0gOhHSfd`p
U\g6h]UW_g`d6x`U!{ å d[fS$ZjLblU\]`Sf_ldEX>bld}S$d6x`g6h5VN_lThM_ld`d6Z!h5VNZ!x}SfdU\ZMTNS$ZU^YS$V\]}VN]`ZY,_u_7jkZMTìk|6bU\Uí.U\oOZb7ZMT.YSf[$[
B
' x
U\ZMTNilZbUbs[$_8Y o6blUNU O[VNZMT,jk_lTV\]`Z:[f_8YjkTNZ zg`Z!d6hHSfZ!UV\]Ob8Vo6b7T\V\SrhHg`[rb7T,UWoyZ!bllZ!TSrUx`Z!U\S$pd`Z!xvVN_TNZMo6T\_0x0g6hMZl{ å d
V\]6SfU.U\Sfm~o6[$ZvZHt`blm~o6[$ZhHSfThHg`S$V!XVN]`ZmvSfx`TNbld`plZvUWoyZ!bllZ!T:SrU.U\g`|0Zh5V\ZxVN_V\]`Zvjkg`[f[U\oOZh5VNT\g`mµ_7j,jkT\Z g6ZMd6hMS$ZU Lx
4Ò
jkTN_lm¶V\]6ZvUWV\Z!T\Z!_ U_g0V\o6g0V!{ E
_lTNZsZ![fbl|O_TNb7V\Z O[VNZMT^d`ZMVY_T\0UblT\ZvU\_lmvZHVNS$mvZ!U:g6U\Z!xEX|`g0VV\]`SrU^U\]`_lg`[rxpS$iZ
Ò
el_gV\]6ZpZMd`Z!TNbl[6Srx0Z!b6{[fU\_s|yZ!blTSfdmvSfd6xVN]6b8V å mq_d`[fevU\]`_8YSfd`p.e_lg_d`Zh]6bld`d`Z![ìLZMS$V\]`Z!T,[fZHjV_lT,TNS$p]V5í
_ld~VN]`SfUUVNZMTNZM_^UWe0UWV\Z!m{TNZ!b7[`UWV\Z!T\Z!_Y_g`[fx~]6b4iZUWS$tU\oOZb7lZ!TNU Có:Y,_u_7jkZMTU!Xló:m~Srx0Tb7d`pZ!U!Xlb7dOx~óVY,ZMZMV\ZMTU!{
÷0øG¯0ø 21 4õ 345 ÚÓ\ õ ü`üùúû !]%^öü !òé
low-pass
Woofer
Stereo Midrange
high-pass
6Tweeter
7 _T|yZHV\V\ZMT:oyZMT\jk_lTNmvbld6hHZ^eZHVXOY,Z.mvS$p]zV[fS$Z^V\_]6b4ilZ.U\_lmvZ.uSfd6xw_7j98O[VNZMThMS$ThHg6SVhMb7oOb7|`[fZ._7j>o6bU\U\Sfd`p
jkTNZ :zg`ZMdOhHSfZ!UV\]6b7V:b7TNZ.|yZHVY,ZMZ!d[$_8Y2ìL|6blUNUíb7dOxn]`S$p]ìVNT\Z!|`[fZíV\_VN]`Z~m~Srx0Tb7d`pZsU\oOZb7lZ!TU\_V\]Ob8Vd6_ld`Z_7j
V\]6Zs[f_8Y#;_lT]`Sfpl]!;jkT\Z*:zg`ZMd6hMeU\S$pd6b7[CoO_8Y,ZMTSfUY,bUVNZ!xn_dbU\oOZb7lZ!TSfd6hMblo6b7|`[fZ._ljKZ- < hHSfZMdzV\[feT\Z!o`T\_0x0gOhHSfd`p
V\]6_U\ZvU\_lg6d6x`U!{ ]6b7VY,ZvY_g`[rx|yZ~[f_u_luSfd`pjk_T^SfUh!b7[f[$Zx
b>=@? ûyþBfA ÿ0? ú@ú46 8 [$V\Z!T!XEY]6Sfh]SfU:VN]`Z~V\_o`Sfh~_ljV\]6Z
d`ZMtzVU\Z!hHV\Sf_ldE{
¡¢H £¥¤
!; 48 !; :
]6S$p] oOblUNU O[VNZMTsbl[$[f_8YUjk_lT^Z!bUWewoOblUNU\blplZ~_7j]6S$p] §jkTNZ zg`Z!d6hHe
UWSfpld6bl[fUjkTN_lmµU\_lg6TNhMZsVN_[f_bxXbld6x
C< #; *:
x0S hMg`[VoOblUNU\blplZ:_7jC[f_8Y jkT\Z g6ZMd6hMeUWSfpld6bl[fU!{
j8
]6b7VZMmvZ!T\pZ!UjkTN_lm
V\]6ZU\ZMTNS$ZUhH_ms|`Sfd6b7V\Sf_ldw_7j>VN]`Z!U\Z.VY,_ 6[$V\Z!T:hMS$ThHg6SVUSrUbhHSfTNhMg`SVV\]6b7VYSf[$[_ld6[$e
*: )k
7b [f[f_8Y®o6bU\UNb7pZ_lj,VN]`_U\Z~jkT\Z zg`ZMd6hMS$ZUV\]Ob8VblT\Zvd`Z!SVN]`ZMT^VN_u_w]`S$p]¨d`_lTVN_z_w[f_8Y^{ UWSfd`pwTNZ!b7[hH_lmvoy_ld`Z!dzVNU!X
]`Z!T\ZSrUY]6b8VbVeuo`SrhMb7[EUNh]`Z!mvb7V\Srh:m~Sfpl]zV[f_u_l[fS$Z
Capacitive band-pass filter
Source lfilter
Low-pass
section
lfilter
High-pass
section
nR pC
2
2
o200 Ω
1
1 3
1 µF
mV 1V pC o2.5 µF nR 1 kΩ
1 load
1
0 0 0
Source lfilter
High-pass
section
lfilter
Low-pass
section
nR L
1 2
L nR
1 load
Í Ã0´É ª¶ ²H²Mà ª ²¤²MÃ0´Ã ¼³¾ Ã!; ª¯M¯¯ ´ ¶ ² ¼½¹«Î¶-¹À ´ ¯ ïB8cµ ¯ ² ï ¼½« ²Mà ¼½¯^¬ ´ ¯°¼³¾«R¼½«c¯ ²M´ ª¬Ï¹ Âd²°Ã0´± ¹ È#;® ª¯M¯4¯ ´ ¶ ² ¼³¹«
jÀ ªBË ´ ¯N«c¹a¬!¼³Ð ´µM´ «c¶ ´ ¼½«)¼ ² ¯'¹SÄ ´ µ ª ±³± ¹ ´ µ ª ² ¼½¹« Ç å ²#È ¼ ±½± ¯ ² ¼ ±½±8c±C²M´µ ¹ »!² ª ±½±Âѵ°´*:»c´ «c¶¼ ´ ¯ ² ¹
¹ Ã ¼½¾ Ã ¹ µN² ¹
¹ ± ¹ È^Ç
Ò Ã ¼ ±³´¤²MÃ0´ ¾ ´ « ´µ ª ± ¼Ì¬ ´ ªa¹  ¶-¹ÀÓº0¼½«0¼½«0¾ ± ¹ È#; ª¯°¯#ªB«¬ à ¼½¾ Ã0;® ª¯°¯ 8c±³²°´ µ ¯ ² ¹¾ ´-²°Ãc´µ#² ¹ÀjªBË ´ ªÉºªB«c¬ ª¯M¯
8c±³²°´ µ ¼Ì¯¯°¹ » «¬F¿¼ ² ¼Ì¯Ê«c¹ ²È ¼ ²°Ã ¹ »!² ¶ ´µ°² ª¼³« ± ¼³À¼ ² ª ² ¼½¹«c¯ Ç © ´ ¶ ª » ¯ ´^²°Ã ¼½¯ ²Å
´ ¹  ºcªB«¬ ;® ª¯M¯ 8c±³²°´µHÈ ¹ µ ˯#º Å
µM´±½Å ¼½«0¾K¹« ´ ¼ ²MÃ0´µ ¯ ´ ¶ ² ¼³¹« ² ¹ =Ô³Õ*ÖNê)» « È ªB« ²°´ ¬ ÂѵM´ :
»0´ «¶-¼ ´ ¯ ¿9¼ ² ¶ª«.º ´ ¬!¼ < ¶ »0±³²² ¹>¬ ´ ¯°¼½¾«.¯ » ¶ à ª 8c±³²°´µ
² ¹Zª ±½± ¹ È» « à ¼½«c¬ ´ µ°´ ¬ ª¯°¯MªB¾ ´XÈ ¼ ²Mà ¼½« ²MÃ0´ ¬ ´ ¯°¼ µM´ ¬ Âѵ°´*:»c´ «c¶ Ÿµ ª«0¾ ´Ç ©'¹ ²°ÃϲMÃ0´a± ¹ È#; ª¯M¯4ª«c¬ à ¼³¾ Ã!;® ª¯M¯
¯ ´ ¶ ² ¼³¹«c¯ È ¼ ±³± ª ±³È ª Å ¯aº ´ º ± ¹!¶@˼³«0¾§¯°¼³¾«cª ± ¯ ² ¹§¯°¹À ´¸´-ײM´ « ² ¿#ªB«c¬ ²MÃ0´ ¼ µ ¶-¹ÀÓº0¼½« ´ ¬ ´ й µ/² ÀjªBË ´ ¯  ¹ µ ª«
ª ²°²°´ « » ª ²°´ ¬ ìѵM´ ¬ » ¶ ´ ¬ªBÀ 0± ¼ ²°» ¬ 4´ í ¯°¼³¾«cª ± ª ² º ´ ¯ ² ¿ ´ Ä ´ «jª ²9²°Ã0´Ê´ ªËÓ¹ ²MÃ0´ïB ª¯M¯ ; ºcªB«¬ ïÊÂѵM´ :
»0´ «c¶ ÅÓµ ª«0¾ ´Ç
Øʹ ² ¼Ì¶ ´)²°Ã0´ ¶ »0µ Ä ´b´ ªËK¹« ²°Ãc´)0µM´ ļ½¹ » ¯ ð0ñ å°Ù'Úª«cª ±½Å ¯/¼Ì¯ Ó²MÃ0´)± ¹ª¬>Ĺ ±³² ª¾ ´ ¹ ·²°Ã ¼Ì¯ 8±C²M´µ « ´ Ä ´µÓµ ¼Ì¯ ´ ¯
ªBº¹SÄ ´aP0Ç¢BÛ Ä¹ ±³² ¯ ¿Fª ±³²°Ã ¹ » ¾ Ãϲ°Ã0´ ¯°¹ »0µ ¶ ´ Ĺ ±³² ª¾ ´ ¼Ì¯¤ª ÂÑ»c±³± Ĺ ±³² Ç Í Ã ¼Ì¯¤¯/¼½¾«cª ± ª ²/²M´ « » ª ² ¼³¹«Rº ´ ¶¹À ´ ¯HÀ¹ µM´
g Oló ôihõ \i]%^öQ÷0øùúû!]%^öü
0µ ¹«0¹ » «c¶ ´ ¬¸¼ Â%²MÃ0´Ó8±C²M´µ ¼½¯¤¬ ´ ¯/¼½¾« ´ ¬ ² ¹[º ´ Àa¹ µ°´ ¯ ´±½´ ¶ ² ¼³Ä ´ì ¯ ²M´´´µ ¶ »0µ Ä ´ ¿v«cª µ°µ ¹ Èd´ µ ºcª«c¬Ï¹ Â% ª¯M¯MªBº ±½´
ÂѵM´ :
»0´ «¶-¼ ´ ¯ íÜÇ
Í Ã0´ µ°´ ª µ°´ ¹ ²°Ã0´ µ À ´-²Mà ¹!¬0¯ ² ¹4ª¶ à ¼ ´ Ä ´ ºªB«c¬ ; ª¯°¯F¹ ´ µ ª ² ¼½¹« È ¼ ²°Ã ¹ »!² ¯Mª¶ µ ¼ 8 ¶-¼½«0¾4¯°¼½¾«cª ± ¯ ²Mµ°´ «0¾ ²MÃ^È ¼ ²Mà ¼½«
²°Ãc´^ ª¯M¯ ; ºcª«c¬ Ç Ò ´^È ¼ ±½± ¬!¼½¯M¶ » ¯°¯ ²Mà ¹¯ ´ À ´-²°Ã ¹¬c¯Êª ± ¼ ²/²M±³´^± ª ²M´µ ¼½« ²Mà ¼Ì¯Ê¶ à ª 0²°´µ*Ç
Ý.Þ)ßà[á-ßâäã
Ý.å ª¯M=@¯°? ªûy¾ þB´ fA ÿ0¹?S« æ@±½æHÅj8² ¹ ±C²M´ÂѵMµX´ È:
»0¹ ´ µ «cË!¶-¯ ¼ ´ ² ¯¹ÏÈ ¯M¶ ¼ ²°µMà ´´¼³«¸«§ª¹ »!¶ ²^´ µ/ÂѲ µMªB´ ¼½:
« »0µ ´ ªB«c«0¶-¾ ¼ ´ ´¯ Ç ²°Ã ª ² ª µM´² ¹¹ ± ¹ È ¹ µ^² ¹¹ à ¼½¾ à ¿D¾¼³Ä¼½«0¾ ´ ª¯ Å
Ý Ä
©'¼Ìª¯M«cª ; ¬ Ä ;´ µ ª¯M¯Mª ¯ Ç 8c±C²M´µ ¯Ê¶ª«[º ´ Àjª¬ ´ º Å ¯ ² ª¶@Ë
¼½«0¾ª ± ¹ È#; ª¯M¯ 8c±C²M´µ ¹« ²MÃ0´¤´ «c¬Á¹  ª à ¼½¾ Ã!; ª¯M¯ 8c±³²°´ µ ¿!¹ µ
Ý ï¶-¹å « ²/²M²Mµ ´ ¹ « ± » ¹ª « ²°!´ Å ï ¹ »0À µ ´ ¯ªB²°«´ ¯ µ°´ ² ¹c¹ ¿ Å µ°´¹ ¬ » » ª ¶ µ°´ ´¹ ï µ ª ²/¬!²M¼½´ À« » ¼³«cª ¼½² ¯ ¼³Ã «c¾ ¼³ïÉ«²°ªBÃ0À ´ 0¯°¼½± ¾¼ ²M«c» ª ¬ ± ´º Ç ´ ¼½Ò «0¾bÃ0´¯ ´« « ²#Å ¹ ² ». ²°»0µ «2¬!¹ È « ²°Ãc´ Ĺ ±½» À ´
¹ ²MÃ0´ ¯ ´ ªË ´ µ ¯ Ç
ÜÝ Üç TVUXWZY[]àDa\ áR_ài`ã9]
åªBº± ¯°¹S¹RÄ ´ ¶ª ª±³«c±½´ ¬Á¬ º =@´ ?± ¹ ûÈ þSA/ªèÔèæê é~ª æJµ/û² ¼½?S¶ I»0æëÕ± ª û µÊ¿ µ =@ªB?«0û¾ þS´ Aì°¯ èë´í² è@Ö-º I Åb¿i¹ ²Mµ)Ã0´ ûÕS¶¹IÖ@À îÁ 8c¹±³« ²°´ ´ µ« ¯ ² ¿ ÄS²°ª à ±½¼Ì»0¯Ó´ ˯ Ç ¼½«cØʬ§¹ ¹ ² Â'¯ 8»0±Cµ°²Mc´µ µa¼Ì¯/ ¼½«0ª¾ ¯M±³¯ Å ´ ¿0¯X¼ ² ª ±½¶±dªBÂÑ«¸µ°´*º :´»c´ Àj«c¶ª¼ ¬ ´ ´ ¯
¹ »0² ¹  ª ± ¹ È#; ª¯°¯Xª«c¬§ª à ¼³¾ Ã!;® ª¯M¯ 8c±³²°´ µ ¿vï » ¯ ²É± ¼½Ë ´b²MÃ0´ ºªB«c¬ ; ª¯°¯É¬ ´ ¯°¼³¾«¿ ´-× ¶ ´ !²Ó²Mà ª ²a²°Ã ¼½¯ ² ¼½À ´)È'´
¶-¹«0« ´ ¶ ²#²°Ã0´¤²È ¹ 8c±³²°´µ ¯ ´ ¶ ² ¼½¹«¯#¼³« ª µ ª ±³±½´±vÈ ¼ ²°ÃZ´ ª¶ à ¹ ²°Ã0´ µ ¼³«c¯ ²°´ ª¬[¹  ¼³«¸¯ ´µ ¼ ´ ¯ Ç
passes low frequencies
Low-pass filter
Signal
input
ðSignal
output
High-pass filter
pC
pC 1 pC
2 3
source nR nR
3 load
ñ!òCó
ò21#ô 345¤£®õö·÷#øùGúûöiüdý4õ g OBþ
Í Ã0´j± ¹ È#;® ª¯M¯ 8c±C²M´µ ¯ ´ ¶ ² ¼½¹«§¼Ì¯X¶¹À 0µ ¼½¯ ´ ¬Î¹ ÂÊÿ ¿ ÿ ¿iªB«¬.Ù ¼³«ªÍ¸¶-¹« 8 ¾ »0µ ª ² ¼½¹« Ç Í Ã0´bà ¼½¾ Ã0;
ª¯°¯ 8c±³²°´µ ¯ ´ ¶ ² ¼½¹«¼Ì¯É¶¹À 0µ ¼½¯ ´ ¬¹  ٠¿'ÙB¿%ª«c¬ ÿ )¼½«2ª Í
i¶-¹« 8 ¾ »0µ ª ² ¼³¹«ª¯ Èd´ ±³±®Ç ͹¾ ´²°Ã0´ µ ¿ ²Mà ¼½¯
ª µMµ ªB«0¾ ´ À ´ « ² ¼½¯H¶-¹ÀÀa¹« ±½Å Ë«0¹ È «Ïª¯4ªÍ È ¼³« ; Í 8c±³²°´ µ ¿v¾¼½Ä¼³«c¾b¯ à ª µ°¸µM´ ¯ ¹«c¯ ´XÈ·Ã0´ « ²°Ã0´ ¶-¹À ¹« ´ « ²
ÄSª ±½»0´ ¯·ª µ°´ ¶ Ã ¹
¯ ´ «)¼½« ²°Ã0´¤Â ¹ ±³± ¹ È ¼³«c¾ µ ª ² ¼³¹
¯
Component value ratios for
the "Twin-T" band-stop filter
nR = R2 = 2(R3)
1
pC = C = (0.5)C
¼½Ä ´ « ²°Ã0´ ¯ ´ ¶-¹À ¹« ´ « ²#µ ª ² ¼½¹¯ ¿ ²MÃ0´HÂѵ°´*:»c´ «c¶ Å ¹  Àjª × ¼½À » À µM´ ï ´ ¶ ² ¼³¹« ²MÃ0´ B «0¹ ² ¶ ÃbÂѵM´ :
»0´ «c¶ Å N¶ª«
2 3 1
lfilter
:L pC
1
1
1 2 3
mV 1V
1H 1 µF
nR 1 kΩ
1 load
0 0
ñ!ò<;ò Êý üdõ÷>= ô =aöùDúûöiü%ýõ g O@?
´ µ ¼ ´ ¯ 4 Ù¶¹À ¹« ´ « ² ¯ ª¯°¯·¯°¼³¾«cª ± ª ²ÊµM´ ¯°¹«cª«c¶ ´ ¿0ªB«c¬Áº ± ¹!¶@Ë[¯°¼³¾«cª ± ¯·¹  ªB« Å ¹ ²°Ãc´µ·ÂѵM´ :
»0´ «c¶-¼ ´ ¯ Âѵ ¹ À
¾ ´²/² ¼³«0¾ ² ¹ ²°Ã0´^± ¹ª¬ Ç
{x~tBxc{~0xc{Bzcrz!u2ycrz`s0rc{{.|t}Bu0x~
w2rcq{t*z
}2
qc.
~c}
dr
/rcq}ct z
¥
s}urcq.wN@,
/xbz
|
~0x wNM,
%/
c
N/ v 0
v %vcv /
!!
%/
!! %
v cv
%/
!! 'cv M
%*!! ' cv
%* !! % cv
%/
!! %cv @
/
!!
% cv
*
!!
%
vcv
/
!!
%vcv
/0
!!
%0cv
0!!
%
cv i
/
!!
% cv
/
!!
%cv
/
!!
%cv i
/
!!
%v cv
/
!!
%-cv
%/
!!
%cv
%* !!
%0 cv
%/
!!
%
cv
%/
!!
%cv
%/
!!
%cv
A Qr ¥w!!}u07r B!x2scxr{2ru~0x0{zcrzu|
~0x
cxzvqS¨%-D CE
¶¹ »0c±³´ ¹ Â4 ¹¼½« ² ¯ ² ¹R«c¹ ²°´
)¯ ´´)à ¹ È ²°Ã0´ µ°´ ¼½¯Éļ µ°²°» ª ±³±½Å «0¹K¯°¼½¾«cª ± ª ²/²°´ « » ª ² ¼³¹« È ¼ ²Mà ¼³« ²°Ãc´ ª¯M¯
ºcª«cå ¬FG ²°Ãc´Hµ ªB«c¾ ´ ¹ ÂÂѵM´ :
»0´ «c¶-¼ ´ ¯'« ´ ª µ'²°Ã0´¤± ¹ª¬bĹ ±C² ªB¾ ´4´ ªBËF-¿ » « ± ¼³Ë ´4²MÃ0´ ºcªB«c¬ ;® ª¯°¯ 8c±³²°´ µ ¯'Àjª¬ ´4Âѵ ¹À
¶ª ª¶¼ ² ¹ µ ¯Ê¹ µ ¼½«c¬ » ¶ ² ¹ µ ¯Hª ± ¹« ´Ç ± ¯°¹c¿F¯°¼³«c¶ ´X²Mà ¼½¯ 8c±³²°´ µ¤È ¹ µ Ë!¯Ê¹« ²°Ãc´É0µ ¼½«c¶-¼ 0±½´ ¹  ¯ ´ µ ¼ ´ ¯ 4 Ù µM´ ¯°¹«cª«c¶ ´ ¿
²°Ãc´[µM´ ¯°¹«cª« ²^Âѵ°´*:»c´ «c¶ Å ¹ ÂÊÈ·Ã ¼Ì¶ å à ¼½¯ » «cªBÐ ´ ¶ ²M´ ¬º Å ¶-¼ µ ¶ » ¼ ²ÉµM´ ¯°¼½¯ ² ª«c¶ ´ ¿ ²°Ã0´ Ī ±³»c´ ¹ ·²°Ã0´[± ¹
ª¬ µM´ ¯°¼½¯ ² ¹ µ
È ¼ ±³± «0¹ ² ¯°Ë ´È ²MÃ0´)´ ªË Âѵ°´*:
»0´ «c¶ ÅIÇ H ¹ È'´ Ä ´µ ¿D¬!¼³Ð ´µM´ « ² ÄSª ±½»0´ ¯  ¹ µX²MÃ0´[± ¹ª¬ µM´ ¯°¼½¯ ² ¹ Kµ JL"êÔêÔ ¶ à ªB«0¾ ´b²°Ãc´
¯ ²°´ ´ « ´ ¯MM¯ ɹ ÂD²°Ã0´ ©'¹!¬ ´¤0± ¹ ² ²°Ã0´ ¯ ´ ±³´ ¶ ² ¼½Ä¼ ²Å ɹ ÂD²°Ã0´¤8±C²M´µ Ç
Í Ã0´ ¹ ²MÃ0´µ ºª¯°¼½¶^¯ ²Å±³´ ¹ ÂDµ°´ ¯/¹«cªB« ² ºcª«c¬ ; ª¯M¯ 8c±C²M´µ ¯ ´ À 0± ¹ Å ¯#ª ² ªB«cË)¶-¼ µ ¶ » ¼ ² ª µ ª ±³±½´N± 4 Ù¶-¹ÀÓº0¼½«cª ;
² ¼½¹« ² ¹j¯ à ¹ µ°² ¹ »!² ¯°¼³¾«cª ± ¯ ² ¹¹ à ¼½¾ à ¹ µ#² ¹¹ ± ¹ È ¼½« ÂѵM´ :
»0´ «c¶ ÅbÂѵ ¹ÀV¾ ´²/² ¼½«0¾ ² ¹ ²MÃ0´^± ¹ªN¬
g OPO ih ô øHöiü%ý ñ!ò ùDúûöiüdý4õ
Parallel resonant band-pass filter
lfilter
nR
1 2 2
1
Q 2
mV 500 Ω
:L pC
1
1 1 Rload 1 kΩ
1V 100 10
mH µF
0 0
Í Ã0´4² ªB«c˶¼ µ ¶ » ¼ ²#È ¼ ±½±Ã ªÄ ´ ª ± ¹ ² ¹  ¼³À ´ ¬0ª«c¶ ´ ª ²'µ°´ ¯/¹«cªB«¶ ´ ¿ª ±½± ¹ È ¼³«0¾ ²°Ã0´ ¯/¼½¾«ª ±0² ¹Ó¾ ´-²'² ¹ ²MÃ0´H± ¹
ª¬
0 0
È ¼ ²°Ã À¼½«0¼³Àjª ± ª ²°²°´ « » ª ² ¼½¹« ÇÊk «c¬ ´ µ ¹ µ ¹SÄ ´ µ·µ°´ ¯/¹«cªB« ²·ÂѵM´ :
»0´ «c¶ Å ¿ à ¹ È'´ Ä ´µ ¿ ²°Ã0´Ó² ª«0ËÁ¶¼ µ ¶ » ¼ ²4È ¼ ±½±Ã ªÄ ´ ª
± ¹ È ¼½À ´ ¬cªB«c¶ ´ ¿c¯ à ¹ µ°² ¼½«0¾a¹ »!²·²MÃ0´ ¯°¼³¾«cª ± ª«c¬[¬ µ ¹ 0 ¼½«0¾Àa¹
¯ ² ¹  ¼ ² ª¶ µ ¹
¯°¯'¯ ´ µ ¼ ´ ¯ µM´ ¯°¼Ì¯ ² ¹ µ·ÿÇ
scr~!r!}}
x!}~0xc{z0rz!uycrzbscrc{{§|t}u0x~
w2rcq{t*z
~2
}.
S R
qc.
~c}
dr
/rcq}ct z
¥
s}urcq.wN@,
/xbz
|
~0x wNM,
%*
c
/0
v %-
cv !
%/
!! %c
%/
!! % v c
%*!! -cv M
%* !! v cv
%/
!! cv
/
!!
%cv
*
!!
%0cv
/
!!
%
cv @
/0
!!
'
cv
0!!
%cv
/
!!
% cv
/
!!
%0
cv
/
!!
%cv
/
!!
'0cv
/
!!
%
cv R
%/
!!
%
cv
%* !!
% vcv i
ñ!ò<;ò ýÊüdõ÷>= ô a= öùDúûöiü%ýõ g OO
%/
!!
%0cv
%/
!!
%
0
cv
%/
!!
% cv
A Qr ¥w!!}u07r B!x2scxr{2ru~0x0{zcrzu|
~0x
cxzvqS¨%-DCE
T » ¯ ²X± ¼½Ë ´j²MÃ0´)± ¹ È#;® ª¯M¯^ªB«c¬ à ¼½¾ Ã0;® ª¯°¯ 8±C²M´µ ¬ ´ ¯°¼³¾«c¯ µM´±½Å ¼³«0¾¸¹«§ªÏ¯ ´ µ ¼ ´ ¯ µ°´ ¯/¼Ì¯ ² ªB«c¶ ´ ªB«c¬§ª ª µ ª ±½±³´ ±
¯ à ¹ µ/² ¼³«0¾Z¶-¹À ¹« ´ « ²X² ¹Rª ²/²M´ « » ª ²M´b» « È ªB« ²°´ ¬ Âѵ°´*:»c´ «c¶¼ ´ ¯¿ ²°Ã ¼Ì¯ µ°´ ¯/¹«cªB« ² ¶-¼ µ ¶ » ¼ ² ¶ª«§« ´ Ä ´µXcµ ¹Sļ̬ ´
ÂÑ»0±½± ¼½« 0»!² ¯/¹ »0µ ¶ ´ %Ĺ ±C² ªB¾ ´² ¹ ²MÃ0´¤± ¹
ª¬ Ç Í Ã ª ² ¯ ´µ ¼ ´ ¯ µM´ ¯°¼½¯ ² ª«c¶ ´HÈ ¼ ±½± ª ±½È ª Å ¯dº ´ ¬ µ ¹ 0 ¼½«0¾¯/¹À ´ ªÀa¹ » « ²
¹  Ĺ ±C² ªB¾ ´ ¯°¹ ± ¹«c¾ª¯ ²°Ã0´ µ°´ ¼Ì¯·ª ± ¹
ª¬ µ°´ ¯/¼Ì¯ ² ªB«¶ ´ ¶-¹«0« ´ ¶ ²°´ ¬ ² ¹ ²MÃ0´ ¹ »0²°0»!² ¹ ²MÃ0´¤8c±³²°´ µ Ç
² ¯ à ¹ »0± ¬Éº ´ «c¹ ²°´ ¬ ²°Ã ª ²9²°Ã ¼Ì¯  ¹ µ À¹  ºªB«c¬ ; ª¯°¯ 8c±³²°´ µ ¶-¼ µ ¶ » ¼ ² ¼½¯9Ä ´µMÅ^ ¹ 0»0± ª µ ¼½«jªB«cª ± ¹¾ µ ª¬0¼³¹ ²°» «0¼³«c¾
¶-¼ µ ¶ » ¼ ²°µMÅ ¿  ¹ µ ¯ ´ ±³´ ¶ ² ¼½«0¾Óª ª µ°² ¼Ì¶ »0± ª µ%µ ª¬!¼³¹ Âѵ°´*:»c´ «c¶ ÅÓÂѵ ¹À ²°Ã0´ À »0±³² ¼ ²°» ¬ ´ ¯d¹ ÂFÂѵM´ :
»0´ «c¶-¼ ´ ¯dªÄª¼ ± ªBº ±³´#Âѵ ¹À
²°Ãc´ ª« ²M´ «0«ª Ç «.À¹¯ ² ª«cª ± ¹¾ µ ª¬0¼³¹ ²M» « ´ µ ¶¼ µ ¶ » ¼ ² ¯¿ ²MÃ0´[µ ¹ ² ª ² ¼³«0¾Î¬!¼Ìª ±d ¹ µ ¯ ² ª ² ¼½¹«2¯ ´ ±³´ ¶ ² ¼½¹«.Àa¹SÄ ´ ¯Éª
ÄSª µ ¼½ªº ±½´ ¶ ª ª¶-¼ ² ¹ µ ¼½«Zª ² ªB«cË)¶-¼ µ ¶ » ¼ ² Ç
Í Ã0´ ÄSª µ ¼½ªº ±½´ ¶ ª ª¶-¼ ² ¹ µ ªB«¬Kª¼ µ°; ¶¹ µM´ ¼½«c¬ » ¶ ² ¹ µ ¯ à ¹ È «Î¼³« ²°Ãc´ ªº¹SÄ ´Écà ¹ ² ¹¾ µ ª cà ¹  ªÁ¯°¼½À c±³´µ ª¬!¼½¹
-¶ ¹À 0µ ¼Ì¯ ´²MÃ0´ ÀjªB¼½« ´±½´ À ´ « ² ¯·¼³« ²MÃ0´¤² ª«0Ë[¶¼ µ ¶ » ¼ ²·8c±³²°´ µÊ» ¯ ´ ¬ ² ¹b¬!¼Ì¯M¶ µ ¼³À¼½«cª ²M´ ¹« ´^µ ª¬!¼½¹¯ ² ª ² ¼½¹«U
¯Ê¯°¼½¾«cª ±
Âѵ ¹À ª«0¹ ²MÃ0´µ*Ç
T » ¯ ² ª¯ Èd´ ¶ ªB« » ¯ ´ ¯ ´ µ ¼ ´ ¯9ª«c¬ ª µ ª ±½±³´ ±F4 Ù µ°´ ¯/¹«cªB« ² ¶-¼ µ ¶ » ¼ ² ¯ ² ¹ ª¯M¯i¹« ±½ÅX²Mà ¹¯ ´'Âѵ°´*:
»0´ «c¶¼ ´ ¯ È ¼ ²°Ã ¼½«jª
¶ ´ µ/² ªB¼½« µ ªB«c¾ ´ ¿ Èd´ ¶ ªB«jª ± ¯/¹ » ¯ ´#²°Ãc´ À ² ¹^º ± ¹¶@Ë Âѵ°´*:
»0´ «c¶¼ ´ ¯ È ¼ ²Mà ¼½«bª^¶ ´µ°² ª¼³« µ ªB«0¾ ´ ¿¶ µ°´ ª ² ¼½«0¾^ª¤ºcª«c¬ ; ¯ ² ¹
8c±³²°´ µ Ç å ¾ªB¼½«¿ Èd´Ã ªÄ ´É²È ¹ÁÀªBï¹ µ ¯ ²°µ ª ²M´ ¾¼ ´ ¯ ² ¹  ¹ ±½± ¹ È ¼³«§¬!¹¼³«0¾ ²Mà ¼½¯ ¿ ² ¹ » ¯ ´a´ ¼ ²MÃ0´µ ¯ ´ µ ¼ ´ ¯H¹ µ^ ª µ ª ±½±³´ ±
µM´ ¯°¹«cª«c¶ ´Ç 7D¼ µ ¯ ² ¿ È'´
±½±F± ¹¹Ë[ª ²#²°Ã0´ ¯ ´µ ¼ ´ ¯#ÄSª µ ¼ ´²Å
g OPV ih ô øHöiü%ý ñ!ò ùDúûöiüdý4õ
Series resonant band-stop filter
R1 2
1 2
Q
500 Ω
mV 1V
L1 100 mH
Rload
n 1 kΩ
1
pC 3
10 µF
1
0 0
Ò Ã0´ « ²MÃ0´ ¯ ´µ ¼ ´ ¯ 4 Ù.¶-¹Àɺ0¼½«cª ² ¼³¹« µM´ ª¶ Ã0´ ¯ µM´ ¯°¹«cª«c¶ ´ ¿S¼ ² ¯9Ä ´ µ°ÅÓ± ¹ È ¼³À ´ ¬0ª«c¶ ´ ¯ à ¹ µ/² ¯i¹ »!²9²MÃ0´ ¯/¼½¾«ª ± ¿
0
¬ µ ¹ 0 ¼³«0¾¼ ² ª¶ µ ¹
¯°¯ µ°´ ¯/¼Ì¯ ² ¹ µ·ÿ ª«c¬ 0µM´ Ä ´ « ² ¼½«0¾É¼ ² ¯ ª¯M¯°ª¾ ´ ¹« ² ¹ ²MÃ0´^± ¹
ª¬ Ç
{x~tBxc{~0xc{Bzcrz!u2ycrz`{u0s|t}Bu0x~
w2rcq{t*z
~2
}.
S R
qc.
~c}
dr
/rcq}ct z
¥
s}urcq.wN@,
/xbz
|
~0x wNM,
/
c
c
/c
v /!!
%/
!! %
vcv
%/ 0
!!
%v cv
%/
!!
%0v cv
%/
!!
% cv
/
!!
cv
*
v !!
cv Î
/
!!
- cv @
/
!!
%c
D
/
!!
% c
! !!
% c
/0
!!
c
@
/
!!
%c D
/ !!
% c
/
!!
' c
/
!!
% c
/
!!
% c
D
%/0!!
cv
%*
!!
-cv @
ñ!ò<;ò ýÊüdõ÷>= ô a= öùDúûöiü%ýõ g OBÛ
%/
!!
v cv Î
%/
!!
0cv Î
W uYq X|
~0x
0xzvqSD ¨ Z A\[ ~0xc{Bzcrz!u¥|~0x
cxBzvqS¨*%*D CE
Ø ´×² ¿ È'´¤È ¼ ±½±´-× ªÀa¼½« ´H²°Ãc´^ ª µ ª ±½±³´ ±vµ°´ ¯/¹«cªB« ² ºcªB«c¬ ; ¯ ² ¹ )8c±³²°´ µ
Parallel resonant band-stop filter
pC 10 µF
1
1 2
:L
mV 1V
1 100 mH
nR 1 kΩ
1 load
Í Ã0´X0 ª µ ª ±½±³´ ±]4 Ù¶¹À ¹« ´ « ² ¯ 0µM´ ¯ ´ « ² ª à ¼³¾ à 0 ¼½À ´ ¬cªB«c¶ ´ ª ²µ°´ ¯/¹«cªB« ²ÊÂѵM´ :
»0´ «c¶ Å ¿ ²MÃ0´µM´ º Å º ± ¹!¶@˼½«0¾
²°Ãc´ ¯/¼½¾«ª ±iÂѵ ¹À ²MÃ0´b± ¹ª¬Kª ²^²°Ã ª ²XÂѵ°´*:
»0´ «c¶ ÅÇ Ùd¹«Ä ´µ ¯ ´±½Å ¿¼ ²Ó ª¯°¯ ´ ¯^¯°¼³¾«cª ± ¯ ² ¹ ²MÃ0´b± ¹ª¬Kª ² ªB« Å ¹ ²°Ã0´ µ
ÂѵM´ :
»0´ «¶-¼ ´ ¯ Ç
scr~!r!}}
x!}~0xc{z0rz!uycrbz {Su0s|t}u0x~
w2rcq{t*z
}2
S R
qc2
~c}
dr
/rcq}ct z
s}urcq.wN@
,
/xzb
|
~0x wNM,
%
c
/
c
%
c
v !
/
!!
%0cv
/
!!
%
cv
*!!
%v cv
* !!
% cv
/
!!
% cv
/
!!
% cv
/!!
%cv
/
!!
%0cv D
!
v !!
%-
cv D
!!!
% cv
g VP ih ô øHöiü%ý ñ!ò ùDúûöiüdý4õ
/
!!
%0
cv
/
!!
cv
/
!!
'0cv
/
!!
%0cv
/
!!
%
cv
/
!!
%
v cv D
/ 0
!!
%0cv D
/
!!
%vcv
/0!!
%vcv
%/
!!
%cv
W uYq X|
~0x
0xzvqSD ¨ Z A\[ ~0xc{Bzcrz!u¥|~0x
cxBzvqS¨*%*D CE
^ «c¶ ´ ª¾ªB¼½«¿F«0¹ ² ¼Ì¶ ´Ã ¹ ȲMÃ0´ ªBº¯ ´ «c¶ ´ ¹  ªÁ¯ ´µ ¼ ´ ¯ µ°´ ¯/¼Ì¯ ² ¹ µ ÀjªBË ´ ¯  ¹ µ À¼½«0¼³À » À ª ²/²°´ « » ª ² ¼³¹«  ¹ µ ª ±³±
²°Ãc´ ¬ ´ ¯°¼ µM´ _¬ ª¯M¯ ´ `¬ #¯/¼½¾«ª ± ¯ Ç Í Ã0´ ªBÀ 0± ¼ ²°» ¬ ´ ª ²·²°Ã0´ «c¹ ² ¶ Ã[ÂѵM´ :
»0´ «¶ Å ¿c¹« ²°Ã0´ ¹ ²°Ã0´ µ·Ã ªB«c¬¿0¼½¯#Ä ´µMÅb± ¹ È^Ç
«Z¹ ²MÃ0´µ·È ¹ µ ¬0¯ ¿ ²Mà ¼Ì¯·¼½¯·ªÄ ´µMÅ ¯ ´±½´ ¶ ² ¼½Ä ´ 8c±³²°´ µ Ç
«ª ±½±²°Ã0´ ¯ ´#µM´ ¯°¹«cª« ²G8c±³²°´µ ¬ ´ ¯°¼³¾«c¯¿ ²°Ã0´ ¯ ´±½´ ¶ ² ¼³Ä¼ ²Å ¬ ´ ´ «c¬0¯i¾ µM´ ª ²°±½Å^»0 ¹« ²°Ã0´ 0»0µ ¼ ²Å ¹ Âc²MÃ0´ ¼³«¬ » ¶ ;
² ª«c¶ ´ ªB«c¬¸¶ ª ª¶-¼ ² ª«c¶ ´X» ¯ ´ ¬ Ç Â9²°Ãc´µM´ ¼Ì¯ª« Å ¯ ²Mµ ª ÅÁµM´ ¯°¼½¯ ² ª«c¶ ´ ´ ¯ ´ ¶-¼Ìª ±½±³ÅZ± ¼³Ë ´±½Å ¼½« ²°Ãc´ ¼½«c¬ » ¶ ² ¹ µ Ü¿ ²Mà ¼½¯
È ¼ ±³± ¬!¼³À¼½«0¼Ì¯ ÃZ²MÃ0´X8c±³²°´ µ
¯Êªº0¼ ± ¼ ²Å)² ¹ 8 « ´ ±³Å ¬!¼½¯M¶ µ ¼½Àa¼½«cª ²°´^ÂѵM´ :
»0´ «c¶-¼ ´ ¯ ¿ª¯ Èd´ ±³± ª¯·¼½« ²°µ ¹¬ » ¶ ´ ª« ² ¼ µ°´ ¯/¹«cªB« ²
´ Ð ´ ¶ ² ¯ ²Mà ª ²ÊÈ ¼ ±½± ¯/Ë ´È²MÃ0´^´ ªB`Ë aS«0¹ ² ¶ Ã)ÂѵM´ :
»0´ «c¶ ÅÇ
È ¹ µ ¬É¹  ¶ª »!² ¼½¹« ² ¹ ²Mà ¹¯ ´ ¬ ´ ¯°¼½¾«0¼½«0¾ ± ¹ È#; ª¯M¯iªB«c¬ à ¼½¾ Ã0;® ª¯°¯ 8c±³²°´ µ ¯i¼Ì¯9¼½«¹ µ ¬ ´µ ª ²i²Mà ¼½¯ ¹¼³« ² Ç Âê²°´µ
ª¯M¯ ´ å ¯M¯/¼½«0¾ ²°Ãc´ ¯ ² ª«c¬0ª µ ¬ ÿ Ù ªB«c¬ 4ÿ¥± ¹ È#; ª¯M¯NªB«¬ à ¼½¾ Ã!; ª¯M¯ 8±C²M´µ ¬ ´ ¯°¼³¾«c¯ ¿¼ ² À¼½¾ Ã
² ¹!¶ ¶ »0µd² ¹aªÓ¯ ²°» å ¬ ´ « ²
²°Ã ª ² ªÁº ´²/²°´ µ ¿Àa¹ µ°´a´ Ð ´ ¶ ² ¼½Ä ´ ¬ ´ ¯/¼½¾«Î¹ Â%± ¹ È#; ª¯M¯4¹ µ¤Ã ¼³¾ Ã!; ª¯M¯ 8c±C²M´µ À¼½¾ Ã
² º ´µM´ ª ± c¼ b ´ ¬Rº Å ¶-¹ÀÓº0¼½«0¼½«0¾
¶ª ª¶¼ ² ¼³Ä ´ ª«c¬Á¼³«¬ » ¶ ² ¼³Ä ´^´±½´ À ´ « ² ¯ ² ¹¾ ´-²MÃ0´µ·± ¼³Ë ´H²°Ã ¼Ì¯
Capacitive/inductive low-pass filter
filter
L1 2 L2
1 3
100 mH 100 mH
mV 1V pC nR 1 kΩ
1
1 1 µF load
0 0
Í Ã0´ ¼½«c¬ » ¶ ² ¹ µ ¯Ê¯ à ¹ »0± ¬Áº ± ¹!¶@Ë[ª« Å)à ¼³¾ ÃZÂѵ°´*:
»0´ «c¶¼ ´ ¯¿ È·Ã ¼ ±½´¤²°Ãc´ ¶ª ª¶¼ ² ¹ µ ¯ à ¹ »0± ¬Z¯ à ¹ µ°² ¹ »!² ª« Å)à ¼³¾ Ã
0
ÂѵM´ :
»0´ «¶-¼ ´ ¯·ª¯ È'´±½± ¿!º¹ ²°ÃZÈ ¹ µ ˼½«0¾ ² ¹¾ ´-²MÃ0´µ#² ¹ª ±³± ¹ È ¹« ±½Åb± ¹ ÈÂѵ°´*:
»0´ «c¶ Å ¯°¼³¾«cª ± ¯ ² ¹ µM´ ª¶ Ã)²°Ã0´^± ¹ª¬ Ç
²8µ ¯ ² ¿ ²Mà ¼½¯i¯ ´´ À¯ ² ¹Hº ´ ª4¾¹¹!¬X¯ ²Mµ ª ²°´ ¾ Å ¿ªB«¬ ´± ¼½Àa¼½«cª ²°´ ¯ ²°Ãc´ « ´ ´ ¬  ¹ µ ª4¯ ´µ ¼ ´ ¯ µM´ ¯°¼½¯ ² ª«c¶ ´ÇUH ¹ È'´ Ä ´µ ¿
²°Ãc´ å À¹ µM´ ¼³«c¯°¼½¾ Ã
²/ÂÑ»0± ¯ ²M» ¬ ´ « ²%È ¼ ±½±cµM´ ¶-¹¾«0¼cb ´'²Mà ª ² ª« Å ¶-¹ÀÓº0¼½«cª ² ¼³¹«¹  ¶ª ª¶-¼ ² ¹ µ ¯9ª«c¬a¼³«¬ » ¶ ² ¹ µ ¯ ² ¹¾ ´²°Ã0´ µ
¼½«>ªZ¶¼ µ ¶ » ¼ ² ¼½¯ ± ¼½Ë ´±½Å¸² ¹Z¶ ª » ¯ ´µ°´ ¯/¹«cªB« ²¤´ Ð ´ ¶ ² ¯ ² ¹ à ª 0´ «>ª ² ªZ¶ ´ µ/² ªB¼½« ÂѵM´ :
»0´ «c¶ ÅÇÿÊ´ ¯°¹«cª«c¶ ´ ¿ª¯ È'´
à ªÄ ´ ¯ ´´ «>º ´Â ¹ µM´ ¿i¶ªB«§¶ ª » ¯ ´ ¯ ²Mµ ª«0¾ ´a²Mà ¼³«c¾¯ ² ¹ à ª 0´ « GÇ 4´-²
¯ 0± ¹ ² dª F°Ù'ÚªB«ª ±½Å ¯°¼Ì¯^ªB«c¬>¯ ´´jÈ·Ã ª ²
à ª 0´ «c¯·¹SÄ ´µ ª È ¼½¬ ´HÂѵM´ :
»0´ «c¶ Åbµ ªB«c¾ ´
ñ!ò<;ò ýÊüdõ÷>= ô a= öùDúûöiü%ýõ gVg
}0q}
¦s0rc{{|tB}u0x~
w2rcq{t*z
}2
S R
qc.
}
S R
~c}
dr
/rcq}ct z
s}urcq.wN@,
/xzb
|
~0x wNM, /
c
v %*
c
/!! %-
!
/
!!
!
!!!
! @
/0!!
-! Î
%!
v !!
! Î
%/
!!
v !
%/
!!
!
%/ 0
!!
!
'/!!
% !
'/
!!
%v! D
%/
!!
%- !
%/
!!
%!
%/
!!
!
%/
!!
!
%* !!
% cv
%/
!!
%cv
%*!!
%-cv
%/
!!
% cv
%/
!!
'
cv
%/
!!
%cv K
/
!!
%-cv
Ò Ã ª ²ÊÈ ª¯·¯ »0c ¹
¯ ´ ¬ ² ¹jº ´ ª ± ¹ È#; ª¯M¯ 8c±³²°´µÊ²°»0µ «c¯Ê¹ »!²·² ¹jº ´ ªºcª«c¬ ; ª¯M¯ 8c±³²°´µ4È ¼ ²Mà ª ´ ªBË[¯°¹À ´;
È·Ã0´ µ°´ ª µ ¹ » «c¬ ?@ePOH b7fdÍ Ã0´ ¶ ª ª¶-¼ ² ª«c¶ ´ ªB«¬)¼½«c¬ » ¶ ² ª«c¶ ´ ¼½« ²°Ã ¼Ì¯ 8c±³²°´ µ ¶-¼ µ ¶ » ¼ ² ª µM´ ª ²/² ªB¼½«0¼½«0¾ µ°´ ¯/¹«cªB«¶ ´
ª ²j²Mà ª ²j ¹¼½« ² ¿·¶ µM´ ª ² ¼½«0¾Îª ± ª µ ¾ ´ Ĺ ±C² ªB¾ ´ ¬ µ ¹ ª µ ¹ » «c¬Ù ¿ È·Ã ¼½¶ à ¼Ì¯j¯ ´ ´ «ª ²²°Ãc´¸± ¹
ª¬F¿ µ°´ ¾ª µ ¬ ±½´ ¯M¯É¹ Â
4
¯ª ²°²°´ « » ª ² ¼½«0¾j¼½« g »0´ «c¶ ´Ç Í Ãc´ ¹ »!²M0»!² Ĺ ±³² ª¾ ´H² ¹ ²MÃ0´X± ¹ª¬Áª ²Ê²°Ã ¼½¯ ¹¼³« ² ª¶ ²°» ª ±½±³Å[´-× ¶ ´ ´ ¬0¯ ²MÃ0´ ¼½« 0»!²
믰¹ »cµ ¶ ´ DĹ ±C² ªB¾ ´ f ± ¼ ²/²M±³´ Àa¹ µ°´#µM´ g ´ ¶ ² ¼³¹« µ°´ Ä ´ ª ± ¯ ²Mà ª ² ¼ U 4 ªB«c¬bÙ ª µ°´ ª ²Nµ°´ ¯/¹«cªB«c¶ ´ ¿ ²MÃ0´ÅaÈ ¼ ±³± ¼³À ¹¯ ´
ªbÄ ´µMÅ)Ã0´ ªÄ Å ëÄ ´µMå ÅZ± ¹ È ¼½À ´ ¬0ªB«c¶ ´ ± ¹
ª¬Z¹« ²°Ã0´ å Ù¯/¹ »0µ ¶ ´ ¿ È·Ã ¼Ì¶ à À¼³¾ Ã
² «0¹ ² º ´ ¾¹¹!¬ ´ ¼ ²°Ãc´µ*Ç Ò ´
±³±
µM» « ²MÃ0´ ¯MªBÀ ´ ªB«cª ±³Å ¯°¼½¯#ªB¾
ªB¼½«¿¹« ±½Åj²Mà ¼½¯ ² ¼½À ´¤0± ¹ ²°² ¼½«0¾[Ù
¯#Ĺ ±C² ªB¾ ´ ª«c¬ ²MÃ0´ ¯°¹ »0µ ¶ ´ ¶ »0µMµM´ « ² ª ± ¹«0¾ È ¼ ²MÃ
± ¹ª¬[Ĺ ±C² ªB¾ ´
}
7x B!x`z 5h
i h[wN@,
5 h[wN@,
g Ve ih ô øHöiü%ý ñ!ò ùDúûöiüdý4õ
Z5hKt°w)
|
~0x wNM,
b B
cv %-
cv ! %-
!
M B
%-
cv ! %-
! !v
ZB
c %-
c c
%-
c
/
!!
! G Z
!!!
! Z @
/0!!
-! Z Z K
%!
v !!
! Z K
%/
!!
v ! ZÆ
%/
!!
! j Z
%/ 0
!!
! Z
'/!!
% ! Z
'/
!!
%v! Z i
%/
!!
%- ! l k
%/
!!
%! \ Z%
%/
!!
! Z
m
%/
!!
! Z
%* !!
% cv Z
%/
!!
%cv Æn Z
%*!!
%-cv Z
%/
!!
% cv Zd
%/
!!
'
cv ZÆ
%/
!!
%cv Z K
/
!!
%-cvÁ Z
»0µM´¤´ «0¹ » ¾ à ¿ Èd´ ¯ ´´¤²°Ãc´ Ĺ ±³² ª¾ ´ ª¶ µ ¹
¯°¯·Ù ªB«c¬ ²MÃ0´ ¯/¹ »0µ ¶ ´ ¶ »0µMµ°´ « ² ¯ ¼½Ë¼³«0¾ ² ¹bª à ¼³¾ Ã[ ¹¼½« ² ª ²·²°Ãc´
¯MªBÀ ´aÂѵ°´*:»c´ «c¶ ÅRÈ·Ã0´ µ°´a²°Ãc´j± ¹
ª¬KĹ ±³² ª¾ ´ ¼Ì¯¤Àª × ¼³À » À Ç Â'È'´Èd´ µ°´´×´ ¶ ² ¼½«0¾ ²°Ã ¼½¯ 8±C²M´µ^² ¹ 0µ ¹Sļ̬ ´ ª
¯°¼³À 0±½´^± ¹ È#; ª¯°¯ ÂÑ» «c¶ ² ¼½¹«¿ Èd´ À¼³¾ Ã
² º ´ ¬!¼Ì¯°ª 0 ¹¼½« ²M´ ¬Áº Åj²°Ãc´^µ°´ ¯ »0±³² ¯ Ç
o ´ ¯ ¼ ²M´Ï²Mà ¼½¯ » «c¼³« ²°´ «c¬ ´ ¬ µ°´ ¯/¹«cªB«¶ ´ ¿ ± ¹ È#; ª¯M¯ 8c±³²°´ µ ¯[Àjª¬ ´K»0 ¹  ¶ ª ª¶-¼ ² ¹ µ ¯[ªB«c¬¼½«c¬ » ¶ ² ¹ µ ¯[ª µM´
ÂѵM´ :
»0´ « ²M±³Åj» ¯ ´ ¬[ª¯ 8 «cª ± ¯ ² ª¾ ´ ¯%¼½« å Ù aPo¤Ù ¹ È'´µ ¯ »0c0± ¼ ´ ¯ ² ¹ 8c±³²°´ µ'²°Ã0´H» « È ª« ²°´ ¬ å p Ù µ ¼ 00±½´ XĹ ±³² ª¾ ´
¹ »0² ¹ ²°Ã0´ o¤Ù¶-¹«Ä ´µ°²°´ ¬ Âѵ ¹À å Ù Ç Ò ÃÅ ¼½¯ ²°Ã ¼Ì¯ ¿
¼ ²Mà ¼½¯ ª µ/² ¼½¶ »0± ª µN8±C²M´µ ¬ ´ ¯°¼³¾« ¹¯M¯ ´ ¯°¯ ´ ¯dª ¹ ²°´ « ² ¼Ìª ±½±³Å
²°µ ¹ » º ±³´ ¯/¹À ´HµM´ ¯°¹«ªB« ²' ¹¼½« )² q
Í Ã0´ ªB«¯ È'´µi± ¼ ´ ¯9¼³« ²MÃ0´ ¯ ´ ±³´ ¶ ² ¼½¹«¹ Âc8c±³²°´ µ ¶-¹À ¹« ´ « ² ¯/c¼ b ´ ¯9ªB«c¬ ²°Ã0´#ÂѵM´ :
»0´ «c¶-¼ ´ ¯ ´ «c¶-¹ » « ²°´ µ°´ ¬ Âѵ ¹Àª«
Ùå ao^Ù¶¹«Ä ´ µ/²M´µ µM´ ¶ ² ¼ 8c´µ Ç Ò Ã ª ²ÊÈd´
µM´²°µMÅ ¼½«0¾ ² ¹j¬!¹¼½«¸ªB« å Ù ao^Ù ¹ Èd´ µ ¯ »0c0±³Åb8c±C²M´µ ¼Ì¯Ê¯ ´ ª µ ª ²°´
o^ÙĹ ±³² ª¾ ´HÂѵ ¹À ªb¯/Àjª ±³± ªBÀ¹ » « ² ¹ Â9µ°´ ± ª ² ¼½Ä ´±½Å)à ¼³¾ Ã!; ÂѵM´ :
»0´ «c¶ Å å ÙĹ ±C² ªB¾ ´Ç Í Ãc´^8c±³²°´µ ¼³«¬ » ¶ ² ¹ µ ¯4ª«c¬
¶ª ª¶¼ ² ¹ µ ¯ª µ°´ ¾ ´ « ´µ ª ±½±³Å¸:
» ¼ ²°´a± ª µ ¾ ´ ¯ ´ Ä ´µ ª i± HÊ´ « µMÅ ¯  ¹ µ²MÃ0´ ¼³«¬ » ¶ ² ¹ µ ¯¤ªB«c¬ ²°Ã ¹ » ¯°ª«c¬0¯H¹ 5 r 7  ¹ µH²°Ãc´
¶ª ª¶¼ ² ¹ µ ¯¤¼½¯ ²Å ¼Ì¶ª ± Ü¿iÀjªB˼½«0¾ ²°Ãc´b8c±³²°´ µ
¯ µM´ ¯°¹«cª« ²^Âѵ°´*:»c´ «c¶ Å Ä ´µMÅ ¿Ä ´µMÅK± ¹ È^Ç o¤Ù ¹  ¶-¹ »cµ ¯ ´ ¿ à ª¯Óª
ÂѵM´ :
»0´ «c¶ Å K¹  b ´ µ ¹¿%¯/¹ ²MÃ0´µM´
¯«0¹ È ª Å ¼ ² ¶ ªB« ÀªË ´ ªB« 4 ÙV¶-¼ µ ¶ » ¼ ²bµ°´ ¯/¹«cª ²M´Ç Í Ã0´Zµ ¼ 00±½´ Ĺ ±C² ªB¾ ´ ¿
¹« ²MÃ0´ ¹ ²°Ã0´ µXà ªB«¬F¿G¼Ì¯ÓªZ«c¹« ; ¯/¼½« » ¯°¹¼Ì¬0ª ± å ÙĹ ±C² ªB¾ ´ ¶¹«c¯°¼Ì¯ ² ¼³«0¾¸¹  ª ÂÑ» «c¬0ªÀ ´ « ² ª ±%Âѵ°´*:
»0´ «c¶ Å ª ²X±³´ ª¯ ²
²È ¼Ì¶ ´¤²°Ãc´¤Âѵ°´*:»c´ «c¶ Å ¹ ÂD²°Ã0´ ¶¹«Ä ´ µ/²M´ ¬ å ÙĹ ±³² ªB¾ ´ ¿ È ¼ ²°ÃZà ª µ À¹«c¼½¶ ¯#Àª« Åj² ¼½À ´ ¯ ²Mà ª ² ¼½«¸ª¬0¬!¼ ² ¼½¹« Ç 70¹ µ
0±½» ¾ ; ¼½« ; ²MÃ0´-;È ª ±½±! ¹ È'´µ ¯ »000± ¼ ´ ¯ µM» «0«0¼½«0¾¤¹« OPH b Ù ¹ Èd´ µ OPH b k «0¼ ²°´ ¬' ² ª ²°´ ¯ E?BPH b·¼½«jÚ »0µ ¹ ´ -¿
²°Ãc´j± ¹ È'´ ¯ ²ÂѵM´ :
»0´ «c¶ Åϲ°Ã0´8c±³²°´ µXÈ ¼ ±³±N´ Ä ´ µ ¯ ´´ ¼Ì¯ g eå sP H bt g PnP H bj¼½«ÎÚ »0µ ¹ ´ Ü¿ È·Ã ¼½¶ à ¼Ì¯ Èd´ ±³± ªº¹SÄ ´ ¼ ² ¯
µM´ ¯°¹«cª« ²9 ¹¼½« ² Ç Í Ã0´µM´- ¹ µ°´ ¿ ²°Ã0´4 ¹ ²°´ « ² ¼½ª ±³±½ÅX²Mµ ¹ » º ±½´ ¯°¹À ´#µ°´ ¯/¹«cªB« ²9 ¹¼³« ² ¼½«jª^¯ » ¶ à ª 8±C²M´µ ¼Ì¯N¶-¹À 0±³´²°´ ±³Å
!ñ ò<;ò ýÊüdõ÷>= ô =aöùDúûöiü%ýõ g Vþ
ªÄ¹¼½¬ ´ ¬ Ç
Í Ã0´H ¹ ±½± ¹ È ¼³«0¾'u°Ù'Ú2ª«cª ±½Å ¯/¼Ì¯#¶ª ± ¶ »c± ª ²°´ ¯ ²MÃ0´ Ĺ ±C² ªB¾ ´ ¹ »0²°0»!² Ù¥ª«c¬so^Ù>  ¹ µ ¯ » ¶ à ª 8±C²M´µ ¿ È ¼ ²MÃ
¯ ´µ ¼ ´ L¯ o¤Ù2ªB«¬ å Ùv g eBPH bSiĹ ±³² ªB¾ ´ ¯°¹ »cµ ¶ ´ ¯ 0µ ¹Sļ½¬!¼½«0¾^ª µ ¹ » ¾ à ª 00å µ ¹ × ¼½Àjª ² ¼³¹«É¹ ²MÃ0´ À¼ ×!´ ¬ ; ÂѵM´ :
»0´ «c¶ Å
¹ »0²°0»!² ¹  ª« å ÙaPo¤Ù¥¶-¹«
Ä ´µ°²°´ µ Ç
x
AC/DC power supply filter
:L :L
1 3 2 w
2 4
mV 3H 2H
nR
12 V
2
pC y
9500 1 kΩ
1 µF
load
mV
1
1
1V
120 Hz
0 0 0
rc7q z)qsc¦cx~{*ss}¨¥|t}u0x~
w2rcq{t*z
w0
¹ q
}.
qc.
}
¥
~c}
dr
1 q.w0
/rcq}ct z
s!~t*z!f u q2wN°\
s!~t*z!urcq2wN°\
/xbz
w0
wN°
/
!! /
!! { [ w0}u0r7B0xru}rd|Z
w0}u{
|
~0x wN°
/
!!
%F
c
} [ w0}u0r7B0xru}rd|Zd
~RGt
q~0w0!}Bu{
Ò¼ ²°Ã ª ÂÑ»0±½± g e Ĺ ±³² ¯ o¤Ù ª ²^²MÃ0´b± ¹ª¬Îª«c¬Î¹« ±½Å>þPcÇ g eKr9 ¹  ٠±½´-Âê²XÂѵ ¹À ²°Ã0´ g Ĺ ±³² Ù¯/¹ »0µ ¶ ´
¼½À ¹¯ ´ ¬Zª¶ µ ¹¯M¯ ²MÃ0´^± ¹
ª¬F¿ ²Mà ¼Ì¯Ê¶-¼ µ ¶ » ¼ ² ¬ ´ ¯°¼³¾« cµ ¹SÄ ´ ¯d¼ ² ¯ ´ ±CÂD² ¹jº ´ ªaå Ä ´µMÅb´ Ð ´ ¶ ² ¼½Ä ´¤ ¹ Èd´ µ ¯ »c00å ±½Åj8c±³²°´µ*Ç
Í Ã0´Ê±½´ ¯M¯°¹« ±³´ ª µ « ´ ¬ Ã0´ µ°´ ªº¹ »!²%µM´ ¯°¹«cª« ²N´ Ð ´ ¶ ² ¯%ª ± ¯°¹Xª 0c± ¼ ´ ¯ ² ¹ ²°Ãc´ ¬ ´ ¯/¼½¾«¹ ÂFà ¼½¾ Ã0;® ª¯°¯ 8c±C²M´µ ¯ » ¯°¼³«c¾
º¹ ²°Ã ¶ª ª¶¼ ² ¹ µ ¯4ªB«¬Ï¼½«c¬ » ¶ ² ¹ µ ¯ Ç ¹ ± ¹«0¾Áª¯ ²°Ã0´ ¬ ´ ¯°¼ µ°´ ¬ÏªB«c¬ » «c¬ ´ ¯/¼ µM´ ¬ ÂѵM´ :
»0´ «c¶-¼ ´ ¯Hª µM´ÓÈ'´±½±D² ¹ ´ ¼ ²MÃ0´µ
¯°¼½¬ ´ ¹ ÂG²MÃ0´^µ°´ ¯/¹«cªB« ²# ¹¼³« ² ¿ ²°Ã0´¤8c±³²°´ µÊÈ ¼ ±³±FÈ ¹ µ Ëb¹ËSª ÅÇ © »!² ¼  ª« Å ¯/¼½¾«ª ± ¹  ¯/¼½¾«c¼ 8 ¶ ªB« ² Àª¾«0¼ ²°» ¬ ´ ¶ ± ¹¯ ´
² ¹ ²MÃ0´^µ°´ ¯/¹«cªB« ²#ÂѵM´ :
»0´ «¶ Å ¼Ì¯·ª 0c± ¼ ´ ¬ ² ¹ ²MÃ0´ ¼³« 0»!² ¹ ²°Ãc´¤8c±C²M´µ ¿c¯ ²°µ ªB«0¾ ´4²Mà ¼³«c¾¯ È ¼ ±³±Fà ª 0´ N« f
Ý.Þ)ßà[á-ßâäã
g V@ ih ô Hø öiü%ý ñ!ò ùDúûöiüdý4õ
Ý ºcÿ·ªB´ «c¯°¹¬ «c;® ªª« ¯°² ¯#¶ª¹«cÀɬÁº0ºc¼³«ªBª «c² ¬ ¼½¹; ¯«² ¯i¹ ¹ [ 8¶±Cª ²M ´ªµ ¯ ¶-¼ È ² ª¼ «c²Mà ¶ ¹´ »0ª²·«c²°¬aÃ0¼³´ «c¬« » ´´ ¶ ¬² ªB «c¹ ¶ µ ´ ª¶¬0ªB¬ «´ º ¬ ´Êµ°´´ À¯/¼Ì¯ 0² ± ªB¹ «Å ¶ ´ ´ ¬ ¼³² «¸¹Xªj¶ µM¶´ ¼ ª µ ²°¶ ´ » ¼ Ä ²·´ ²°µ°ÃÅXª ´ ²4Ð È ´ ¶ ¹ ² »0¼³Ä ± ¬ ´
¬!¼³À¼½«0¼Ì¯ ÃÁ²°Ãc´^ ª¯M¯°ª¾ ´ ¹  ¬ ´ ¯°¼ µM´ ¬ ÂѵM´ :
»0´ «¶-¼ ´ ¯ Ç
o2π
1
fresonant = :LC
Ý
%'&1 U 2i
st
å¬ ´ ¯ ¯/¼½±½¾´ « «0¾Ç ²°ÃÅ :
»ª¯¼½¶@˲°Ã ¼Ì¯¤´ µ°¶ » à ¯Mª ª 0± ²°¹ ´ÂµªBà « ªÅ ¯ªº ¬0´Ä´ «ª«c»0¶ ¸´ ¬ ² ¹8c±C²M²Môµ ¼Ì¯ ¬ ´ ¹¯°¼³¼½¾« « ² ¿v²M¼ ´-² ×¹² º« ¹±³Å ¹Ë[º ´ ¼½¯Ê¾¼³¯ «»!¯ < ² ¶-¹[¼ ´ ¯M« ¶ ²·µ ª ² ² ¹ ¶ ÃÏ0µ ²°¹SÃ0Ä ´ ´ ¯ À »cµ/Å) ª ¶ ¹´ ¼½« ¹ ² Â9Ç 8cÍ ±³²°Ãc´´µ
Àjª ²MÃ0´ Àjå ª ² ¼½¶ ¯^¼½«
Ĺ ± Ä ´ ¬ È ¼ ²°Ã ¶¹À ¹« ´ « ² ¯ ´±½´ ¶ ² ¼½¹«§ªB«c¬ ÂѵM´ :
»0´ «c¶ ÅKµ°´ ¯ ¹«c¯ ´j0µM´ ¬!¼Ì¶ ² ¼³¹«>¼½¯X¬cª » « ² ¼½«0¾ ² ¹
¯Mª Ť²°Ã0´·±½´ ª¯ ]² XÈd´ ±³± º ´Å ¹«c¬ ²°Ã0´ ¯M¶-¹ ´ ¹ Âc²°Ãc´ º ´ ¾¼³«c«0¼³«c¾ ´±½´ ¶ ²Mµ ¹«0¼Ì¶¯i¯ ²M» ¬ ´ « ²*Ç ²Nà ª¯Dº ´ ´ «À Å ¼³« ²°´ « ²NÃ0´µM´
² ¹ 0µ°´ ¯ ´ « ²Ê²°Ã0´ ºcª¯°¼Ì¶ 0µ ¼³«c¶¼ c±³´ ¯4¹ ÂD8±C²M´µ ¬ ´ ¯°¼³¾« È ¼ ²Mà ª¯ ± ¼ ²/²M±³´ Àjª ²°Ã ª¯ ¹¯M¯°¼³º ±½´ ¿ ±½´ ªB«c¼³«0¾)¹« ²°Ãc´Ó ¹ Èd´ µ
¹ Âi²MÃ0´ u°Ù'Ú¶-¼ µ ¶ » ¼ ² ª«cª ±½Å ¯/¼Ì¯ 0µ ¹¾ µ ªÀ ² ¹ ´×!0± ¹ µ°´H8c±³²°´ µ4´µ°Â ¹ µ ÀjªB«c¶ ´Ç Í Ãc´ º ´ « ´-8c² ¹  ¯ » ¶ à ¶-¹À 0»0²°´µ
¯°¼³À »0± ª ² ¼½¹«Z¯/¹ Âê²È ª µ°´ ¶ª«0«0¹ ² º ´^» «c¬ ´µ ¯ ² ª ²°´ ¬F¿  ¹ µ#²MÃ0´ º ´ ¾¼½«0«0¼½«0¾b¯ ²°» ¬ ´ « ² ¹ µ# ¹ µ#²°Ã0´^È ¹ µ ˼³«0¾ ´ «c¾¼½« ´´ µ Ç
Ùd¼ µ ¶ » ¼ ² ¯/¼½À »0± ª ² ¼³¹«j¯/¹ Âê²È ª µ°´·´ À ¹ È'´µ ¯ ²°Ã0´ ¯ ²M» ¬ ´ « ²d² ¹ ´×c± ¹ µ°´ ¶¼ µ ¶ » ¼ ² ¬ ´ ¯°¼³¾«c¯  ª µ º ´ Å ¹«c¬ ²°Ã0´4µ°´ ª¶ Ã
¹ '²°Ãc´ ¼ µ Àjª ²°Ã ¯°Ë¼ ±½± ¯ Ç Ò¼ ²°Ã>²MÃ0´ ªBº0¼ ± ¼ ²ÅR² ¹¸¾ ´ « ´µ ª ²M´ ©d¹!¬ ´jc± ¹ ² ¯^ªB«¬ cµ°´ ¶-¼Ì¯ ´8 ¾ »0µM´ ¯ ¿ªB«>¼½« ²M» ¼ ² ¼½Ä ´j» « ;
¬ ´ µ ¯ ² ª«c¬!¼½«0¾Ï¹  ¶-¼ µ ¶ » ¼ ² ¶-¹«c¶ ´ !² ¯É¶ªB«.º ´ ª ²°² ªB¼½« ´ ¬F¿ È·Ã ¼Ì¶ à ¼½¯a¯°¹À ´-²Mà ¼³«c¾R¹ Âê²M´ « ± ¹¯ ²ÉÈ·Ãc´ «2ªK¯ ²M» ¬ ´ « ² ¼½¯
º »0µ ¬ ´ « ´ ¬ È ¼ ²°Ãb²°Ã0´² ª¯/Ëa¹  ¯°¹ ± ļ³«0¾ ±³´ «0¾ ²MÃ
Åa´ :
» ª ² ¼½¹«c¯%º Åaà ªB«c¬ Ç ÂÅ ¹ » ª µM´ «0¹ ²% ªÀa¼ ± ¼½ª µdÈ ¼ ²°Ãj²MÃ0´4» ¯ ´ ¹ Â
u°Ù'Ú.¹ µ ¹ ²°Ãc´µ ¶-¼ µ ¶ » ¼ ² ¯/¼½À »0± ª ² ¼³¹« 0µ ¹¾ µ ªÀj¯¿ ² ªË ´²°Ã0´¤² ¼³À ´¤² ¹aº ´ ¶¹À ´ ¯/¹ fi ²ÊÈ ¼ ±½± º ´ ¹  ¾ µ°´ ª ² º ´ « ´-80²
² ¹ Å ¹ »cµ ¯ ²M» ¬ ÅÇ ÍG¹X¯ ´ ´ u°Ù'ÚΪ«cª ±½Å ¯ ´ ¯ 0µM´ ¯ ´ « ²°´ ¬a¼³« ²Mà ¼½¯%º¹¹ËӼ̯%ªB«jª¼½¬ ² ¹ » «c¬ ´ µ ¯ ² ª«c¬!¼½«0¾X¶-¼ µ ¶ » ¼ ² ¯ ¿º »!²
² ¹Xª¶ ²M» ª ±½±³Å ¯ ´²N»0 ªB«¬aª«cª ±½Å b ´#Å ¹ »0µ ¹ È «¶-¼ µ ¶ » ¼ ² ¯/¼½À »0± ª ² ¼³¹«c¯i¼Ì¯Nª¤À » ¶ à À¹ µM´#´ «0¾
ªB¾¼³«0¾^ª«c¬ È ¹ µ/²MÃ
È·Ã ¼ ±½´
´ «¬ ´ ªÄ¹ µ ª¯·ªj¯ ²°» ¬ ´ « ² Ç
d
Ò ´ ª ± ¯/¹§Ë«0¹ È ²°Ã ª ² ª«¼³«c¬ » ¶ ² ¹ µb´× ¹¯ ´ ¬ ² ¹ª¶ à ª«0¾¼½«0¾>ÀjªB¾« ´-² ¼Ì¶ 8c´ ± ¬ È ¼ ±½± ¬ ´ Ä ´± ¹ ª§Ä¹ ±³² ª¾ ´
l = Average length of coil in meters
² ¯ à ¹ »0± ¬ ¯ ² ªB«c¬ ² ¹ µM´ ª¯/¹«¿ ²MÃ0´ «¿ ²Mà ª ² ¼  ª>¶ à ª«0¾¼½«0¾>ÀjªB¾« ´-² ¼½¶ 8c´ ± ¬ 0µ ¹!¬ » ¶ ´ ¬ º Å ¹« ´ ¼½«c¬ » ¶ ² ¹ µ
¶ ª µ°µMÅ ¼³«c¾Kª ±³²°´ µ «ª ² ¼½«0¾>¶ »0µMµM´ « ²aÈ'´µM´[² ¹~ ± ¼³«cË\ È ¼ ²°Ã2²°Ã0´Z²M»0µ «¯¹ Â4È ¼ µ°´ ¼½« ª«0¹ ²MÃ0´µ ¼½«c¬ » ¶ ² ¹ µ ¿d¼ ²bÈ ¹ »0± ¬
¼½«c¬ » ¶ ´ ªB« å ÙĹ ±³² ªB¾ ´ ¼³« ²MÃ0´X» « ¹ È'´µM´ ¬Z¼½«c¬ » ¶ ² ¹ µ Ç Í Ã ¼Ì¯Ê¼Ì¯¬ ´-8 «0¼ ²°´ ±³Å[²°Ãc´ ¶ª¯ ´ ¿ª«c¬ ²°Ã0´Ó0Ã0´ «c¹À ´ «0¹«
¼Ì¯·¶ª ±½±½´ ¬ é°¯!I$¯c?SÔ9"Jû!¯cÖI?ûÖ@è-Ç å ¬ ´ ļ½¶ ´ ¶¹«c¯ ²°µM» ¶ ²°´ ¬ ² ¹ ´×c± ¹¼ ²#²°Ã ¼½¯ ´ Ð ´ ¶ ² ¼Ì¯·¶ª ±½±½´ ¬Áª I®ì°?û0æÑJ-ÕSìÜéjè-ìÜÇ Í Ãc´
¯ Å Àɺ¹ ±v ¹ µ ª ²°µ ªB«¯  ¹ µ À ´µ#± ¹¹Ë!¯ ± ¼½Ë ´H²Mà ¼½¯
Transformer
Í Ã0´a²È ¹[¼½«c¬ » ¶ ² ¹ µ ¶-¹¼ ± ¯Hª µ°´a´ ª¯/¼ ±½Å ¬!¼½¯ ² ¼½«0¾ » ¼½¯ Ã0´ ¬R¼½« ²MÃ0´ ªBº¹SÄ ´ ¯ Å Àɺ¹ ± Ç Í Ã0´ ªB¼ µ ¹ Â Ä ´µ°² ¼Ì¶ª ±i± ¼½« ´ ¯
Mµ ´0µM´ ¯ ´ « ² ªB«¼ µ ¹«¶-¹ µ°´ ¶-¹ÀÀa¹« ² ¹¤º¹ ²°Ã ¼³«¬ » ¶ ² ¹ µ ¯ Ç Ò Ã ¼ ±³´ Àjª« ÅX²°µ ªB«c¯  ¹ µ À ´µ ¯ à ªÄ ´dÂÑ´µMµ ¹Àª¾« ´² ¼Ì¶d¶¹ µM´
Àjª ²M´µ ¼½ª ± ¯ ¿ ²°Ãc´µM´ ª µM´ ¯°¹À ´'²°Ã ª ² ¬!¹^«0¹ ² ¿ ²°Ã0´ ¼ µ ¶¹«c¯ ² ¼ ²°»c´ « ² ¼³«¬ » ¶ ² ¹ µ ¯iº ´ ¼³«c¾^Àª¾« ´² ¼Ì¶ª ±³±½ÅX± ¼³«0Ë ´ ¬ ² ¹¾ ´²°Ã0´ µ
²°Ãcµ ¹ » ¾ Ã>²MÃ0´ ª¼ µ*Ç Í Ã0´b ¹ ±³± ¹ È ¼³«c¾ 0à ¹ ² ¹¾ µ ª 0à ¯ à ¹ È ¯ ²È ¹¸¼½«c¬ » ¶ ² ¹ µ ¶¹¼ ± ¯ È ¹ » «c¬§ª µ ¹ » «c¬§ª ²°» º ´) ¹ µ ÀÁ¿
 ¹ µ4²°Ã0´É0»0µM ¹
¯ ´ ¹ Âi ¹ µ À¼³«0¾[ªjÀ »!²M» ª ± ¼³«¬ » ¶ ² ªB«c¶ ´ ¯ ² ª«c¬0ª µ ¬ Ç Ò Ã ¼ ±³´ À¹¯ ²Ê²°µ ªB«c¯  ¹ µ À ´µ ¬ ´ ¯°¼³¾«c¯ ´ «c¶ ± ¹¯ ´
²°Ãc´ ¶-¹¼ ± ¯4ª«c¬¸¶-¹ µ°´ ¼³«RªbÀ ´² ª ±Âѵ ªBÀ ´^ ¹ µ40µ ¹ ²M´ ¶ ² ¼³¹«¿ ²°Ã ¼Ì¯¬ ´ ļ½¶ ´ ¼Ì¯Ê¹ ´ «  ¹ µ ļ ´È ¼½«0¾)ª«c¬Ï¯°¹)¯ ´ µ Ä ´ ¯·¼ ² ¯
¼ ±³±½» ¯ ²°µ ª ² ¼½Ä ´¤0»cµ° ¹¯ ´¤Èd´ ±³±
¬ cò ±ò ®³²'ö§² ô û>új=´K²>·ö ô =°iü ô =µ´·¶ ô õ!ú÷#ødü%ý ô öDú÷>= g VO
^ « ´ ¶¹¼ ± ¹ ÂNÈ ¼ µM´ ¶ ªB«Ïº ´ ¯ ´´ « Ã0´µM´XÈ ¼ ²°Ã ¶-¹ c´ µ/; ¶-¹ ± ¹ µ°´ ¬[ÄSª µ «0¼Ì¯ à ¼³«c¯ »0± ª ² ¼³¹« Ç Í Ã0´ ¹ ²MÃ0´µ ¶-¹¼ ± ¿À » ¶ Ã
¾ µM´ ª ²°´ µ ¼½« ±³´ «0¾ ²Mà ¿ à ª¯·ªB«Z¼³«¯ »0± ª ² ¼³¹« ± ª Å´ µ'²°Ã ª ² ¼½¯#¾ µ°´ ´ «Á¼³«¸¶-¹ ± ¹ µ Ç
© ÅKà ªÄ
¼½«0¾ ²È ¹¸¼³«¬ » ¶ ² ¹ µ ¯Ó¶¹ »00±½´ ¬ ² ¹¾ ´-²°Ãc´µ º Å ªÏ¶-¹ÀÀa¹«§ÀjªB¾« ´-² ¼Ì¶ 8c´ ± ¬ ª ²°Ã ¿D¼ ² ¼Ì¯ ¹¯M¯°¼³º ±½´j² ¹
I®ì°? ûcæêJ-èì9´ « ´µ ¾ ÅÉÂѵ ¹À ¹« ´ ¼½«c¬ » ¶ ² ¹ µ ¶¼ µ ¶ » ¼ ²d² ¹ ²MÃ0´ ¹ ²°Ãc´µ ¿ µ ª ²MÃ0´µ%²°Ã ª«^ï » ¯ ²æÜIÕSì°è%´ « ´ µ ¾ Å ¼½« ²MÃ0´ Àª¾« ´² ¼Ì¶
8c´ ± ¬ Ç «^¹ µ ¬ ´ µÂ ¹ µ²°Ã ¼Ì¯ ² ¹ È ¹ µ Ëv¿ ¹  ¶-¹ »cµ ¯ ´ ¿ ²°Ãc´ ÀjªB¾« ´-² ¼½¶ 8´± ¬ à ª¯ ² ¹º ´ ¶-¹«¯ ² ªB« ²°±½Å ¶ à ªB«0¾¼³«0¾·¼½«Ó¯ ²°µM´ «0¾ ²°Ã ¿
¹ ²MÃ0´µMÈ ¼Ì¯ ´ «0¹jĹ ±³² ªB¾ ´¤È ¼ ±½± º ´ ¼³«¬ » ¶ ´ ¬Z¼³« ²MÃ0´^» « ¹ È'´µM´ ¬Z¶-¹¼ ±®Ç Í Ã» ¯ ¿ ²°Ãc´¤²°µ ªB«c¯  ¹ µ À ´µ ¼Ì¯ ´ ¯M¯ ´ « ² ¼Ìª ±½±³Å ª«
ª ±³²°´ µ «ª ² ¼½«0¾j¶ »cµ°µM´ « ² å >Ù #¬ ´ Ä
¼Ì¶ ´Ç
« ²°µ ªB«¯  ¹ µ À ´µ ¯ ¿ ²°Ãc´ ¼½«c¬ » ¶ ² ¹ µ ¶-¹¼ ± ¯%ª µ°´ ¹ Âê²°´ « µ°´ÂÑ´µMµ°´ ¬ ² ¹aª¯ JL"Jû!"Jû\¸Sæ ¿¼³« µ°´ÂÑ´µM´ «c¶ ´·² ¹ ²°Ã0´ Àª« »! ª¶ ;
²°»cµ ¼½«0¾ 0µ ¹¶ ´ ¯M¯ È·Ã0´µM´#È ¼ µM´ ¼½¯ J%PÕ ¯sû ª µ ¹ » «¬ ²°Ãc´ ¶-¹ µM´ Àª ²°´ µ ¼Ìª ±®Ç Í Ã0´· ¹ È'´µM´ ¬X¼½«c¬ » ¶ ² ¹ µ ¹  ª ²Mµ ª«c¯  ¹ µ À ´ µ
¼Ì¯%¶ª ±³±½´ ¬ ²MÃ0>´ 1ì "êéj?S1ì ¹4È ¼³«c¬0¼³«0¾¿ È·Ã ¼ ±½´·²°Ãc´Ê» « ¹ Èd´ µ°´ ¬¶-¹¼ ± ¼Ì¯%¶ ª ±½±³´ ¬ ²MÃ0´Xæè@Ö@Õ û!?S1ì ¹·È ¼½«c¬!¼½«0¾ Ç ² ¼½¯ ´ ª¯ ÅX² ¹
g V7V ih ô øöiüd ý ¬ ò öiý ô =õ!ù'÷#ý®Ïüdý4õ
¬ ´ Àa¹«c¯ ²°µ ª ²°´ ¯°¼³À 0±½´Ó²Mµ ª«c¯  ¹ µ À ´ µ ª¶ ² ¼³¹« » ¯°¼³«c¾nu°Ù'ÚÊ¿F¯ ´-²/² ¼³«c¾ »0K²°Ãc´acµ ¼½Àjª µMÅ ª«c¬R¯ ´ ¶¹«c¬cª µMÅÁÈ ¼½«c¬ ;
¼½«0¾¯#¹ ÂG²MÃ0´ ¯/¼½À »c± ª ²°´ ¬ ²Mµ ª«c¯  ¹ µ À ´ µ ª¯·ª ªB¼ µ ¹  BÀ »!²°» ª ± a¼½«c¬ » ¶ ² ¹ µ ¯ Ç Í Ã0´ ¶-¹ ´< ¶¼ ´ « ² ¹  Àjª¾« ´² ¼Ì¶ 8c´± ¬
¶-¹ »00± ¼³«c¾É¼Ì¯#¾¼½Ä ´ «)ª ²#²°Ãc´H´ «c¬b¹ ²MÃ0´ BË ± ¼³« ´ ¼½« ²°Ã0´ u°Ù'Ú2¶¼ µ ¶ » ¼ ² ¬ ´ ¯M¶ µ ¼ 0² ¼½¹«¿ ²°Ã ¼½¯ ´× ªÀ 0±³´ º ´ ¼½«0¾j¯ ´²
Ä ´ µ°Å « ´ ª µ°±½Å ª ²4´µ°ÂÑ´ ¶ ² ¼½¹º « g Ç PPP Ç Í Ã ¼Ì¯¶¹ ´-< ¶-¼ ´ « ² ¬ ´ ¯°¶ µ ¼½º ´ ¯ à ¹ È ¶ ± ¹
¯ ´ ±³Å ± ¼½«0Ë ´ ¬F ²°Ã0´Ó²È ¹)¼³«c¬ » ¶ ² ¹ µ ¯
ª µM´ ¿vÀjªB¾« ´-² ¼½¶ ª ±½±³ÅÇ Í Ãc´ º ´-²°²°´µH²MÃ0´ ¯ ´Ó²È ¹)¼½«c¬ » ¶ ² ¹ µ ¯Hª µM´ Àjª¾« ´² ¼Ì¶ª ±½±½Å ¶¹ »00±½´ ¬¿ ²°Ã0´ À¹ µM´Ó´-< ¶¼ ´ « ²H²°Ãc´
´ « ´µ ¾ Ų°µ ªB«¯ ÂÑ´ µ º ´²Èd´ ´ « ²°Ã0´ À ¯ à ¹ »c± ¬[º ´Ç
(for SPICE to measure current)
nR mV w
i1
1 bogus 2 3 4
»
0V
mV 10 V
:L
1
:L
2
Rload 1 kΩ
1
100 H 100 H
0 0 5 5
u~0rBzv{B|!~Rvx~
w2rcq{!t*z
~
yc@ B
v{c.
*x!
~0x
Ft*~0xd u0{rut
{B|
¨¥rFt~
|½¼@¾.- [
~
yc@ B
v{
xv
tuu0
}.
}
} }
% ¿XFt
{}ct*z0xu!x!}}0{£¼7¾- [ ¥uXcru¥uX0xu¦ct*z`vqu0~{
wvt0¥rcq }rz`}
r~0xÀRvr7B
zcxuvt
qr!}
}¨ÁS}0t*z!0xd!ÁKu07B0xuXcx~
~c}
dr
/rcq}ct z.
s!~t*z!urcq2wN@L
° Ãt°w@Ã
s!~t*z!urcq2wN@L ° Ãt°wvt!7Ã
/xbz
|
~0x wN@`
à tF°w7 Ã
%/
!! /
!! N/0
¾~v3t Rr~¨¦Ft*bz t*z B
|
~0x wN@i ÂM Ã tF°wvt07 Ã
%/
!! %/
!!
N/
0
¼xcqB`z !r~¨2¦Ft*`z t z B
Øʹ ²°´)²°Ã ª ²aÈ ¼ ²°Ã2´ Ä
» ª ± ¼½«c¬ » ¶ ² ªB«¶ ´ ¯  ¹ µ º¹ ²°Ã2È ¼³«¬!¼³«c¾n¯ jÅSÆ@Æ H4´ « µMÅ ¯ ´ ª¶ à -¿ ²°Ã0´ ٠Ĺ ±C² ªB¾ ´ ¯Xª«c¬
¶ »cµ°µM´ « ² ¯ª µ°´ « ´ ª µ°±½ÅS´ Ä» ª ±' ¹ µ²MÃ0´Z²È ¹ Ç Ò Ã ª ²jÅ ¹ » ª µ°´ ¯ ´ ´ ¼½«0¾ Ã0´µM´ ¼½¯ Ä
» ¼ ²°´Z²Å ¼Ì¶ª å ± ¹ Â4²Mµ ª«c¯  ¹ µ À ´ µ
´3Ç ¶¼ ´ «c¶ ÅÇ å « Å
²°Ã ¼½«0¾ ±³´ ¯°¯ ²°Ã ªB« Û ?7È 3´ Ç ¶¼ ´ «c¶ Å ¼Ì¯Z¶-¹«¯/¼Ì¬ ´µM´ ¬ ¹¹ µ[ ¹ µ À¹!¬ ´µ « ¹ Èd´ µ)²Mµ ª«c¯  ¹ µ À ´ µ
¬ ´ ¯/¼½¾«c¯ ¿NªB«¬ ²°Ã ¼Ì¯ ²°µ ªB«c¯ ÂÑ´µ ¹ Â4 ¹ È'´µ ¹!¶ ¶ »0µ ¯ È ¼ ²°Ã «0¹RÀ¹Sļ³«c¾ ª µ/² ¯X¹ µ ¹ ²MÃ0´µ ¶-¹À ¹« ´ « ² ¯a¯ » º!ï ´ ¶ ²Ó² ¹
È'´ ª µ*Ç
¬ cò ±ò ®³²'ö§² ô û>új=´K²>·ö ô =°iü ô =µ´·¶ ô õ!ú÷#ødü%ý ô öDú÷>= Å VÛ
ÂcÈ'´ ¬ ´ ¶ µ°´ ª¯ ´N²°Ãc´'± ¹ª¬ µM´ ¯°¼½¯ ² ª«c¶ ´ ¯/¹¤ª¯ ² ¹H¬ µ ª È À¹ µM´ ¶ »0µMµ°´ « ²iÈ ¼ ²°Ãɲ°Ã0´ ¯MªBÀ ´ ªÀ¹ » « ² ¹  Ĺ ±³² ªB¾ ´ ¿ È'´
¯ ´´·²Mà ª ²'²°Ã0´ ¶ »0µMµM´ « ²N²°Ãcµ ¹ » ¾ òMÃ0´40µ ¼½Àª µ°ÅaÈ ¼½«c¬!¼½«0¾X¼½«c¶ µM´ ª¯ ´ ¯N¼½« µ°´ ¯ ¹«¯ ´Ç Ú%Ä ´ « ²Mà ¹ » ¾ ò°Ãc´ å Ù ¹ Èd´ µ
¯°¹ »0µ ¶ ´ ¼Ì¯·«0¹ ² ¬0¼ µM´ ¶ ²°±½Å ¶-¹«0« ´ ¶ ²°´ ¬ ² ¹ ²°Ãc´X± ¹
ª¬ µ°´ ¯/¼Ì¯ ² ªB«¶ ´ µ ª ²MÃ0´µ ¿0¼ ² ¼½¯ ´±½´ ¶ ²Mµ ¹ÀjªB¾« ´-² ¼Ì¶ª ±³±½Å ¶¹ »0c±³´ ¬F7-¿
²°Ãc´ ªBÀ¹ » « ² ¹  ¶ »0µMµ°´ « ² ¬ µ ª È « Âѵ ¹À ²MÃ0´ ¯°¹ »cµ ¶ ´ÊÈ ¼ ±½± º ´ ª ± Àa¹
¯ ²d²°Ã0´ ¯°ªÀ ´ ª¯ ²°Ã0´ ªBÀ¹ » « ² ¹  ¶ »0µMµ°´ « ²%²°Ã ª ²
È ¹ »0± ¬bº ´ ¬ µ ª È «b¼ ²MÃ0´H± ¹
ª¬ È'´µM´ ¬0¼ µM´ ¶ ²°±½Å ¶-¹«c« ´ ¶ ²°´ ¬ ² ¹ ²°Ã0´ ¯°¹ »0µ ¶ ´Ç ÍDªBË ´ ªÉ¶ ± ¹¯ ´± ¹¹Ëjª ²'²°Ã0´ « ´×²d²È ¹
u°Ù'Ú ¯°¼½À »0± ª ² ¼³¹«c¯¿0¯ à ¹ È ¼½«0¾ È·Ã ª ²Êà ª 0´ «c¯ È ¼ ²°Ã ¬!¼³Ð ´ µ°´ « ² Ī ±³»c´ ¯#¹ Âi± ¹ª¬ µM´ ¯°¼½¯ ² ¹ µ ¯
u~0rBzv{B|!~ Rvx~
w2rcq{!t*z
~
yc@ B
v{c.
*x!
~
yc@ B
v{
xv
}.
}
} }
%
wvt0¥rcq
~c}
dr
W u0x}
Qr ¥~!xc{!t
{Su!rzvqxw0r!}Bcx¥
|
@ XPR{
/rcq}ct z.
s!~t*z!urcq2wN@L
° Ãt°w@ Ã
s!~t*z!urcq2wN@L ° Ãt°wvt!7 Ã
/xbz
|
~0x wN@`
à tF°w7 Ã
%/
!! /
!! d/0
|
~0x wN@i ÂM Ã tF°wvt07 Ã
%/
!! %/0 !!
d/0
Øʹ ² ¼Ì¶ ´jà ¹ Ȳ°Ã0´)0µ ¼½Àjª µMÅ ¶ »cµ°µM´ « ² ¶ ± ¹¯ ´±½Å¸Â ¹ ±½± ¹ È ¯ ²°Ã0´ ¯ ´ ¶¹«c¬cª µMÅ ¶ »0µMµ°´ « ² Ç «>¹ »cµ Écµ ¯ ² ¯°¼³À »0± ª ² ¼½¹«¿
º¹ ²°Ã ¶ »0µMµ°´ « ² ¯ È'´µM´ ª 00µ ¹ × ¼½Àjª ²M´±½Å ÅÆÏÀ å ¿iº »!² «0¹ È ²°Ã0´ Å ª µ°´ º¹ ²°Ã ª µ ¹ » «c¬ \Ê À å Ç Øʹ ²M´ ª ± ¯°¹ à ¹ È
²°Ãc´ ¯ ´ ¶¹«c¬0ª µ°Å Ĺ ±C² ªB¾ ´·Ã ª¯'¬ ´ ¶ µ°´ ª¯ ´ ¬j¯°¹À ´4È ¼ ²°Ã)²°Ã0´HÃ0´ ªÄ
¼ ´µ Ѿ µ°´ ª ²°´ µ ¶ »0µ°µM´ « ² ± ¹ª¬ ,Ç 4´-²
¯ ²°µMÅ ªB«0¹ ²°Ã0´ µ
¯°¼³À »0± ª ² ¼½¹« È ¼ ²Mà ªB« ´ Ä ´ « ± ¹ È'´µ ÄSª ±½»0´ ¹ Âi± ¹
ª¬ µ°´ ¯/¼Ì¯ ² ªB«c¶ ´
u~0rBzv{B|!~Rvx~
w2rcq{!t*z
~
yc@ B
v{c.
*x!
~
yc@ B
v{
xv
}.
}
} }
%
wvt0¥rcq
~c}
dr
/rcq}ct z.
s!~t*z!urcq2wN@L
° Ãt°w@Ã
s!~t*z!urcq2wN@L ° Ãt°wvt!7Ã
/xbz
ÅÛÆ iË ô øöiüdý¬ ò öiý ô = õ!ù'÷#ý®Ïüdý4õ
|
~0x wN@
`Ã tF°w7Ã
%/
!! /
!! /v 0
v
|
~0x wN@iÂMÃ tF°wvt07Ã
%/
!! /
!!
/0
v
^ »0µ#± ¹ª¬)¶ »0µMµ°´ « ² ¼Ì¯#«0¹ È Æ Ç Å þ ªBÀ ¯ ¿!¹ µ Å þ ÆXÀ ¿ È·Ã ¼½¶ à ¼Ì¯'¯ » ºc¯ ² ª« ² ¼Ìª ±½±³Åjà ¼½¾ Ãc´µ'²°Ã ª« ²MÃ0´¤± ª¯ ²#² ¼³À ´Ç
Í Ã0´Êcµ ¼½Àjª µMÅ ¶ »0µMµM´ « ² ¼½¯NÄ ´µMÅ ¶ ± ¹
¯ ´#² ¹Xº ´ ¼³«c¾ ²°Ã0´ ¯MªBÀ å ´ ¿º »!² «0¹ ² ¼½¶ ´·Ã ¹ È.²MÃ0´ ¯ ´ ¶¹«c¬0ª µ°Å Ĺ ±³² ª¾ ´#à ª¯  ª ±½±³´ «
È'´±½± º ´± ¹ È.²MÃ0´40µ ¼½Àª µ°Å Ĺ ±C² ªB¾ ´ ÌÅ Ç Û7? Ĺ ±C² ¯9Ä ´ µ ¯ » ¯ÅSƤĹ ±C² ¯Nª ²N²MÃ0´Ê0µ ¼½Àª µ°Å Ç Í Ã0´4µ°´ ª¯°¹«  ¹ µN²Mà ¼Ì¯N¼Ì¯N¹ »cµ
²°µ ªB«¯  ¹ µ À ´µ ¬ ´ ¯/¼½¾N«
²°Ãc´aÈ ¼½«c¬!¼½«0¾
¯ à ªÄ ´É² ¹¹[À » ¶ à ¼³«c¬ » ¶ ² ªB«c¶ ´ ÌÅÆ7Æ HÊ´ « µMÅ ¯ ´ ª¶ à -¿ªB«c¬ ²°Ãc´µM´- ¹ µM´X² ¹¹
À » ¶ à ¼³«c¬ » ¶ ² ¼³Ä ´Xµ°´ ª¶ ² ªB«¶ ´ Ѽ½À ´ ¬0ªB«¶ ´ ² ¹)ª ±³± ¹ È ¹ µÊ²MÃ0´ ¯ ´Xà ¼½¾ à ¶ »0µMµ°´ « ² ¯ Ç ÂNÈ'´ ¶ à ª«0¾ ´¤²MÃ0´ ¬ ´ ¯/¼½¾« ² ¹
à ªÄ ´±½´ ¯M¯#¼³«¬ » ¶ ² ªB«c¶ ´ ¿ ²MÃ0´ É ¾ »0µ°´ ¯  ¹ µ Ĺ ±³² ªB¾ ´ º ´-²È'´´ « cµ ¼½Àjª µMÅ ªB«c¬Z¯ ´ ¶-¹«c¬0ª µ°ÅÈ ¼½«c¬!¼½«0¾¯ È ¼ ±½± º ´ À » ¶ Ã
¶ ± ¹¯ ´µ'² ¹jº ´ ¼³«0¾ S´ Ä» ª ± ª¾ªB¼½N«
u~0rBzv{B|!~ Rvx~
w2rcq{!t*z
~
yc@ B
v{c.
*x!
~
yc@ B
v{
xv
}.
XcxBz!~¨~0r7u Xcx~¥u Xcrz *³
~ X0xz!~¨{
}
XcxBz!~¨~0r7u Xcx~¥u Xcrz *³
~ X0xz!~¨{
} }
%
wvt0¥rcq
~c}
dr
/rcq}ct z.
s!~t*z!urcq2wN@L
° Ãt°w@ Ã
s!~t*z!urcq2wN@L ° Ãt°wvt!7 Ã
/xbz
|
~0x wN@`
à tF°w7 Ã
%/
!! /
!! N/0
v
|
~0x wN@i ÂM Ã tF°wvt07 Ã
%/
!! %/
!!
N/
0
v
HÊ´ µ°´¤È'´ ¯ ´ ´¤²°Ã ª ² ¹ »0µ ¯ ´ ¶-¹«¬0ª µMŠĹ ±C² ªB¾ ´ ¼Ì¯·ºcª¶@Ë ² ¹jº ´ ¼½«0¾j« ´ ª µM±³ÅbS´ Ä
» ª ±FÈ ¼ ²°ÃZ²MÃ0´X0µ ¼³Àjª µ°Å ¿0ªB«c¬ ²°Ãc´
¯ ´ ¶-¹«c¬0ª µ°Å ¶ »0µMµ°´ « ² ¿ª¯ » ¯ » ª ± ¿c¼Ì¯Ê« ´ ª µM±³Å)´ Ä
» ª ±² ¹ ²MÃ0´X0µ ¼½Àª µ°Å ¶ »0µMµM´ « ² ª¯ È'´±½±®Ç Í Ã0°´ Ä»c´ ¯ ² ¼½¹«¸«cª ²°»0µ ª ±½±³Å
ª µ ¼Ì¯ ´ ¯Xª ²^²Mà ¼½¯ ¹¼½« ²
Ó¼ ÂÊ´-× ¶ ´ ¯°¯°¼½Ä ´ ¼³«¬ » ¶ ² ªB«c¶ ´bÈ ª¯Xª cµ ¹º ±³´ ÀZ¿ ²MÃ0´ « È·ÃÅ «0¹ ² ¬ ´ ¯°¼³¾«>ª ±³±%²°µ ªB«c¯  ¹ µ À ´µ ¯
È ¼ ²°Ã ª¯ ± ¼ ²/²M±³´ ¼½«c¬ » ¶ ² ª«c¶ ´ ª¯ ¹¯M¯/¼½º ±½S´ q Í Ã0´ ªB«c¯ È'´µ#² ¹ ²°Ã ¼Ì¯ Ä
»0´ ¯ ² ¼½¹«¸¶ ªB«Zº ´X ¹ » «c¬Z¼½« ²°Ãc´ « ´-ײ u°Ù'Ú
¯°¼³À »0± ª ² ¼½¹«¿ ² ªB˼³«c¾ ²MÃ0´¤± ¹ >È Í ¼½«c¬ » ¶ ² ªB«¶ ´²°µ ªB«c¯  ¹ µ À ´µ'Èd´ ï » ¯ ² ¶ µM´ ª ²M´ ¬[ªB«c¬ » ¯/¼½«0¾¼ ²'² ¹ ²°µ ªB«c¯ ÂÑ´µ# ¹ Èd´ µ%² ¹
ª à ¼½¾ Ã0´ µ·µ°´ ¯/¼Ì¯ ² ªB«c¶ ´± ¹ª ¬ ëºcª¶@Ë »0Á² t¹ ŤFË Î¥ª¯#¼½« ²°Ã0´ ɵ ¯ ² ¬ ´ À¹«¯ ²Mµ ª ² ¼½¹« 3
u~0rBzv{B|!~ Rvx~
w2rcq{!t*z
~
yc@ B
v{c.
*x!
~
yc@ B
v{
xv
}.
¬ ò 0Ï ò õöiü%ø'£3²Dø ô =µ´ õöiü%ø'£6´÷Ð= öiý ô = õ!ù'÷#ý®Ïü%ýõ ÅÛÅ
}
} }
%
wvt0¥rcq
~c}
dr
/rcq}ct z.
s!~t*z!urcq2wN@L
°Ãt°w@Ã
s!~t*z!urcq2wN@L ° Ãt°wvt!7Ã
/xbz
|
~0x wN@
`Ã tF°w7Ã
%/
!! /
!!
N/ 0
|
~0x wN@i ÂM Ã tF°wvt07Ã
%/
!! %/
!!
N/0
Ò¼ ²°Ãϱ ¹ Èd´ µ·È ¼³«¬!¼³«c¾b¼³«¬ » ¶ ² ªB«c¶ ´ ¯ ¿ ²MÃ0´X0µ ¼½Àª µ°Å ªB«c¬¸¯ ´ ¶¹«c¬cª µMŠĹ ±C² ªB¾ ´ ¯·ª µM´ ¶ ± ¹¯ ´µ#² ¹bº ´ ¼½«0¾ ´SÄ» ª ± ¿
º »!²²MÃ0´Z0µ ¼½Àjª µMÅ ªB«c¬2¯ ´ ¶-¹«¬0ª µMÅ ¶ »0µMµ°´ « ² ¯Éª µ°´ «0¹ ² Ç « ²°Ã ¼Ì¯ ª µ°² ¼Ì¶ »0± ª µ ¶ª¯ ´ ¿ ²°Ãc´Ácµ ¼½Àjª µMÅ ¶ »0µMµ°´ « ² ¼½¯
ePVcÇ þ ? À È·Ã ¼ ±³´[²°Ã0´ ¯ ´ ¶¹«c¬0ª µ°Å ¶ »0µ°µM´ « ² ¼½¯¹« ±³ÅÛcÇ ÛÛ Æ¸À
Nª ± Àa¹
¯ ²a²°Ãcµ°´ ´)² ¼³À ´ ¯jª¯aÀ » ¶ à ¶ »0µMµ°´ « ² ¼½«
²°Ãc´Ó0µ ¼³Àjå ª µ°Å ª¯ ²MÃ0´ ¯ ´ ¶-¹«¬0ª µMÅÇ Ò ÃÅ ¼½¯ ²°Ã ¼Ì¯ q Ò¼ ²°Ãϱ½´ ¯M¯Ê¼½«cå ¬ » ¶ ² ª«c¶ ´ ¼³« ²MÃ0´Ócµ ¼½Àjª µMÅ)È ¼½«c¬!¼½«0¾c¿ ²°Ãc´µM´ ¼½¯
±½´ ¯M¯·¼³«¬ » ¶ ² ¼³Ä ´XµM´ ª¶ ² ª«c¶ ´ ¿ ±³´ ¯°¯·¼½À ´ ¬0ªB«¶ ´^² ¹ à ¹ ± ¬Zºcª¶@Ë[¶ »0µMµ°´ « ² Ç ¯ » º¯ ² ªB« ² ¼Ìª ± ªÀ¹ » « ² ¹ ÂD²°Ãc´ ¶ »0µMµM´ « ²
²°Ãcµ ¹ » ¾ Ãj²MÃ0´H0µ ¼½Àjª µMÅÉÈ ¼½«c¬!¼½«0¾a¼½¯'¬ »0´² ¹ ²°Ã ª ²'È ¼½«c¬!¼½«0¾
¯ µ°´ ª¶ ² ªB«¶ ´ å ª ± ¹« ´ ª«c¬b«0¹ ²%²MÃ0´4²Mµ ª«c¯ ÂÑ´µ ¹  ¹ Èd´ µ
² ¹ ²MÃ0´ ¯ ´ ¶-¹«c¬0ª µMÅjÈ ¼½«c¬!¼½«0¾bªB«c¬ ± ¹ª¬ Ç
«^¼Ì¬ ´ ª ±²°µ ªB«c¯  ¹ µ À ´µFÈ ¼ ²°Ã ¼Ì¬ ´ « ² ¼½¶ ª ±
0µ ¼½Àjª µMÅ ª«c¬^¯ ´ ¶-¹«c¬0ª µMÅ4È ¼½«c¬!¼½«0¾
¯ È ¹ »0± ¬¤ÀjªB«0¼ ÂÑ´ ¯ ²GS´ Ä» ª ± Ĺ ±³² ª¾ ´
ªB«¬jå ¶ »0µMµ°´ « ² ¼½«jº¹ ²°Ã ¯ ´-² ¯N¹ ÂvÈ ¼½«c¬!¼½«0¾
¯ Ç «bª ´ µ/ÂÑ´ ¶ ²%È ¹ µM± ¬ ²Mµ ª«c¯  ¹ µ À ´ µ ¯ È ¹ »0± ¬ ²°µ ªB«¯ ÂÑ´ µ9´±½´ ¶ ²Mµ ¼Ì¶ª ±0 ¹ Èd´ µ
Âѵ ¹À cµ ¼½Àjª µMÅb² ¹[¯ ´ ¶-¹«¬0ª µMÅ ª¯4¯/À¹¹ ²MÃ0±³Å ª¯ ²Mà ¹ » ¾ ÃZ²°Ãc´X± ¹
ª¬ È'´µM´ ¬0¼ µM´ ¶ ²°±½Å ¶¹«0« ´ ¶ ²M´ ¬ ² ¹ ²MÃ0´X0µ ¼½Àª µ°Å
¹ Èd´ µ ¯°¹ »cµ ¶ ´ ¿ È ¼ ²°Ã «0¹ ²°µ ªB«c¯  ¹ µ À ´µ'²°Ãc´µM´ ª ² ª ±½± ¿cº »!² ª¯ Å ¹ » ¶ª«Á¯ ´´H²°Ã ¼½¯·¼Ì¬ ´ ª ± ¾¹ª ± ¶ ªB«0«0¹ ² º ´ À ´-² º Å
ªB« Å ¹« ´%²°µ ªB«c¯  ¹ µ À ´µ ¬ ´ ¯°¼³¾« » «c¬ ´ µ ª ±³± ¹ ´µ ª ² ¼³«0¾¶-¹«¬!¼ ² ¼³¹«c¯ Ç Í µ ª«c¯  ¹ µ À ´ µ ¯ é ¯1æ Ñ º ´ ¬ ´ ¯/¼½¾« ´ ¬ ² ¹4¹ ´µ ª ²M´
È ¼ ²°Ã ¼½«b¶ ´ µ/² ªB¼½« ´×!´ ¶ ²°´ ¬ µ ª«0¾ ´ ¯i¹  Ĺ ±C² ªB¾ ´ ¯9ªB«¬ ± ¹ª¬0¯9¼½«j¹ µ ¬ ´µi² ¹ ´µ°Â ¹ µ À ª¯%¶ ± ¹¯ ´d² ¹X¼Ì¬ ´ ª ± ª¯ ¹¯M¯°¼³º ±½´Ç
Ò0¹ µ «c¹ È ¿ ²MÃ0´ Àa¹
¯ ² ¼³À ¹ µ°² ª« ²'²°Ã ¼³«0¾ ² ¹ÉË ´ ´ ¼½«)À¼½«c¬b¼Ì¯#ª ²Mµ ª«c¯  ¹ µ À ´ µ
¯Nºcª¯/¼Ì¶Ê¹ ´ µ ª ² ¼½«0¾ cµ ¼½«c¶-¼ 0±½´
²°Ãc´
²°µ ªB«¯ ÂÑ´ µ ¹ ÂG ¹ È'´µ#Âѵ ¹À ²MÃ0´^0µ ¼³Àjª µMŲ ¹ ²MÃ0´ ¯ ´ ¶-¹«c¬0ª µ°Å ¶-¼ µ ¶ » ¼ ² ļ½ª ´±½´ ¶ ²°µ ¹ÀjªB¾« ´-² ¼½¶H¶-¹ »00± ¼³«c¾ Ç
Ý.Þ)ßà[á-ßâäã
Ý ªÓ ¯ ¯² Ñ$¹ ¯`ÔS09Ô µ ¹!"Jû!¬ » ¯c¶ Ö ´ÑÕÔ²MÃ0û´^Ö@è ´ ¼ÌÐ ¯ ´ È·¶ ² Ã0¹ ´ÂµM´H¶ »0²°Ã0µMµM´ ´ «Àj² ª¶ ¾Ã « ªB´«0² ¼Ì¾ ¶ ´ ¯#É´¼½«Á± ¬ ¹ « ª ´ ²°Ã¼³«¯·¬ ¹ » ÂG¶ ²²È¹ µ ¹¼½«c¹ µ¬ » À¶¹¼³«cµ°¾j´ ¼½Ä«c¹ ¬ ±³² » ª¶ ¾ ² ´¹ ¯%µ ¯·¼½« ª µM²°´ Ã0´ ± ¹ ¼³«0²°Ã0Ë ´´ F¬µ ¯ ¯°Ç ¹
³
Ý.¼³å «c¬ Ñ®» Mì ¶-Ô¼½ûc«0×æ ¾[Ö-ÕBªìÜ« éèì ټ̯ÉĪϹ ±C² ¬ ªB´ ¾ Ä´ ¼½¶ ª´ ¶ µ Àj¹
¯°ª¯ ¬ ´²MÃ0¹ ´ ·¯ ²´ È ¶-¹¹Ï«¹ ¬Zµ ¼³«cÀ¬ ¹ » µM¶ ´ ² ¹ ¼³«cµ*¬Ç » ¶ÂN² ²M¹ Ã0µ ´ ¯¿9¯ ´¹¶« ¹´ «c¹¬ÏÂʼ³«cÈ·¬ à » ¼½¶ ¶ à ² ¹ ¼Ìµ ¯ ¼½¯H¹ ¶-È'¹«0´µM« ´ ´ ¬>¶ ²°º ´ Ŭ ²å ¹ÁÙª ¿
± ¹
ª¬F¿ ¹ Èd´ µ'È å ¼ ±½± º ´^´ ±³´ ¶ ²Mµ ¹Àª¾« ´² ¼Ì¶ª ±³±½Å ¶-¹ »c0±³´ ¬ Âѵ ¹À ²°Ã0´ Écµ ¯ ² ¼½«c¬ » ¶ ² ¹ µ
¯ ¹ Èd´ µ ¯°¹ »cµ ¶ ´² ¹ ²°Ã ª ²
± ¹
ª¬ Ç
Ý ¼³Í «ZÃ0ª ´#²°µ ¹ ªBÈ'«c´¯ µM ¹´ ¬Óµ À ¼³«c´¬µ » ¼½¯4¶ ² ¶¹ ª µ ±½±½¼½´ «a¬ ª ²°²°Ã0µ ´ªB«æè@¯ ÂÖ@¹ Õ µ ûÀ 7ÔS´1ìµ ¹¼Ì¯9JL¶"Jª û!±³±½´ "J¬û\¸B²°Ç Ã05´ v1ì "ê.é ÔB1ì ¹JL"JûP"Jû¸Ç Í Ã0´#» « ¹ Èd´ µ°´ ¬X¼½«c¬ » ¶ ² ¹ µ
Primary Secondary
winding winding
à ª ²ÓÈdprimary:secondary
Ò 1:10 ´)à ªÄ ´jÃ0´ µ°´ ¼½¯Éª¸Ä ´ µ°ÅKcurrent» ¯ ´ÂÑ»0± ¬ ratio
´ ļ½¶ ´ ¿i¼½«c¬ ´´ ¬ Ç Ò¼ ²°Ã ¼ ² ¿ È'´ ¶ª« ´ ª¯°¼ ±³Å À »0±³² ¼ 0±½Å ¹ µ ¬!¼½Ä¼½¬ ´
Ĺ ±C² ªB¾ ´ ª«c¬>¶ »0µMµM´ « ² ¼³« å Ù ¶-¼ µ ¶ » ¼ ² ¯ Ç «c¬ ´´ ¬¿ ²MÃ0´j²°µ ªB«¯  ¹ µ À ´µ¤Ã ª¯^Àjª¬ ´j± ¹«c¾ Í ¬!¼½¯ ² ª«c¶ ´a²Mµ ª«c¯/À¼Ì¯°¯°¼½¹«
¹ ÂÉ´±½´ ¶ ²Mµ ¼Ì¶ ¹ È'´µ ª cµ ª¶ ² ¼Ì¶ª ±¤µ°´ ª ± ¼ ²Å ¿4ª¯ å ٠Ĺ ±³² ªB¾ ´ ¶ ªB«º ´ ¯ ²°´ 0´ ¬ »0 2ª«c¬¶ »0µMµ°´ « ² ¯ ²°´ 0´ ¬
¬!¹ È `«  ¹ µjµM´ ¬ » ¶ ´ ¬ È ¼ µ°´ZµM´ ¯°¼½¯ ² ª«c¶ ´Á ¹ Èd´ µa± ¹¯M¯ ´ ¯ª ± ¹«0¾ ¹ Èd´ µ± ¼½« ´ ¯j¶¹«0« ´ ¶ ² ¼³«c¾Î¾ ´ « ´ µ ª ² ¼½«0¾>¯ ² ª ² ¼½¹«¯
È ¼ ²°Ã± ¹ª¬c¯ Ç å ²[´ ¼ ²°Ã0´ µb´ «cå ¬ 뺹 ²°Ã²°Ãc´ ¾ ´ « ´µ ª ² ¹ µ ªB«c¬ª ²b²°Ã0´¸± ¹ª¬0¯)Ü¿#Ĺ ±C² ªB¾ ´Á±½´ Ä ´ ± ¯)ª µM´ÁµM´ ¬ » ¶ ´ ¬2º Å
²°µ ªB«¯  ¹ µ À ´µ ¯  ¹ µ ¯Mª ÂÑ´µ ¹ ´µ ª ² ¼³¹«bªB«c¬ ±½´ ¯M¯ ´×!´ «c¯/¼½Ä ´4´Ä
» ¼ À ´ « ² Ç å ²Mµ ª«c¯  ¹ µ À ´ µ9²°Ã ª ² ¼½«c¶ µ°´ ª¯ ´ ¯NĹ ±³² ª¾ ´
¬ ò 0Ï ò õöiü%ø'£3²Dø ô =µ´ õöiü%ø'£6´÷Ð= öiý ô =õ!ù'÷#ý®Ïü%ýõ Å Ûþ
Âѵ ¹À cµ ¼½Àjª µMÅj² ¹b¯ ´ ¶¹«c¬0ª µ°Å ÑÀ¹ µM´ ¯ ´ ¶-¹«¬0ª µMÅbÈ ¼½«c¬!¼½«0¾ ²°»0µ «c¯ ²Mà ªB« cµ ¼½Àjª µMÅbÈ ¼³«¬!¼³«c¾ ²°»0µ «c¯)'¼½¯¶ª ±½±½´ ¬Áª
æ1Ñèlæl¯SX²Mµ ª«c¯  ¹ µ À ´ µ Ç Ùd¹«Ä ´ µ ¯ ´±½Å ¿Bª ²°µ ªB«¯  ¹ µ À ´µ ¬ ´ ¯/¼½¾« ´ ¬ ² ¹X¬!¹'ï » ¯ ²N²°Ãc´ ¹ 0 ¹¯°¼ ²M´ ¼½¯N¶ ª ±½±³´ ¬Éª æ1ÑèÕ!æÌÕJLç
²°µ ªB«¯  ¹ µ À ´µ*Ç
«b¶ª¯ ´4Å ¹ »jÈ'´µM´·È ¹«c¬ ´ µ ¼½«0¾¿¼ ² "Ìæ9 ¹
¯°¯°¼½º ±³´Ê² ¹X¹ ´ µ ª ²°´Ê´ ¼ ²MÃ0´µ ¹ ÂF²°Ãc´ ¯ ´·²°µ ªB«c¯  ¹ µ À ´µ9²Å´ ¯%ºcª¶@Ë È ª µ ¬0¯
¹ È'´µ ¼³«0¾ ²°Ã0´ ¯ ´ ¶-¹«c¬0ª µ°ÅaÈ ¼³«¬!¼³«c¾ È ¼ ²°Ã ªB« å Ù¯°¹ »cµ ¶ ´ ªB«c¬ ±³´²/² ¼³«0¾ ²°Ãc´0µ ¼½Àª µ°ÅÈ ¼½«c¬!¼½«0¾ ¹ È'´µ ª ± ¹ª¬`
² ¹ ´ µ/Â ¹ µ À ²°Ãc´ ¹ 0 ¹
¯/¼ ²°´XÂÑ» «c¶ ² ¼³¹«N
ʪ)¯ ²°´ Í»0 ¶ª« ÂÑ» «c¶ ² ¼½¹«Rª¯4ª[¯ ²M´Í ¬!¹ È «ÏªB«¬¸Ä¼½¯Mª Í Ä ´ µ ¯Mª ÇH ¹ È'´ Ä ´µ ¿
ª¯ È'´ ¯Mª È ¼³« ²MÃ0°´ Écµ ¯ ² ¯ ´ ¶ ² ¼½¹«K¹ Â9²°Ã ¼½¯¤¶ à ª !²°´ µ ¿ 3´ Ç ¶-¼ ´ « ² ¹ ´µ ª ² ¼³¹«¸¹  ª ²°µ ªB«c¯  ¹ µ À ´µ4µM´ Ä
» ¼ µM´ ¯ ²MÃ ª ²H²°Ãc´
¼½«c¬!¼½Ä
¼Ì¬ » ª ±9È ¼³«¬!¼³«c¾[¼½«c¬ » ¶ ² ª«c¶ ´ ¯¤º ´´ «c¾¼½« ´´ µ°´ ¬  ¹ µ ¯ ´ ¶-¼ É ¶É¹ ´µ ª ² ¼½«0¾ µ ª«0¾ ´ ¯4¹  Ĺ ±C² ªB¾ ´ ªB«¬K¶ »0µ°µM´ « ² ¿
¯°¹Î¼  ª ²Mµ ª«c¯  ¹ µ À ´ µ ¼½¯ ² ¹>º ´¸» ¯ ´ p ¬ ºcª¶@Ë È ª µ ¬0M¯ ± ¼½Ë ´Z²Mà ¼½¯b¼ ² À » ¯ ² º ´Ï´ À 0± ¹ Å´ ¬ È ¼ ²°Ã ¼½« ²°Ãc´ ¹ µ ¼³¾¼³«cª ±
¬ ´ ¯/¼½¾« ª µ ªBÀ ´-²M´µ ¯·¹  Ĺ ±³² ªB¾ ´ ªB«c¬R¶ »0µMµ°´ « ²4 ¹ µ´ ª¶ Ã¸È ¼³«c¬0¼³«0¾¿ ±³´ ¯ ² ¼ ²¤0µ ¹SÄ ´¤² ¹[º ´ ¼½« 3´ Ç ¶-¼ ´ « ² ѹ µH±½´ ¯ ² ¼ ²
º K´ @ÔS'é Ô¸
)è º Å)´× ¶ ´ ¯M¯/¼½Ä ´ Ĺ ±C² ªB¾ ´ ¹ µ ¶ »0µMµ°´ « ² fè Ç
Í µ ª«c¯  ¹ µ À ´ µ ¯aª µM´ ¹ Âê²°´ «¶¹«c¯ ²°µM» ¶ ²°´ ¬2¼½«¯ » ¶ à ª È ª ŧ²Mà ª ² ¼ ² ¼½¯b«0¹ ² ¹ºÄ¼½¹ » ¯ È·Ã ¼Ì¶ Ã È ¼ µM´ ¯ ±½´ ª¬ ² ¹
²°Ãc´acµ ¼½Àjª µMÅ¸È ¼³«c¬0¼³«0¾Ïª«c¬ È·Ã ¼½¶ Ãα³´ ª¬ ² ¹ ²°Ãc´ ¯ ´ ¶-¹«¬0ª µMÅÇ ^ « ´ ¶¹«Ä ´ « ² ¼½¹« » ¯ ´ ¬R¼½« ²MÃ0´j´±½´ ¶ ²°µ ¼½¶ ¹ Èd´ µ
¼½«c¬ » ¯ ²°µMÅR² ¹ Ã0´±½ ª ±½±½´ ļ½ª ²°´ ¶¹« ÂÑ» ¯°¼½¹«§¼Ì¯ ²°Ã0´)» ¯ ´ ¹  H ¸¬ ´ ¯°¼³¾«cª ² ¼³¹«c¯  ¹ µ^²°Ã0´)à ¼³¾ Ã0´Mµ Í Ä¹ ±³² ª¾ ´aÈ ¼³«¬!¼³«c¾
²MÃ0´·0µ ¼³Àjª µ°Å^È ¼½«c¬!¼½«0¾¤¼³«jªH¯ ²M´ Í ¬!¹ È « » «0¼ ² é²°Ã0´ ¯ ´ ¶¹«c¬0ª µ°Å^È ¼½«c¬!¼½«0¾¤¼½«aª¤¯ ²°´F Í®»0 iªB«c ¬ Pꧬ ´ ¯/¼½¾«ª ² ¼½¹«¯
 ¹ µÊ²°Ã0´^± ¹ Èd´ ̵ Í Ä¹ ±C² ªB¾ ´4È ¼½«c¬!¼½«0¾ Ç Í Ã0´µM´- ¹ µ°´ ¿0ªj¯/¼½À 0±³´^ ¹ È'´µ#²°µ ªB«¯  ¹ µ À ´µ·È ¼ ±½±Ã ªÄ ´^È ¼ µM´ ¯ ± ªBº ´±½´ n¬ H 0¿
H c7¿ Pê c¿
ª«c. ¬ Pê Ç Í Ã0´ µ°´ ¼Ì¯ » ¯ » ª ±³±½Å ¯°¼³¾«0¼ É ¶ª«c¶ ´#² ¹ ²°Ã0´ « » ÀÓº ´µ ¼³«0¾Ó¹ Âv²°Ã0´4È ¼ µM´ ¯ H§ į iÇ Hµ ¿ ´² ¶ Ç Ü¿
È·Ã ¼Ì¶ ÃZÈd´
±½±F´-×!0± ¹ µM´ ª ± ¼ ²/²°±½´^± ª ²°´ µ ¼³« ²Mà ¼½¯4¶ à ª !²M´µ*Ç
Í Ã0´Â ª¶ ²d²Mà ª ² Ĺ ±C² ªB¾ ´ ªB«c¬[¶ »0µMµM´ « ² ¾ ´-² ¯ ²°´ 0´ F¬ X¼½«Á¹ 0 ¹¯°¼ ²M´ ¬0¼ µM´ ¶ ² ¼½¹«c§¯ ѹ« ´»c ¿ ²°Ã0´ ¹ ²°Ã0´ µ ¬!¹ È «
ÀjªBË ´ ¯ ´µ°ÂÑ´ ¶ ² ¯ ´ «¯ ´ÉÈ·Ã0´ « Å ¹ »Rµ°´ ¶ª ±½±²Mà ª ²¤ ¹ Èd´ µ ¼Ì¯ S´ Ä
» ª ±G² ¹[Ĺ ±³² ª¾ ´^² ¼³À ´ ¯H¶ »0µMµ°´ « ² ¿ª«c¬ µM´ ª ± c¼ b ´Ó²°Ã ª ²
²°µ ªB«¯  ¹ µ À ´µ ¯N¶ ªB«0«0¹ ² vì°Õ P¯cÖ@è% ¹ È'´µ ¿¹« ±³Å ¶¹«Ä ´ µ/² ¼ ² Ç å « Å ¬ ´ ļ½¶ ´Ê²Mà ª ² ¶-¹ »0± ¬b¹ »!²M0»!² Àa¹ µ°´ ¹ È'´µ%²°Ã ª«
¼ ²Ê² ¹¹ËÁ¼½« È ¹ »0± ¬Áļ½¹ ± ª ²°´¤²MÃ0´ë]ÔJÕÌÖ§ìçvè-ì$¸P¹díNÕPç0æè-ì1îÔÑ$"ëÕç ¼½« 0ÃÅ ¯°¼Ì¶¯ ¿0«cªBÀ ´ ±³Å[²°Ã ª ²4´ « ´µ ¾ Å ¶ ªB«0«0¹ ² º ´
¶ µM´ ª ²°´ ¬K¹ µ ¬ ´ ¯ ²°µ ¹ Å´ ¬F¿¹« ±½Å ¶-¹«Ä ´µ°²°´ ¬ Ç ¯ È ¼ ²°Ã>²°Ãc'´ Écµ ¯ ²^²Mµ ª«c¯  ¹ µ À ´ µ^´-× ªBÀ 0±½´jÈd´j± ¹¹Ë ´ ¬Îª ² ¿ ¹ Èd´ µ
²°µ ªB«¯ ÂÑ´ µ·´3Ç ¶-¼ ´ «c¶ Å ¼Ì¯·Ä ´ µ°Å ¾¹
¹!¬ Âѵ ¹À ²°Ãc´^å 0µ ¼½Àjª µMÅj² ¹ ²MÃ0´ ¯ ´ ¶-¹«c¬0ª µMÅ ¯°¼½¬ ´ ¯#¹ ÂD²°Ã0´ ¬ ´ ļ½¶ ´Ç
Í Ã0´'0µ ª¶ ² ¼½¶ ª ± ¯/¼½¾«c¼ É ¶ ªB«c¶ ´ ¹ Â0²°Ã ¼½¯i¼Ì¯DÀª¬ ´ Àa¹ µ°´ ª 0 ª µM´ « ²DÈ·Ãc´ «Éª«Éª ±C²M´µ «cª ² ¼³Ä ´ ¼Ì¯9¶-¹«¯/¼Ì¬ ´µM´ N¬
Fº ´Â ¹ µM´
²°Ãc´ ª¬0Ä ´ « ² ¹ Âv´ Ç ¶-¼ ´ « ²%²Mµ ª«c¯  ¹ µ À ´ µ ¯ ¿BĹ ±C² ªB¾ ´ aS¶ »0µMµ°´ « ²i±½´ Ä ´ ± ¶-¹«Ä ´µ ¯°¼³¹«a¶¹ »0± ¬¹« ±½Å º ´ ª¶ à ¼ ´ Ä ´ ¬ ²°Ã0µ ¹ » ¾ Ã
²°Ãc´[» ¯ ´ ¹  À¹ ² ¹ µ a¾ ´ « ´ µ ª ² ¹ µ ¯ ´-² ¯ Ç å ¬ µ ª È ¼³«0¾K¹  ªKÀ¹ ² ¹ µ aS¾ ´ « ´µ ª ² ¹ µ ¯ ´-²µ°´ Ä ´ ª ± ¯ ²°Ã0´ ºcª¯/¼Ì¶ 0µ ¼½«c¶-¼ 0±½´
¼½«
Ĺ ± Ä ´ ¬9
A motor/generator set
Power
in
ð
Power
out
ïcoupling
Shaft
Motor Generator
«§¯ » ¶ à ªÁÀjª¶ à ¼³« ´ ¿GªZÀ¹ ² ¹ µ ¼Ì¯^À ´ ¶ à ª«0¼Ì¶ª ±½±½Å ¶-¹ »00±½´ ¬ ² ¹ÏªZ¾ ´ « ´ µ ª ² ¹ µ ¿ ²°Ãc´ ¾ ´ « ´µ ª ² ¹ µ ¬ ´ ¯°¼½¾« ´ ¬ ² ¹
0µ ¹!¬ » ¶ ´a²MÃ0´ ¬ ´ ¯°¼ µ°´ ¬ ±½´ Ä ´± ¯¤¹  Ĺ ±³² ª¾ ´ ªB«c¬>¶ »cµ°µM´ « ² ª ²¤²°Ãc´jµ ¹ ² ª ² ¼³«c¾Á¯ ´ ´ ¬Î¹ Â'²°Ãc´ Àa¹ ² ¹ µ Ç Ò Ã ¼ ±³´ º¹ ²MÃ
À¹ ² ¹ µ ¯Hª«c¬Ï¾ ´ « ´ µ ª ² ¹ µ ¯ª µM´Ó ª¼ µM±³Å¸´Ç ¶-¼ ´ « ² ¬ ´ ļ̶ ´ ¯ ¿ ²°Ãc´a» ¯ ´ ¹  º¹ ²°Ã ¼³« ²°Ã ¼½¯  ª¯ à ¼½¹«>¶-¹À ¹ » «c¬0¯ ²°Ã0´ ¼ µ
¼½« 3´ Ç ¶-¼ ´ «¶-¼ ´ ¯b¯°¹ ²°Ã ª ²j²°Ã0´ ¹SÄ ´µ ª ±½±#´3Ç ¶-¼ ´ «c¶ Å ¼Ì¯j¼½« ²°Ã0´¸µ ªB«0¾ ´ ¹ Â^Û Æ È ¹ µj±½´ ¯M¯ Ç Ò »0µ°²°Ã0´ µ À¹ µ°´ ¿%º ´ ¶ª » ¯ ´
À¹ ² ¹ µ a¾ ´ « ´µ ª ² ¹ µ ¯ ´-² ¯H¹ºÄ¼³¹ » ¯ ±½ÅZµ°S´ Ä
» ¼ µM´ À¹Sļ½«0¾ ª µ°² ¯ ¿À ´ ¶ à ªB«0¼Ì¶ª ±iÈd´ ª µ ªB«c¬Rºcª ± ªB«c¶ ´ ª µ°´É ª¶ ² ¹ µ ¯¼³« Í
Å @Û iË ô ø öiüdý¬ ò öiý ô =õ!ù'÷#ý®Ïüdý4õ
g »0´ «c¶-¼½«0¾Áº¹ ²°Ã ¯ ´ µ ļ̶ ´a± ¼ ÂÑ´ ªB«c¬ ´ µ/ ¹ µ Àjª«c¶ ´Ç Í µ ªB«c¯  ¹ µ À ´µ ¯¿¹« ²°Ãc´ ¹ ²°Ã0´ µHà ªB«c¬F¿Gª µM´ ªBº ±³´É² ¹¸¶-¹«Ä ´µ°²
±½´ Ä ´ ± ¯d¹  å ٠Ĺ ±C² ªB¾ ´ ªB«c¬[¶ »0µMµ°´ « ² ª ² Ä ´ µ°Åà ¼½¾ Ã[´3Ç ¶-¼ ´ «¶-¼ ´ ¯ È ¼ ²Mà «0¹ÉÀ¹SÄ
¼½«0¾ ª µ°² ¯ ¿ÀªË¼³«0¾ ¹
¯°¯°¼½º ±³´²°Ãc´
È ¼Ì¬ ´ ¯ 0µM´ ª¬Á¬!¼Ì¯ ²Mµ ¼½º »!² ¼³¹«Áª«c¬ » ¯ ´ ¹ ÂD´ ±³´ ¶ ²Mµ ¼Ì¶ ¹ È'´µ#È'´¤² ªBË ´4 ¹ µ ¾ µ ªB« ²M´ ¬ Ç
«¸ª ±½±F ªB¼ µ « ´ ¯M¯·¼ ² ¯ à ¹ »0± ¬Áº ´ «c¹ ²°´ ¬ ²°Ã ª ² À¹ ² ¹ µ aS¾ ´ « ´µ ª ² ¹ µ ¯ ´-² ¯ à ªÄ ´ «0¹ ² « ´ ¶ ´ ¯°¯Mª µ ¼ ±½Å º ´´ «¸¹ºc¯°¹ ±½´-²M´ ¬
º ÅÁ²°µ ªB«c¯  ¹ µ À ´µ ¯  ¹ µ'ÔSÔêÔ ª 00± ¼Ì¶ª ² ¼³¹«c¯ Ç Ò Ã ¼ ±³´É²°µ ªB«¯  ¹ µ À ´µ ¯Êª µ°´ ¶ ±³´ ª µM±³Å ¯ »0´ µ ¼½¹ µ ¹SÄ ´ µ À¹ ² ¹ µ a¾ ´ « ´µ ª ² ¹ µ
¯ ´-² ¯  ¹ µ ÙĹ ±³² ªB¾ ´ ª«c¬Î¶ »0µMµ°´ « ²¤±½´ Ä ´± ¶¹«Ä ´ µ ¯°¼³¹«¿ ²°Ã0´ Å ¶ ªB«0«0¹ ² ¶-¹«Ä ´µ°² ¹« ´aÂѵ°S´ Ä»c´ «c¶ Å ¹  ٠¹ Èd´ µ
² ¹KªB«0¹ ²°Ã0å ´ µ ¿D¹ µ ëº ÅR²MÃ0´ Àj¯ ´± Ä ´ ¯)^¶¹«Ä ´ µ/² o^Ù ² ¹ å Ù¹ µ Ä
¼Ì¯Mª Í Ä ´µ ¯Mª sÇ ð ¹ ² ¹ µ aS¾ ´ « ´µ ª ² ¹ µ ¯ ´² ¯Ó¶ å ªB«¬!¹Ïª ±³±
²°Ãc´ ¯ ´²Mà ¼½«0¾¯ È ¼ ²°ÃZµM´± ª ² ¼½Ä ´ ¯°¼³À 0± ¼½¶¼ ²Å ¿cª ± º ´ ¼ ²#È ¼ ²°ÃÁ²MÃ0´¤± ¼½À¼ ² ª ² ¼½¹«¯·¹ ÂD3´ Ç ¶-¼ ´ «c¶ Å ªB«¬)À ´ ¶ à ªB«0¼Ì¶ª ±Â ª¶ ² ¹ µ ¯
ª ±½µM´ ª¬ Å ¬ ´ ¯M¶ µ ¼½º ´ ¬ Çtð ¹ ² ¹ µ a¾ ´ « ´µ ª ² ¹ µ ¯ ´² ¯Éª ± ¯/¹ à ªÄ ´²°Ã0´b» «0¼ Ä
»0´[0µ ¹ ´µ°²Å ¹  ˼³« ´-² ¼Ì¶ ´ « ´µ ¾ Å ¯ ² ¹ µ ªB¾ ´
²°Ã ª ² ¼Ì¯ ¿S¼ Â0²MÃ0´ À¹ ² ¹ µ
¯ ¹ Èd´ µ ¯ »000±½Å ¼½¯GÀ¹À ´ « ² ª µ ¼ ±½Å ¼½« ²°´ µ°µM»0!²M´ ¬  ¹ µ ªB« ŤµM´ ª¯°¹«¿ ¼ ² ¯DªB«0¾ »0± ª µ À¹À ´ « ²°» À
²MÃ0´ ¼³« ´µ°² ¼ÌªÓ¹ ²°Ã ª ²'µ ¹ ² ª ² ¼³«0¾ÉÀjª¯M¯ È ¼ ±½± ÀjªB¼½« ² ªB¼½« µ ¹ ² ª ² ¼½¹«)¹ ²MÃ0´ ¾ ´ « ´µ ª ² ¹ µN ¹ µ ªa¯ à ¹ µ°² ¬ »cµ ª ² ¼½¹«¿ ²°Ã» ¯
¼Ì¯/¹ ± ª ² ¼½«0¾jªB« Åj± ¹
ª¬0¯ ¹ È'´µM´ ¬bº Å)²°Ã0´ ¾ ´ « ´ µ ª ² ¹ µdÂѵ ¹ñ À ¾ ± ¼ ² ¶ Ã0´ ¯ Ó¼½« ²°Ã0´ Àjª¼³« ¹ Èd´ µ ¯ Å ¯ ²M´ À Ç
4 ¹¹Ë
¼½«0¾¶ ± ¹¯ ´±½Å ª ²#²°Ãc´ « » ÀÓº ´µ ¯#¼³« ²°Ãc´ °Ù'Ú ªB«cª ±³Å ¯°¼½¯ ¿ Èd´ ¯ à ¹ »c± ¬Z¯ ´´ ª¶-¹ µMµM´ ¯ ¹«c¬ ´ «¶ ´ º ´-²È'´´ «
²°Ãc´[²Mµ ª«c¯  ¹ µ À ´ µ
¯ µ ª ² ¼½¹Îª«c¬ ²MÃ0´Z²È ¹K¼½«c¬ » ¶ ² ª«c¶ ´ ¯ Ç Øʹ ² ¼Ì¶ ´Zà ¹ ÈV²MÃ0´Z0µ ¼³Àjª µMÅ ¼½«c¬ » ¶ ² ¹ µ ± ÅY à ªG¯ ÅÆ7Æ
² ¼½À ´ ¯dÀ¹ µM´ ¼½«c¬ » ¶ ² ªB«¶ ´Ê²Mà ªB« ²°Ã0´ ¯ ´ ¶-¹«c¬0ª µMÅ ¼³«c¬ » ¶ ² ¹ µ jÅÆ7Æ@Æ7Æ H Ä ´ µ ¯ » µ¯ ÅÆ@Æ H Ü¿!ª«c¬ ²°Ã ª ²%²MÃ0´ À ´ ª¯ »0µM´ ¬
Ĺ ±C² ªB¾ ´ ¯ ²°´ Í ¬0¹ È « µ ª ² ¼³¹ È ª¯ ÅÆ ² '¹ Å Ç Í Ã0´·È ¼½«c¬!¼½«0¾ È ¼ ²°Ã À¹ µM´ ¼³«c¬ » ¶ ² ªB«c¶ ´·È ¼ ±½±0à ªÄ ´dà ¼½¾ Ãc´µ Ĺ ±C² ªB¾ ´ ª«c¬
±½´ ¯M¯^¶ »0µMµ°´ « ²²Mà ªB« ²°Ã0´ ¹ ²°Ã0´ µ Ç ¼½«c¶ ´a²MÃ0´a²È ¹Z¼½«c¬ » ¶ ² ¹ µ ¯¤ª µM´È ¹ » «c¬Rª µ ¹ » «c¬ ²°Ã0´ ¯MªBÀ ´ ¶-¹ µ°´ Àjª ²°´ µ ¼Ìª ± ¼½«
²°Ãc´·²°µ ªB«c¯  ¹ µ À ´µ  ¹ µN²MÃ0´ À¹¯ ²%´ Ç ¶¼ ´ « ² Àª¾« ´² ¼Ì¶Ê¶-¹ »00± ¼³«c¾^º ´²Èd´ ´ « ²°Ãc´·²È \¹ Ü¿ ²°Ã0´Ê ª µ ªBÀ ´-²M´µ ¯9ªSÐ ´ ¶ ² ¼³«c¾
¼½«c¬ » ¶ ² ªB«¶ ´·Â ¹ µN²°Ãc´·²È ¹É¶-¹¼ ± ¯Nª µM´·´ Ä
» ª ±c´-× ¶ ´!²N ¹ µ9²°Ãc´ « » ÀÓº ´µ ¹ Âv²°»cµ «c¯%¼³« ´ ª¶ à ¶-¹¼ ±®Ç ÂÈd´·² ªBË ´ ªB«0¹ ²°Ã0´ µ
± ¹
¹Ëbª ² ¹ »0µ ¼³«c¬ » ¶ ² ªB«c¶ ´Â ¹ µ À »0± ª0¿ È'´ ¯ ´´H²°Ã ª ² ¼½«c¬ » ¶ ² ªB«¶ ´ ¼½¯ cµ ¹ ¹ µ/² ¼³¹«cª ±² ¹ ²MÃ0´a3æ ò¯`ÔSìMè ¹ ÂG²°Ã0´ « » ÀÓº ´µ
¹ Â ¶-¹¼ ±v²M»0µ «c¯
óL = ªN2µA
ôl
Where,
óL = Inductance of coil in Henrys
ªN = Number of turns in wire coil (straight wire = 1)
«µ = Permeability of core material (absolute, not relative)
õA = öArea of coil in square meters
ôl = öAverage length of coil in meters
¹¿!¼ ² ¯ à ¹ »c± ¬[º ´ ª 0 ª µ°´ « ²'²°Ã ª ² ¹ »cµ#²È ¹¼½«c¬ » ¶ ² ¹ µ ¯#¼½« ²MÃ0´^± ª¯ ² F° Ù'Ú ²°µ ªB«c¯  ¹ µ À ´µ#´-× ªBÀ 0±½´ ¶-¼ µ ¶ » ¼ ²
ÁÈ ¼ ²°Ã ¼³«c¬ » ¶ ² ªB«c¶ ´Éµ ª ² ¼³¹
¯Ê¹  ÅSÆ@Æ`
<Å ¯ à ¹ »0± ¬ à ªÄ ´ ¶-¹¼ ±G²°»0µ « µ ª ² ¼½¹¯4¹  ÅSÆF
cÅ¿º ´ ¶ª »
¯ ´ ÅÆb¯ Ä
» ª µM´ ¬ ´SÄ» ª ± ¯
ÅÆ7Æ Ç Í Ã ¼Ì¯ È ¹ µ Ë!¯H¹ »!²¤² ¹¸º ´²MÃ0´ ¯°ªÀ ´µ ª ² ¼³¹ È'´É ¹ » «c¬Kº ´²Èd´ ´ « 0µ ¼³Àjª µ°Å ª«c¬K¯ ´ ¶¹«c¬cª µMŠĹ ±³² ª¾ ´ ¯ª«c¬
¶ »cµ°µM´ « ² ¯jÅSÆF
cÅSÜ¿¯°¹ È'´ ¶ª«)¯Mª Å ª¯%ª µM»0±½´Ê²Mà ª ²'²°Ã0´ Ĺ ±C² ªB¾ ´ ªB«c¬b¶ »0µMµ°´ « ²%²°µ ªB«c¯  ¹ µ Àjª ² ¼½¹« µ ª ² ¼³¹Ó¼½¯ ´Ä
» ª ±c² ¹
²°Ãc´^µ ª ² ¼½¹a¹ ÂGÈ ¼½«c¬!¼½«0¾ ²°»cµ «c¯#º ´-²È'´´ « 0µ ¼½Àjª µMÅ ªB«c¬Z¯ ´ ¶¹«c¬0ª µ°ÅÇ
Step-down transformer
÷
many turns few turns
high voltage low voltage load
low current high current
¬ ò 0Ï òõ öiü%ø'£3²Dø ô =µ´ õöiü%ø'£6´÷Ð= öiý ô =õ!ù'÷#ý®Ïü%ýõ Å Û?
Í Ã0´ ¯ ²°´FÍ®»0 aS¯ ²°´FÍ ¬!¹ È « ´ Ð ´ ¶ ² ¹  ¶-¹¼ ±!²M»0µ « µ ª ² ¼½¹¯i¼½«jª ²°µ ªB«c¯  ¹ µ À ´µ ¼½¯%ªB«cª ± ¹¾¹ » ¯ ² ¹H¾ ´ ª µi² ¹¹ ²MÃɵ ª ² ¼³¹
¯
¼½«ÁÀ ´ ¶ à ªB«0¼Ì¶ª ± ¾ ´ ª µ ¯ Å ¯ ²°´ À¯ ¿ ²°µ ªB«¯  ¹ µ À¼½«0¾ÉÄSª ±³»0´ ¯#¹  ¯ ´´ ¬[ª«c¬ ² ¹ µ Ä
»0´ ¼½«ÁÀ » ¶ Ã[²°Ã0´ ¯MªBÀ ´¤È ª Å
Torque reduction geartrain
ø
LARGE GEAR
(many teeth)
ø
SMALL GEAR
(few teeth)
low torque
high torque high speed
low speed
¯/Àjª ±½± ¯ ²M´Í ¬!¹ È « ¹ È'´µ²°µ ªB«c¯  ¹ µ À ´ µ4» ¯ ´ ¬ ² ¹Z¶-¹«Ä ´µ°² Å e ÆbĹ ±³² å Ù ² ¹ OcÇ þ Ä ¹ ±C² å ټ̯H¯ à ¹ È «Ï¹«
²°Ãc´^å ±³´Âê² ¼³« ²°Ãc´¤Â ¹ ±½± ¹ È ¼½«0¾ 0à ¹ ² ¹¾ µ ª 0Ã
²M´Í»0 ªB«¬^¯ ²M´Í ¬!¹ È « ²°µ ªB«¯  ¹ µ À ´µ ¯  ¹ µG ¹ È'´µ ¬!¼½¯ ²°µ ¼½º »!² ¼½¹« 0»0µM ¹
¯ ´ ¯¶ª«^º ´ ¾¼½¾ªB« ² ¼½¶i¼½« 0µ ¹ ¹ µ°² ¼½¹«
² ¹ ²MÃ0´ ¯/Àjª ±³±F²Mµ ª«c¯  ¹ µ À ´ µ ¯ à ¹ È «ÁªBº¹SÄ ´ ¿0¯/¹À ´¤» «c¼ ² ¯Ê¯ ² ªB«c¬0¼³«0¾jª¯ ² ª ±½± ª¯·ª à ¹À ´Ç
Ý.Þ)ßà[á-ßâäã
Ý ÈÍ µ ¼ µMªB´H«c¯ ²°Â »0¹ µ µ «cÀ ¯ Ç´µ ¯U¯ ²M´a»0 H¹ µ ¯ ²°´ ¬0¹ È «`4Ĺ ±³² ª¾ ´ ª¶¶¹ µ ¬!¼½«0¾ ² ¹ ²MÃ0´·µ ª ² ¼½¹¯D¹ Â0µ ¼³Àjª µ°Å¤² ¹¤¯ ´ ¶¹«c¬cª µMÅ
Å 7Û O iË ô øöiüdý¬ ò öiý ô = õ!ù'÷#ý®Ïüdý4õ
ùN
Voltage transformation ratio = ùN secondary
primary
ùN
Current transformation ratio = ùN primary
secondary
Ý
Where,
ù N = number of turns in winding
Ý.²°å µ ªB²°«cµ ¯ ªB «¹ µ¯ À ¹ µ´Àµ*Ç ´µ ¬ ²Mµ´ ª¯°¼½«c¾¯ «  ¹´ ¬µ À ² ´ ¹2µ ¼³¬ «c´ ¶ ¯°µ°¼³´¾ª« ¯ ´ ´ ¬ IJ ¹¹ ±C² µMªB´ ¾ ¬ ´¸» ¶ ÂÑ´ µ ¹ÄÀ ¹ ±C² 0ªBµ ¾ ¼½´¤ÀjÂѪ µ µM¹Å.À ² 0¹2µ ¼³¯ Àj´ ¶ª ¹µM«cÅb¬0² ª ¹)µ°Å ¯ ´ ¼Ì¶-¯[¹«c¶ ¬0ª ±½ª ±³µ°´ Å ¬¥¼Ìª¯4¶ æ1ª ѱ½èÕ±³!´ ¬Zæl¯Sª
)æ Ñlè æÌPÕ JLç²°µ ªB«c¯  ¹ µ À ´µ*Ç
å
Ý Í¯ ´ Ã0¶-´a¹«²°¬0µ ªBª «cµMÅ ¯  ¼³¹ «cµ ¬ Àj» ª ¶ ² ² ¼½ªB¹«c« ¶ ´ µ ª ² 4 ¼½¹[ ¹µ ª  ² ª ¼³¹ ²°Ç µ ªB«c¯  ¹ µ À ´µHÈ ¼ ±½± º ´a´SÄ
» ª ±D² ¹ ²MÃ0´ ¯ Ä
» ª µ°´Éµ ¹¹ ² ¹  ¼ ² ¯ 0µ ¼³Àjª µ°ÅZ² ¹
0V
mV 10 V
:L
1
:L
2
Rload 1 kΩ
1
10 kH 100 H
0 0 5 5
mV o250 V
2
0
¬ èò þ!ò ü%ûGü·öiý·ú ô ûRú/õ÷#û ô öDú÷>= Å \Û Ê
w2rcq{!t*z
~
yc@ B
v{c.
*x!
w0
f q
}.
}
} }
%
wvt0¥rcq
~c}
dr
/rcq}ct z.
s!~t*z!urcq2wN@L
° Ãt°w@Ã
s!~t*z!urcq2wN@L ° Ãt°wvt!7Ã
/xzb
{ [ w0!}u!7r B0xc{§~!x
|!x~0xBzvqdx .u0|B
~0z`Vzcd!x¥Ã,h
7 Ã %/
@
à %/
@ Ã
N/
°! Ã
%/
@ Ã
%/
} [ w0!}u!7r B0xci{ h
|
~0x wN@`
à tF°w7 Ã
%/
!! /
!! N/0
¾~v1t Rvr~¨¦Ft z`t*zB
|
~0x wN@i ÂM Ã tF°wvt07 Ã
%/
!! %/
c
N/
0
¼xcqB`z !r~
¨ ¦Ft*`z t*zB
u°Ù'ÚK¯ à ¹ È ¯ ²°Ã0µ´ e7? ÆĹ ±C² ,¯ o^Ùº ´ ¼³«0¾¤¼½À 0µ°´ ¯°¯ ´ ¬ »0 ¹« ²°Ã0´ ¯ ´ ¶¹«c¬cª µMÅ ¶¼ µ ¶ » ¼ ²9´±½´ À ´ « ² ¯ È ¼ ²°Ãaµ°´ ¯ ´ ¶ ²
² ¹[¾ µ ¹ » «¬F¿º »!² ª¯ Å ¹ » ¶ª«R¯ ´´X²MÃ0´µM´ ¼Ì¯«0¹ ´ Ð ´ ¶ ² ¹« ²°Ãc´É0µ ¼½Àª µ°Å ¶-¼ µ ¶ » ¼ ² 6b ´µ ¹Ko^ÙĹ ±C² ªB¾ ´ #ª ² «0¹!¬ ´ ¯
Å^ªB«c¬ e ¿ªB«c¬ ²°Ã0´¤²Mµ ª«c¯  ¹ µ Àª ² ¼½¹«b¹  ٠¹ È'´µ#Âѵ ¹À 0µ ¼½Àjª µMŲ ¹j¯ ´ ¶-¹«c¬0ª µ°Å ¶¼ µ ¶ » ¼ ² ¯ µM´ Àjª¼³«c¯ ²MÃ0´ ¯MªBÀ ´
ª¯¤º ´- ¹ µ°´Ç Í Ã0´ ¼½À cµ°´ ¯°¯ ´ ¬KĹ ±C² ªB¾ ´ ¼½«å ²°Ã ¼Ì¯ ´-× ªÀ c±³´ ¼Ì¯^¹ Âê²M´ «§¶ª ±³±½´ ¬Îª Ö@ÕSéaéÕPç`æéjÕè Ĺ ±C² ªB¾ ´ º ´ ¶ª » ¯ ´
¼ ² ¼½¯b¯ ´´ « ª ² Àa¹ µ°´Á²Mà ªB«¹« ´Á ¹¼½« ² ¼³« ²MÃ0´ ¶-¼ µ ¶ » ¼ ²È ¼ ²°ÃµM´-ÂÑ´ µ°´ «c¶ ´Á² ¹ ²MÃ0´ ¶-¹ÀÀa¹« ¹¼½« ² ¹  ¾ µ ¹ » «c¬ Ç
Í Ã0´²Mµ ª«c¯  ¹ µ À ´ µ ¼½¯°¹ ± ª ²M´ ¯ ²°Ãc´ ¶-¹ÀaÀ¹« Í À¹!¬ ´ Ĺ ±³² ªB¾ ´ ¯°¹ ²°Ã ª ² ¼ ² ¼Ì¯^«0¹ ² ¼½À 0µM´ ¯M¯ ´ ¬ »c ¹« ²°Ã0´j0µ ¼½Àª µ°Å
¶-¼ µ ¶ » ¼ ² ª ² ª ±³± ¿9º »!²µ ª ²°Ã0´ µ ¼Ì¯°¹ ± ª ²°´ ¬ ² ¹ ²°Ã0´ ¯ ´ ¶-¹«c¬0ª µ°Å ¯/¼Ì¬ ´Ç Òc¹ µÉ²°Ã0´Áµ°´ ¶-¹ µ ¬F¿i¼ ² ¬0¹ ´ ¯Ó«c¹ ² Àª ²/²M´µÉ²°Ã ª ²
²°Ãc´ ¶¹ÀÀ¹« Í À¹¬ ´ Ĺ ±C² ªB¾ ´ ¼Ì.¯ o¤Ù¿ ´ ¼ ²°Ãc´µ*Ç ² ¶-¹ »c± ¬§º ´ å Ù¿ ´ Ä ´ «2ª ² ªK¬!¼³Ð ´ µ°´ « ²ÉÂѵ°S´ Ä
»0´ «c¶ Å ¿Nª«c¬ ²°Ãc´
²°µ ªB«¯  ¹ µ À ´µ#È ¹ »0± ¬[¼½¯°¹ ± ª ²M´ ¼ ²·Âѵ ¹À ²MÃ0´^0µ ¼³Àjª µMÅ ¶-¼ µ ¶ » ¼ ² ª ±½±v²°Ã0´ ¯MªBÀ ´Ç
Í Ã0´ µ°´ ª µ°´ ª 00± ¼Ì¶ª ² ¼³¹«c¯ È·Ãc´µM´X´±½´ ¶ ²°µ ¼½¶ ª ± ¼Ì¯°¹ ± ª ² ¼½¹«¸¼Ì¯« ´´ ¬ ´ ¬¸º ´-²È'´´ « ²È ¹ Ù¶-¼ µ ¶ » ¼ ²È ¼ ²°Ã ¹ »!² ª« Å
²°µ ªB«¯  ¹ µ Àjª ² ¼³¹«¸¹  Ĺ ±³² ª¾ ´ ¹ µ ¶ »0µ°µM´ « ²H±³´ Ä ´± ¯ Ç « ²°Ã0´ ¯ ´ ¼½«c¯ ² ªB«c¶ ´ ¯ ¿ ²°µ ªB«c¯  ¹ µ À ´µ ¯4å ¶ª ±³±½´ ¬ "ÌæÕS<Ô ÔPÑÿ"ëPÕ çÀÑ ì Ôç01æ æ
Ö-ÕSìÜéjèì@æ'à ªÄ¼½«0G ¾ Å@
cÅ ²Mµ ª«c¯  ¹ µ Àª ² ¼½¹« µ ª ² ¼½¹¯#ª µM´¤» ¯ ´ ¬ Ç
Ý.Þ)ßà[á-ßâäã
Ý ¼³© «0Å ¾Zº ¶-¹´ ¼½«c«0¬ ¾[» ª¶ ² º ¹ ±³´Óµ ¯² º¹ ´²°²µ ÈdªB´ «c´ ¯ « ÂÑ´µ²°Ã0 ´a¹ ²È'È ´¹[µ4ÂѶµ ¼ ¹µ ¶À » ¼ ¹² ¯ « ¿ ´ ²°¶µ ªB¼ µ «¶ ¯ »  ¼¹ ²4µ À ² ¹)´µªB¯ «c¹ 0²°µ Ãc¹S´ÄµH¼Ì¬ È ´X¼ ²M²MÃÃ0¹´»!» ²¯ ²°´-Ã0ÂÑ»0´É±i» ÂÑ´ ¯ ´ª ²°¹ »c µ°´ ¼½« ¹ ²°Â^´ µ è-¶Ô³¹è@«0ÖÑ« ì1´ "ë¶Ö)M²ÔBÍ Ô
"Ìæ-ÕB<Ô ÔÑ$"ëÕ çÇ
Ý ´Í ¼ µ ²°ªBÃ0«c´ ¯µ·Â ¹»0µ À ¹ ´µ µ ¯j¬!¹ ¬ È ´ ¯°«Z¼½¾ª « µM´ ´ ¬ ¶ ª ² ±½¹ ±³´ ¬cµ "̹Sæ-ÄÕB¼Ì<Ô ¬ Ô´¸Ñ$"ëÕ ´ç_±½´ ¶ Ñ®²°Mì µÔ¼½çc¶ ×æ ª Ö-± ÕBìܼ̯°é¹ è± ª ì@² æܼ½Ç ¹« È ¼ ²°Ã ¹ »!² ¯ ²M´0 ¼½«0¾Ä¹ ±³² ª¾ ´ ªB«¬¥¶ »0µMµM´ « ²
Å 7Û V iË ô øöiüdý¬ ò öiý ô = õ!ù'÷#ý®Ïüdý4õ
'& Üá,¢Þ
¼½«c¶ ´²Mµ ª«c¯  ¹ µ À ´ µ ¯Hª µM´´ ¯M¯ ´ « ² ¼Ìª ±½±³Å Ù¬ ´ ļ̶ ´ ¯¿ È'´ « ´ ´ ¬ ² ¹¸º ´ ª È ª µ°´ ¹ Â'²°Ã0´j0à ª¯ ´aµM´± ª ² ¼³¹«c¯ à ¼ ¯º ´3Í
²È'´´ « ²MÃ0´X0µ ¼½Àª µ°Å ªB«c¬Z¯ ´ ¶¹«c¬0ª µ°Å ¶-å ¼ µ ¶ » ¼ ² ¯ Ç ¯/¼½«0¾b¹ »0µ u°Ù'Ú ´-× ªBÀ 0±½´¤Âѵ ¹À º ´- ¹ µ°´ ¿ È'´ ¶ª« 0± ¹ ²Ê²°Ãc´
È ªÄ ´ ¯ à ª ´ ¯  ¹ µ#²°Ã0´^0µ ¼½Àª µ°Å ªB«c¬Á¯ ´ ¶-¹«c¬0ª µMÅ ¶-¼ µ ¶ » ¼ ² ¯·ª«c¬Z¯ ´ ´²MÃ0´^0à ª¯ ´¤µM´± ª ² ¼³¹«c¯  ¹ µ ¹ »0µ ¯ ´± Ä ´ ¯
}
x7B!xz`5h
i h[wN@
à ¾
~vt3Rvr~
¨w0!}u0r@B0x
5h[wN@L °à ¼
xcqz`r~¨w0}u0r7B0x
uv3t Rx wNM
Ã
ÃB
M ÃB
%/
!!
%! k
/
c
%!
%/
c
% ! Á
%/
c
% !
'/
c
%! k
%/
c
%0! Bd
%/
c
%
!
%/
c
' ! i
%/
c
0!
%/
c
%!!!
V
/
c
%/
!!
V B
*c
%/
!!
V S
/
c
%/
!!
Vl k
/
c
%/
!!
2
!c
%/
!!
V
/
c
%/
!!
V i
/
c
%!!!
V
/
c
0!
/
c
'! i
/
c
% !
%/
c
%0v ! k
%*c
%! k
%/
c
%
! BÆ
%/
c
%
! B
%!c
%!
%/
c
! c
V
%/
c
%/
!!
V
%/
c
%/ !!
V
%/
c
%/
!!
V B
%/
c
%/!!
¥B
%/
c
%/ !!
Vl k
¬ ò¢¡!ò øuË ô õúj=
Å ÛÛ
}
x7B!xz`5h
i hKt°w@ Ã ¾~t3Rvr~¨q*!~~0xzu
5hKt°wvt!7Ã ¼x0qz`!r~¨q!~
~0xz!u
uv3t Rx t°w@Ã
ÃB
.
%c /
c
c
N/0
M ÃB
.c
%/
c
%c /0
%/
!!
%! k
/
c
%/
c
V i
%/
c
%/
c
V
%/
c
%/
c
V R
'/
c
/
c
%/
c
%/
c
V
%/
c
%/
c
V R
%/
c
%/c
V d
%/
c
%/
c
V i
%/
c
v
c R
/
c
'c
*c
%
v c
/
c
%
c i d
/
c
%0 c i
!c
%
c
/
c
%
c Á
/
c
%-c
/
c
'/
c
V k
/
c
'*c
V
/
c
%/
0c
V
%/
c
%/
v c
VÁ @
%*c
/c
%/
c
%/
v c
VÁ
%/
c
%/0c
V
%!c
'/ 0
c
V Á
%/
c
/
c
V k'
%/
c
%0
c
%/
c
%v c
%/
c
%
v c
%/
c
%v c i d
%/
c
%0 c i d
²ÓÈ ¹ »0± ¬>ª 0´ ª µ^²°Ã ª ² º¹ ²Mà Ĺ ±³² ª¾ ´ ª«c¬>¶ »0µMµ°´ « ²^ ¹ µX²MÃ0´j²È ¹ ²°µ ªB«c¯  ¹ µ À ´µ^È ¼½«c¬!¼½«0¾¯Éª µM´ ¼³« cà ª¯ ´
È ¼ ²°Ã´ ª¶ à ¹ ²°Ã0´ µ ¿#ª ²j±½´ ª¯ ²Â ¹ µ ¹ »0µµ°´ ¯/¼Ì¯ ² ¼½Ä ´Z± ¹
ª¬ Ç Í Ã ¼Ì¯j¼Ì¯j¯/¼½À 0±½´¸´ «0¹ » ¾ à ¿'º »!² ¼ ²bÈ ¹ »0± ¬.º ´ «0¼Ì¶ ´Z² ¹
Ë«0¹ È JGî "ëÖMdî JuÔ¹¤È'´ ¯ à ¹ »0± ¬[¶¹«0« ´ ¶ ² ª ²Mµ ª«c¯  ¹ µ À ´ µ ¼½«Z¹ µ ¬ ´µ'² ¹ ´ «c¯ »0µM´²MÃ0´^0µ ¹ ´µ·0à ª¯ ´HµM´± ª ² ¼³¹«c¯ à ¼ ¯
º ´ Ë ´!²*Ç å Âê²°´ µ ª ±½± ¿Fª ²°µ ªB«c¯  ¹ µ À ´µ ¼½¯H«0¹ ²°Ã ¼½«0¾ÁÀa¹ µ°´Ó²°Ã ª«KªÁ¯ ´² ¹  ÀjªB¾« ´-² ¼Ì¶ª ±³±½Å Í®± ¼½«0Ë ´ ¬¸¼³«¬ » ¶ ² ¹ µ ¯¿Fª«c¬
¼½«c¬ » ¶ ² ¹ µ ¯N¬!¹N«
²%» ¯ » ª ±½±³Å ¶-¹À ´·È ¼ ²MÃj ¹ ± ª µ ¼ ²Å Àjª µ ˼³«c¾¯i¹  ª« Š˼³«c¬ Ç ÂFÈ'´·Èd´ µ°´#² ¹ ± ¹
¹Ëɪ ² ªB« » «0Àjª µ Ë ´ ¬
²°µ ªB«¯  ¹ µ À ´µ ¿ Èd´HÈ ¹ »0± ¬ à ªÄ ´ «0¹ È ª Å ¹  ˫0¹ È ¼½«0¾ È·Ã ¼½¶ ÃÁÈ ª Åɲ ¹ à ¹
¹Ëj¼ ²Ê»cb² ¹jªa¶-¼ µ ¶ » ¼ ²'² ¹É¾ ´-² ¼½« Í®cà ª¯ ´
e Æ7Æ iË ô øöiüdý¬ ò öiý ô = õ!ù'÷#ý®Ïüdý4õ
ѹ µ Å V Æ4¹ »!²MÍ ¹ × ͮ0à ª¯ ´ dĹ ±C² ªB¾ ´ ªB«¬[¶ »0µ°µM´ « ²
+ + -
or ???
- - +
¼½«c¶ ´Ê²°Ã̼ ¯%¼Ì¯%ª 0µ ª¶ ² ¼½¶ ª ± ¶¹«c¶ ´µ «¿ ²Mµ ª«c¯  ¹ µ À ´ µ ÀjªB« »! ª¶ ²°»0µM´µ ¯ à ªÄ ´ ¶-¹À ´4»0bÈ ¼ ²°Ã ªX¯°¹ µ°² ¹ ÂF ¹ ± ª µ ¼ ²Å
Àjª µ ˼³«0¾X¯ ² ª«c¬0ª µ ¬ ² ¹X¬ ´ «0¹ ²°´Ê0à ª¯ ´Êµ°´ ± ª ² ¼½¹«c¯ à ¼ ¯ Ç ² ¼Ì¯%¶ ª ±½±³´ ¬ ²°Ã0´°ÕÑ%Ö@Õçîèç`Ñ$"ëÕç ¿
ª«c¬a¼½¯%«0¹ ²Mà ¼½«0¾XÀ¹ µM´
²°Ã ªB«¸ª¬!¹ ²·0± ª¶ ´ ¬Á« ´-ײ·² ¹ ´ ª¶ à ¶-¹ µ°µM´ ¯ ¹«c¬!¼½«0¾ ±³´ ¾a¹  ª ²°µ ªB«¯  ¹ µ À ´µ#È ¼½«c¬!¼½«0¾`
Í Å
¼½¶ ª ±½±³Å ¿ ²°Ã0´·²Mµ ª«c¯  ¹ µ À ´ µiÈ ¼ ±½± ¶-¹À ´·È ¼ ²°Ã ¯°¹À ´ ˼³«c¬a¹  ¯M¶ Ã0´ Àjª ² ¼Ì¶'¬0¼½ª¾ µ ªBÀ ± ªBº ´± ¼³«0¾ ²MÃ0´·È ¼ µM´·±½´ ª¬c¯
 ¹ µ40µ ¼½Àjª µMÅ ª«c¬Z¯ ´ ¶-¹«¬0ª µMÅbÈ ¼½«c¬!¼½«0¾¯ Ç ^ « ²MÃ0´ ¬!¼ÌªB¾ µ ªÀ È ¼ ±³± º ´ ª ªB¼ µ ¹  ¬!¹ ² ¯Ê¯°¼½Àa¼ ± ª µ·² ¹ È·Ã ª ² ¼½¯Ê¯ ´´ «
ªBº¹SÄ ´Ç !¹À ´-² ¼³À ´ ¯#¬!¹ ² ¯ È ¼ ±½± º ´ ¹À¼ ²/²M´ ¬F¿!º »0²'È·Ã0´ «s H Óª«c¬K@ê ± ªº ´ ± ¯'ª µM´4» ¯ ´ ¬ ² ¹ ± ªº ´ ±²Mµ ª«c¯  ¹ µ À ´ µ
È ¼½«c¬!¼½«0¾ È ¼ µM´ ¯ ¿ ²MÃ0´ ¯ » ºc¯M¶ µ ¼ !² « » Àɺ ´ µ ¯9ª µ°´ ¯ »00 ¹¯ ´ ¬ ² ¹ µM´cµ°´ ¯ ´ « ²9È ¼½«c¬!¼½«0¾ ¹ ± ª µ ¼ ²ÅÇ Í Ã0´ `Å È ¼ µ°´ ¯ H§
ªB«K¬ ê µM´0µM´ ¯ ´ « ²#È·Ã0´µM´H²°Ã0´^ ¹ ± ª µ ¼ ²7Å Í Àjª µ ˼³«0¾a¬!¹ ² ¯ È ¹ »0± ¬)«c¹ µ Àª ±³±½Å º ´^0± ª¶ ´ ¬ Ç
Í Ã0´ ¯/¼½À¼ ± ª µd0± ª¶ ´ À ´ « ² ¹ ÂF²MÃ0´ ¯ ´ ¬!¹ ² ¯%« ´×²%² ¹ ²°Ã0´² ¹ b´ «¬0¯%¹ ÂF²°Ã0´H0µ ¼³Àjª µ°Å ªB«c¬)¯ ´ ¶-¹«¬0ª µMÅÓÈ ¼½«c¬!¼½«0¾¯
²°´ ±³± ¯ » ¯ ²°Ã ª ²ÓÈ·Ã ª ²M´ Ä ´µ ¼³«¯ ² ªB« ² ª« ´ ¹ » ¯¤Ä¹ ±C² ªB¾ ´ ¹ ± ª µ ¼ ²Å ¯ ´ ´ «>ª¶ µ ¹¯M¯ ²°Ãc´j0µ ¼½Àjª µMÅÏÈ ¼½«c¬!¼½«0¾ È ¼ ±½± º ´j²°Ãc´
¯MªBÀ ´ ª¯ ²°Ã ª ² ª¶ µ ¹
¯°¯ ²MÃ0´ ¯ ´ ¶¹«c¬cª µMÅÊÈ ¼³«¬!¼³«c¾ Ç «^¹ ²°Ãc´µÈ ¹ µ ¬0¯ ¿ ²MÃ0´%0à ª¯ ´ ¯ à ¼ Âê²GÂѵ ¹À 0µ ¼½Àª µ°Å4² ¹4¯ ´ ¶¹«c¬cª µMÅ
È ¼ ±³± º ´ b ´ µ ¹¬ ´ ¾ µM´´ ¯ Ç
^ « ²°Ãc´ ¹ ²MÃ0´µHà ª«c¬F¿¼ ÂN²MÃ0´ ¬0¹ ² ¯¹« ´ ª¶ Ã¸È ¼½«c¬!¼½«0¾)¹ Â9²°Ã0´Ó²°µ ªB«c¯  ¹ µ À ´µ ¬!¹ çPÕ Ñ Àjª ² ¶ ø»0 ¿ ²MÃ0´Écà ª¯ ´
¯ à ¼ Âê²ÊÈ ¼ ±½± º ´ Å V Æ Êº ´-²È'´´ « cµ ¼½Àjª µMÅ ªB«c¬Z¯ ´ ¶-¹«c¬0ª µ°Å ¿ ± ¼½Ë ´H²°Ã ¼Ì¯
^  ¶-¹ »cµ ¯ ´ ¿ ²MÃ0´ ¬!¹ ² ¶-¹«
Ä ´ « ² ¼½¹«Á¹« ±³Å)²°´±½± ¯ Å ¹ »ÁÈ·Ã ¼½¶ ÃZ´ «¬Z¹ Âi´ ª¶ ÃZÈ ¼½«c¬!¼½«0¾j¼Ì¯ È·Ã ¼Ì¶ à ¿ µM´± ª ² ¼³Ä ´² ¹ ²°Ãc´
¹ ²MÃ0´µ4È ¼³«c¬0¼³«0¾ë¯) Ç Â9Å ¹ »ZÈ ªB« ²·² ¹ µM´ Ä ´µ ¯ ´H²MÃ0´X0à ª¯ ´^µM´± ª ² ¼³¹«c¯ à ¼ ZÅ ¹ »0µ ¯ ´ ±C ¿0ª ±³±GÅ ¹ »[à ªÄ ´¤² ¹b¬!¹)¼½¯Ê¯ È ª
²°Ãc´^È ¼³«c¬0¼³«0¾b¶¹«0« ´ ¶ ² ¼³¹«c¯ ± ¼½Ë ´¤²Mà ¼Ì¯
¬ òCó
ò ÏÐ új=µ´új= ·÷>=4ùDú .²Dý ô öDú÷>=õ e Æ`Å
Ý.Þ)ßà[á-ßâäã
Ý ²°Í µ Ã0ªB´Ó«c¯ 0 ¹ à µ ªÀ ¯ ´X´µ µ°´ ª ± µMª ´ ² ¼½¬0¹¼«cµM¯ ´ à ¶ ¼²
9¯ ¼Ì¬  ¹ ´ µª ±³Ä±½Å ¹ ¿±³² b ªB´¾ µ ¹´ ªBc«Ã ¬¸ª¯ ¶ ´ »0¯ µMà µ°´¼ Âê« ² ²Ç º ´²Èd´ ´ « cµ ¼½Àjª µMÅ ª«c¬Ï¯ ´ ¶-¹«c¬0ª µ°Å ¶-¼ µ ¶ » ¼ ² ¯4¹  ª
Ý ¹Í ÂÃ0²M.´ Ã0´^Õ È Ñ#¼½ÖM«cPÕ ¬!ç`¼½«0îS3è¾jç¼½Ñÿ¯ "ëPÕ È·ç à ¼½¼½¯·¶ à ª ¿ ²µ°Å´ ± ª ´ ² ¹¼½Ä ÂG´ ² ¹ ¹ ± ª ²°µ Ãc¼ ²´ Å ¹ Àj²°Ãcª ´µ µ·Ë
ȼ½«0¼½¾ «c¬! ¹ ¼½«0µ'¾²°¯ µ Ç ªB«c¯  ¹ µ À ´µ'È ¼³«¬!¼³«c¾¯#¯ à ¹ È ¼³«0¾ È·Ã ¼Ì¶ Ã[´ «c¬
load #1
load #2
HÊ´ µ°´ ¿ ²MÃ0µ°´ ´ ¼½«c¬ » ¶ ² ¹ µ ¶-¹¼ ± ¯4¯ à ª µM´ ªb¶¹ÀÀ¹«ZÀjªB¾« ´-² ¼Ì¶X¶¹ µM´ ¿cÀjª¾« ´² ¼Ì¶ª ±½±½Å ¶¹ »0c± ¼½«0¾7¹ µ ± ¼½«0˼³«0¾
²°Ãc´ À ² ¹¾ ´-²°Ãc´µ*Ç Í Ãc´HµM´± ª ² ¼³¹«c¯ à ¼ ¹ ÂDÈ ¼³«c¬0¼³«0¾ ²M»0µ « µ ª ² ¼³¹
¯'ª«c¬[Ĺ ±³² ª¾ ´Hµ ª ² ¼½¹¯'¯ ´ ´ « È ¼ ²Mà ªa¯°¼½«0¾ ±½´¤ ªB¼ µ ¹ Â
À »0²°» ª ± ¼½«c¬ » ¶ ² ¹ µ ¯H¯ ² ¼ ±½±Dà ¹ ± ¬0¯ ²°µM»0´ÓÃ0´ µ°´X ¹ µ À »0±³² ¼ 0±½´É ª¼ µ ¯Ê¹  ¶-¹¼ ± ¯ Ç ² ¼Ì¯ ´ « ² ¼ µ°´ ±³ÅÁ ¹
¯°¯°¼½º ±³´Ó² ¹Áª¯M¯ ´ ÀÓº ±½´
ª ²Mµ ª«c¯  ¹ µ À ´ µ ¯ » ¶ à ª¯ ²°Ãc´ ¹« ´ ªº¹SÄ ´ ѹ« ´Ó0µ ¼½Àª µ°ÅZÈ ¼½«c¬!¼½«0¾c¿ ²È ¹)¯ ´ ¶-¹«c¬0ª µ°ÅÁÈ ¼³«¬!¼³«c¾¯)·¼½« È·Ã ¼Ì¶ à ¹« ´
¯ ´ ¶-¹«c¬0ª µ°ÅKÈ ¼³«c¬0¼³«0¾R¼½¯aªÏ¯ ²°´F Í ¬!¹ È «ª«c¬ ²°Ãc´ ¹ ²MÃ0´µ ¼½¯ÉªÏ¯ ²°´FÍ®»0Ç «  ª¶ ² ¿ ²°Ã ¼½¯a¬ ´ ¯°¼½¾«§¹ ·²Mµ ª«c¯  ¹ µ À ´ µ
È ª¯ Ä
» ¼ ²°´ ¶-¹ÀÀ¹«j¼½«jÄSª¶ »0» À ²°» º ´4 ¹ È'´µ ¯ »000±½Å ¶-¼ µ ¶ » ¼ ² ¯¿ È·Ã ¼Ì¶ ÃjÈd´ µ°´·µM´Ä
» ¼ µM´ ¬ ² ¹É¯ »0c0±³Åa± ¹ È Ä¹ ±³² ª¾ ´
 ¹ µb²°Ã0´¸²M» º ´ ¯
Éc± ªBÀ ´ « ² d¯ ²Å ¼Ì¶ª ±³±½p Å O ¹ µ Å e Ĺ ±³² )¯ ªB«¬ à ¼³¾ à Ĺ ±³² ª¾ ´Á ¹ µ)²°Ã0´Ï²°» º ´ ¯
0± ª ²M´ ¯ ë¯ ´ Ä ´ µ ª ±
û «c¬ µM´ ¬)Ĺ ±C² ¯ Âѵ ¹À ªÉ«0¹À¼½«cª ±v0µ ¼³Àjª µ°Å Ĺ ±C² ªB¾ ´ ¹  Å@ÅÆÉĹ ±C² ¯ å Ù Ç Ø4¹ ² ¹« ±³Å ª µ°´ Ĺ ±³² ª¾ ´ ¯dª«c¬)¶ »0µ°µM´ « ² ¯
¹  ¶-¹À c±³´²°´±½Å ¬0¼CÐ ´µM´ « ² ÀjªB¾«c¼ ²M» ¬ ´ ¯ ¹¯M¯°¼³º ±½´¤È ¼ ²Mà ¯ » ¶ à ª ²°µ ªB«c¯  ¹ µ À ´µ ¿º »!² ª ±½± ¶-¼ µ ¶ » ¼ ² ¯Êª µ°´H´±½´ ¶ ²°µ ¼½¶ ª ±½±³Å
¼Ì¯/¹ ± ª ²°´ ¬ Âѵ ¹ÀV¹« ´ ªB«0¹ ²°Ã0´ µ Ç
ÂN´±½´ ¶ ²°µ ¼½¶ ª ± ¼Ì¯°¹ ± ª ² ¼½¹«¸º ´-²È'´´ «Ï¯ ´ ¶-¹«c¬0ª µMÅ ¶¼ µ ¶ » ¼ ² ¯4¼Ì¯Ê«0¹ ² ¹  ¾ µ°´ ª ² ¼½À ¹ µ/² ªB«c¶ ´ ¿ª)¯°¼³À¼ ± ª µÊ´ Ð ´ ¶ ² ¶ª«
º ´ ¹º ² ªB¼½« ´ ¬[º Å ² ª 0 ¼³«0¾ ɪ¯°¼³«c¾ ±½´ ¯ ´ ¶¹«c¬cª µMÅjÈ ¼³«c¬0¼³«0¾bª ² À »0±³² ¼ 0±½´^ ¹¼³« ² ¯4ª ± ¹«0¾a¼ ² ¯ ±½´ «0¾ ²°Ã ¿ ± ¼½Ë ´H²°Ã ¼Ì¯
eÆe iË ô øöiüdý¬ ò öiý ô = õ!ù'÷#ý®Ïüdý4õ
load #1
load #2
² ª ¼½¯9«c¹ ²°Ã ¼³«0¾^À¹ µ°´#²Mà ªB«jª È ¼ µ°´ ¶-¹«0« ´ ¶ ² ¼½¹«Àjª¬ ´ ª ² ¯°¹À ´# ¹¼³« ² ¹«ª È ¼½«c¬!¼½«0¾Xº ´-²È'´´ « ²MÃ0´ Ä ´ µ°Å
´ «¬0å¯ Ç Øʹ ² ¯ »0µM0µ ¼½¯°¼½«0¾ ±½Å ¿ ²MÃ0´bÈ ¼½«c¬!¼½«0¾ ²°»cµ «aSĹ ±C² ªB¾ ´ ÀjªB¾«0¼ ²M» ¬ ´jµM´± ª ² ¼³¹«c¯ à ¼ ¹  ªZ«0¹ µ Àjª ±i²Mµ ª«c¯  ¹ µ À ´ µ
à ¹ ± ¬0¯ ²°µM»0´Â ¹ µ ª ±½±² ª c´ ¬)¯ ´ ¾À ´ « ² ¯%¹ ÂÈ ¼½«c¬!¼½«0¾¯ Ç Í Ã ¼½¯  ª¶ ² ¶ªB«)º ´¤´-×!0± ¹¼ ²°´ ¬ ² ¹ 0µ ¹!¬ » ¶ ´ ª ²Mµ ª«c¯  ¹ µ À ´ µ
¶ª ªBº ±³´ ¹  À »0±³² ¼ 0±½´Xµ ª ² ¼½¹¯
multi-pole
switch
load
Ù'ª µMµMÅ ¼½«0¾ ²MÃ0´ ¶-¹«c¶ ´ !² ¹ ÂÈ ¼½«c¬!¼½«0¾ ² ª ¯ ÂÑ»0µ°²°Ãc´µ ¿ Èd´H´ «c¬ »0ÁÈ ¼ ²Mà ªBÄSª µ ¼ÌªBº ±½´Ê²Mµ ª«c¯  ¹ µ À ´ µ ¿ È·Ã0´ µ°´ ª
¯ ± ¼Ì¬!¼½«0¾b¶-¹« ² ª¶ ² ¼Ì¯·À¹SÄ ´ ¬Zª ± ¹«0¾ ²°Ãc´^±³´ «0¾ ²Mà ¹  ªB« ´-×! ¹¯ ´ ¬Á¯ ´ ¶-¹«¬0ª µMÅbÈ ¼½«c¬!¼½«0¾c¿cªº ±½´¤² ¹b¶-¹«0« ´ ¶ ²ÊÈ ¼ ²°Ã ¼ ²
ª ² ª« Å) ¹¼½« ² ª ± ¹«0¾¼ ² ¯ ±½´ «c¾ ²°ÃÇ Í Ã0´^´ Ð ´ ¶ ² ¼Ì¯ ´SÄ
» ¼³ÄSª ±³´ « ²·² ¹ à ªÄ¼³«c¾bª È ¼³«c¬0¼³«0¾ ² ª ª ²Ê´ Ä ´ µ°Å)²°»0µ «Z¹ Âi²°Ãc´
È ¼½«c¬!¼½«0¾c¿cª«c¬Áªa¯ È ¼ ² ¶ ÃZÈ ¼ ²MÃZ ¹ ±³´ ¯·ª ²Ê´ Ä ´µMŲ ª Á ¹¯°¼ ² ¼½¹«N
Variable transformer
load
^ « ´ ¶-¹«¯ » À ´ µ ª 00± ¼½¶ ª ² ¼½¹«R¹ ÂN²MÃ0´ ÄSª µ ¼ÌªBº ±½´X²Mµ ª«c¯  ¹ µ À ´ µ ¼Ì¯H¼³«Î¯ ´´ ¬R¶-¹« ²°µ ¹ ± ¯  ¹ µ À¹!¬ ´±D²Mµ ª¼³«R¯ ´-² ¯¿
´ ¯ ´ ¶-¼Ìª ±½±½ÅR²MÃ0´b²Mµ ª¼³«.¯ ´-² ¯X¹ ·²°Ã0´ Å Û7? ÆF
¯^ªB«c¬|Å Û@O ÆF
¯ Ç Í Ã0´ ¯ ´)²°µ ªB«c¯  ¹ µ À ´µ ¯ Èd´ µ°´)´ ¯M¯ ´ « ² ¼½ª ±³±½Å ¯ ²M´Í ¬!¹ È «
» «0¼ ² ¯ ¿ ²°Ã0´aà ¼½¾ Ã0´ ¯ ² Ĺ ±C² ªB¾ ´ ¹º ² ª¼³«ªBº ±½´XÂѵ ¹À ²°Ã0´ ¯ ´ ¶-¹«c¬0ª µ°Å[È ¼³«c¬0¼³«0¾[º ´ ¼³«c¾[¯ » ºc¯ ² ªB« ² ¼½ª ±³±½ÅZ±³´ ¯°¯ ²°Ã ª« ²°Ãc´
¬ òCó
ò ÐÏúj=µ´új= ·>÷ =4ùDú .²Dý ô öDú÷>=õ
eÆþ
0µ ¼³Àjª µ°Å Ĺ ±C² ªB¾ ´ ¹  Å7ÅÆ ² ¹£Å e ƸĹ ±³² ¯ å Ù Ç Í Ã0´ ÄSª µ ¼ÌªBº ±½´3Í ¯ Èd´ ´ ¶-¹« ² ª¶ ²É0µ ¹Sļ½¬ ´ ¬ªÎ¯/¼½À 0±½´ À ´ ª«c¯É¹ Â
Ĺ ±C² ªB¾ ´ ¶¹« ²°µ ¹ ±vÈ ¼ ²°ÃZ± ¼ ²/²M±³´ÓÈ ª¯ ²M´ ¬ ¹ È'´µ ¿À » ¶ à À¹ µM´H´Ç ¶-¼ ´ « ²·²°Ã ª«¸¶-¹« ²Mµ ¹ ±» ¯/¼½«0¾jªaĪ µ ¼ÌªBº ±³´¤µM´ ¯°¼½¯ ² ¹ µ f
ð ¹Sļ½«0¾ Í ¯ ± ¼Ì¬ ´ ¶-¹« ² ª¶ ² ¯ª µM´9² ¹
¹4¼³À 0µ ª¶ ² ¼Ì¶ª ±B² ¹Êº ´%» ¯ ´ ¬¤¼½« ± ª µ ¾ ´ ¼½«c¬ » ¯ ²°µ ¼½ª ± ¹ Èd´ µF²°µ ªB«¯  ¹ µ À ´µ ¬ ´ ¯°¼³¾«c¯ ¿
º »!² À »0±³² ¼ Í® ¹ ±½´ ¯ È ¼ ² ¶ Ã0´ ¯^ªB«c¬ È ¼½«c¬!¼½«0¾ ² ª ¯^ª µM´ ¶¹ÀÀ¹«  ¹ µ Ĺ ±³² ªB¾ ´ ª¬ï » ¯ ² À ´ « ² Ç å ¬ï » ¯ ² À ´ « ² ¯^« ´´ ¬
² ¹Zº ´ Àª¬ ´´ µ ¼½¹!¬!¼Ì¶ª ±½±½Å ¼³« ¹ Èd´ µ ¯ Å ¯ ²M´ Àj¯ ² ¹¸ª¶ ¶-¹ÀaÀ¹!¬0ª ²°´ ¶ à ªB«0¾ ´ ¯H¼½« ± ¹ª¬0¯¤¹SÄ ´ µ À¹« ²Mà ¯¤¹ µ¤Å´ ª µ ¯
¼½« ² ¼½À ´ ¿9ªB«c¬ ²MÃ0´ ¯ ´ ¯ È ¼ ² ¶ à ¼³«c¾Ï¶-¼ µ ¶ » ¼ ² ¯ 0µ ¹Sļ½¬ ´ ª¸¶-¹«Ä ´ «0¼ ´ « ² À ´ ª«c¯ Ç Í Å
¼½¶ ª ±½±³Å ¿D¯ » ¶ à ² ª ¯ È ¼ ² ¶ Ã0´ ¯
ª µM´ «c¹ ²d´ «0¾¼½« ´ ´µM´ ¬ ² ¹ à ª«c¬ ±½´ÊÂÑ»0±½<± Í®± ¹ª¬)¶ »cµ°µM´ « ² ¿
º »!² À » ¯ ² º ´ ª¶ ²°» ª ²°´ ¬j¹« ±½ÅjÈ·Ã0´ « ²°Ãc´4²Mµ ª«c¯  ¹ µ À ´ µ%à ª¯
º ´´ «¸¬ ´ Í®´ « ´µ ¾c¼ b ´ ¬ ë«0¹ ¹ È'´µ Ç
´ ´ ¼½«0¾bª¯ à ¹ ÈÈ'´ ¶ª« ² ª ª« Å)²°µ ªB«c¯  ¹ µ À ´µ·È ¼½«c¬!¼½«0¾ ² ¹j¹º ² ªB¼½« ²MÃ0´XS´ Ä» ¼³ÄSª ±½´ « ² ¹  ¯ ´ Ä ´µ ª ±FÈ ¼½«c¬!¼½«0¾¯
ëª ± º ´ ¼ ²¤È ¼ ²MÃK± ¹¯M¯Ê¹ Â%´±½´ ¶ ²°µ ¼½¶ ª ± ¼½¯°¹ ± ª ² ¼³¹«Ïº ´²Èd´ ´ « ²MÃ0´
À -¿¼ ² ÀjªBË ´ ¯H¯ ´ «c¯ ´Ó²°Ã ª ² ¼ ² ¯ à ¹ »0± ¬Ïº ´É ¹¯M¯/¼½º ±½´X² ¹
 ¹ µM´ ¾¹ ´±½´ ¶ ²°µ ¼½¶ ª ± ¼½¯°¹ ± ª ² ¼³¹«Rª ±³² ¹¾ ´²°Ã0´ µ ª«c¬Ïº » ¼ ± ¬Rª ²°µ ªB«c¯  ¹ µ À ´µ4Âѵ ¹Àƪ)¯°¼³«0¾ ±³´aÈ ¼½«c¬!¼½«0¾ Ç «c¬ ´´ ¬ ²°Ã ¼Ì¯H¼½¯
¹¯M¯/¼½º ±½´ ¿0ªB«¬ ²MÃ0´^µM´ ¯ »0±C² ¼³«c¾¬ ´ ļ½¶ ´ ¼½¯Ê¶ ª ±½±³´ ¬[ª« ÔP¯ÑPÕ Ñ ì Ôç0æ Ö-ÕBìÜéèì
x
Autotransformer
load
Í Ã0´ ª »!² ¹ ²°µ ªB«¯  ¹ µ À ´µ ¬ ´ ¼Ì¶ ²M´ ¬.ªº¹SÄ ´j´ µ/ ¹ µ Àj¯aª¸Ä¹ ±C² ªB¾ ´ ¯ ²M´Í»0§ÂÑ» «c¶ ² ¼³¹« Ç å ¯ ²M´Í ¬!¹ È «ª »!² ¹ Í
²°µ ªB«¯  ¹ µ À ´µ#È ¹ »0± ¬ ± ¹¹Ë[¯/¹À ´²°Ã ¼½«0¾ ± ¼³Ë ´²Mà ¼Ì¯
Autotransformer
load
»0² ¹ ²Mµ ª«c¯  ¹ µ À ´ µ ¯ É «c¬ ¹ 0»c± ª µ9» ¯ ´ ¼½«jª 0c± ¼Ì¶ª ² ¼½¹«c¯ Mµ ´Ä
» ¼ µ ¼½«0¾¤ª¤¯ ± ¼³¾ Ã
² º¹¹¯ ² ¹ µ9µM´ ¬ » ¶ ² ¼½¹«a¼½«aĹ ±³² ª¾ ´
² ¹Ïª å ± ¹
ª¬ Ç Í Ã0´ ª ±³²°´ µ «cª ² ¼½Ä ´jÈ ¼ ²°Ã ªZ«0¹ µ Àjª ± Ѽ̯/¹ ± ª ²°´ ¬` °² µ ªB«c¯  ¹ µ À ´µ^È ¹ »0± ¬Îº ´b² ¹ ´ ¼ ²MÃ0´µXà ªÄ ´ ï » ¯ ²Ó²°Ãc´
eÆ iËô øöiüdý¬ ò öiý ô =õ!ù'÷#ý®Ïüdý4õ
µ ¼³¾ òÊcµ ¼½Àjª µMÅ aB¯ ´ ¶-¹«c¬0ª µMÅjÈ ¼½«c¬!¼½«0¾ µ ª ² ¼½¹jÀjª¬ ´X ¹ µÊ²MÃ0´ ﹺ¸¹ µÊ» ¯ ´ ª)¯ ²M´Í ¬!¹ È «¸¶-¹« É ¾ »cµ ª ² ¼½¹« È ¼ ²Mø²°Ãc´
¯ ´ ¶-¹«c¬0ª µ°Å¸È ¼½«c¬!¼½«0¾R¶¹«0« ´ ¶ ²M´ ¬Î¼³«§¯ ´µ ¼ ´ ¯ Í ªB¼Ì¬!¼½«0¾~6º¹¹¯ ² ¼½«0¾7¹ µ ¯ ´µ ¼ ´ ¯ Í ¹ c ¹
¯/¼½«0I¾ 6Bº » ¶@˼³«0¾ 7  ª¯ à ¼½¹« Ç
µ ¼½Àª µ°Å ¿!¯ ´ ¶-¹«¬0ª µMÅ ¿!ªB«¬ ± ¹ª¬)Ĺ ±³² ªB¾ ´ ¯#ª µM´ ¾¼½Ä ´ « ² ¹j¼ ±½±³» ¯ ²°µ ª ²M´¤Ã ¹ È¥²Mà ¼½¯ È ¹ »0± ¬ È ¹ µ Ë Ç
ÒD¼ µ ¯ ² ¿ ²°Ã0´ Bº¹¹¯ ² ¼½«0¾7¸¶¹« É ¾ »0µ ª ² ¼½¹« ÇdHÊ´µM´ ¿ ²MÃ0´ ¯ ´ ¶¹«c¬0ª µ°Å ¶-¹¼ ±
¯ ¹ ± ª µ ¼ ²Å ¼½¯Ó¹ µ ¼ ´ « ²M´ ¬§¯°¹ ²°Ã ª ² ¼ ² ¯
Ĺ ±C² ªB¾ ´ ¬!¼ µM´ ¶ ²M±³Å ª¬0¬0¯ ² ¹ ²°Ã0´^cµ ¼½Àjª µMŠĹ ±³² ª¾ ´
"boosting"
120 V 30 V 150 V
Ø ´×² ¿ ²MÃ0´ Bº » ¶@˼½«0¾7K¶-¹« É ¾ »cµ ª ² ¼½¹« ÇÀH4´µM´ ¿ ²MÃ0´ ¯ ´ ¶-¹«¬0ª µMÅ ¶-¹¼ ±
¯ ¹ ± ª µ ¼ ²Å ¼Ì¯¹ µ ¼ ´ « ²M´ ¬¯°¹ ²°Ã ª ² ¼ ² ¯
Ĺ ±C² ªB¾ ´ ¬!¼ µM´ ¶ ²M±³Å ¯ » º ²°µ ª¶ ² ¯ Âѵ ¹À ²°Ãc´^0µ ¼½Àjª µMŠĹ ±C² ªB¾ ´
"bucking"
120 V y
30 V 90 V
Í Ã0´[0µ ¼½À ´ ª¬!ÄSªB« ² ª¾ ´ ¹  ªB« ª »!² ¹ ²°µ ªB«¯  ¹ µ À ´µ ¼½¯ ²°Ã ª ²É²MÃ0´ ¯°ªÀ ´ º¹¹
¯ ² ¼³«0¾K¹ µ º » ¶@˼½«0¾ ÂÑ» «¶ ² ¼½¹«2¼½¯
¹º ² ªB¼½« ´ ¬ È ¼ ²°Ã ¹« ±½Å ªÁ¯°¼³«0¾ ±³´ÉÈ ¼³«¬!¼³«c¾c¿FÀjªB˼½«0¾)¼ ² ¶ Ãc´ ª ´µ ªB«¬ ± ¼³¾ òM´µ² ¹[Àª« »! ª¶ ²°»0µM´Ó²Mà ªB«Kª µM´ ¾ »0± ª µ
Ѽ̯°¹ ± ª ² ¼½«0\¾ ²Mµ ª«c¯  ¹ µ À ´ µ#à ªÄ¼³«0¾aº¹ ²°Ã¸cµ ¼½Àjª µMÅ ªB«c¬Á¯ ´ ¶-¹«c¬0ª µMÅjÈ ¼½«c¬!¼½«0¾¯ Ç
4 ¼½Ë ´'µM´ ¾ »c± ª µ²Mµ ª«c¯  ¹ µ À ´ µ ¯ ¿Sª »!² ¹ ²°µ ªB«¯  ¹ µ À ´µDÈ ¼½«c¬!¼½«0¾¯9¶ ªB«aº ´'² ª 0´ ¬ ² ¹ 0µ ¹SÄ
¼Ì¬ ´ ÄSª µ ¼½ª ² ¼½¹«c¯D¼½« µ ª ² ¼³¹ Ç
¬å c¬!¼ ² ¼³¹«cª ±½±½Å ¿ ²°Ã0´ Å ¶ª«Ïº ´ Àjª¬ ´ ¶-¹« ² ¼³« » ¹ » ¯ ±³Å ÄSª µ ¼½ªº ±³´ÉÈ ¼ ²Mà ª)¯ ± ¼½¬!¼½«0¾Z¶-¹« ² ª¶ ²Ê² ¹ ² ª ¸²°Ã0´aÈ ¼½«c¬!¼½«0¾[ª ²
ªB« Åb ¹¼½« ² ª ± ¹«0¾¼ ² ¯ ±½´ «c¾ ²°ÃÇ Í Ã0´^± ª ²/²M´µ ¶¹« É ¾ »0µ ª ² ¼½¹«[¼½¯ ¹ 0»0± ª µ·´ «c¹ » ¾ Ã)² ¹ à ªÄ ´H´ ª µ « ´ ¬)¼ ² ¯ ´±³Â ¼ ² ¯·¹ È «
«cªÀ ´
²°Ã0´ ÔS1ì "6ÔÖÇ
The "Variac"
variable autotransformer
load
Àjª ±½± ÄSª µ ¼½ª¶¯  ¹ µ º ´ «c¶ Ã
² ¹ [» ¯ ´ ª µ°´ ¹ 0»0± ª µ' ¼ ´ ¶ ´ ¯'¹ ÂG´SÄ
» ¼ À ´ « ²d ¹ µd²MÃ0´H´±½´ ¶ ²Mµ ¹«0¼Ì¶¯ ´-×!´µ ¼³À ´ « ²M´µ ¿
¬ <ò ;ò #÷ ûö ô ·üýÊü .²Gû ô öDú÷>=
eÆ?
º ´ ¼½«0¾bªBº ±½´H² ¹j¯ ²°´Zà ¹ » ¯ ´Ã ¹ ± ¬ å ÙĹ ±³² ª¾ ´ ¬0¹ È «Ië¹ µ ¯°¹À ´-² ¼³À ´ ¯ »0 ª¯ Èd´ ±³± È ¼ ²°Ã ª È ¼½¬ ´ ¿ É « ´^µ ªB«c¾ ´ ¹ Â
¶-¹« ²°µ ¹ ± º Å ª¯/¼½À 0±½´¤²È ¼½¯ ² ¹  ªÉË«0¹º Ç
Ý.Þ)ßà[á-ßâäã
Ý ÈÍ µ ¼³«cªB«c¬0¯¼³«0 ¹ ¾ µ À ª´¼ µ µ*¯Ç ¶Í ªBà «¼Ì¯Êº ª ´Ï±½± ¹ S´ È Ä» ¯ ¼ Â0¹ µ ´ À¬ »0È ±³² ¼ ¼²°0à ±½´ À¯ ²M¹ ´µ°´ZÍ»0²Mà ªBªB«>«cכּ a¯ ¹ ² µ ª§¯ ²°´ ¯°¼½«0Í ¾¬0±½¹ ´¸È 0« µ ¼³µ Àjª ² ª ¼³¹
µMÅ ¯d¼½ª« «c²°¬Ã0´ ¯°¼³¯M«0ªB¾ À ±³´ ´ ¯ ¬ ´ ´ ¶Ä
¹¼Ì«c¶ ¬c´ª Ç µMÅ
Ý Í¯/¼½µ«0ªB¾ «c±½´¤¯  ȹ µ ¼³À «¬!´¼³µ#«cȾa¼½¼½«c« ¬!² ¹b¼½«0¯¾´ ¯Ê¶ ²¶ ¼½ªB¹«¸«c¯ ª Ç ± ¯°¹jº ´ ² ª 0´ ¬9
²Mà ª ² ¼½¯ ¿c¼½« ²°´µ ¯ ´ ¶ ²M´ ¬Zª ² Àjª« Å[ ¹¼³« ² ¯ ² ¹)¯ ´ ¾À ´ « ² ª
Ý ¹  ª ªµ ¼½ªÈ º ¼½±³«c´4¬!²°¼½µ«0ªB¾c«c¿!¯ Àj ¹ ªBµ ËÀ ¼½«0´µ¾¯%¶-¶ ¹ªB« «)² ªº ¶ ´ ²#ÀjÈ ª¼ ²°¬ Ã[´ ²°º Ã0Åj´¤0È µ ¼½¹S«cĬ!¼Ì¼½¬!«0¼½¾j«0¾Éª ² ªÉªBÀ« ¹SÅjÄ ª¹º ¼½±½« ´ ² ª ª µ À± ¹«0²°¾Éà ª ¼ ² ² ¯ ¯ ±½È'´ «c´´ ¾ ²°Ã¯'Ç ªÍ¶ µ Ãc¹´H¯M¯ È ²M¼½Ã0«c´¤¬!¼½±³«0´ «0¾¾ ¿!²M¹ à Â
¶-¹ »cµ ¯ ´ ¿ à ª¯ ² ¹jº ´ ºcª µM´ ë«0¹j¼½«c¯ »c± ª ² ¼½¹« d¼½« ²MÃ0´ ª µM´ ª È·Ã0´ µ°´H²°Ãc´ ª µ À ¯ È'´´ ¯ Ç
Ý.åª «[²Mµ ªª»!«c²¯ ¹Â ¹ ²°µ µ À ªB«c´ ¯ µ  ¿ ¹ ´µ ×À ¶ ´´µ !²·¼½¯·È ªa¼ ²°¯/à ¼½«0¹ ¾ »!±³²Ê´ ¿ 0² µ ª ¹S0ļ½¬!´ ¼½¬)«0¾ ¼³«´¬ ±½»´ ¶ ¶ ²°² µ ¹ ¼½µ ¶ ª ¶-± ¹¼Ì¼ ¯/±v¹ » ± ª¯ ´ ² ¬¼½¹«² ¹Ç ¯ ²°´[»0 ¹ µ ¯ ²M´ ¬!¹ È «)Ĺ ±³² ªB¾ ´Ê± ¼³Ë ´
Ý.å ÔS1ì "6ÔÖ ¼½¯4ªÉÄSª µ ¼ÌªBº ±½´ ª »!² ¹ ²°µ ªB«¯  ¹ µ À ´µ*Ç
AC power
³
output
AC power
input
Resonant LC circuit
´§)'!#""H3 ,/3#)K,>L H78\T3 )C.2!*;>$K)3A7?+¥7;>&B!*,/&B"
LTMg,>.&Z+/!*,/;8!5,>&B"
7#;>&#a*,/.3A+;>&B+/#)!#),73;873 ,[!*A+µ É W,>&?;8+
#,>µ`.!#;/$'#)37<=;>& Ä &?)273&B+C&?)&B;>!*,/&B"
LTM))3 )&(!*;Z¶°+63 ,>78.3)CT·¥
!#"+¥3)',/.&Z+&(7#)2"!*;>Mg63)"H3)Cg73;>7?3 ,
!*)2"E!#)
M-.!*;>$'#)3A7?+Q0;>&B+/&?)
,3)-,>.&g+;87&`c#W,8!*C#&aT0;/5cT3A"H3)CKµ7&B!#)µ0J56_&?;Q,/K,>.&
!#"fN
Ò&B;/;>#;>&B+/#)2!*)
,¥,/;8!*)+<=#;>$'&?;8+[*©&?;Q+/&?c#&B;>!#<=&(!5,/;/&(+u+/&<=J3)Eh]R0256_&?;_7#)2"H3W,>3 )3)C¸¥7)+X,8!*)
,H, Í
0H,¥c#W,8!*C&[C#3c#&B)g+L2+X,8!*)
,/3A!*
c5!*;>3!*,/3#)+¨3 )g3)0,¥c# ,>!#C#&#a(.!#;/$'#)37 É W,>&?;>3 )CL2&?,X6&B&?),>.&_0256_&?;Y+;>7?&
!*)2",>.&!#"ba!*)2",>.&Z!*L3 3W,XM,/gµ#;/3A"H&_,/.;>#C#.µL;>3 &?<f
+/+/&B+Y3)F0256_&?;LTM\&?&B03 )C`!`;>&B+/&?;>c#&_*<&?)&?;>C#Mg3)
3 ,>+;>&B+/#)!#)
,,8!*)\-7?3 ;873W,(N[OQ.&B+/&,/;8!*)+<=#;>$'&?;8+_!#;/&`!*A+/K.3 C. M@,/#&?;8!*)
,Q*<¥&G7&(+/+/3c#&
!#"H3)CF!*)"-,/;8!*) Í
+/3 &B),`¶=$'#$'&B),8!*;>M·c#W,8!*C&+;/C&B+BNYOQ.&BMF!*;>&+/g,/ &B;>!#)
,Ba
3 )-<V!#7,(a
,/.!*,_+/#$'&$F!M'L2&L;>3 &?¹M'0!*;8!*&?&B"
63 ,/.)+/M
)278.;/)3º?&B"-h]R0J56&B;_+/#;87&(+?aT!*563 )CK!K
!#"',>KLJ&+63 ,>78.&B"F<=;>#$£)&`+;>7?&#<e0J56&B;u,>
!*)*,/.&?;3)!'µ#$'!#\#& Í LJ&<=;/& Í L;>&B!#\Hµ<V!#+/.3 )E63 ,/.4)K3)
,/&B;/;>0H,>3 )E#<e0J56&B;#)E,/.&g+/&B7?#)"!#;/M@+/3A"H&#»
Æ
¼ ½ Ë
¾ ¥¿À ¬T¥ÀZÁHÂ_QÀ®¿À
)<=#;/,/)!*,/&B MaH,/.&(+&
"H&?cT3A7&B+Z.!c#&`& Ä !# M-)*,/&B6;,>.TM-"H3A+/!"Hc5!*)
,>!#C#&B+B¸Y,/.&BME6Q!#+,/&!F*,Z#<Y&B)&?;>C#M
¶V"&,/D.TMH+,/&?;>&B+/3A+-+>+&(+-3)¢,>.&+/!*,/;8!5,>&B"¢7?#;>&(·aC#&B)&?;8!5,>3 )C ¸Pç )ÔçÑ
¯Ã 2à ÄÅ .&B!5,3)9,>.&10;/H7&(+/+Ba!#)"
!*;>&3 )
,/ &B;>!#)
,
*<<=;/& Ä &?)7?Mc5!*;>3!*,/3#)+Ba[6.3A78.D$'&B!#)+
,/.&BMD"H)bÆ ,F6_#;>\%c#&?;>M6_&?_6.&?)¡0256_&?;>&B"LTM
+/$'!# Q&B)C#3)& Í "H;>3 c&?)UC&?)&B;>!*,/;>+.2!c
3)C102T#;F+/02&B&B"D;/&BC#A!5,>3 )bNÇ# ,>!#C#&B+
0;>H"H7&("U3)U,>.&;/&(+)!*)
,
63)"H3)CTÈ*7?!*02!#73 ,/;e7?3 ;873 ,¥,/&B)"g,>LJ&Qc#&B;/M`.3C#.ba#)&B7?&B+>+3 ,>!*,/3)C&?GT0J&?)2+3c#&Q7?!#0!#7?3W,>#;8+e!#)"g0;>&B+/&?)
,>3 )C,/.&
+/&?;>c
3A7&,/&(78.)3A73A!*)-63 ,/.c#&B;/MF"!#)C#&B;/+6;/\T3)Cc# ,>!*C&B+BNYÉT$'&!#0037B!5,/3#)2+?a
,/.#C.baT$'!MF0;/3#;>3W,>3 ºB&
,/.&
<=&B;/;>#;>&B+/#)2!*)
,,/;8!*)+<=#;>$'&?;(Æ +!#"c!#)
,>!*C&B+5c#&?;3 ,>+`"H3A+/!"Hc5!*)
,>!#C#&B+BNgÉT&?$'3A7)"H7,/#;7?3 ;873 ,>+&?GT3A+,,>
µ#7?#)"3W,>3 )µEh]d0256_&?;`!#+!#)1!#W,>&?;>)!5,>3 c&,>E<=&B;/;>#;>&B+/#)2!*)
,"H&Bc
3A7&(+?a¨LH,)#)&'7B!*)7#$'0J&,>&K63 ,/.,>.3+
,/;8!*)2+X<=;/$'&?;Q3),/&?;>$F+Q*<+.&?&?;+/3 $'03A73 ,XM#N
ÊDË-ÌÍEÎÌÏÑÐ
I=4A
¦
250 V Rload 62.5 Ω
Þ
Pload = 1000 W
I=8A
ß
125 V Rload 15.625 Ω
Þ
Pload = 1000 W
)&(7&B+>+>!*;>M;>&B+/3A+X,8!*)7?&
#<,>.&B+/&'.&B!*,/3)C&?&?$'&?)
,>+F¶°éê^_È5´·a6_&'!#;/;>3c#&'!5,É C#;/&(+#<_ë ¼ N à Î !*)"£Å à N ë ¼#à
Îa;>&B+/02&(7,/3c#&B MN1´ì<,/.&(+&!*;>&Eh]!#"+?a6_&-$'3C#.
,
;>&<=&B;,>,/.&?3;K00J+/3W,>3 )%,/%7;>;/&B)
,3 )D,/&B;/$F+
*<
3$K0J&B"!*)7?&;8!5,>.&?;
,/.2!*)¡0!#3 )S;/&(+3A+,>!*)27&#a!* ,/.C#.S3 )S,/.3A+F7?!+&-,/.!*,BÆ +F!*_,/.&BMJÆ ;>&7?#$'0J+/&B"U#<
¶=)
;>&B!#7,>!#)7&·N:OQ.& Æ
¼#à c## ,
.&B!5,>&?;
6"UL2&+/!#3",>:LJ&!4.3 C.&?;
3 $'0J&B"!#)7&E
!#"%,>.!*),>.& Å ¼#à c# ,
.&(!5,/&B;BN
´ì<Z6_&-"H&B+/3;/&("%,/1#0J&?;8!5,/&@,/.& Æ
¼#à c## ,.&(!5,>&?;&B &B$'&?)
,K"H3;>&B7,> M%)D! ~Å ¼à c#W,
0256_&?;K+MH+,/&?$a¥6_&
6_#A"&B)"01L2&B3 )C"H3A+>!*00J#3)
,/&B"bN²3W,>.ë ¼ N à Î#<u3 $'0J&B"!#)7&¶=;>&B+/3A+X,8!*)7?&(·aJ,>.&F7;>;/&B)
,6_#A"4#) M
LJ& ¼ !*$'0+`¶V´/ê^_È5é éÅ ¼#à È*ë ¼ N à ·a!#)"F,>.&`0256_&?;Q"H3A+/+/30!5,>3 )-6_#A"@) MFLJ& ¼#à gÆ 6Q!5,,8+`¶Ví_ê´X^ é Å ¼#à G ¼ ·a
#;_#)& ÍlÄ 2!*;/,/&?;*<¨3 ,>+_;8!5,>&B"@0J56_&?;(NYOQ.&3$K0J&B"!*)7?&#<b,/.&`.&(!5,>&?;Q!*)"@,/.&c#W,8!*C#&*<b;+;>7?&6_#A"
LJ&$K3A+/$'!*,>78.&("fa!*)2"E6_&7")bÆ ,ZLH,>!#3 )E,/.&`<= e;>!*,/&("-0J56&B;"H3+>+/3 0!*,/3#)E<=;/$£,/.&.&B!*,/&?;(N
ï
ï I=4A
I=8A ð Rload
125 V 250 V ¦
62.5 Ω
OQ.&g;8!5,>3 -*<¥,/.&,/;8!*)+<=#;>$'&?;(Æ +Z63 )"3 )C
+Z0;>5cT3"&B+Q,>.&c# ,>!*C&g+X,>&?0 Í 0 ÔPçJñ 7;>;/&B)
,+X,>&?0 Í "H56)6_&
)&B&B"1<=#;`,>.&F*,>.&?;>63+/&K$K3A+/$'!*,>78.&(":!",>4#0J&?;8!5,>&
0;>#0J&?;>M#)1,/.3A+g+/MH+X,>&?$NFOe!#\#&F!7+/&
T#\:!*,
,/.&0;/3$F!*;>MF73;>7?3W, É C;>&B+B¸Å ¼#à c#W,8+_!*,Z½K!#$'0+?Nh+_<V!*;Z!#+_,>.&`0256_&?;+/00M-µ#\
)56Z+?a µg3 ,BÆ +0J56&B;/3)C
Å
! Σ¶°éê^_È5´·Z!"!5,'Å ¼à c# ,>+BaJ)*,!Eë ¼ N à Îd!"f»gOQ.&Kc#W,8!*C#&K!*)"17;>;>&?)
, É C#;>&B+<=#;,/.&
à N ë ¼à
0;>3 $F!#;/M'63)"H3)CF!*;>&3)"H3A7?!5,>3 c&#<5Å à N ë ¼#à R
Î
!#"-3 $'0J&B"!#)7&aH)*,_,/.&!7,/2!*fë ¼ N à
Î *<¨,/.&`!#"-3W,8+&BW<XN
´§)*,/.&?;`6;>"+?af)#,#)M4.!#+`;+X,>&?0 Í 01,/;8!*)+<=#;>$'&?;,/;8!*)+<=#;>$'&B":c## ,>!#C#&K!*)"7;>;>&?)
,BafL,`3 ,g.!+
,/;8!*)2+X<=;/$'&B" ê±Zò¬8ñ@ÔPJç Å8¬ !+Q6&B ÓN
ó
Nsecondary
Voltage transformation ratio = ó
Nprimary
ó
Nprimary
Current transformation ratio = ó
Nsecondary
ó 2
Nsecondary
Impedance transformation ratio = ó
Nprimary
ó 2
ï Nsecondary
Inductance ratio = ó
Nprimary
Where,
ó
N = number of turns in winding
Audio amplifier
Speaker
Thevenin/Norton
Z=8Ω
Z = 500 Ω
. . . equivalent to . . .
ZThevenin
500 Ω Speaker
EThevenin
Z=8Ω
impedance
"matching"
transformer
Audio amplifier
Speaker
Thevenin/Norton Z=8Ω
Z = 500 Ω
+/02&B&B"fN
´§$'02&("!*)27&$'!*,>78.3)C
,/;8!*)+<=#;>$'&?;8+u!#;/&)*,_<=)"!*$'&?)
,>!# M@"H3 ©J&B;/&B)
,_<=;>#$î!#)TMK#,/.&B;_,XM
0J&`*<b,>;>!#)+õ
<=#;>$'&?;3)F7#)2+X,>;/7,/3#)'#;[!#00J&B!*;8!*)27&#Neh¢+$F!# H3$'02&("!*)7?&õì$F!5,>78.3 )C`,>;>!#)+<=#;>$K&B;Y<=#;u!#"H3*õÓ<=;/&(÷&?)7?M
!*00 3A7?!*,/3#)+Q3A++/.56)E)-,>.&;>3 C.,3),/.&`<= 563 )CK0.*,>#C#;8!*0.b¸
Oe;>!#)+X<=;/$'&B;>+Y7?!#)K!#+/LJ&+/&B"
3 )'&B &(7,/;>3A7?!*H3)+,/;>$'&?)
,>!*,/3#)'+MH+,/&B$'+BN+&Q,>,/;8!*)+<=#;>$'&?;8+?Æ!*L33W,XM
,/%+,/&?0¡0S#;'+X,>&?0R"H56)Dc# ,>!*C&-!*)2"D7;/;>&?)
,Ba!*)"U,/.&&?&B7,/;>37B!*_3+/#A!5,>3 ),/.&?MU0;>5cT3"&#a¥,/.&?MU7?!#)
+/&?;>c#&!+!6Q!M'*<¨7?#))&(7,>3 )C
&?&B7,/;>37B!*3)+,/;>$'&?)
,>!*,/3#)F,>.3C#.õÓc# ,>!*C&#a.3 C.-7;/;>&?)
,u0J56&B;_+/MH+X,>&?$F+BN
ÉT002
+&
6&g6Q!*)
,>&B",/!#7B7;8!5,>&?M-$'&B!+;>&,>.&c# ,>!*C&*<u!4ô*)N ½F\TÇ0J56&B;+/MT+,/&B$ ¶°!@c&?;>M7?#$'$'#)
.3C#.c#W,8!*C#&`+,>!*)2"!*;8"-3)3 )2"H+,/;>MH·¸
+&B+/3 C)3 )Ca[3)+,>!*3 )C2au!*)2"U$F!*3)
,>!*3)3)C%!c#W,>$'&,/&B;F7?!*02!*L&E#<"H3;/&(7,> M$'&B!+;/3)CDô*)a ½ c#W,8+
h]P6_#A"4LJ&')-&(!#+/ME,8!#+/\N`OQ.&K+>!5<=&?,XM.2!*ºB!#;>":!*#)&
*<uL;>3)C#3)C:ô*)N ½F\TÇ7?#)"7,>#;8+3)
,/E,/.&KL!#78\
*<u!#)3)+X,>;/$K&B)
,0!#)&?Y6_#A"L2&'+/&?c#&B;/&N',56&Bc#&?;(aLTM+/3 )CE!F0;>&B7?3+/3#):+,/&B0Hõì"56),/;8!*)+<=#;>$'&?;(a6_&
7?!#):;>&B"H27&g,>.&ô-)N ½@\TÇ"H56)4,>!+/!*<=&&?c&?¥*<[c# ,>!*C&
!*,`!E7#)2+X,8!*)
,;8!5,>3 2a!#)"3A+/#A!5,/&
3W,<=;>#$ ,/.&
3)+X,>;/$K&B)
,7#))&B7,/3#)+Ba!#""3 )CF!#)!""H3 ,/3#)!#f &Bc#&?f#<¥+>!5<=&?,XMF,/K,>.&$'&,/&B;/3)CF+/MT+,/&B$¸
¼ ôBá ¾ ¥¿À ã ¥ÀZÁHÂ_QÀZç¿À
fuse fuse
precision
PT step-down
ratio
grounded for
safety
V
0-120 VAC voltmeter range
Z56R,>.&c## ,/$'&?,/&?;_;>&B!#"+u!g0;/&(73A+&<=;>!7,/3#)¨a
;u;8!5,>3 2a#<b,/.&`!#7,/!#J+/MH+X,>&?$c#W,8!*C&#a
3W,8+_+>7?!# &+&?,u,>
;>&B!#"K!#+Y,>.#C#.'3W,[6_&?;>&Q$'&B!#+/;>3 )C,>.&c#W,8!*C#&"H3;>&B7,> MNYOQ.&Q,/;8!*)+<=#;>$'&?;¥\#&B&?0+Y,>.&3 )2+X,>;/$'&B),[c# ,>!#C#&
!5,K!4+/!*<=&F &Bc#&?_!*)"&B &(7,/;>3A7?!*M:3A+!*,/&B+g3W,g<=;>#$ ,/.&-0256_&?;+/MH+X,>&?$a¥+,>.&?;>&@3A+):"H3;>&B7,K7#))&B7,/3#)
LJ&,X6_&?&?),>.&g0J56&B; 3)&(+!*)2"-,>.&g3)+,/;>$'&?)
,#;3)+,/;>$'&?)
,63;/3)C2Nu².&B)4+&("3 ),>.3A+7?!#0!#7?3W,XMaH,/.&
,/;8!*)2+X<=;/$'&?;Q3A+7?!# &B"! ý® ¬ . Ã ú Ò_ÿ ú ¯/®5±F¬ a2#;Z+/3 $'0M ýgÿ N
h+X,8!*)"!#;>"1+&(7)"!*;>Mc#W,8!*C#&<=#;!íuOd3A+'ô ¼ c#W,8+`h]a2<=;<= õì;>!*,/&B"10J56&B;3 )&Kc# ,>!#C#&#NgOQ.&
+,>!*)2"!*;8"c#W,>$'&,/&B;e;8!*)C#&[,>!7?7?#$'0!*)TM`!íO3+_ô à c# ,>+Ba<= õ§+/7B!*&#NeíO+¨63 ,/.'72+X,>#$63 )2"H3 )C;8!5,>3
+
7?!#):LJ&'$'!#)TH<V!#7,/;>&B":,/+3W,g!*)TM!#0037B!5,/3#)¨N
OQ.3A+ &B)"+`3 ,>+/&? <6_&?¥,/3 )"+X,>;/M1+X,8!*)"!#;>"3 º(!5,/3#):*<
,/.&!#7,/!#¨c#W,>$'&,/&B;Z3)+X,>;/$K&B)
,>+,>.&?$F+/&?c#&(+?aJ+3)7&g,/.&íOP63 ¨LJ&
+/3 ºB&B"E,/E+X,>&?0,/.&
+/MT+,/&B$ c# ,>!#C#&
"H56)E,/',>.3++,>!#)"!#;>"E3 )2+X,>;/$'&B),Z&?c&?ÓN
0 563)C@,>.&@+/!#$'&
3 )&K#<u,>.3 )\
3)C2ab6&'7?!#)12+&F!-,/;8!*)+<=#;>$'&?;,/4+X,>&?0%"H56)17?;>;/&B),,/.;/C#.!
0J56&B;3 )&K+/@,>.!5,`6&K!*;>&
!#L &,/+/!*<=&?M4!*)":&B!#+/3 M$'&B!+;>&g.3C#.+MH+,/&B$Ý7;>;/&B)
,>+Z63 ,/.13 )&GH02&B)+/3 c&
!*$'$'&,>&?;8+?N[â<¨7;8+&a
+/78.@!,>;>!#)+<=#;>$K&B;[6_#A"FLJ&7))&(7,/&("F3)-+&B;/3&B+u63W,>.F,/.&0J56&B;[3 )&aT 3\#&,/.3A+?¸
ã °äB¡Hu¿ ¾Yå æ¥ÀZÁHÂ_QÀZç¿uÀ-Áè uæ å?¾ Z å QÁ ¼ ô à
13.8 kV load
fuse fuse
precision
PT step-down
ratio
grounded for
safety
V
0-120 VAC voltmeter range
1%23546387.93;:<7!=>?4@387!- 4 í"AB=DC9ECF354-H G õIH!2:<JKH!4L=?M4NO357!4QP üSRTR5U V ÿ!R ú.W XRTY@UR ¶Z2[\P ÿ ·]=DC^9_CF354-H G õI`!G
H 4-La=DM4
¶/:<=357b[84-C5Gc4-MT3"352^L2>389d4(·N:<7!=DM7e=DCf:<7.93#=DC"J.44-H!4-H;352;Cg384G ñ5
S X þ ^357!4hGV2:i4[">=?J!4'M`![8[54-J3*jlk'`.=384
2m384JnNfoiA<C9[54@p!`.=>3q9C^HS2J`S3/õIC57.9Gc4-HKHS4-L=?M4-C387![52`!d7K:<7!=DM7r357!4bGV2:i4[]>?=J.4bM2J.HS`.M352[]=DC[8`!JnNO357.4
Gc2:#4-[i>?=?J!4]=3CF4->mf9MT35=?J!d@9C<96C5=J.d>?4 õs35`![8JtG.[5=?u@9[8v@:<=J.H!=J!dVj#oiA<C<>?=w4'387!=DC%M9Jtpc4]u@9HS4382@7!=J.d42Gc4JnN
9>?>?2:<=J!d;=?J.CF4-[F38=2Jt9[52`!J.Hb9qGc2:#4-[xM2J.H!`.MT382[x:<=387!2`!3(HS=?CF35`.[5p!=?J!dq357!4M2J.H!`.MT382[<93%9>?>sjAx7.4h=?J.HS`VCg38[5v
CF389JVH!9[H6CF4*M2JVH!9[8v^M`.[5[84Ja3lm/2[i9^oiAy=?C#9][89J!d4x2m 352 à 9u;GVC"z(o' j Ü{=wZ4 í"A<C-NoiA<C#M9J6pc4(u@9H!4%:<=387
M`VCg382u|:<=J.H!=J!db[8935=?2Ci352e!3'9>?u62CF3'9Jv}9G!G!>?=DM938=2JnQ j Û#4*M9`.CF4387!4=?
[ µm/`!>>O>2a9
H µ@C54-M2J.H.9[8vbM`![8[84Ja3%=?C
à 9u6G.C-NVoiA~[938=2aCx9[84h`VCF`.9>>?vbHS4*C5M[5=?pc4-Ht=J}354-[5u@C<2m{m/`!>?> õs>?29HbG![8=?u69[5vt9u6G.Ci352 à 9u;GVCNS>?=w4h357!=D? C ¸
600 : 5 ratio (for measuring up to 600 A line current)
100 : 5 ratio (for measuring up to 100 A line current)
1k : 5 ratio (for measuring up to 1000 A line current)
Ûi4-M-9`.C54;oiA<Ch9[84^HS4-C5=?dJ!4*H352tpV4;GV2:i4[8=?J!db9u6u64384[CNc:<7!=DM79[54>?2:QõI=u6Gc4-H!9J.M4q>2a9H!C-Nc9J.H387!4v
9[84_:i2`!J.H~9C@L2>389d4ECg384GHõI`!G38[89J.CFm/2[8u;4-[8C-N#357!4-vC57!2`!>?HJ.4L4-[-N UUR pc4\2GV4-[89354-Hy:<=357~9J2Gc4JHõ
M=?[M`!=354*H@CF4*M2JVH!9[8v^:<=?J.HS=?J!d.j0.9=>?`![84<352^7!44*H;357!=DC":x9[8J!=?J!d]:<=?>>V[54*CF`!>3"=?J6357!4]oiAyG![52SHS`VM=?J!d4
38[54-u;4->v
7!=?d7yCF4*M2JVH!9[8vL2>389d4-C-NlH!9J.d4[82`VC]352B4 ÷a`!=?G!u64Ja3@9J.HGV4-[8C52J!J.4>x9>?=w4jA{2\mZ9M=>?=39384tu@9=?Ja354-J.9J.M4
2mi9u6u64354-['=?J.CF35[8`!u64Ja38935=?2JnNnC57!2[F/3 õIM=[M`!=35=?J!dbC5:<=38M7!4*C'9[54q2m354-J\=?J.CF389>?>?4-HE=?J\GV9[9>?>4->O:<=357\357!4eoi`
A ÆC
C54-M2J.H!9[5v@:<=?J.HS=?J!d.N!3526pV4M>2aCF4*Hb:<7.4J!4-L4[x387!49u6u64384[<=DCx[54-u62L4-Hem/2[%C54[8L=?M4#¸
¼ ô(ë ¾('' ¿À ã À '
Á HÂiQÀZç¿À(
power conductor current
CT
ground connection
(for safety) close switch BEFORE
disconnecting ammeter!
0-5 A meter movement range
A 7!2`!d7=3_u@9vC544-uCg38[89J!d4\352 Ã . U V ÃZX Jú ÒªÒ C57!2[53õM=?[M`!=3}9QGV2:i4[C5vCF354-uM2u6Gc2J!4-Ja3-Nh=3=?C
x
Gc4[5m/4-MT38>vtG![82Gc4[%9JVHE÷a`!=354]J!4*M4*C5C89[8v@:<7!4J}:i2[8wa=?J!d;:<=387_M`![8[54-Ja3i38[89J.CFm/2[8u;4-[8C-j
z%J.2357.4[xw=J.Ht2mCFGc4-M=?9>35[9J.CFm/2[8u64[*NaC544-Jb2m354J}=?J}[9H!=# 2 õm/[8B4 ÷a`!4-J.Mv6M=?[8M`!=38C-NS=?Ci387!4@ú ÃRÅXR5U 38[89J.Cõ
m/2[8u64[*j#AO[5`.4352@=38C%JV9u64Nc9J_9=?[(M2[54h38[89J.Cgm/2[5u64-[<7.9C<=38C(:<=JVHS=J.dC<:<[9G!Gc4-H9[52`!J.H96J!2J.u69dJ!435=DM
m/2[8uNS`.C5`.9>?>vt9q7.2>?>2:38`!pc4]2mC52u64u@9384[8=?9>jlAx7!4]HS4-d[8442mM2`.G!>=?J!4 d ¶/uq`S35`V9>=?J.HS`.M389JVM(4 ·ipc43g:i44-J
:<=?J.HS=?J!dCx=?J_CF`.M7}9q35[9J.CFm/2[8u64[x=?Cxu@9Jav638=u64*C<>4*C5Ci387.9Jt357V93%2m9J}B4 ÷a`!=?L9>?4Ja3<=[82H J õM2[54(35[9J.CFm/2[8u64[*N
p!`S3h357.4q`!JVHS4-C5=[9p.>4^M7V9[9MT384[8=?CF35=DMC%2m#9em/4[8[52u69dJ!435=DM]M2[5 4 ¶/4-H.HSv_M`![8[54-Ja3'>?2C8CF4*CNc7vCF354-[54*CF=DC-NcC8938`![8* 9 õ
35=?2J{NV438Mj ·_9[54^M2u6G!>?4384>?vt4->=?u6=J.9354*H j ´I3h=?C'=J\7!=dH 7 õsm/[5(4 ÷`.4J.Mvt9G.G!>=DM935=?2J.C%357.93(387!4-C54^4c4*MT38C'2mf=?[82J
M2[54*Cx9[84hu62aCg3<G![82p!>?4u@935=DMj
â'J!4%J.2389p!>?4%4
!9u6G!>?4%2m{9=? [ õM2[54i35[9JVCgm/2[5u64["=?C"357!4 ÿ.U W Ò ú}P 5 X ÃªÒ NSJV9u64-H@9m354[#357. 4 É4-[5p!=D9J@4->4*MT38[5=DM9>
d4-J!=?`.C%1%=?w2>?96AO4-C5>?9.N.:<7!2@:x9C<9>?C52;357!4^=JL4-Ja352[<2m357!4][823935=?J!d@u@9dJ!438=?MhV4>DH_z(ou62382[*N!Gc2>?vaG.7.9C54
z(oBGc2:#4-[;C5vSCg384u@C-N"9J.Hu@9JvK4>?4u64Ja38C;2m([89HS=?2E354*M7!J!2>2dvjAx7!4AO4-C5>?9Ko#2=?>i=DC69\[84-C52JV9Ja3-Nl7!=?d7õ
m/[8B4 ÷a`!4JVMvbCF354-H G õs`.Gb38[89J.Cgm/2[5u64-[i`VCF4*He382;G.[52SHS`.M47!=d7tL2>389d4-C"357V93(9[84h[54->?935=?L4>?v@7.9[5u6>?4-C8C"38267a`.u69J
pc4=?J!d@ C ¶/357!E
4 µC5wa=?Jr44-MT83 µ2mx7!=?dH 7 õsm/[5(4 ÷a`!4J.Mv\9>354-[5JV935=?J!d_M`.[5[84Ja3G![84-M>`.H!=J!d4->4*MT35[8=DM@CF7!2SMwNO9>387!2`.d7
M9G.9p.>4E2m]G![52SHS`VM=?J!dC5wa=?Jp!`![8J.8C ·T j â'J.4E2mAO4-C5>? 9 Æ CtHS[54*9u@C@:x9Ce3524-u;G.>2vy7!=DCbM2=>(354*M7!J!2>?2dv382
HS=DCg38[5=?p!`S384t4->4*MT38[5=DMbGc2:i4[;:<=387!2`S36387!4tJ.44-Hm/2[6:<=?[54*CN"C5=?u;G.>vp![829H!M9Cg38=J.dE=36=?J387!4bm/2[5u2m([9HS=?2
:x9L4-Cx:<7.=?M7EM2`!>DHpV4^[54*M4=?L4*H9J.H_M2J.HS`VMT354*H}352e>?29H!C<pv}u;4*9J.C(2mf9Ja384J!J.9CjxAx7!4pV9C5=?MC8M7!4-u6935=DM
m/2[%96AO4-C5>?9eo#2=>>?22wSCx>=?w4h387!=?BC ¸
discharge terminal
"Tesla Coil"
Ax7!4M-9G.9M=352[<=?J_G.9[89>>?4>:<=357387!4]35[9JVCgm/2[5u64[(Æ CxG![5=?u@9[8ve:<=?J.HS=?J!d@m/2[8u@Cx357.4]389J!wtM=[M`!=3(J!4-4-HS4*H
ãa ä ¿ ¾Yåg æ À '
Á HÂiQÀZç¿uÀ' Áè '" Á'
æ å?¾%Yå Q ¼ ô
m/2[h[84-C52J.9J.M4jAx7.4qC54-M2J.H!9[5v:<=?J.HS=?J!dt=DC':#2`!J.HE=?JM>2aCF4qG![82
=?u6=3gv}382b387!4qG.[5=?u@9[8vN`.C5`.9>?>v_9[52`!J.H
357.46C89u64qJ!2J!u@9dJ!435=DMm/2[5u
j É4-L4-[89>O2GS35=?2J.C'4
S=DCg3hm/2
[ µ4
!M=35=?J!
d µe357!46G![8=?u69[5v_M=[M`!=3-N387!4@CF=?u6G!>?4-CF3
pc4=?J!de9;7!=dH
7 õIL2>389d4N>?2Q
: õm/[8B4 ÷a`!4-J.Mvez(o~C52`![M49J.HC5G.9[8w@d9b G ¸
HIGH voltage!
HIGH frequency!
spark gap
high voltage
low frequency
=357b4*9M7bMvSM>?4(Gc4-9w@2m357!4h7!=?dH 7 õIL2>39d4(z(oyCF2`![M4N357.4hM`![5[84Ja3i:<=>?>a g`!u6G}9M[82C8C357!4C5G.9[8w6d9G{N
p [8=4?¹.ve4-J!4[8d=º=?J!d;357!439J!wtM=?[8M`!=3*jfAx7!4389J!wbM=[M`!=3-N!35`!J!4*Htm/2[(9;[84-C52J.9J3im/[84B÷a`!4JVMv@mZ9[<=J4
!M4-C8Cx2m
!
357.4qz(o¡C52`![M4N.:<=?>>2C8M=?>>D9384]m/2['u@9Jv}MvSM>?4-C%pc4m/2[54357!4qJ!4
3hMvSM>?4^Gc4-9w}2ml387!4qC52`.[8M4N.:<7.4JE=3':<=?>>
[84-M4-=L4h9J!2387!4Z[ µw=?MH
w µ^3526w4-4G}357!42aC5M=>?>?935=?2J.Cxd2=?J!d.jAx7!4C54-M2J.H!9[5v@2m{387!4A{4*CF>D9eo#2=?>n:<=?>>2`S35G!`!3(9
mZ9=?[8>v_M2J.CF389Ja3h7!=d7\L2>389d4q93'L4-[5v7!=?d7\m/[5(4 ÷a`!4J.M=4*CN`.C5`.9>>?v_G![82H!`.M=?J!dt9tCFGV9[8wH!=?C8M7.9[8d4^=Ja352t357.4
C5`![5[82`.J.HS=?J!d;9=[%93x357!4HS=DC8M7.9[8d4'354-[5u6=?J.9>sj
¼ ô(½ ¾('' ¿À ã À '
Á HÂiQÀZç¿À(
AO4-C5>?96o#2=?>?C".J.Ht9G!G!>?=DM938=2JeG![8=u@9[5=?>v@9C"J!2L4>3gv;H!4L=?M4-C-NSCF7!2:<=?J!dq`!Gb=?Jb7!=?d7}C5M7.2a2>VC8M=?4J.M4(mZ9=[C-N
p.9CF4-u;4-Ja3x:i2[8wSCF7.2G.C-NS9J.Hb357!4]2SM-M9C5=?2J.9>c>?2:~p.`.HSd43(C5M=4-J.M4?õcMT35=?2Jtu62La=?4j
É2mZ9[-N(:#4 Æ L4\4
SG!>?2[84-Hy387!4E38[89J.CFm/2[8u;4-[t9Cb9H!4L=?M4Em/2[tM2JL4[535=?J!dH!=4[84Ja3t>?4L4>DCb2mL2>39d4N
M`.[5[84Ja3-N9J.H;4L4J6=?u;Gc4-H.9J.M4xm/[52u¢2J.4%M=?[8M`!=3l3829J!2357!4-[-j1%2:Q:# 4 Æ >?>S39w4%9>?22w^93f=3i9Cl9]M2u6G!>4354->v
HS=c4-[54-Ja3xw=?J.H}2mHS4L=DM# 4 ¸l2J!4'357.93(9>?>2:%Cx96CFu@9>>4->4*MT35[8=DM9>C5=dJ.9>c382;4
S4[53 ÅX . R55 X Ò 2L4-[i9;uq`.M7t>D9[8d4-[
÷a`.9Ja38=3gve2m4->4*MT38[5=DM9>cGc2:i4[*Y j ´J}387!=?C%u;2SHS4N.9q35[9J.CFm/2[8u64[<9M38C<9C<9 J ú Y òJÒ Ã ÄiUR j
Ax7!4eHS4-L=?M@ 4 ´Æ u£[84m/4[8[8=J!d382_=?CqM9>>?4-HK9K?W ú üSR ú¤ ÒU¥ ÅXR5UtR5U ú Å XR N2[C5=?u;G.>vQ?W ú üSR ú¤ ÒUtR5U ú Å XR j_z(M õ
35`V9>?>vNc=3=?ChJ!23'[84-9>?>?v9e35[9J.CFm/2[8u64[h93h9>>sNp!`S3][9357.4['9tCFGc4-M=?9>Ow=?J.HE2m"=?J.HS`.M352[h:<7!2aCF4q=J.H!`.MT39J.M4
M9JpV4_L9[8=?4-Hypv357.4\9G!G.>=DM935=?2Jy2m]9+o¦M`.[5[84Ja36357![82`.d79CF4*M2J.H:<=?J.HS=?J!d:i2`.J.HQ9[52`!J.HQ357.4
C89u64^=?[52J\M2[54 j Ü{=w4357.4^m/4-[5[82[84-C52J.9Ja3<35[9J.CFm/2[8u64[*N!357.4;C8938`![89p!>?4[54*9M352['[54->=?4-C'2JE357!4;G![8=J.M=G.>4q2m
u@9dJ!438=?M'C5935`![938=2JnjO7.4Jt9^u@9354-[5=D9>cCF`VM7b9C#=[82J@=DCxM2u;G.>4354>?v@C5935`![9384-4 H ¶/357.93i=DCNS9>>c=3Ciu69dJ!435=DM
HS2u69=JVCh9[54;>?=J!4*H\`.G:<=357357!4@9G!G!>?=4*H\u@9dJ!438= º-=J.dbm/2[8M(4 ·TNn9H!HS=35=?2J.9>l=JVM[84-9C54-C'=?JrM`![5[84Ja3h357![82`.d7
357.4]u69dJ!435= º=?J!d6:<=JVHS=J.d;:<=?>?>nJ!23%[84-C5`!>3<=J}m/`![5357!4-[%=?J.M[84-9CF4*C#2mOu@9dJ!438=? M ¹.`!
j
1%2:]N=?J.HS`VMT389J.M4x=DCO357!4xu64-9CF`![84i2m.7!2::#4->>!9J^=?J.HS`.M352[2G!GV2aCF4*CM7.9J!d4-CO=J6M`.[5[84Ja3pavH!4L4->2G!=?J!d
9eL2>389d4=?J\9J\2G!Gc2C5=J.dbHS=?[54*MT35=?2J{jhAx7!4;9p!=?>?=3gv2m"9JE=?J.HS`.M352['352}d4-J!4[9384]357.=?C'2G!Gc2C5=?J!dbL2>389d4]=?C
HS=?[54*MT38>vEM2J!J!4*MT384-HE:<=357\357!4@M7.9J!d4q=Ju@9dJ.435=D M ¹.`S
E=?J.CF=DHS4q357!46=?J.HS`.M352[h[84-C5`!>35=?J!dem/[82u§387!46M7.9J!d4
=?JbM`![8[84Ja3-Na9J.H6387!4(J`!uqpV4-["2mn:<=J.H!=J!d^35`![8J.C"=J@387!4(=?J.HS`VMT352[-¥ j ´Im{9Je=JVHS`.MT382[#7.9C#9C5935`![9384-H@M2[84NJ.2
m/`![5357!4-[u69dJ!435=Dg M ¹V`S
\:<=?>>l[84-C5`!>3'm/[82u§m/`![5357.4[=JVM[84-9C54-C'=?JrM`![5[84Ja3*Nn9J.HCF2t357!4-[54;:<=?>>lpc46J!2tL2>389d4
=?J.HS`.M4-H=?J2G.GV2aCF=35=?2JK382_357!4}M7.9J.d4e=?JM`.[5[84Ja3-4 j ´J2357.4[^:i2[H!C-N9J=JVHS`.MT382[q>2aCF4*C=38Cq=J.H!`.MT39J.M4
ãa ä ¿ ¾Yåg æ À '
Á HÂiQÀZç¿uÀ' Áè '" Á'
æ å?¾%Yå Q ¼ ô*¨
¶Z9p!=?>=3gve382;2G!Gc2C54M7V9J!d4-Ci=J_M`![5[84Ja3·":<7.4J=3C%M2[54hpc4-M2u64-Cxu@9dJ!438=?M-9>?>vbC8938`![9354*Hj
´Iml9J=JVHS`.MT382([ Æ C%=J.H!`.MT39J.M4M7.9J!d4-C-N357!4-J_=3C%[84-9MT389J.MF
4 ¶9J.H}=?u;Gc4-H.9J.M(4 ·i382ez(oM`![5[84Ja3%M7.9J!d4*C
9Cx:i4>?>sj´J}9@M=[M`!=3<:<=387_9;M2J.CF389Ja3xL2>389d4CF2`![8M4N387!=?Cx:<=?>?>n[54*CF`.>3%=?J}9@M7V9J!d4'=?J_M`![8[54-Ja3B¸
L
load
ï
I
If L changes in inductance,
ZL will correspondingly
change, thus changing the
circuit current.
z©C8938`![89p!>?4e[54*9M352[qM9G.=39>?=ª-4-C]2J357!=DCq44-MT3;pv\m/2[8M=J!dE357!4bm/4[8[52u69dJ!435=DM@M2[54@=?Ja3529\Cg39354b2m
C8935`.[8935=?2J:<=357@9hCg38[52J!d(u@9dJ!438=?M#.4->?Hqd4-J!4[9384-H]pv^M`![8[54-J3357.[52`!d7;9J!2357!4-[O:<=?J.HS=?J!d.jAx7!4x[84-9M352[-« C
¬ Gc2:i4[ ¬ :<=J.H!=J!dq=?C"357.4(2J.4'M9[5[8v=J.d357!4z(oQ>2a9H@M`![5[84Ja3*Na9J.H6357.4 ¬ M2Ja35[82> ¬ :<=?J.HS=?J!d^=DC"2J!4'M-9[8[5v=?J!d
96+o~M`.[5[84Ja3%Cg38[52J!d;4J!2`!d7t352eHS[8=?L4h357!4M2[84'=?Ja352@C8935`.[8935=?2Jn
saturable reactor
load
ï
I
A 7!4eCF35[9J!d4õI>22wa=?J!db35[9J.CFm/2[8u64[]CFvuqpV2>"CF7.2:<J=?Jr357!4e9pV2L46C8M7!4-u6935=DM;[54-G![54*CF4-Ja38C]9_C8935`.[89p!>4?õ
x
M2[54t[54*9M352[*N357!4`!G.GV4-[;:<=?J.HS=?J!drpV4-=J.d\387!4_+o®M2Ja35[82>i:<=?J.HS=?J!dr9J.H387!4}>2:i4[;pV4-=J.d\387!4 ¬ GV2:i4[ ¬
:<=?J.HS=?J!dK357![82`.d7:<7!=DM7Q387!4EM2Ja35[82>?>4*HQz(o¯M`![8[84Ja3ed24-C-j°J.M[54*9C54-Hy+o¦M2Ja35[82><M`![8[84Ja3eG![82H!`.M4*C
u62[84<u@9dJ.435=DMx±.`!
6=?J6357.4([84-9M352[fM2[84NaHS[8=L=?J!d=3#M>?2C54[l382q9]M2J.HS=35=?2J@2m{C5935`![938=2JnN387a`VC#HS4*M[84-9CF=?J!d
357.4%GV2:i4[l:<=?J.HS=?J!dV« Cl=?J.HS`VMT389J.M4NHS4*M[84-9CF=?J!d=3Cl=?u;Gc4-H.9J.M4N9J.H;=?J.M[84-9CF=?J!dM`![8[54-Ja3l352357.4%>2a9HjAx7`.CN
357.4+o~M2J38[52>M`![8[54-Ja3x=DC%9p!>4h382;4
S4[53² X . R5X³ 2L4-[i357!4z(oM`![8[54-Ja3<H!4>?=L4[84-Hb352;357!4]>?29Hj
Ax7!4hM=?[8M`!=3xCF7.2:<J@:#2`!>?He:#2[5wNp.`S3i=3#:i2`.>?H@J.23#:i2[8w;L4[8v;:#4->>sjlAx7!4%.[CF3#G![82p!>?4uB=DCf387!4'JV935`.[89>
35[9JVCgm/2[5u64[9M35=?2J2m.387!4iC8938`![9p!>?4#[84-9MT382[*z(oM`![8[84Ja3{387![52`!d7^357!4xGc2:#4-[O:<=?J.HS=?J!dh:<=>?>35[8v352h=?J.HS`.M4
M`.[5[84Ja3=J\357!4@M2Ja35[82>:<=J.H!=J!dVNn:<7!=DM7\u@9vEM9`.C5435[82`.p!>4;=?J\387!4@+o´GV2:i4[CF2`![M4jz(>?C52.NnC8938`![9p!>?4
[84-9M352[8Cf354JVHe382;[84d`!>D9354hz(oyGc2:#4-[i2J!>?v@=Jt2J!4HS=?[54*MT35=?2J{=?J}2J!4h7.9>mO2mn357.4z(oMvSM>?4N387!4u69dJ!435=DM
.4->?Hm/2[M4*Chm/[52uµpc2357K:<=?J.HS=?J!dC]9H!H¶=Jr387!4@2387!4[]7.9>mgNO357.4v\C5`!pS38[89MT3-jeAx7`.C-Nn387!4eM2[54;:<=?>>l384J.H382
pc4@u;2[54@C8938`![89354*HE=?Jr2J!4@7.9>mi2mi357!4ez(o·MvSM>?46357.9J\387!4@2387!4[*N{GV9C8CF=?J!dM`![8[54-Ja3u62[5464-9CF=?>?vE=Jr2J.4
¸¸ ¹ (''º#» ã »%'¼ S½i » ç º#»
HS=?[54*MT38=2Jb387.9J}357.4]2357.4[*j0.2[535`!JV9354->vNSpV2357G![82p!>?4u@C<M-9J}pV4]2L4[M2u64h:<=387_9q>?=3F35>?4]=?J!d4-Ja`.=3gv
load
ï
I
1 235=DM4x387!4%G!>D9M4u64Ja3"2mV387!4%G!7.9CF=?J!dHS238C"2J;357!4%3g:#2][84-9MT352[8C-387!4%Gc2:#4-[l:<=J.H!=J!daC"9[54 ¬ =J6G!7.9CF4 ¬
%
:<7!=?>46387!4bM2Ja35[82>:<=?J.HS=?J!dC9[54 ¬ 2`S32miG!7V9C54j ¬ °Imxpc2357[84-9MT382[Ch9[546=DHS4Ja38=?M-9>sNO9JvEL2>389d46=JVHS`.M4*H
=?JE357.46M2Ja35[82>O:<=JVHS=J.dChpv_>2a9HEM`![5[84Ja3'357![82`!d7_357.4;Gc2:i4[h:<=J.H!=J!daC(:<=?>?>fM9JVM4>2`!3'382tª-4[82t93h357.4
p.93F354-[5v;384[8u;=?J.9>?C-N387`.Ci4>?=u6=?J.938=J!d^357!4'.[Cg3iG![82p!>?4u®u64Ja35=?2J.4-Hjl0!`.[F387!4[8u62[84NCF=?J.M4(357!4+]oyM2Ja38[52>
M`.[5[84Ja3h357![82`!d7pc2387K[54*9MT382[C(G.[52SHS`.M4-Chu@9dJ!438=?Mq.4->?H!C=?JHS=c4-[54-J3HS=?[84-MT38=2J.Ch357.[52`!d7\357!4@[84-9MT352[
M2[54*CN#2J!4_[84-9MT382[6:<=>?>(C8938`![89354u62[84=J2J.4MvSM>?4_2mh357!4Ez(o©GV2:i4[6:<7!=?>?4357!4E2357!4-[@[54*9M352[6:<=?>>
C8935`.[893546u62[84;=?Jr357!4@2357!4-[-Nn357`.C](4 ÷`V9>?=ª-=J!d}387!4eM2J38[52>l9MT38=2Jr357![82`!d74*9M77.9>ªm õIMvSM>?4eCF2}357V93]357.4
z(oyGc2:#4-[#=DC ¬ 387![523F38>4*H ¬ C5vu6u;435[8=?M-9>?>vjAx7.=?CiG!7.9CF=?J!d;2mOM2Ja35[82>c:<=?J.HS=?J!dCxM9Jbpc4h9MM2u6G!>?=?C57!4-Hb:<=387
3g:i26C54GV9[9354[84-9MT352[8Ci9C(CF7!2:<J{NS2[<=?J96C5=J.d>?4][54*9MT382[<HS4*CF=?dJ}:<=387_=Ja384>?>=?d4-J3%>D9v2`S3x2m357!4]:<=?J.HS=?J!dC
9JVHtM2[84j
¾ 935`![9p!>?4;[54*9MT382['354*M7!J!2>?2dv_7.9C4-L4-Jpc44-Ju6=?J!=?935`![8=?ª4-H382t387!4@M=?[8M`!=3 õIpV2a9[HE>?4L4->l=JM2u6G.9M3
G.9Mw9d4*Cqu62[54d4-J!4[9>?>?vwJ!2:<Jy9C Y ú- U s¿Z Y òc³ ¿ À UR WTj~°;Gc4[CF2J.9>?>v.J.HQ357!=DC@382KpV4_mZ9C5M=JV935=?J!dV
² ú
357.4q4c4*MT3]2m#9u6G!>=VM-935=?2JyÁ/2J!4q4->4*MT38[5=DM9>C5=dJ.9>M2Ja35[82>?>=?J!dt9J!2387!4[TÂTNJ!2[5u@9>>?v[5(4 ÷`.=[8=J.de357.4q`.C54;2m
G!7vSCF=DM9>>?vem/[9d=>?4L9M`.`!u¯38`!pc4-C%2[%4>?4-M35[8=?M-9>?>v ¬ m/[9d=?>?4 ¬ CF4-u6=?M2J.HS`VMT352[%HS4L=DM4*CNcM9Jpc4[84-9>?=?ª4-H}=?J_9
HS4-La=DM4(pV2357@G!7vSCF=DM9>>?vq9J.H64>?4-M35[8=?M-9>?>vq[5`.dd4*HjE9dJ!438=?M%9u6G!>=.4-[8CfH!27.9L4%H!=?C89HSL9J39d4-C2L4-[357!4-=[
u62[84;m/[89d=?>46M2`!Ja354[8G.9[F3CNJ.9u64>?vC5=ª-4Nn:i4=?d7a3-N{J!2J!>?=?J!4-9[5=3gvN{9J.Hp.9J.H!:<=?H387Ám/[8B4 ÷a`!4JVMv\[84-C5Gc2J.C54*ÂN
p!`S3357.4=?[`!3F354-[C5=?u;G.>=DM=3gvCg38=>?>SM2u;u@9J.H!C9(M4-[F39=?J^HS4-d[844f2mV9G!G.[54*M=D935=?2J{N*=m.J!23OG![9M35=DM9>a9G!G!>?=?M-935=?2J{j
¾ 935`![9p!>?4 õM2[54'[54*9M352[Ci9[84h>?4-C8C<M2u6u;2J!>?vewJ!2:<J}9C ¬ C8938`![89p!>?4 õM2[84%=?J.HS`.M352[8C ¬ 2[] R ú.W ñ*ü ² XR WTj
ÃÄbÅ'ÆtÇÅ'ÈÊÉ
à A{[9J.CFm/2[8u64[CxM9J_pc4`.C54-H}382@35[9JVCgm/2[5u©=?u6GV4*H!9JVM4^9C%:i4>?>{9C<L2>389d49JVH}M`![8[54-J3*j#7.4J_387!=?C
=?C<HS2J!4h352@=?u6G![52L4'Gc2:i4[i35[9J.CFm/4[x382e9;>2a9HNS=3%=?C<M-9>?>4*H\¿ Yò.U>ñ ú² UqY ú² ¿aj
Î@ÏÐ ÑÓÒlÔ]ÕiÖ×Õ<ÔØQÕ<ÙqÚÛ×Ü_Ý(ÒlÔhÖ×Ù;ÚÛ
z(C7.9CO9>[84-9HSvhpV4-4J;2p.C54[8L4*HN38[89J.CFm/2[8u;4-[8C{u^`.CF3pV4xHS4-C5=?dJ!4*Hm/2[lC5GV4*M=VMfG!`.[5Gc2C54-CO=Jq2[HS4[O352h9M7!=?4L4
d22SHKGc2:#4-[qM2`!G!>?=J.d\9J.H[54(÷`.=[84-HKL2>389d4@[54-d`!>D938=2JnjEAx7!4-[54t=?CqJ!2 ¬ 2J!4bC5=?ª4e.38C;9>?> ¬ 38[89J.CFm/2[8u;4-[
HS4*CF=?dJnNc9J.HEJ!4L4[%:<=?>>OpV4j%°JE9H.HS=38=2J_352b:<=J.H!=J!db=J.H!`.MT39J.M4q9JVHu69dJ!435=DMM2`!G!>?=J.d@G.9[9u64384[CNV9
[84-9>!35[9J.CFm/2[8u64[lu^`VCg3ipV4(H!4-C5=dJ!4-H;382^M9[5[8v]357.4(4
SGc4-M354-H6L9>`!4*Cf2mM`![8[54-J3f:<=357.2`S3#9Jv^38[52`!p!>?4jAx7!=?C
u64-9J.C357.4%:<=JVHS=J.dM2JVHS`.MT382[Cu^`.CF3"pc4%u@9HS4<2mV387!4%G![82Gc4[lda9d4i:<=?[84x3529L2=?H;9Jvq7!4-935=?J!d]G![82p!>?4u@C-j
,%4-[54;=DC'v43]9J!2357!4-[hH!4-C5=dJ\G.9[89u;4354-[(387.93u@9w4*C9 ¬ 2J!46CF=?ª4q!38C9>> ¬ =DHS4*9>35[9J.CFm/2[8u64['=u6Gc2C8CF=?p!>?4
352@M2J.CF35[8`.MT3*j
z(H.HS=38=2J.9>?>?vNS:<=?J.HS=?J!d@M2JVHS`.MT382[x=?J.CF`.>?935=?2J}=?C<96M2J.M4-[5Jt:<7!4[847!=?d7}L2>389d4*C#9[54h4J.M2`!Ja384[84-HN!9C
357.4v@2m384J9[84(=?J}CF354-H G õI`!Gt9J.HbCF354-H G õIH!2:<JbGc2:#4-[iHS=DCF35[8=p!`!35=?2Je38[89J.CFm/2[8u;4-[8C-jO1(23<2J.>veHS2q357.4':<=?J.HS=?J!dC
7.9L4'382@pV4]:i4>?>n=?J.C5`!>?9354*Hbm/[82u©357!4=?[82JM2[84NSp.`S3(4-9M7t:<=?J.HS=?J!d@7.9Ci352@pc4CF`!@M=4-Ja35>?vb=?J.CF`.>?9354-Htm/[82u
357.4]2357.4[<=?J}2[8H!4[i352@u@9=?Ja389=J}4>?4-M35[8=?M-9>=DCF2>?935=?2Jbpc43g:i44-J:<=J.H!=J!daCj
Þi4v2J.Hb357!4qM2JVM4[8J2m:<=JVHS=J.dbM2J.HS`.M352['9u6G.9M=3gv}9J.H}=?J.C5`!>?935=?2JL2>39d4h[938=J.dC-N!:#4]7V9L4357.4
u@9dJ!438=?M±.`S
E>?=u6=38938=2J.Ch2ml387!4@M2[84j0!2[(m/4-[5[82u@9dJ!435=DMM2[54]38[89J.CFm/2[8u;4-[8C-Nc:#4qu^`.CF3hpc4;u;=?J.Hm/`.>l2m
357.4eC5935`![938=2J\>?=u6=38C]2m#387!4eM2[54K j é<4-u64u^pc4[357.93]m/4[8[52u69dJ!435=DMu@9384[8=?9>?C]M-9J!J.23CF`.G!GV2[F3]=?JS.J!=354
u@9dJ!438=?Mi±.`!
6HS4-J.C5=38=4*CO357!4-v^384J.H;382 ¬ C8938`![9354 ¬ 93"9M4[5389=?J6>4-L4->{ÁZHS=DMT39384-H6pv^387!4%u@9384[8=?9>.9JVH;M2[84
HS=?u64J.C5=2J.CÂTNfu64-9J!=?J!dE387.93;m/`![5357!4-[q=?J.M[84-9CF4*C=?Ju@9dJ!438=?Mb.4->?Hm/2[M4tH!2\J!23;[84-C5`!>3q=?JG![82Gc2[535=?2J.9>
=?J.M[84-9CF4*C#=?Ju@9dJ.435=DMh.4->?Ht±.`S
jf1(2[8u69>>?vN38[89J.CFm/2[8u;4-[<HS4-C5=dJ!4[Cx[9354h387!4M2[54*C<M2JVCF4-[5L938=L4>?veCF2@9C
352@9L2=DHt9G!G![829M7.=J!d^357!4*CF4]>?=?u;=38C-j
°Imh9\35[9JVCgm/2[5u64[*« C^G![8=?u69[5vK:<=?J.HS=?J!dK=?C;2L4[8>2a9HS4*HÁ3522Ku^`VM7yM`![5[84Ja3TÂTNl387!4[84tu@9vpc4_4
!M4*C5C5=?L4
>?4L4->?C2mcu@9dJ!435=DMi.4>DHqm/2[M4<=?u;Gc2C54-H;2J^387!4(M2[54<93fGV4*9w^u62u;4-Ja38C2mc357.4(z(oC5=?J!4:x9L4xMvSM>?4NaHS[8=L=?J!d
=3h382}C8938`![935=?2J{jh7.4J357!=DCh7.9G!Gc4JVCN387!4;L2>389d4q=J.H!`.M4*HE=?J\387!4;C54-M2J.H.9[8v}:<=?J.HS=?J!d}:<=>?>J!2}>2J!d4-[
u@93M7357!4}:x9L4 õC57.9Gc4b9C^357.4tL2>389d4eGc2:#4-[5=?J!d_387!4tG.[5=?u@9[8vKM2=?>jr°J2357!4-[q:i2[H!C-N357!4}2L4-[5>?29HS4-H
35[9JVCgm/2[5u64[(:<=>?> ñ ¿DWT XR {387!4^:x9L4*CF7.9GV4hm/[82u§G![8=u@9[5vb352bC54-M2J.H!9[5vt:<=JVHS=J.dC-NcM[54*935=?J!d@7.9[5u62J!=?M-C%=?J
357.4bCF4*M2J.H!9[8vE:<=?J.HS=?J!d.« C]2`S35G!`!3-j_z(C^:#4eHS=DC8M`.C8CF4*HrpV4m/2[84N7.9[8u62J!=DM6M2Ja384Ja3^=?Jz(o´Gc2:#4-[^C5vCF354-u@C
3gvG!=DM9>?>?vbM9`.CF4*CxG![82p!>?4u@C-j
é<4*CFGc4-M35=?J!d6357!4*CF4]>?=?u;=38935=?2J.C-NS38[89J.Cgm/2[5u64-[8Cx9[84[89354*Hem/2[(M4-[F39=?Jt>?4L4>DCx2mG![5=?u@9[8vb9JVH}C54-M2J.H.9[8v
:<=?J.HS=?J!dL2>389d4b9J.HM`.[5[84Ja3-N387!2`.d7387!4M`![8[54-Ja3^[8935=?J!d\=DC;`.C5`.9>?>vHS4-[5=?L4*HKm/[82u9\L2>3 õ9u6GÁ/ßz'Â
[935=?J!d9C8C5=dJ!4-H352K387!4_35[9JVCgm/2[5u64[*j0!2[e4
!9u6G!>?4N#389w4E9KCF354 G õIHS2:<Jy38[89J.Cgm/2[5u64-[;:<=3579rG![8=?u69[5v
L2>39d4h[938=J.d@2Q m ô ¸ L2>38C-N.9@C54-M2J.H!9[5veL2>389d4[8935=?J!d@2¥ m áà6L2>38C-N.9JVH_96ßz´[938=J.d@2 m ô]wßz©Á ô
ßz'ÂTjVAx7!4]u@9
S=uq`!u©:<=?J.HS=?J!deM`.[5[84Ja38C<M-9J}pV4H!4354-[5u6=?J!4-H9CiC5`.M7n
1000 VA
= 8.333 A (maximum primary winding current)
120 V
1000 VA
á = 20.833 A (maximum secondary winding current)
48 V
¾ 2u;435=?u64-Cx:<=?J.HS=?J!dC<:<=?>?>npV4*9[%M`![5[84Ja3<[935=?J!daCx=J_9u6G.C-N!p!`!3<357!=DC<=DCx3gvG!=?M-9>?>vtCF4-4J2J_C5u69>>38[89J.Cõ
m/2[8u64[CjlâO9[8d4'35[9J.CFm/2[8u64[C#9[54]9>?u62CF3%9>?:i9vSCi[89354*Hb=?Jb384[8u@C<2m:<=J.H!=J!d@L2>389d49J.Htßzã2[<wßz^j
¸¸¸ ¹ (''º#»¢ä »%'¼ S½i »%åEº#»
7!4-Jb38[89J.Cgm/2[5u64-[8C#35[9JVCgm/4-[iGc2:i4[*N387!4vtHS2@CF26:<=3579qu6=?J!=?u^`!u¦2mO>?2C8C-jz'C<=3x:x9CxCF389354-Ht4-9[5>?=?4[*N
u62SHS4[8JEGc2:#4-[<35[9J.CFm/2[8u64[(H!4-C5=dJ.C<3gvG!=DM9>>?v4
!M4-4-H_¨æaçË4eM=?4J.Mvj(°I3h=?C(d22SH352bwaJ.2:¡:<7.4[84qC52u64
2m357.=?Cx>?2CF3%GV2:i4[xd2a4*CNS7.2:#4-L4[*N9J.H}:<7.93<M-9`.C54-Cx=3<3526pc4]>2aCg3*j
Ax7!4-[54;=?C-N2mxM2`![8C54NGc2:i4[h>2aCg3HS`!4;382t[84-C5=?CF389J.M4;2m"357!4@:<=?[54;:<=?J.HS=?J!dC-jqè(J!>4*C5C]C5`!Gc4[M2J.HS`.M35=?J!d
:<=?[54*C(9[84`.C54-HnN.387!4[84^:<=?>>9>?:x9vC%pV4qGV2:i4[hHS=?C8C5=G.9354*H_=JE357!4^m/2[8u|2ml7!4-93(357.[52`!d7387!4^[84-C5=?CF389J.M4^2m
M`.[5[84Ja3 õM9[5[8v=J.deM2JVHS`.MT382[CjqÞ#4*M9`.CF4q35[9JVCgm/2[5u64[C%[8B4 ÷a`!=?[84;C5`.M7\>?2J.dt>?4J!d357.Ch2m#:<=?[54N357!=DC>2aC5ChM9J
pc4h9qCF=?dJ!=VM-9Ja3"mZ9MT352[-j°J.M[54*9C5=J.d]357!4hd9d4%2m357!4h:<=?J.HS=?J!dq:<=?[84(=DC#2J!4(:x9v;352qu;=?J!=?u6=ª-4(387!=?Ci>?2C8CNap!`S3
2J.>ve:<=357_C5`!p.CF389J38=?9>=JVM[84-9C54-Ci=?J_M2CF3-N!C5=?ª4NV9J.Ht:#4-=d7a3-j
é<4*CF=DCg38=L4>?2C8CF4*C%9C5=?H!4NV357!4qp!`!>?w}2m35[9J.CFm/2[8u64[%Gc2:#4-[(>?2C8C%=DC(HS`.4352tu@9dJ.435=DM]4c4*MT38C'=?J_357!4;M2[54j
ê4[87.9G.Cq357!4Eu62aCg3eC5=dJ!=cM9Ja3e2m'387!4-C54 ¬ M2[84t>?2C8CF4*C ¬ =DC Uëë¥ ² üSRTR5U . ³X WWTN<:<7!=DM7y=DC6[84-C5=?CF35=?L4Gc2:#4-[
HS=DC5C5=?G.938=2JHS`!4b352357!4tG.9C8C59d4e2m%=JVHS`.M4*HM`![5[84Ja3C]357.[52`!d7387!4b=?[82J2m<357!4M2[54jÞi4-M-9`.C54b=?[52J=?C
9M2J.HS`.M352[@2m]4>?4-M35[8=?M=3gvy9C6:i4>?>(9C@pc4=?J!d9J4
!M4->>?4Ja3 ¬ M2J.H!`.MT382[ ¬ 2mhu@9dJ!438=?M}±V`S
Nx357!4-[54_:<=?>>
pc46M`![8[54-J3C(=?J.HS`VM4-H\=J357.4q=?[52Je g`.CF39C(357!4-[5469[84qM`![8[54-J3C(=?J.HS`VM4-H=?JE357.46C54-M2J.H.9[8vt:<=?J.HS=?J!dC'm/[82u
357.4t9>354-[5JV935=?J!d_u@9dJ!438=?M@.4>DHj\Ax7!4*CF4t=JVHS`.M4*HM`![8[84Ja38C]ì\m/2>?>2:<=?J!d387!4bGc4[8GV4-J.HS=DM`!>D9[8=3gvrM>?9`.CF4b2m
í ú R ú ë ú nî W%¨
e ï ú þyXFxði³?U ² R5XY ú U ¿Z²<ñ * ë ü ²s¿ X ìq354JVH;352^M=[M`!>D9384x357![82`.d76357.4(M[82C8XC õC54-MT38=2Jq2m357!4(M2[84
Gc4[8GV4-J.HS=DM`!>D9[8>v352h357!4<G.[5=?u@9[8v]:<=J.H!=J!d38`![8J.CjAx7!4-=[fM=[M`!>D9[u6238=2Jqd=L4-C387!4u¢357!4-=[l`!J`.C5`.9>SJ.9u64
>?=w4h4*H!HS=?4-C<=?J_96Cg38[54*9u©2mO:x9354-[x357.93(M=?[8M`!>D9354[9387!4[i357V9Ju62L4h=J_CF35[9=?d7a3i>?=?J!4-C-j
°[82Jr=?C9}mZ9=[M2J.H!`.MT382[2mi4->4*MT35[8=DM=3gvN{p.`S3^J!23^9Cd22SHK9C387!4eM2G!Gc4[2[9>?`!u6=J`!uòm/[52uò:<7!=DM7
:<=?[546:<=?J.HS=?J!dC9[84q3gvaG.=?M-9>?>vEu@9HS4jeo#2J.C5B4 ÷a`!4-Ja35>?vN357.4-C54 ¬ 4-H!H!v\M`![8[84Ja38C ¬ uq`.Cg3]2L4[M2u64;CF=?dJ!=VM-9Ja3
4>?4-M35[8=?M-9><[84-C5=?CF389J.M4_9C6357!4-vQM=[M`!>D9384357![82`.d7y357!4EM2[84j°J2L4[M2u6=?J!d357!4E[84-C5=DCg39J.M4}2c4-[54*Hpv
357.4@=[82JnNn357!4-vHS=DC5C5=?G.9384;Gc2:i4[]=?J387!46m/2[8uµ2mi7!4*93*je,%4JVM4NO:#467.9L4@9}C52`.[8M4q2mi=?J!4eM=4-J.Mv=Jr357.4
35[9JVCgm/2[5u64[e357.93t=DCbHS=eM`!>3t3824->=?u6=J.9354j¢Ax7!4\u@9=JCF35[9384dvy=?Ju6=38=da935=?J!d387!4-C54\:x9CF354m/`!>(4*H!HSv
M`.[5[84Ja38Ci=DCi3526m/2[5uË387!4=[82JM2[54h=?J}u@9Jav6387!=?JC57!4-438C-N!4*9M7tC57!4-43%M2L4[84-He:<=357_9Jt=?J.C5`!>?935=?J!d6L9[8J!=?C57
C52q387.93(357!4M2[84h=DC%HS=?L=?H!4-H`!G=?J382eCFw=?J!JvtC5>=DM4*Cj#Ax7!4][54*CF`.>3%=DC<L4-[5vb>=3F38>4:<=DH387}=?J357.4M2[84hm/2[%4*H!HSv
M`.[5[84Ja38C#382eM=?[8M`!>?9354=?Jn
"eddy"
current
357.435[9J.CFm/2[8u64[<:<=357}±.`S
>4*9w9d4'GV9357VCxm/2[%u@9dJ!435=DM(±V`S
t382@pvaGV9C8Ci357!4C54-M2J.H!9[5v@:<=?J.HS=?J!dcÁZCÂTj#Ax7.4
[84-C5`!>38=J.d(>?4-9w9d4f±V`S
:<=>?>G![82H!`.M4i>4*9w9d4f=?J.HS`.M389JVM4N:<7!=?M7q:<=>?>=J^35`![8J^G.[52SHS`.M4"387!4iGV22[[84d`.>?935=?2J
J!4-4-HS4*Hbm/2[%HS=DC5M7.9[5d4'>?=?d7a35=?J!d.j
ÃÄbÅ'ÆtÇÅ'ÈÊÉ
à ê2:#4-[35[9JVCgm/2[5u64[C;9[84b>?=u6=354-Hy=?J387!4_9u62`.J3@2m(GV2:i4[;387!4vM-9J35[9J.CFm/4[;m/[82uûG![8=?u69[5vr382
CF4*M2JVH!9[8vE:<=?J.HS=?J!dVÁC8ÂjâO9[8d46`!J!=38C;9[8463gvG!=DM9>?>?v\[9354*Hr=JßzµÁZL2>3 õ9u6G.CÂh2[^waßzµÁZwa=?>?2EL2>/3 õ
9u6G.CÂTj
à é<4-C5=?CF389J.M4q=J35[9JVCgm/2[5u64[h:<=?J.HS=?J!dCM2Ja35[8=p!`!354-C'382}=?J!4@M=4-J.MvN{9ChM`.[5[84Ja3:<=>?>fHS=DC5C5=GV9354;7!4*93-N
:i9Cg38=J!d;4J.4[8dvj
à E9dJ!438=?M(44-MT3Cx=J9^35[9J.CFm/2[8u64[*« C"=[82J}M2[84'9>?C52qM2Ja35[8=?p!`S354'352;=?J!4eM=?4JVMvjfz(u62J!dq357!44c4*MT38C
9[84 Uëë ² üSRTR5U .WÁZM=[M`!>D938=J.dt=?J.HS`.M35=?2JKM`![8[84Ja38Ch=?J\387!46=[82JrM2[84*Â'9JVH WT UR8U WT¿DW;ÁZGV2:i4[h>?2CF3
HS`!4h352@2L4[M2u6=?J!d387!4354-J.HS4-J.Mvt2mO=?[82Jt352@u@9dJ!438=ª-4h=?J_9;G.9[535=DM`!>D9[<HS=?[84-MT38=2JVÂTj
à °J.M[84-9CF4*Hm/[54(÷a`!4J.Mv][54*CF`.>3C{=?Jq=?J.M[54*9C54-H]Gc2:#4-[O>?2C8C54-CO:<=387!=J69'GV2:i4[O35[9J.CFm/2[8u64[*j{Ax7!4xG![84-C54J.M4
2m7.9[8u62J!=DMC=?J9xGV2:i4[OCFvSCF354uö=?C{9%CF2`![M42mm/[8B4 ÷a`!4JVM=?4-CC5=dJ!=cM9Ja38>v'7!=d7!4[n357.9J]J!2[8u@9>sN:<7!=DM7
u69veM-9`.C542L4-[57!4*938=J!d;=?Jt>D9[8d4h35[9JVCgm/2[5u64[C-j
à Þ#2357r35[9JVCgm/2[5u64[C9J.Hr=?J.HS`.M352[8C]7V9[8pV2[M4[5389=Jr`!J.9L2=DH!9p.>4@9u62`!Ja38C2m%M-9G.9M=389JVM4@HS`!46382
:<=[84=?J.CF`.>?935=?2JÁHS=4->4*MT38[5=DM-Â'CF4-G.9[938=J.d@:<=J.H!=J!db35`![8J.C(m/[52u|357!4;=[82JEM2[84^9JVHm/[52u§4-9M7\2357.4[*j
Ax7!=?C{M9GV9M=389J.M4fM-9Jpc4"CF=?dJ.=VM-9Ja3n4J.2`!d7'382%d=?L4387!4l38[89J.Cgm/2[5u64-[n9xJ.938`![89> R5U W X Jú. R5U?ü ü.U ² N
:<7!=?M7M9Jtpc4]G![82p!>?4u@935=DM'=?J_CF=?dJV9>n9G.G!>=DM935=?2J.C-j
à ï U ú-ø ú U ¿ 5
ë ü ²ì úc² U =?CxM-9`.C54-Hbpav@u@9dJ!435=DM%±.`!
eJ!23xpV4-=J.dEô çÓM2`!G!>?4-HbpV43g:#4-4Jt:<=J.H!=J!daCi=J}9
35[9J.CFm/2[8u64[*jOz%Jv@±V`S
bJ!23x=?JL2>L4-H@:<=357K R ú.W URTR ¿ah4-J!4[8dv6m/[82uË2J!4h:<=J.H!=J!d;38269J!2387!4[x:<=?>>
Cg382[849J.H[84>?4-9CF4]4-J!4[8dvN!:<7!=DM7E=?C(7!2:®ÁZC54>mªõÂ%=J.H!`.MT39J.M4:#2[5wSC-j<ân4-9w9d4=?J.HS`.M389J.M4^354JVH!C<382
:#2[8C54J}9^38[89J.CFm/2[8u;4-[-« CiL2>39d4'[54-d`!>D938=2Jnj
ý þ ÿ
,
load
#1
load
#2
,
.-
+'4G!=DMT384-H@9pc2L4<=DC"9L4[8vqC5=?u;G.>4(z(oQM=[M`!=3-j°Im357.4(>?29H;[84-C5=?CF352[-« CGc2:#4-["HS=DC5C5=GV935=?2J@:i4[84%C5`!p.CF389J
35=D9>sNS:i4'u6=?d7a3xM-9>?>c357!=DCx9 ¬ GV2:i4[xM=?[8M`!=3 ¬ 2[ ¬ Gc2:#4-[iC5vSCg384u ¬ =?J.CF354-9He2mO[84d9[8H!=J!d^=3<9CO g`.CF3%9^[84d`!>?9[
/
M=?[M`!=3-j<Ax7!4^H!=?CF35=?J.MT38=2J_pV43g:#4-4JE9 ¬ GV2:i4[%M=[M`.=3 ¬ 9J.H9 ¬ [54-d`!>D9[%M=[M`.=3 ¬ u69v}CF4-4u§9[8p!=35[9[8vNSp!`S3
357.4]G![89MT38=?M-9>nM2J.M4-[5JVCi9[54]HS4 .J!=354->vtJ!23*j
ù'J!4(C5`.M7eM2J.M4[8J@=?C"357!4hCF=?ª4'9J.HeM2CF3"2mn:<=?[8=J!d^J!4-M4-C8C59[5v^352qH!4>?=L4["Gc2:i4[lm/[82uB357.4'z(oyC52`![M4x382
357.4>2a9Hjx1%2[5u@9>>?vN!:i4HS2eJ.23%d=?L4]uq`.M7357.2`!d73<382@357.=?C%3gvaGc42mM2J.M4[8J}=ml:#4« [84]u64[84>?vt9J.9>?vª=?J!d
9EM=[M`!=3^m/2[^387!4tC89w4e2m<>?4-9[5J!=?J!d\9pV2`S3^387!4b>D9:%C2m%4>?4-M35[8=?M=3gvj\,%2:i4L4[*NO=?J357.4b[84-9>#:#2[5>DHK=3;M9J
pc4q9eu@9 g2['M2J.M4[8Jnj<°Im":i4d=?L4357!46CF2`![M4]=?J_357!469pc2L4M=[M`.=39eL2>39d4]L9>`.4q9JVH_9>DCF2ed=L4Gc2:#4-[
HS=DC5C5=?G.938=2JL9>?`!4*Ch352357.463g:#2>?29H[84-C5=?CF352[8C-N:#4@M-9JHS4384[8u6=J!46387!4@:<=?[5=?J!dJ!44*H!Chm/2[387!=DC]G.9[535=DM`.>?9[
M=?[M`!=3-
120 V
load
#1
, ,
load
#2
0P = 10 kW 0P = 10 kW
¸¸ æ
¸¸21 ¹ (''º"» 4365 87
ô l"' ºy ¹¡¹ óg» ¹ :9 ó
0P
I=
E
;I = 10 kW
;I = 83.33 A
120 V
Itotal = 166.67 A
2< <=<
à .j q9u6G.Cim/2[%4*9M7}>2a9H}[84-C5=?CF352[x9H!H!C<`.Gt382 &> 1=1 121
j
?>A@CB
9u6G.Ci352389>{M=?[8M`!=3(M`![8[54-Ja3-j"Ax7!=DC<=DC<J!2@C5u69>>
=DC(:i4>?>2L4[D>A@ FE
ú =JVM7E=JrHS=D9u64384[*Nc:i4=?d7.=J!db2L4[:<2B=B
9 u62`!Ja32miM`![5[84Ja3*N{9J.Hr:i2`!>DHJ!4-M4-C8CF=389354@M2G!GV4-[]:<=[84@M2J.HS`.M352[Ch2mx93>?4-9CF3
G/
bda9d4j ¾ `.M7K:<=[84
@GV2`!J.H!ChGc4['357!2`.C89J.Hm/4-43*jÞ#4*9['=Ju;=?J.HE357.93
M2G!Gc4[h=?ChJ!23M7!4*9GE4-=387!4[ °I3h:i2`.>?H\pV4;=J2`![hpc4-CF3h=?Ja354[84-CF3h352 VJ.H\:x9vSC<382tu6=?J!=u6=?ª46CF`VM7\M2aCg3C'=m
:i4h:i4[84]HS4-C5=?dJ!=?J!d@9;GV2:i4[<C5vCF354-u¯:<=357>?2J!d@M2J.HS`.M352[i>?4J.d357VCj
&>HB
ù'J!4e:x9v352\HS2\357!=DCq:#2`!>?HpV4b352\=?J.M[54*9C546357!4tL2>389d4e2mx357!4}GV2:i4[qCF2`![8M4b9JVH`.C54e>2a9H!C^p!`!=?>3
I>HB
352EH!=?C8CF=?G.9354 }w 4-9M793]357!=DC]7!=?d7!4-[]L2>39d4jeAx7!4@>?29H.CNO2m<M2`.[8C54Nn:i2`.>?Hr7.9L4q382_7.9L46d[54*9354-[
HJ
[84-C5=?CF389J.M4#L9>`.4-CO352HS=DC5C5=GV9354"357!4<C89u64"Gc2:i4[9CpV4m/2[84'Á 'wa 4-9M7cÂ{939(d[84-9384[L2>39d4f357.9J^pc4m/2[84j
Ax7!4@9H!L9Ja389d4q:i2`.>?H\pV4@>?4-C8CM`![8[54-Ja3h[84 a`!=?[54*HNnGc4[8u6=3535=?J!d}357!4@`.C54;2miC5u@9>?>4-[-N{>=?d7a354-[-Nn9J.HrM7!4-9GV4-[
:<=?[54
K240 V ,
load
#1
,
load
#2
0P = 10 kW 0P = 10 kW
365 3 ML ON QP
óg¼ <ô{º ' º SR º#» 7 º"å ¸¸UT
;I = VP
E
10 kW
I=
240 V
ú d 9d4b:<=?[54N":<7!=DM7y:#4-=d7.C^>?4-C8Cq357.9JQ7V9>m'2mh:<7.93 >A@CB
1%2:~2`![ X ³ M=?[8M`!=3%M`![5[84Ja3i=?C<à !j ^9u6G.CNS7V9>m{2m:<7.93<=3x:x9Cipc4m/2[54jr4]M9JtJ!2:~`.CF4hJ`!u^pc4[
\da9d4b:<=?[54HS24-C;Gc4[@`!J!=3@>4-J!d387njQAx7.=?C6=DC69
M2J.C5=?HS4-[89p!>?4E[54*HS`.M35=?2J=?JöC5vCF354-uM2CF3b:<=357öJ!2QHS4-d[9H!935=?2J=?JGV4-[Fm/2[5u@9J.M4jÓAx7!=DCb=DCt:<7avyGc2:#4-[
HS=DCg38[5=?p!`S38=2JbM2u6G.9J!=?4-C"4>?4-M3"35235[9J.C5u6=3i4>?4-MT38[5=DM<Gc2:#4-["`.C5=?J!dL4-[5v;7!=?d7eL2>389d4-C<ÁZu@9Jv;357!2`.C59J.H!C"2m
L2>3C8Â352eM9G!=389>?=?ª42Jt357!4C89L=J.dCi[54*9>?=ª-4-Htpv@357!4]`VCF42mlC5u69>>?4[*NS>?=d7384[*N!M7!4-9GV4-[x:<=[84j
[ %2:i4L4[*Ni357!=DCCF2>`S38=2J=?CtJ!23}:<=357!2`S3}H!=?C89HSL9J39d4-C-j¢z%J!2357!4-[tG.[89MT35=DM9>'M2J.M4[8J:<=387Gc2:#4-[
M =?[M`!=38Cq=?C^357.4}H!9J!d4-[^2m(4>?4-M35[8=?MtCF7!2SMwm/[52uÊ7!=d7L2>39d4-C-jz%da9=?JnN357.=?Cq=?C;J!23q`.C5`.9>>?vr357!4CF2[F3q2m
357.4[54*9>:i2[8>?HnNS4-C5GV4*M=D9>?>vt:<7!4J>D9[8d4]9u62`.J3Cx2mGV2:i4[%9[54pc4=?J!deHS4*9>3%:<=387nj#Ax7!4]da9=?J=J4 eM=4-J.Mv ]\
357.=J!d;:i4'M2J.M4-Ja35[9354(2Je:<7!=?>?4'>?4-9[5J!=?J!d;9pc2`S3#357!4h>?9:%C#2mn4->4*MT38[5=DM=3gvNp!`S3x=3i=DC#9^L4-[5v6L9>?=?HbM2JVM4[8Je=?J
[84-9>?=?ª4-Hqpv^CF354G.G!=J.dh`.Gq387!4%M=?[M`!=3fL2>39d4iG![84-C54Ja38C`.Cf:<=387;=?J.M[54*9C54-H^H.9J!d4[2m4>?4-M35[8=?MxC57!2SMwcjê2:i4[
HS=DCg38[5=?p!`S38=2JbM2u6G.9J!=?4-Cl389Mw>?4<357.=?C#G![82p!>?4uBpv;CF35[8=J.d=?J!d357!4-=[iGc2:#4-[f>=?J!4*C"9>?2J.d7!=?d7@Gc2>?4-Cf2[f382:#4-[8C-N
9JVHb=?J.C5`!>?935=?J!d6357.4]>=?J!4-Cim/[82u¯357!4C5`!G!Gc2[535=?J!d@CF35[8`.MT38`![54*Ci:<=387_>?9[5d4NGV2[8M4>D9=?Jb=?J.C5`!>?9352[8C-j
^[ \
zi3l357.4<GV2=Ja3f2m`.C54]Á357.4%4>?4-M35[8=?MiGc2:#4-[fM`.CF352u;4-[ÂN357.4[84<=?CfCF35=?>?>S357!4<=DC8CF`!4x2mc:<7.93fL2>39d4#352]`VCF4xm/2[
Gc2:#4-[5=?J!d>2a9H!C-j %=?d7@L2>39d4id=L4-Cd[54*9354-[fCFvSCF354-uÓ4 @M=4-J.Mvqpvqu64-9J.Cl2m[84-H!`.M4*H;M2J.H!`.MT382["M`![5[84Ja3*N
`_ ]\
p!`S3x=3#u6=d7a3#J!23i9>?:x9vCfpV4'G![89MT38=?M-9>!382^w44GbGV2:i4[f:<=?[8=J!dq2`S3i2mn[84-9M7693"387!4'Gc2=?Ja3#2mn`.CF4(357!4':i9v;=3
M9Jtpc4]4>?4L9354-Ht2`!3%2mO[84-9M7t=?JHS=?CF35[8=?p!`S35=?2J_C5vSCg384u@CjlAx7!=DCx38[89HS42EpV43g:#4-4J}4 eM=?4J.Mvt9J.HtH.9J!d4[x=?C
B_
a S> B
2J.4%357V93 f`![82Gc4-9J@GV2:i4[iCFvSCF354u©H!4-C5=dJ!4[Cf7.9L4(HS4*M=DHS4-He352^[8=DCFwN9>?>V387!4=?[i7!2`.C547.2>DH!C#9J.He9G!G!>?=?9J.M4*C
b-
2Gc4[938=J.dE93q9J!2u6=J.9>"L2>389d462m ¸ú tL2>38C]=?J.CF354*9HK2m ¸ L2>3C9C=3^=DC=?J1%2[F387z%u64[8=DM9!jAx7.93
B c> B
=DCq:<7v382`![8=DCg3C^m/[82uûz(u64[8=?M-9\L=DCF=35=?J!d f`![82Gc4tuq`.CF3@M-9[8[5vKC5u69>>%CF354-G HS2:<J35[9JVCgm/2[5u64[C^m/2[;357!4-=[
Gc2[5389p.>4]9G.G!>=D9JVM4-C-N352@CF354-Gt387!4 ¸ú ^ßz(o¢Á/L2>3C<z(oxÂiGV2:i4[<HS2:<Jt352e9;u62[84]CF`.=39p!>?4 ¸ qßz(o'j
Fd . - ]\ b-
°gCl387!4[84'9Jvq:x9v382^[84-9>?=?ª4<387!4'9HSL9Ja389d4-Cf2mnpc2357b=J.M[54*9C54-H;4 eM=4-J.Mv@9JVH@[54*HS`.M4-H@C89m/43gv;7.9ª-9[H
e_ [
9 3387!4<C59u;4#35=?u64 _ù'J!4xCF2>`!35=?2J;:#2`!>?H^pV4i382'=?J.CF389>?>!CF354G IHS2:<J^35[9J.CFm/2[8u64[C{93387!4x4J.H sGc2=?Ja32m.Gc2:#4-[
`.C54N g`.CF39C<357.4qz%u64-[5=DM9J352`.[5=DCg3hu^`.CF3hH!2e:<7!=?>4q=J "`![82Gc4j (2:#4-L4[*NS387!=?C':i2`!>DH_pc4^4
SGc4J.C5=?L4^9J.H
=?J.M2JaL4J!=?4Ja3m/2[#9Jva357!=?J!dp!`S3"L4[8v^C5u69>>S>?29H!C<Á/:<7.4[84x357!4<38[89J.CFm/2[8u;4-[8CM-9J;pV4%p.`!=>3#M7!4*9G!>?v!ÂO2[lL4-[5v
>D9[8d4h>2a9H!C]ÁZ:<7!4[84h357!4]4
Gc4JVCF4]2m{357.=?Mw}M2G.GV4-[<:<=[84-Cx:i2`!>DHt4
!M4-4-Hb357!4]4
Gc4JVCF42ml9q35[9J.CFm/2[8u64[TÂTj
f- ]\ b-
z%Jr9>354-[5J.935=?L4^C52>?`S38=2JE:#2`!>DH_pV4q352}`.C54q9b7!=d7!4[hL2>39d4^CF`.G!G!>?v352}G![52L=DHS4Gc2:#4-[%382b3g:i2b>?2:#4-[
L2>39d4e>2a9H!Cq=?JQC54[8=4*CjKAx7!=DC;9G!G![829M7M2uqp!=?J!4-C^357!4}4 eM=4-J.MvK2mh9E7!=?d7 IL2>39d4bCFvSCF354-u£:<=357Q357.4
C89m/43gvb2ml9q>?2: IL2>389d4hCFvSCF354u
¸¸ à P
¹ (''º"» 4365 87 QP
ô l ' ºy ¹¡¹ óg» ¹ :9 ó
83.33 A
,
load +120 V
K240 V + #1 10 kW
- K240+ V
-
,
load +120 V
#2 10 kW
-
83.33 A
kj hg i-
1%235=DM4t357!4_Gc2>D9[8=3gvru@9[5w=?J!dCÁ 9J.H Â^m/2[;4*9M7QL2>389d4}CF7!2:<J{N#9C;:i4>?><9Cq357!4_`.J!=?H!=[84-M35=?2J.9>
9 [8[82:%C(m/2[M`![8[84Ja3-j .2[387!4@u62CF3G.9[53-NO°T« L4e9L2=DHS4*HE>D9pc4>?=J!d ¬ GV2>?9[5=35=?4-C ¬ =JK387!4ez(o·M=[M`.=3C]:#4« L4
pc44J9JV9>?vaª-=J.d.Na4L4-J@357.2`!d7e357.4hJ.238935=?2Jt=?CiL9>?=?He352;G![82La=DHS4h9m/[9u64(2mO[84m/4-[54-J.M4(m/2[iG!7.9C54j°J}>?9354-[
C54-MT38=2J.Cq2m(387!=DC;M7V9GS384[*NlG!7.9C54}[54->?935=?2J.C57!=?G.C^:<=?>?>ipc4-M2u64}L4[8vK=u6Gc2[5389J3*N"C52°T« u=Ja38[52SHS`.M=J.d\387!=?C
J!238938=2Jt4*9[8>vb2J}=J}357.4M7.9GS384[im/2[(v2`.[#mZ9u6=>?=?9[5=3gvj
:> B
Ax7!4iM`![8[54-Ja3{357.[52`!d74*9M7>?29H]=DCn387!4iC89u64i9CO=3:i9C{=?J387!4xCF=?u6G!>4 ¸ <L2>3M=?[8M`!=3-Np!`S3357.4iM`![5[84Ja3C
&> B B ml B
9 [84(J.23%9H!H!=38=L4'pc4-M-9`.C54(387!4h>2a9H!Cx9[84(=?JtC54[8=?4-Ci[89357!4-["387.9JtG.9[9>?>?4>sjAx7.4'L2>389d4'9M[82C8Cf4-9M7b>?29H@=?C
Y on Y
2J.>v ¸ L2>38C-NJ!23 ¸ú !NCF2q357.4C89m/43gv6mZ9M352[i=DCxpV43F354-[-j E=J.Htv2`nN:#4CF35=?>>7.9L4'9^m/`!>?> ¸ú ^L2>3Ci9M[82C8C
357.4qGc2:#4-['C5vSCg384u :<=?[54*CNcp!`S3 U ² ³X ë =?C'2Gc4[938=J.dt939b[84-H!`.M4*H_L2>39d4j(°Im#9Jv2J.4=?C'd2=J.de352td43
C57!2SMw4-HnN.387!4^2SH!H!Ch9[84]387.93h=3:<=>?>pV4^m/[52u§M2u6=?J!de=?J382tM2Ja389MT3(:<=357\357!4;M2JVHS`.MT382[C%2m"9@G.9[535=DM`.>?9[
>?29Ht[9357.4[i357.9J}m/[52u¯M2J39M3<9M[82C8C#357!4]u@9=?J}:<=[84-Cx2m9;Gc2:#4-[xC5vSCg384uj
$@ FJ
Ax7!4-[54« Cl2J!>?v;2J!4(HS=DC89HSL9Ja39d4x382]357.=?CiHS4-C5=?dJnO357!4hM2J.CF4 a`!4J.M4-C"2m2J!4'>2a9HqmZ9=?>?=J!dq2Gc4JnNa2[#pV4-=J.d
pj
35`.[5J!4*H}2QÁ9C8CF`!u6=?J!d@4-9M7t>?29Hb7V9C%9@C54[8=4*Cx2J 2\C5:<=3M7}352@=?J384[8[5`.GS3%M`![8[54-Ja3Âx9[84J!23%d22Hnj"Þi4=?J!d
9}CF4-[5=?4-CM=?[M`!=3-N=m#4-=387!4[]>?29H_:#4-[54q352}2Gc4J{N{M`![8[84Ja3h:i2`.>?HCg382G\=?J357!462387!4[>?29H\9C':i4>?>j !2[h387!=?C
[84-9C52J{Na:i4J!44*Ht3526u62H!=m/vt357!4]HS4*CF=?dJ_9;p!=3-
83.33 A
,
+ "hot"
120 V load +120 V
-
∠ 0o
"neutral"
#1
-
∠ 0o
K240+ V
0A
+
-
120 V
∠ 0o
,
load +120 V
#2 ∠ 0o
-
-
"hot"
83.33 A
365 3 ML ON QP
SR 7
óg¼ <ô{º ' º º#» º"å ¸¸ ¨
VE = (120 V ∠ 0 ) + (120 V ∠ 0 ) o o
VE = 240 V ∠ 0
total
o
total
120 V
;I = 83.33 A (for each load resistor)
BB M> B
°J.CF354*9Hq2mc9C5=J.d>?4 ¸ú 'L2>3lGc2:#4-[C5`!G!G.>vN:i4i`VCF4x3g:i2 ¸ 'L2>3fC5`!G!G!>?=4*C%Á/=?J6G!7.9CF4x:<=35764-9M7^2387!4[ ÍÂ
hq rW q.nsY
=?JC54[8=4*C%382tG![82SHS`.M4 ¸ú eL2>38C-Nc357!4-J[8`!J9e357!=?[H\:<=?[54^352t357!4@M2J!J!4*MT38=2JEGV2=Ja3]pc43g:i44J\357!4;>?29H.C%382
7.9J.HS>?4<357!4'4L4Ja35`.9>=3gv;2mn2J.4%>2a9H62GV4-J!=J.d.jAx7!=?C#=DC"M9>>?4-H@9eW ³ ¿ ¥ W U GV2:i4["C5vSCg384ujlAx7![844(C5u@9>?>4-[
FE
]\ t u
:<=?[54*C"9[84%CF35=?>>cM7!4-9GV4-[f357V9J6357.4%3g:i2]:<=[84-C"J!44*HS4-H@:<=3576387!4'C5=?u;G.>4%GV9[9>?>4->VHS4*CF=?dJnNaCF2^:#4« [84%Cg38=>?>97!4*9H
2Jr4 eM=4-J.MvjeAx7!4@9CF35`S384@2p.C54[8L4-[':<=?>>"J!2384q387.93]387!4@J!4-`S35[9>l:<=?[5462J!>v\7.9Ch382M-9[8[5v387!4 ë ¿ UR5U ² U
HJ
2m"M`![8[54-J3'pV43g:#4-4J_387!43g:i2b>?29H!C%p.9Mwb382e387!4qC52`![M4j%°J_387!4;9pV2L4M9CF4NV:<=357EGc4[5m/4-M35>?v ¬ p.9>?9J.M4*H ¬
>?29H.C<M2JVCF`!u6=?J!d64 a`.9>n9u62`!Ja3Cx2mOGc2:i4[*N357!4]J!4-`S35[9>:<=?[84M-9[8[5=?4-Ciª-4[82;M`![5[84Ja3*j
1%235=DM47!2:Ë387!4_J!4-`S35[9><:<=?[54=DC@M2J!J!4-M354*H382r4*9[5357yd[82`!JVH93@387!4GV2:i4[@C5`!G!G!>?v4-J.HjAx7!=DC6=?C
9EM2u6u62Jrm/4-935`![84e=?JGV2:i4[^C5vSCg384u@C^M2Ja389=J.=J!d ¬ J!4`!35[9> ¬ :<=[84-C-NC5=?J.M4ed[52`!J.HS=?J!d}357.4bJ!4-`S35[9>#:<=[84
vw\ - 8j
4JVCF`![84-Ci387!4]>?4-9CF3<GV2aC5C5=?p!>4L2>389d4h93(9Jv@d=?L4-Jb38=u64]pc43g:i44-J9Jv ¬ 7!23 ¬ :<=[84]9J.H}4*9[5357}d[82`!J.Hnj
z%Jq4-C8CF4-Ja35=D9>M2u6Gc2J!4-Ja3{3529(C5G!>?=3 sG.7.9C54"Gc2:#4-[C5vSCg384u´=DCn387!4xHS`.9>Sz(orL2>389d4"C52`![M4j !2[F38`!J.9354>?vN
I-
HS4*CF=?dJ!=?J!d@9JVHbp!`.=>DHS=?J!d@2J!4=DC<J!23(HS= eM`!>3*j ¾ =?J.M4]u62CF3(z(oC5vSCg384u@Cx[84-M4-=L4h357!4-=[<Gc2:#4-[xm/[52u¯96Cg384G b-
p> B B I-
HS2:<J]38[89J.CFm/2[8u;4-[9Jva:x9vqÁCg384G!G.=J!dL2>389d4"HS2:<J]m/[82u´7.=d7qHS=DCg38[5=?p!`S38=2J^>?4L4>DCn382h9(`.CF4-[ I>?4L4->L2>389d4
>?=w4 ¸ q2[ ¸ú ÂN357.93<35[9J.CFm/2[8u64[xM9J}pc4]p!`!=?>3%:<=38796M4Ja354-[ s389G!GV4*HtC54-M2J.H.9[8v@:<=J.H!=J!dV
x+ +
-
120 V x+
2.4 kV + 240 V
- -
120 V
v-
-
I-
°Im357!4qz(oGc2:i4[(M2u64-C'HS=[84-M35>?vem/[82u§9@d4-J!4[9382[Á9>354[8J.9352[TÂTN!357!4^M2=?>?C'M9J}pc4qC5=?u;=?>D9[8>v}M4Ja384[
389G!Gc4-Hm/2[(387!4qC89u64^4c4*MT3*j'Ax7!4q4
35[9e4
Gc4JVCF4^352e=?J.M>?`.HS469eM4Ja354-[ s389GEM2J.J!4-M35=?2JE=?J\9@38[89J.CFm/2[8u;4-[
[ hg y- pz W q
2[%9>384[8J.9382[x:<=?J.HS=?J!d6=?C<u6=?J!=?u69>j
%4-[54(=?Ci:<7!4-[54<387!46Á Â#9J.HEÁ ÂfGV2>?9[5=3gv6u@9[8wa=?J!daCl[54*9>?>v6pc4-M2u64(=?u6GV2[F39Ja3-jlAx7!=DC"J.238935=?2Je=DC#2m354-J
`.C54-Hb3526[84m/4[84JVM4'357!4]G!7V9C5=J!daCi2m Y S³ s¿ ³U z(oL2>39d4hC52`![M4*CNSC52q=3%=DC<M>?4-9[x:<7!4357!4-[x357!4-vb9[84]9=DHS=?J!d
> B |{ B=} hg y- v-
Á ¬ pV22aCg38=J!d ¬ Â4*9M72357!4-[{2[{2G.GV2aCF=?J!dqÁ ¬ p!`VMwa=?J!d ¬ Â4*9M7]2387!4[*j{°Im!J.23m/2[n387!4-C54"Gc2>D9[8=3gv'u@9[8w=J.dC-N*G.7.9C54
[84>D935=?2JVC(pc43g:i44-J\u^`.>38=G!>?46z(oãCF2`![M4-C'u6=d7a3hpc4qL4[8v_M2J!m/`.CF=?J!dVj1(2384^387.93357.4;C5G!>?=3 sG!7V9C54;C52`![M4*C
=?J357!4C8M7!4u@938=?M\Á/4-9M72J.4 ¸ _L2>3C ~-
ÂNl:<=387Gc2>D9[8=3gvru@9[8wCtÁ Â352Á Â% g`.CF3q>?=w4tC54[8=4*C 9=DHS=?J!d
p.93F354-[5=?4-C<M-9J9>354-[5J.935=?L4->v@pc4][54-G![84-C54Ja354*Ht9C<CF`.M7{
¸ <=B P
¹ (''º"» 4365 87 QP
ô l ' ºy ¹¡¹ óg» ¹ :9 ó
"hot"
+
120 V
- ∠ 0o +
240 V
∠ 0o
- 120 V -
∠ 180o
+
"hot"
A 2Eu@9357.4u@938=?M-9>?>vM9>?M`!>D9354bL2>389d4epc43g:i44-J ¬ 7.23 ¬ :<=[84-C-N:#4tu^`.CF3bW
O
357.4=?[%GV2>?9[5=3gv@u@9[8wSC<CF7!2:357!4-u©352@pc4]2G.GV2aCF4*He382;4*9M7}2387!4[*
z W Y ]W
¤ R ² #L2>39d4*CNpc4-M9`.C54
Polar Rectangular
120 ∠ 0o 120 + j0 V
K
- 120 ∠ 180o
240 ∠ 0o
K
- (-120 + j0) V
240 + j0 V
y- > 2BU}
°Im{:i4u69[5w;387!4h3g:#26CF2`![M4-C-«M2u6u62J}M2J!J!4-M35=?2JtGV2=Ja3Á387!4J!4`S38[89>:<=[84*Â":<=387b387!4]C59u64'Gc2>D9[8=3gv
SB
u 9[8wqÁ ÂN:#4fuq`.CF3{4
SG![84-C8C387!4=?[{[84>D938=L4lG!7.9C54"C57!=m38C9Cnpc4=?J!d *à 9G.9[F3*jù(357!4-[5:<=DC54N*:#4« H]pc4"HS4-J!238=J.d
@
3g:i2;L2>389d4]CF2`![M4-Ci=?J_HS=[84-M3%2G!Gc2C5=35=?2J:<=3874-9M7}2387!4[*N!:<7!=DM7:#2`!>DHtd=L4 qL2>38Cxpc43g:i44-Jt387!4]3g:i2
E
¬ 7.23 ¬ M2JVHS`.MT382[Cj<7v9u§°i389wa=?J!d@387!438=u64q352e4->?9pV2[89354]2JEGV2>?9[5=3gvbu@9[5wSC(9J.HG!7.9CF4;9J!d>4*C °I3 d
v- I-
:<=?>>nu@9w4u62[84hC54J.C54=J}387!4]J!4
3(C54-M35=?2J
2- e> BU@ B I-
ê2:i4[eC5vCF354-u@Cb=?Jöz(u;4-[5=DM9J7!2`VCF4-7!2>DH!C}9J.H>?=?d7a3t=?J.HS`.CF35[8v9[84Eu62CF3t2m354Jö2m]387!4rC5G!>?=3 sG.7.9C54
L9[8=43gvN!G.[52L=DHS=J.deCF2 IM-9>?>4*H ¸ ¸ú ßz(oGc2:i4[*j#Ax7!4]384[8u ¬ CFG!>?=3 IG!7.9C54 ¬ u64[84>?v}[54m/4[Ci352@387!4^C5G!>=3
uU .q n.Y
L2>39d4;C5`!G!G!>?vE=?JrC5`.M7K9CFvSCF354uj6°JK9tu62[546d4-J!4[9>C54J.C54N387!=DC]w=J.H2m<z(oãGc2:i4[]CF`.G!G!>?vE=?C]M-9>?>4*H
WT¿ ³U W U pc4-M9`.C54]pV2357L2>39d4h:x9L4m/2[5u@Ci9[84=J}G!7.9CF4N!2[x=?JCF354-GnN!:<=3574-9M7t2357!4-[-j
Ax7!4^354[8u ¬ C5=J.d>?4G!7.9CF4 ¬ =DC'9tM2`.J384[8GV2=Ja3%382}9J!2387!4['w=J.HE2m"Gc2:#4-['C5vSCg384u M9>>?4-H ¬ GV2>vG!7V9C54 ¬
]-
:<7!=DM7\:i4;9[54;9pc2`S3h352}=?JaL4-CF35=?d9354^=?JH!4389=>sjz%Gc2>?2d=4*C'm/2['357!46>?2J!dt=Ja35[82SHS`.M35=?2J\>?4-9HS=?J!db`!G352t357.4
35=35>?4 s352G!=DM'2mn357.=?C<M7.9GS354-[-jAx7!4]9H!L9Ja389d4-C#2m{Gc2>?vG!7.9CF4hGV2:i4[xC5vCF354-u@Ci9[54hu62[84(2paL=?2`.C#=mO2J.4 .[CF3
7.9C<9qd22Ht`!J.H!4[Cg39J.HS=?J!d62mlC5=J!d>4G!7V9C54C5vSCg384u@C-j
/
ÃÄbÅ'ÆtÇÅ'ÈÊÉ
uU sq n.Y
à ¿ ³U /
W U GV2:i4[nC5vSCg384u@C{9[54lHS4 .J!4*Hpavh7.9L=?J!d<9Jz(oCF2`![M4:<=387]2J!>?vh2J!4lL2>389d4:i9L4m/2[8uj
à hq rW sq n.Y b-
z¯W ³ ¿ ¥ W U GV2:i4[]C5vSCg384u =DC2J!46:<=357ru^`!>35=?G!>?4EÁ/=?J sG.7.9C54*Âhz(oãL2>389d4qC52`.[8M4-CM2J!J!4-M354*H\=?J
]\
CF4-[5=?4-C-NHS4>?=L4[8=J.dbGc2:#4-['382t>?29H!C93u62[84^387.9J2J!4;L2>39d4N:<=387u62[84q357.9J\3g:i2b:<=?[54*CjqAx7!4v
9[84'`.C54-H}G![8=?u69[5=?>?v@352@9M7.=4-L4p.9>D9JVM4pV43g:#4-4JCFvSCF354-u¯4 eM=4-J.Mv\ÁZ>2:ãM2J.HS`.M352[xM`![8[54-J3C8Âi9J.H
C59m/43gv\ÁZ>2:ö>2a9HtL2>389d4*C8Âj
à v- I-
¾ G!>?=3 sG!7V9C54fz(o\C52`.[8M4-CM9JpV4#4-9C5=?>v(M[54*9384-HhpvhM4Ja354-[ s389G!G!=?J!di357!4iM2=?>:<=?J.HS=?J!dCn2m35[9J.CFm/2[8u64[C
2[<9>354-[5J.9352[8C-j
365
^P ON QP SR 7
. (»(º"º ' º º#» º"å ¸ <s>
o % "!$#&% # ( *) +
tÏ ÒlÝ%Ý Ô]ÛÝ Ù ®Ý%ÒµÛ bÛnÖÝ Û
I- ]\ &Y u
¾ G!>?=3 IG!7.9C54(Gc2:i4["C5vSCg384u@C#9M7!=?4L4x387!4=?[i7!=d7bM2J.HS`.M352["4 eM=4-J.Mv ë >?2:C59m/43gv;[5=DCFw;pv@CFG!>?=3F35=?J!dq`!G
w- - J
357.4x35239>!L2>389d4i=Ja352>?4-C8CF4-[lG.9[538Cl9J.H;GV2:i4[8=?J!d'uq`!>35=?G!>4<>?29H!Cl93l387!2C54x>4*C5C54[lL2>389d4-C-N:<7!=?>4<HS[9:<=?J!d
Wyn Z
M`.[5[84Ja38Ci93<>?4L4>DCf3gvG!=DM9>c2m9^m/`!>?> IL2>39d4hCFvSCF354-u}jlAx7!=DCi354*M7!J!= a`!4Npv6357!4:x9vN:i2[8wC{ g`.CF3%9C#:#4->>m/2[
hq rW qsn.Y
]oöGV2:i4[(C5vSCg384u@C(9C%=3hHS24*C<m/2[hCF=?J!d>4 sG!7V9C54z(o¡CFvSCF354u@C-j ¾ `.M7EC5vSCg384u@C(9[54`VCF`.9>>?v}[54m/4[8[54*Hb382t9C
R5UU¥ ¿ R5U C5vCF354-u@Cx[89357!4-[x357.9J\W ³ ¿ ¥ W U pV4*M9`.CF4 ¬ G!7.9C54 ¬ =DC<9@M2JVM4G!3x[84-CF35[8=DMT354*He382@z(o'j
Þi`S3^:i4ewJ!2:Óm/[52u 2`![^4
Gc4[8=?4J.M4e:<=387L4*MT352[8C^9J.HM2u6G!>?4
KJa`.u^pc4[C]357V93qz(oÓL2>389d4-C]HS2Jn« 3
9>?:x9vC^9H!H`!G9Cq:i4e357.=J!wK387!4vK:i2`!>DH=m%357.4v9[84b2`S3q2m%G!7.9C54b:<=357Q4-9M72357.4[*jrAx7!=DCqG![5=?J.M=G!>?4N
]\ I-
9G.G!>=?4-H382}Gc2:i4[C5vCF354-u@CN{M-9JKpc4@G!`S3]352_`VCF4;352_u@9w46GV2:i4[]C5vSCg384u@C]:<=357K4L4Jrd[84-9384[]M2J.HS`.M352[
4 eM=4-J.M=?4-C<9J.H}>2:i4[<C57!2SMwe7.9ª*9[H@387.9J:<=357_CFG.>=3 IG!7.9CF4j
X> BU}
¾ `!G.GV2aCF4387.93e:i4_7.9HQ3g:i2CF2`![M4-C62mz(o©L2>39d4M2J!J.4-MT384-Hy=?JC54[8=?4-Ch g`.CF3b>?=w4357!4\C5G!>?=3 sG.7.9C54
C5vCF354-u©:i4C59:pc4m/2[54N!4
!M4GS3x357V93%4-9M7tL2>389d4CF2`![8M4':x9C ¸ %2`S3<2mG!7.9C54:<=387}357!4]2357!4-[-
v-
83.33 A ∠ 0o
,
+ "hot"
120 V load +120 V
- ∠ 0o
"neutral"
#1
-
∠ 0o
K207.85+ V
∠ -30o
- 120 V
∠ 120o
,
load -120 V
#2 ∠ 120o
-
+ "hot" +
83.33 A ∠ 120o
`> B pz W ?> B [ Q
¾ =?J.M4<4*9M7;L2>39d4xC52`![M4x=DC ¸ (L2>38C-N9JVH^4*9M76>2a9Hq[54*CF=DCF352[=DCfM2J!J!4*MT354*H6HS=[84-M35>?v^=?J6G.9[9>?>4->S:<=387
2< <=< k F
> B
=38C<[84-C5GV4*MT38=L4C52`.[8M4N357.4]L2>389d49M[52aC5Ci4-9M7b>?29H Y W pV4 ¸ ;L2>3C<9Cx:i4>?>j h=?L4-Jt>?29HtM`![5[84Ja3Cx2m
83.33 A ∠ 0o
x
,
"hot"
load +
120 V ∠ 0o
#1
; "neutral"
Ineutral
-
Node
load
,
-
#2 120 V ∠ 120
o
+
"hot"
83.33 A ∠ 120o
B I- B
¸ú hC5vCF354-uj (2:#4-L4-[-N:#4%7V9L4%[84-9>=?ª4*H;9^d9=J@=?JbC89m/43gvNpc4-M-9`.C54<387!4(2L4[9>?>!L2>39d4<pc43g:i44-J@357.4
3g:i2 ¬ 7!23 ¬ M2J.H!`.MT382[C'=DC ¸ L2>3Ch>2:i4[h357V9Jr=3:x9Ch=?J387!4@CFG.>=3 IG!7.9CF4@C5vCF354-u Á ¸ àtL2>3C'=?J.CF354*9H2m
¸ú ^L2>38CÂTj
2< <2<
Ax7!4'mZ9M3i387.93x387!4'J.4`S38[89>c:<=?[84'=DC<M9[5[8v=J!dqà !j q9u6G.Ci2mM`![8[84Ja3#[9=DCF4*C#9Jt=?Ja354-[54*Cg38=J!dqGV2aC5C5=?p!=>?=3gvc
#1 10 kW
+ 120 V
∠ 0o
- 83.33 A ∠ 240o load #3 +
- + 208 V
120 V 120 V ∠ -30o
- ∠ 240o 10 kW -
120 V 120 V
+ ∠ 120o load 10 kW
#2
83.33 A ∠ 120o
z m/`.>>u@9387!4u@938=?M-9>c9J.9>vSC5=?C"2m{9>?>V357!4'L2>389d4*Cf9J.HbM`![8[54-Ja38Cf=?J@387!=?CxM=[M`!=3#:i2`.>?H6J!4*M4*C5C5=39384%357.4
b-
`.C54b2m(9_J!43g:i2[8w357!4-2[84uN357!4}4-9CF=?4-CF3^pc4=?J!dE387!4 ¾ `!GV4-[5Gc2C5=35=?2JAx7!4-2[84ujE°T« >>xC5G.9[84ev2`K357!4}>?2J!dVN
f> B
HS[9:<J I2`S3%M9>?M`!>D935=?2JVCxpV4*M9`VCF4v2`_CF7!2`!>DHtpc49p.>4382@=Ja35`.=38=L4>?vb`!J.H!4[Cg39J.Ht357V93<357.4]357![844]L2>389d4
j "_
C52`![M4*C93357![844%HS=4[84Ja3lG!7.9C54<9J!d>4*C:<=>?>.HS4->=?L4-[ ¸ hL2>38C4-9M7^3829pV9>D9J.M4-H]38[5=D9H;2mV>?29Hq[84-C5=?CF352[8C-j
!2[<G![82a2mO2mO387!=?C-NS:i4M9J}`.C54 ¾ êf°5o Q352eH!2q387!4]u@9387tm/2[<`.C-
1 1
R1 1.44 Ω
+ 120 V
∠ 0o
- - + 3 3 R3
0 4
120 V 1.44 Ω
- ∠ 240o
+ 120 V R2 1.44 Ω
∠ 120o
2 2
A ¦U¦ss§2AU¨s.2b i©Fªs2¡. =¢6$6£b A¤
¥¥ ¦«¦s§A¬Ab©Fª
¥.¢¦¦¯®4¦s8§°Z®U®A¨=®.b©Fª
¢.¢ ¦¨®4®488°Z°Z®U®U®®
°I°´b¦s¢$§±©Fªbs£¦©Hª²s§i³¦·³¶~®¹ ¸ º¶~®¹¸ ¶~®¹¸
°´°´bb¢$¢$©F©Fªbªb£¦£¦ss§§«¥m¥m© µµ ·2¶v»¸¸ © ¥m¥mµµ º»¸¨¶ ©¸ ¥m¥mµoµo¸ ¶H=¸
°I 2ªb¼ µv¥ µv¥ µI¥.
½sÊ ¢.¾=¿= =ÀË ÁbÂUÃÁbÄ=Ås¾UÆÆǷöIÁ®¹ÄU¸ Ȧ¿.¾2ÁÉ º¶~®¹¸
¥ºµ ¥mµ ¥mµ ¶I®¹¸
¸ ú< ¹ PÌÍÎ 4365ÏiÍ:Ð 87ºÍQPÌÑ ÇÌ :9 κÑ
º"» xô Sº ¹¡¹ óg» ¹ ó
Q³ °IU ÃbÒ $ °I ÃÒ 8°IU ÃbÒ 8°~ ÃbÒ
½sÊ ¢.¾=¿= =ÀË ÁbÂUñÓbÃUÀUÔbÃÃÕ·¶»ÖHÈs¸ ¾2ÀÖ×Ä.¾CÕÉ=ØsºÄU¶ À.¾2¸ Å.Æ
³Q°IU ÃbÒ $ ¥ºmµ°IÙ ÃÒ ¥mQµ°IÙU ÃbÒ ¥mQµ°~Ù¶F=Ãb¸ Ò
Ä2Ê Ø.¢.ÅU =ÅË ÃÕÀÀÈUÅs¾6Øs© ÂUÈÇ=ø ÁbÄUȨ½s¾=¿=À© ÁbÂUæs¸ Æb¾AØ.ÅbÄUà © ¸
³Q°IU ÃbÒ $ mµv° ¥ ÃÒ ¹ Qµv° ¥U ÃbÒ ¹ QµI° ¥. ÃbÒ ¹
èÜHCè=ÝéoóDà?ã~Ú.âOæëÞUÛÞÜ:è2ìc÷2Üà.Ý.â`ÞCÞ=íôãoÚ.æëæ$÷Sß2ö$àé]Ü:Þ2ábÝ»â"ìbìbíÜXçÚsçIß2éíôðsÜãÞ2ã è6Ûoã>AçmíëäCÝsèCBMß Ý»åìp>HÞ=BSéæwãoÞ2ùç"Ýsú è=ì.é]ÚsÞ2ÛéûÞ=ãçÞ2ð»çQÛQÞ6ÜFâ"éè2Ú.ÜéoÛvÛ àêÛÜæëü ÝUÞUãoè2ÞCçºãìêíôÜ éÛvJ ÜýÜFÚsçIãvè2íà»ç~æ.ãè6ãvÞ2ãQÞ ÛFãá==à.â`< íçOíë<2ãvéà×< íëÛoèCîïé]òcèCÚ.ð.íëðsãOð.ç Û໺ÞAè2ñbø çmíëãmò?ÝsãvÞMèCà»ãv÷Cè6ÜÝsãOæôó.ÜéÚbõ Ú.ãä2ÛvÛÛB è2ÜMæôÝU÷SãQå éÞ=è2Þ2æwÝsãoÝsçOì ìbö$Ú»å Ü]éÞ=ã~ãvæwâ"ãoÞ=èCÛmÜß2ÜHãÜ=ÝÞ á
¾
à !j j
à
83.33 A ∠ 0o
"hot"
load 120 V
#1 10 kW
+ oV
120
∠0
- - + 83.33 A ∠ 240o load #3
120 Vo "hot" 120 V
- ∠ 240 10 kW
120 V 120 V
+ ∠ 120o
load 10 kW
"hot" #2
83.33 A ∠ 120o
ð.÷ qÛÜ / ñaß=à.èCí÷CçSòMð$é]Þ2óbíôæôÛ÷óbé÷|Ú.îÿòcíëçvã:íôè2òpâ"ÛvÛðsÜ
íæëèCå ó ß2ÜcÜGòcö$ãvÜHÜÞaèCÜÝ»ÝaòcçèCÞ2÷CÝ»ÛòcÜkèCæôÞ2óãÛàsHÜpíëèCÝsÝãvßêàsÞ2è2â`Ý.Ý×íëÜ ãvÞ2àâ`Ý.ãvÜ=íëà.ûyá ÜF÷ ÛõÜáè=Ü çSq å íëÞ2ݯæëãèC÷èCÝ»qß=ìbÜpÛvó«çvãvÞ2àsÚsîyÜò?ÛíéçIèCÜHò?ÛçÛv÷¯ííôèCçSß=îÿö»éHÜGèCÜHæôæëãæëíôÞÜFÜ]ìûýòcíôè ÝaÞ2ÛqòpÜêÞ=ãvÛvàsq.Ücè2nsÝãYàsÞ=èC Ý.Ý×é]ÜêíôÞ=ÛàéÝ.Ú.ÚsÜGíwçvã ösìbÜHè2íwÝsã~ìsó.àsõõÜ áá
j
j
èCìbÝ»í
$ì¯ÜHÛv÷ ÜHq ÝUã" ð.ò?à»è2èCçvãvÜ:às÷Çè2Ý.îÿß2èeæôÜHòcçè=îyíôç~ÝkãÜãÛMà.ÞCíôçfûéHòcè2çvÞ2Ü2ÛáUÜ?ãvà.ãàsÛÜèCÜ:ݯìbÞ=í
$Ý.ÜêÜHÛvÜHè2Ý=ÛvÜFãfè&ð.àsÞCûè=çIçIÜXãvÚ»èCìbÝsó.ß2õæôÜHçoõá=íôãvÝsà.é]íÜkçfãvíôçfà.ÜèMå÷ qÞ=æwãoèC ß2ð.ÜGà»è2çvçvÞ2ÜHÚs÷pÛéé]ÜHíôÛçDéÚ.è2Ûvíwã ÜêºèCl æôæ"Þ2èCÛÜã
j
çvçvð»óçIÜFãvé]ÜHí /ò?éç è2æëæôó2áíwã íôç|è Wyn !ôq.nsY #"$%&" z $rW áãvà.Ü ù íëÝsì¦ÚsçvÜHì¨ðsÛvÜFìbÞ2òcíôÝsèCÝUãvæôóÇíëÝ«æôè2Ûvß=Üeð$Þ6âOÜHÛêìbíç~ãÛvíôö.ÚbãíëÞ=Ý j
æôâ"Þ=Þ2è2Ú.ì æìkåÜã'Þ2à»æëçãè èCçvå ß=Ú.ÜSÜºÛ åè èCÜÝså ó`ìXÜãÛð$à.ó?Þ6ÜQà.âOè=íôÜHìß2Ûåà|èCéãvè2ÝUÞ2ðsããè2è2è2ß2éæÜHíwã~é]ç$ó Ú.Þ28ÛûbÛvø è"ÜHÝUãçvãSíëà.Ý.Û)îß=Ü( æëÜ Ü< - - ð.ðs<=às<àsè=è2ãçIçvíëÜ^òcܺð$çIÜHÞ6óbç âOçIãv< ÜHÜábÛò Þ2çIÛóbâ`çIä ãvíëCãvÜHàXB ò¦ãvèCàsÞ òcåÛvÜHÜHðsÜmÛçHæëþè`ÞUçIè2íôì.Ý.ç·ß=éæëÜ Þ2- Ý.ð.Ýsà»ÜHè2éçvãÜ^ÜHçvìSóbìbç~ãíôÛÜÜHò«éãÞCæëóûÜ íëÝSJ Ú.ð»í èCå Ûoè2èCæëÜHæôæëÝUÜHã æ
j
â
j
.j æ
365Ï
ϦÎ^P+*+,-,ONïÍQPÌÑ.,±Í:Ð R ,/*«Ñ87QÑÎ0, eÑ "å äC< aæ
120V
load
#1
, load
#2
, ,
load
#3
K250 A 10 kW 10 kW 10 kW
ûyâ"ÜÜMÜãHâ"á¹Þ2à.èCÚ.ÝsíçSæì|ìâ"â`ÝsÞ2íëÜÚ.ãvÜHàæììeè?Ý.Þ éåÜHÞ2ÜHéÝsÜHÛççvèêçIíôì.íëãàsÜèCèCÛoãvèCæëÜ û ö.- ã<UæôÜSÞ2@CÝBð.ÛÞCß=íôûOéèCÜXß=éÞ2Ü?ãð.èCé]ßGð$Þ2ÜðsèCÛXð»ãIãoâ`ÜHè2ÛíôéoÛvà.â`ÜDÜFíëãvì ÛÞ Üe-ìb î2û^1Þkãvãàs3à. ÜDÜ6æôìbè2~íÛvÞ2ç~ß=ãoö ÜèC8ÝsE õ7éá*ÜSèCÝãMûyÛvãvÞ=èCàsò ö$ÜMÞ2Þ2Ú.çvãvÞ2ã5à.Ú.ÜH4 ÛoÛ:é]>HÜXB à»èCãð$Þ?ÝsÞ2ì·æëÚ.ÞUá·Ý»è2â"ì.ì|çÜcâfð$é]è2Þ2ÜçÚsÛSæô>FãìeB2à.B2ö.Þ2B Ú»Ú.çvíôûyæôè2ÜìÜÝsãHìè á
j
125 A ∠ 0o
"hot"
+
120 V
∠ 0o
load
#1
, 120 V
15 kW +
- "neutral" 240 V
∠ 0o
,
- 0A
120 V load 120 V -
∠ 180o #2 15 kW
+ "hot"
ú/ ß=ÜêÚ.7 Ûvé]íôÞ=Ú.Ý.Ú.Û"ßGæé]ì×è2Ú.ö»Ûß2Þ=ÛvÜÚbÜHãpÝUã ãQèAäCâfíôB=çOèAB àsóð»è2â`Þ=æwû8Ú.íwãÞ2Ýsàiûì.â`çÚsàsçvð»íôè6ÜHÝ.ã"ÛýßíwããfÝà.âfÚ.Þ2òDÚsè2çmçö$èCâ`ÜÝ»Û íëìkãvàkä ûyÜHãvßUÜ]à.èCã:Ü:ß=â`ÜGçIíôíwòcãé]à Þ2ð.ðsãvæôð»Üà.ÜHÛðsÛDÜè2Üâ`ÛÛè2íôÚ.ÛvæëæôÜ|ÝsÜæ$çè6é]ÞCãMíôûÛèé>HÚ.B=ãvíëÞCB2ãHãoáUB èCâ`ûyæ"Üà.ò?Üíôãéoè2àkÜHçè=çíôç"éoÞCà&èûö»ß=è2ÜÛvö»ÜFã~Þ=âOè6ÚbãQÜHã ÜíôòcÝ&1 ð.B2çvBÞ2ÛvÞ Ú.ð$å ÛoÜÞ2é]òcÜÚ.Ý»Üè2ì.ÝUÝsãçì á
125 A ∠ 180o
j
æôíôÞ=Ý è2ãvìsà.ç Ü|çv[ óbç~Þ6ãâ"ÜòÜ å á.ÜHÛHÜ á8å ÜâOÝ|Ükãvè2àsæôÞ2çvÚ.Þ ß=àsà|è ÜFå è2Üpéoãà ÞeæôÞ=é]è2Þ=ìêÝsçIÞ2íìbÝsÜHæëóêÛSãvÛvà.ÜFé]ÜkÜí íëåÝsÜFéç ÛvÜF>Fè2ä2çvBMÜHì å Þ2çvæëèCãûyç Ü]:ã~ó7åàsÜHèÛFè2èCæëÛoæhìáãvàsÞ2û"ÜÛà»ÜSè íôå ç`íôÝ.ß=ß ÛvÜFäè69=ãÜB|Ûfå ð»Þ=Þ2æwãvãoÜHçSÝ=ð.ãíôÛè2ÜHæçvÜûyÝUÞ=Ûã
j
ð$ð$é]æôÜÞ2ÜHÛÚ.è2òpÝsÛ ìsíëãIçQãjíëð$ÝsíôÜß?ÛoÛ"ç~ãFãvãvà.á`àsÜDãvÞ2à.ÚsÚsÜ ççIèCÜSé]ÝsÞ=Þ2ìpÝsûûyìbòMÜHÚsÜ]Úsé]ãFéoãvábà|Þ2â`Û|ãvà.à.é]íôíôéoÚ.Ý.àkÛÝ.Ûâ`ÜHÜÛÝUíëæôãæsè2çêÝsãÞCèCì|ãoÛèCÜæëíô<æ ß2J4àUÚsB2ãvÜHBíwãÛýÜ ð»â`Þ=è×Ú.íôÛvÝsÜösì.Qíwã|ç:ú æëîrÜFûyÜDÞ=çvçÚ.éè2Ûf;î Ý|(ÛvÚ.< ڻݻçI<2çmÜS< ÞCÝûèCÚ.òc>HòMB2ðsö»B=ç BÜHÛ å ûyÜÜH9 ÜÛã"çvß=Úsè2ÜFç ß2è2ÜXéo>Aà»â`ä õ4aíëûyÛÞ=ÜÞ=ÛOÛ è6Þ=ãä Ú.4è2Û"Bö»Ü]Þ=ñ.èCÚbèCòcã òcðs>Fð.çoä æôõ4Ü á
j
j
!j
ö$é]íôÜÛoÝ.é]7Ú.Ü / íëÝ.ã ã`=Ü ãvJ àsÚsèCà.ÜHã`íçIçXãvãvíôà.ÛÞ2ÜSÜÝð.ò?ÛÛÜHÜèCò?çvñÜíôÝUèCòDíôãÝsçXÚsç8ò è ãvÞ:çvå íëö»ß=Þ=ÜfÝ.æwãoí èCèC/ Ý»ß=éÜçIèCâ"ÝUíôÝ|ÜãÛãvÜHé]à.ÞUì·Üç~þ·ãàsçvóbçÞ6è ç~â×åãÜíëíëÝ.òÝDßUãvç:íà.çfÞÜfæëå Þ6â"Üâ"ÛÞ2ÜÛãvÛSæôàsìSî ÜGäCìbBÞ:çIð.( â"æôíëå ÜQã Ü- ß2Ûoð.çIÜàsÚsã*è2ç ãçvà.Ü?äÛ9=ÜçIB óbÜ õ çI+ø ãvÜH>aò|å á*Þ2â`æëãíwè2ãß2à ÜQãvçvà.Þ2ÜGÚsÛè=éì.ÜHìbç*íëâ`ãvíôà.Þ2Þ=Ýsçvè2Ü æ
j
j
ð.â`àsíôÝsè=ìbçIÜ íôÝ.èCß Ýsæëß2í ùæôÜHÜcçcâ"èCÜcÛÜêì.Üíôì ñ.è2íôéÝãæëãó à.Ü?>AäCçIBðs} æëíëã è2- ðsð.èCàsÛvè=ã çI?d Ü?çv7 óçIö ãvå ÜHíôò Þ2Ú»á*çIçvæôíëóaÝséâOÜpÜ&ãvàséè2èC@ÝãS éHãcèCéÝ ÜÝUÞ2ãvÝ.ÜHæôÛ ó- ãß=è2íðå ÜpèÚ»ãvç ÛoèCå ÝsÞ2çIæëûyãÞ2è2Ûß2òcÜpÜâ"Ûpè Þ2å Û?Ü]ûyèCÞ=æëÛvãvò?ÜHÛvçÝ»ãvè6àsãvÞ=èCãÛ
èCèCÛÝ»ÜDìGÜHíôíwÝsãìbà.ÚsÜÛSé]ãvíôÞ2ÝeÛoçQðsãvàsÞMè2çvéÜMÛvÜFÞ=è6Û ãÜ> ð.( BUàs} è=çIÞ2Ü:Ú.çIãXàsÞ2íwûrûQãoçOð.àsÞ2ûè=çI>FÜ ä2BB=} A ábÜö.ÛÚ.àsãOè2ðsãà.çýÜâ"ÝkÜpãvà.éÞ2ÞUÚ.çIÜæì ð./àsß2è2Ú.çvÜÛÜDçvà.Þ=íëÚbûrããçfçIâ"Þ=Þ2òcÚ.ÜDæìGâfìbèAÜHóêð»ãÜHÞ ÝsìGÚsçIÞ=ÜcÝGéãè2à.ðsÜè2ðséíwàsãè2Þ2çvÛoÜç
j
â"èCÝsÞ2ß2Ú.æôæÜHìêà.çmÜSéoÞ2à»û·ö$èCÞ2ÜHÝ.Ú.çIß=ãÛOÜ:âfæëÞUÜ èAè2å ó?ìcÜHÛvãvíôóUÞkòpãvàsß2ð$íëÜ]ÜHÝ.ãìsß èCãvE à.õÝsÜéÜHðsçQàsè=è2çmçvÜâ"ÜçIæôàsæíwûrîïãoçIçýÚsösâ"ç~
Ü ãíwÛvãÜSÚbãvæôíôÞÝ.Þ ßpù íëèÝsßcéè2ûyðsÞ2è2Ûýéííwç`ãí ãå ÞGÜýÞ2ß2ÛmÜHÝ.íôÝsÜÛoìbè6Ú»ãéÜ:ãvííëåã:ÜèCæëã`ÞUãvè2à.ìpÜMûyÞ=çIÞ=ÛOÚ.èSÛéÛÜHÜ2çvþ"íôçIé]ãvÞ2í Ý»å Üç~ãæëÛvÞUÚsè2é]ì ã
j
S
winding winding
1a 1b
Three-phase alternator
winding winding
2a 3a
S
winding winding
1a 1b
winding N winding
3b 2b
+
+
120 V - 120 V
∠ 0o - ∠ 120o
-
120 V
∠ 240o
+
MONQPJRTSUPJV?W
365Ï X.ϯÍQPÌÑ.,Y*SÐSλÌýÎ F ÐZ äC< T
M [
åø Þ2æë3ã$è2uUß2 Ü:â"!ôq.è n.å YÜ]ûyÞ= ÛvòGð»Þ6õ â"ÜÛpçIóbçIãvÜHò íçpÞ2Ý.Üêâ`à.ÜÛÜGãà.ÜÛÜkíçpÞ2Ý.æôóaÞ2Ý.Ü ø+>4å Þ=æwãoèCß=ÜkçIÞ=Ú.Ûoé]ÜeîÿÞ2Ý.Ü|çIÞ=Ú.ÛéÜ
j
M E
ÜHæëø Þ6è2â"éoïà?\qÜÛ`Þ2$r]Wé]ãv!ôÞ=à.q.ÝsÜHn.ÛHìbY áUÚsð$é]Þ6ãvð$Þ=âOÞ6ÛfÜHâOéÛvÜHíôÚ.Ý.ÛmÛßÛvçIÜHóbèSÝ=çIãoãvã~çfÜHâ"ò â`ÞDà.çvíçºÜíôæëÛÞ2ÜXíëÝ.ÜFò?ç Ü`- èCé]â`íôÞ=ÝUàsÝ.ãÜÝ.èCÛÜFíôÜOÝ.éããvíôÝ.à.ÜFßcìpÜÛæëæëÜýÞUÞ6â«è2èCì.ÛÜ"æëç ÞUGã~è2âOì Þ àså Üå Þ=Þ2è2æwãoæëìãèCè2å ß2ß2è2ÜFÜfÝUçOãçIûyèCÞ=Þ2ß=Ú.ÛýÜýÛçéÞCè6ÜHû¹ûyçHÜ]ãá ã~à.ók> íô( ç"ÛvB=ÜFí} çºè2ð.çvãÞ2à.àsÝsÜ:è=ç çIè2Ü ö.- çvíôæëà.íëã~íëûróDãvÜFãìÞDûyàsÛè Þ2å ò Ü
j
j
T _ ` a c% bIdGegfhIi0b6i0jh5k
Ûl ÞCÜã'ã èC çOãvÜFãçè þ ù Üýãà.Ü:ãvà.ÛÜÜ - ð.à»è2çvÜèCæëãvÜHÛvÝ»è6ãvÞ=ÛOìbÜFçIíôß2Ýêæôè2íôìkÞ2ÚbãfÜHè2ÛvæôíôÜÛOè2ÝsìGâfè6ãoéoàkâ`àsèCã"à»èCð.ð$ÜÝsçfè=çmãà.Üò?è2ß2Ý.Üã
Three-phase alternator
m winding m winding
2a 3a
m winding S m winding
1a 1b
m winding N
m winding
3b 2b
ÞCå ûÞ=æwâ`ãoèCíëß=à.ÝsÜ"ÜSì.íëÜð.Ý.ñ.à»ßUè2è2ç énçvãÜXæëó è2ûÝ.>Fãvä2ß2à.B=æôÜ|ÜS} çIò?îyàsÞ2èCû·íwûrß2ãè2ÝsæwÞ2ãÜ]Üû ãcÛ>AÝsíôäCçMè6BUãÛv}Þ2Þ2ÛmíãçýèCçvàsãvèMíôè6Ý.ûyûrßÚ.ãOÝsÛvéé]Þ2æëãvÞbãíôè6éÞ2ãù Ý&íëâ`Þ=Þ2Ý»íôçvû*õ^Ü2ãè6áºà.ûrâ`ÜDãÜíôè2ÛmÝsé]â`ìbãvíôÚsíôÝ.Ýsè2ß ìbæ·íôÛv<Ý.Þ2ß ãâ`èCä íôãvæôá2íôæ"Þ2â`Ýsß=à.Üè2íÝ.æéoÜHàcèCÛÝ.èCâ`ß=ãvíëæëÜêæôÜSæsíwàsçvãoà.íwçMãoíwçmûrð$ãíëÜHãÞCè çmûù ð$ãvà.ÜHíëÝsè ÜXçIùkããè2à.>AÝUÛväCÜHãB=èCÜS} ÝsðsèCÜèCûrÞ2ãvíôÚ»ÜÛoÛçç
j
ãvèCàsÝsÜß2æôâ`Ü íôÝsî B=ìb} íôÝ.õ]áQß=ç'ãà.ø+Üݱ>â`å íôÞ2Ýsæëãìbè2íôÝ.ß2Ü`ß âfä è åâ`Ü]íëûyæôÞ=æ`Ûvàsò?è çå oÜ û8è â"ð.Üýàsò?è=çIèÜ&ù èCÜýÝsâ`ß2íôæôÝsÜêìbÞ2íôÝ.û ß -o>F> äCBUÞ2Ú.} Û"î ÷C>FÛäCÜ]BUûy} ÜÛæÜèCÝ»ß=é]ß2ÜHíô÷ Ý.ßså áQÞ2æëÞ2ãÛ è2ß2ä Üý9UçvB=Þ2} Ú.æëÛoÜFé]è2Ü`ìbûyíôÞ=Ý.ÛOßUðsõpàsè2è2Ýsçvì Ü
j
j
1 2 3
TIME
ò?â`íôèCÝsß=[ìbÝ.íôÞ6Ý.Ü]â"ãQß Ü â`ä å íôÜæôçfæ»ÛFâ"áOðsè=íëè ûçvå çQÜ]â"ûyöÞ2Ü óMÛò&ã à.1 â`Üíëqð$æôæ·Þ2 ö$æôÜýãÜ à.ðsÜeè2oíëY
ÛoÛrçmÞC$ ãouíôè6Ý? ãvãíô>AÞ2à.äCݱÜB=}Þ=Þ2ð.ûSèCð»à.ãvÞUÜFà.çIè2ÜeíëìêãvÜ:è2ÞCæwçIãû Ü Ü>JÛÝsÚ.íôÝsè6ÜÝsãçIÞ2ãvéÜFpÛ Ü è2 Gçkìê çIÝsÞCàsçIû*èCãvæÜHûrèCã è=ß=ì?ß2îyãvíôÞCÚ.Ý.û ÛßsÝ>áb-Zè2ä6íwÝsã-´< ì é]á2Þ=<â"Ú.Ü
â`ÝU æëãvíôæ»æëÜæàsÛ ö$- è é]ÜSå æôÞÜ èCé Ý.<Cù -ZÞ2â`ä6ãv-íà.çI> ÜHÜA*Û õü á">FÞ6ä2ãvàsâSB=Ü} á
j j
èCàsÜHè2ìêÞCû ä þ
phase sequence:
3- 2- 1- 3- 2- 1- 3- 2- 1
3 2 1
TIME
qs "qj# z à.u ÜÞ2ÛoìbÜûÛOâ"ÞCÜ
û åÛvÜêÞ=æwãoÚsèCçvß=íëÝ.Üýßaâ"èè å ð»Ü]ûyÞ=Þ=æëóÛvòð.àsçIè=Ü çIJ Ü Ú.åÜÝsÞ=æwéãoÜHèCçQß=íëÜkÝ|çIèÞ=Ú.ð$ÛoÞ2é]æôÜêóUðsãvàsÞ è2ð»çvÜÞ6â"çvóbÜç~ÛpãÜÛvòÜFçIííôçIç"ãví éå è2ÜkæëæôÜHæôÞ=ì è=q.ì.n.çHámY ð.Iàs&è=CçIW´Ü|YC)WÛv$;Þ2 ãu èCãvÞ=íôÛÞ2ݯqsn.â`Y íôæë æ
ãvò?àsàsè è Üå ù íôçvÜMÝ.è2ßDòpÝ.ð.Þ&Ü à»ìbè2í çv¹Üà.ÜÜÛÛÛÜÞCÜSÝsãoè6éèCãvÜcÛíôÜXÞ2èCÝêãçvÞ2ö»èCòcÜHæôæ íëÜXcÝsßMèCú ð.Þ=ðsà.Ý.æëÜÜXíéãvà.èCâ"ãvÜHèAíôÛ Þ2ócÝs>]Þ2çf-~Û"äAÞ2-Zãû8< à.ãvÜÞ2àsÛ Þ2ÛvÜHãv<Cà.Ü -Z- ÜHä6ð.Û -às> è2á$çvãvíôÜXÝsà.éÜð»Ü Þ6å â"å Þ2Þ2ÜæëãæëÛFãvèCábòcß=è2ÜMÜ]çfãè2â"ÜÝsÛoÜXçfìâ`èCéÝsíëÚ.æôìêæ8ÛÛvçvèCÜHÜòcÝ=ÜSãSòcçIàsò?Ü]Þ2ãvèCÛvÜHß=ãvÛæôÝ.ç"ó2íëáUâ"ãvÚsãvÞ2àsìbÚ.èCÜFæãç:ìGìbâ`ö$ÜíëÜXð$æôæQÜÚsÝ»èCçvæôÜìêæºæôÜHÞ=ö$çÝ Üç
j
j
v
to phase
w
Cèéè2ðsðsð.è2ÛvÞAéà.íwñbãÜ|íôÞ2ò?ÛXã~â"è6â"ãvÞ ÜHÜæëÛæóGÜDèCòcãvãà.Þ|ðsÜDç?ö$çÜcè2èCÛvòcÛvÜ|ÜHÜDð.ÞCæè2ûXè2òcé]Ü ÜFJÞ2ìeÚ.ÚsÝUè2öæãýóe/ÞCèêûºæèCÛÛòcÜHÜHè=çvÜíôéÝUçIãã?ãvè2Þ=ÝsÛvÛ:ÜFé]çIÞ2ÜíûOçIèCãÜ ãèCJ Ý»çIÚ»óbé]èCÜçIæ ãvÜHèCå ò ÝsèCæôìÇÚ.ûyÛÜpâfÜ Jãvè6Þ|Ú.ãIãoÜHãvèCÝsàsß=é]ÜpÜ ó xæèCè2òcç`à.ÜFðsè2Ü&ç'éo·àéÛèCÜHæð»çvèCíôè2òcçIé]ãíëð@è2ãvÝsÞ=çýÛcé]ÛÜ=íôÜHá¹çGçvãvíôà.çIçvãyí Ücè2ÜHÝsã~ìiâ"é]Ü Þêãv-Þaæ èCûºàsòcèãvàsðså ÜÜç
#3
j
j
çvè2à.éHíwé]ûrÞ=ãFÛábìbß2íôÛÝ.ÜHß:èCãvãvÜÞXÛOããvà.à»ÜèCíôÛQÝ ðsB=às} è2ö.çvÜýÚbã`çIàsæëÜFíwûrçvãoçOçmãÛàsÜèCæè6Ý ãví >Få äCÜfBUã} ÞSábð.ç ù àsÜè=âýçIÜçO<ãvàsGÜ å à.Þ2Üýæëãûyè2Þ2ß2æôæëÜÞ6â`è2ÝsíôÝ.ìêBß é Ú.A-ÛÛv&ÜH>"Ý=_ ã å è2èCÝsæôèCÚ.æôÜHóbçfçIíè2çméìbÛvÞUÜHòcçvçQÞ2ãvÝsàsçIÜãvÛoã~è6â"ãÞDÜHç^æèCâ`òcàsðsèCçã j
â`íôæëæà»èCð.ð$ÜÝþ .j
1 1
{
R1
K2650 Ω
+ 120 V
∠ 0o |
- C1
- + 3 3 z
0 4
120 V
- ∠ 240o 1 µF
{
+ 120 V R2 2650 Ω
∠ 120o
2 2
s¦.2 ±¦¢.s=£.§=£$A©C¨2ª¨¼b 2b£.©Fª s§6£.2¢~}} 2 UËus Cª¹§2 ¥ } ¥ .} ¥.
¥¥ ¦«¦s§A¬Ab©Fª
¥.¢¦¦¯®¦s³§UA¨=®.b©Fª
¢.§s¦ ¨®®4 ³ U
°I°´bs¢$§±©Fªbs£¦©Hª²s§i³¦·³¶~®¹ ¸ º¶~®¹¸ ¶~®¹¸
°I 2ªb¼ ¥mµ ¥mµ ¥mµo
ʳQ¢.°IU =Ë ÃbÒ $ ¥m®"µ°I$¹A¶I®¹ Ãb¸ Ò $ ¥ºµ°IºÙ ¶I®¹ ø Ò ¥m8µo°I³¹F~¶ ®¹ Ãb¸ Ò
ä9UB P ÌÍÎ0,-*
ÏiÍ:ÐDoºÍQPÌÑ.,ÇÌ CECGF * C6HF κÑ
C
Ý.ÛíôÞbçvÜDìbÜFãç à.Þ Ü?> > Ûè2T ÜHÝst çvì Ú.4 æë9 ãvå íôõmÞ=Ý.ãæwß&ãoÞDçð.ûÿá·è2àsò?æëè=æ¹èçIãÜGù Þ íôçvÝ.9 à.ß|( íëûrôãvã>à.åûyÜÛvÞ2Þ=sæëòãÛoçfçIãXèCãà.Ý»æèCÜkìGòcéãðè2à.ðsÜ ìbè2å íëéò Þ2íwãæëãÞ2èCè2ÛÝsß2éHÜ:ìèCè2Úsãvé]à.çvÛÜHÜGÞ=çXççvçmãÜHà.éðsÞ2Ü àsÝsè2å ìeçvÞ2Ü æëæôãè2äèCòcß=æÜ?èCðòcè2ö.ðé]ÛÛíôÞ=ß2îÿö»çàUç:Üã ã~ð.âOàs ÜHè=ÚsÜçIÝ|çIÜ ãXÝ.ãv> Þbà.ìbæÜcèCÜHòcÞ=ç ð.ð¨ä ð»èCÞUîyö$Ý»çIíëìÜ]ãvã~Ücâ"9 õºâ`ÜÜHãíôÝæëÞ æ
j
öÛÞCóGãèCãú à.ãvíôÜMÜ
Þ2Ý è2å æwÜ|ã[ ÜíëÛÝ Þ6Ýsåâ"è6ÜFÜãç~åÞ2ãÜíëÛpßUÛF ç"è6áFãÛÛÜHÜÞCì×å ãèCÜà.ÛoãvçvíôÞ6Ý.è2â²ß?æ=Þ2ò?ðsûsàsãèCè2à.ß=çvÜýÝ.ÜêÜ]èCãÛæëãvõ`ÞCÜHãoèCÛvè6ÝsÝsãèCì|íëÞ=ãvݯÞ=à.Û'Þ6íôâ ç*çpçvð.íëàsã:ÛèCÞbéûrìbè2ã^ÝÚsÛÞCéö»ÜHãoè6ì¦ÜDãéoíëîyÞ=à»ãvÝDà.èCÝ.Ü íç^ß=Þ=ÜHÝ.Ûì|ÞCìbãmÜHöÛMÚsókçvíôÚsÛÝiÜ è2å æëâ`æôÜHóÛàsçvíôèCíôéoÝ.ÝpàßpÞ2ð»ðbãvà.Þ=ãæëíëÜDÜÞ=ÝMè2ðsæwãÞ=è2Üð»íëÛÛoÜHÝsçDÝDè6ß=ããÜ]Þ2ÞSãcÛpèC ç`ðsÝpè2çvÜçàsÝsçvèCÜHìûrì ã
ãvÚsð.Þ2àsçvãÜè=è2ÛOçIæ8ÜpÞCÞCûçIûQÜÜ è2æôJ ÜHæëÚ.æ^é]ÜãvèCÝsÛæëíôéãvéHÜHÜèCÛvæ.ãÝ»ð$àsè6èCÞ6ãvâ"ÝÞ=ÛÜÛçfÛOÜ íôåçvÝeÚ.ÜÛoð.è2çIðsæëíôæÝ.æëíôð»ßkÜHÞ6ì?è2â"æwöãÜócÜÛÛèSð.Ýsæôè6Ýsè2ãèCÝUÞ2ãvãÛýíôçÞ2ÛÝûyÞCÜâ`ãoÜHè6íôì.ì.ãíëíëÜýÝ.Þ=ßGÝß2Ûþ0ãvíôà.ì&~ÚsÜpîïçI÷6ß2ã:ãÛÜà.íôì»ñbÜHõéo÷Mà»èCèCæëÝ.ãvà.Üß=ÜHÛÜDÛvÝsÜMèCèCÝãvíôÞ2çóêÛOè ã~è2âOéÞêãzÚsÞC"èCûºn æôæôãvóMÜFàsè2ö$ÜDçvÜíëãÜHíôà.Ý.ÛÛvßSâfÜHÜMãèAà.óG÷2Üà.ãéÞCÞkÞ2ãoòD÷GÛÜ ösâ`å íëÜHÝ.íôÛvÛÜFÜFçvì Üç
j
ß2Þ=íëÝsßDãÞGèDãà.ÛÜUÜ ´ð.àsè=çIÜXæôÞ=è=ì j
1 2
(wires 1 and 2 swapped)
2 1
phase rotation = 2-1-3
3 3
1 1
(wires 2 and 3 swapped)
2 3
phase rotation = 1-3-2
3 2
1 3 (wires 1 and 3 swapped)
2 2 phase rotation = 3-2-1
Ú.ð ö$ü Ü ÞMíôÝ.ò?ß?è6ÛvãIÜ ãå ÜÜHÛ"Ûâ`çvÜHà.ìíéoî àG> ðsä èC < íôÛQß=Þ2Ü]û8ãoç`÷Cà.éoÞ2àsãèC÷DÝ.ß=â`ÜHíëìkÛÜHãvçQÞ Þ2Úbä ã"> ÞC <û·á ãvàs> Ü< ã à.ä ÛvÞ2ÜHÛÜ<â" Üä éo> à.ábÞè2ÞUæëçIæ·Ü`Ü JãÞMÚsí çvå â"èCæôè2ÜðÝUá=ããvõ à.Üð.àsè2çvÜÛÞCãoè6ãíëÞ=Ý?ÜÝsì.ç
3 1
MONQPJRTSUPJV?W
+> øð.àsn.è2Y çvçIÜ?Þ=Ú.çIÛoÜ Cé]J W´Ü:YCÚ.)WÜÛv$;ÝsÜF è2éu éoÜHábà?çHÞ2þ ãÛ à.> qsÜ n.äíôÛ`Y < ÛvBÜFè2çIÝsð$qì ÜHs é]z <ãv í åu ä Ü:"q> ð»áUáÜFíéèç"Þ2ù ãvÛçàsÛv^ÜFÜ:çIj ð$Þ=Þ2ÛÞ2Û`ì.ÝsÜèDì.ÛfíëãvÝ.íëà.Ý|ßêÛÜâ`ãvÜÞ à.hð.íãéoà»à.àkè2Ü?çvãÜ:ã~à.â"Ü çvóbÞ å ç~Þ=ð»ãÜæwÞUãoò çvèCçvß2áíëÜösãvà.æëâ"Ü?ÜHè ÛvìbåÜXíôÜ]ÛvèCûyÜFÞ=ÛéÜ:Ûvãò?íëÞ2Þ=Ý.çOÝsæôçSÞCócû*ÞCã~èpû`âOð$èCÞpæëÞ2ãvð$æôÜHóUÞ=ÛvðsçÝ»çIàsè6íôè2ö.ãvÞ=çvæôÜÜÛ
M UB&
j
ÛvÞ2ãè6ãíëÞ=Ý j
M
æëA ÞUàsè2è=ì.çIçHÜ"ábè2ÛvÞ2ç`ãçvèCà.ãvÞ6íôÞ2â`ÝpÝêàsíôè2Ý|ç^ãvÝ.à.ÞSÜSíôòcÞ=ð»ðsÜHè2Ûé]èCãmãvíôÞ2Þ2ÝpÝêÛvÞCÜFûºçIíèMçIãvðsí å àsÜfè2çvæëÞUÜXè2Ûvì.Þ2çHãáCè6ö.ãíëÚ.Þ=ãmÝ|íwãmì.â`Ü]ãvíôÜFæëæséãàsÞ2è Ûýå é]ÜfíôÛoíôòpé]Ú.ð»íëãè2éãmÞ=ÝMÚsÝUö»èCæèCÝséÜHìMÛvÜFè2éãí å Ü j
M A
.ð àsàsè2è=çvçIÜXÜýð»ÛÞCÞ6ãoâ"è6ÜãÛ"íëÞ=ãÝkÞcéèpè2Ýkãà.ö$ÛÜÜÜUÛ´Üð.å àsÜè=ÛoçIçIÜ:ÜFìcæôÞ=öUè2óGì çvâfèCð.ð.íôÝ.ßpèCÝópã~âOÞMÞCûãà.Üãà.ÛÜÜX÷Cà.Þ2ã÷æôÜHè=ì.ç"çIÚ.ðsð.æëóíôÝ.ßMãvà.ÛÜÜ
j
+T_ ah3T ¢¡cbIdGe¤£¥hIiGh5f§¦¢ed0jU¨k
2ÞAèCð$ÛÜÜ ÜÛàsÛoå è6è2íôãðsÛIíëãÞ=çMÚsÝ ãvèCà.æôÞCæëÜ&ûóÇø+òcíìb> Þ=ÜçIÝUòpãGãvíÞ2íôéòpãvè2Þ=æð$ÛÞ2ç íôݦ"Ûvãø è2éÝUÞ2çýãcÝsâ"çIö$ãvÜÜÛÚsç~ÝsãéÜUÚsã.ìbíëãkÞ=íôÜHݱÞ2ì&ûãvíôÞið$Ý Þ2ãvãvæôà.óàsÜHð.ÜIíëàsÛ sè2ÛoèCçvç~ÜæëããvÜH+øéoÛvà»Ýs> èCèCðbãvð$ãÞ=ÜÞ6ÛeÛýâ"îyÞ2Üß=Û?ûÜÝ.ãÞ à.ÜHå íÛÜHçýèCÛ?ãvö$Þ2çIÞUÛíôÞÝ.õ?ùß2éæôá»UÜÞ2çv´Ú.Þ2ð.ÝUòcàsãvè=ÜHÜXçIÛvÜ|ã~ð»óèCíð»ÛvçcÜFãçHçýãváfà.ÞCÜéû Þ2ø+ì.ÝsÜHçv> çvííëç~ß=ãòcíëÝÇÝ.ÞCßiãè2Þ2ÝsÞCÛoì çû
j
N S N S
N S
- +
I I
AC motor operation
Step #3 Step #4
N
S N S N
S N
+ -
I I
ãvíç`àsÜmÝ.ÞCÜû¹æôã`ÜHãvãé]à.à.ãvÜÛÜSÞ2Ûvò?Þ2Þ2ÝsãèCè6æëß=óãíëÝ.Ýså Ü]ßSè2ãæëòcâ`íì íôè2Ýsìbß2ìbíôÝ.ÛvíôÜÝ.ÜFãQéß=ãvçOííôçQÞ2îÿèCéÝ|Þ2ösûyíôæëÞ=æôÜ`çoÛfõãáAãvÞ íëà.ã8ù íç`â`ÜHÜòcíëð?æôæÞCÚ.é]ãÞ2ð?Þ2ÝUÛpâ`ã ç`íëíëÝãvçvÚ.à?àsÜ^è6ããûrà.ã`ÞýÜ`ãö»ûyÞGÛÜOÜ çIð.J ðsÚ.Ú.íëæôÝÜHæëÜFÝs/ìSé] ópãèCÛÞCé]Þ2û¹Þ=Ú.Ú.ãvÝ»àsæôì5ì:Ü~éèCÚsæëæëÞbãvçIÜHéãùÛvè2Ýsâ`çýèCíãvçIÜHíôÜ è2Ý.8çvßíô[ æëé]óGÞ6Úsâ"ö$ÛvÛÜSÜ Üå ð$ÝUÜãmÞ6ÛFâOáHÜé]ÝsÜHæôÜÛvÞbÜFÛé ß2ìkù yí â`íôÝ&íôíôÝ.çvßèÜ
j
N S N S
N S
- +
I I
AC motor operation
Step #3 Step #4
S N S N
S N
+ -
I I
winding
2a
S
winding winding
1a 1b
winding
2b
çvà.íwûrãý.àíôÝ&ÜFçIé]ÜýÚ.çvÛÚ.ÛÜð.ÝUð.ã`æôÜö»òcÜã~ÜHâOÝ=ãoÜHèCÜÛÝêóMãvéà.Þ2ÜXíôæôã~çmâ"è2Þ?ÛvÜfçIÜã~óãç`ð.íÞ2éû*è2â`æëæôóMíôÝséìbÞ2íôÝ.Ý.Ýsß=çHÜHþéãÜHìpíôÝGçIÜHÛvíôÜHçºâ`íëãvàGèSéHèCðsè=é]íëãvÞ=Û^ãvÞíôÝUãvÛÞì.Úsé]ÜýèSðsàsè2çvÜ
winding 2’s voltage waveform is 90 degrees
out of phase with winding 1’s voltage waveform
1a 2a
1b 2b
|
C
I I
these two branch currents are
ãv ãýàsÜíç"sãvàsÜà.æèCì.íãç`ç"ð.ð.ûyÛàsàsÞ2è=è=ò çIçIÜpÜXéÛçIÞ2ÞCàsíôãoíwæôûrè6ç ããv>íôé]Þ2èpÛÝêÜHè2èCãvÝsãvà»ìÜFè6çýãý> ò?ö ð.ªèCÚ.ß=æôæÝ.çfà.Ü]ÜSãvãà.íôÛé ÜSÜHçvsÛÚ.ÞCÜæëæãoã`ì.è6çãíôç`íëÝ.ûyÛvècßpÞ=çvò ò?Ü]ãýèCé]ß=ÞCÞ2Ý.ûíôæÜ]ò?ç ãýäèCèCèkß2ÛÝsÞ2èCÜ]ÚsÝ»ãvÝsíì éJìkä síôöÝ&Üæì.ãvècàsç`ìbèCâ`ÜUãXsíëè2ãvÝsà&ÛvíwÜMãècÜÜ ìbJìbÚsÜíëÛsèCÜHÝ.æôé]æôíëó|ãvãvíôÜSÞ2Þ=Ý Úbð.ãàsè=Þ2çIûOÜXçIÛãvÞCÜãoðè6ãvâ`íôÞ2íwãÝ à
out of phase with each other
j j
åß2Þ=ÜHÝ.æwãoÜA èCÛoÞ2ß=è6æôÜ?ãóÜHð.â"ì àsè öè=å çIó|Ü]Ü ûyÞ2ãv+ø à.Ûò?>ÜpçSòcòcèCÞCÞ2æôããvÛvÞ2Þ2ÜFÛpÛoè2çìbçÛóç~Ü ãoJ àsè6Ú.èãvíôíôå ÛÞ2ÜGÜmÝ»Ý.èCèeÞXÛóêìbçIUÜ Úsâ`séoíôÝsàÝsíwãìbãvÜGÛíôÝ.íôé Ûvß=ùÞ2ç Üã+ÛèCóãv íôÝeãÞ2Þݯûÿè2çvçvé]ð.ÜãHíëJÝMá$Ú.ãvíëà.ÜÝpÝ»Ücèé]é]Ü2ìbÞ=á^Ü òDsçvÞeö.Ý.íôíëìbÝsãvÜfÞ&èCãvìbãíôíôÞ2à.ÛvÝ&ÜFÜkéÞCãvÛûQíôÜHÞ2çvè2Ý ð»æëHÜFæ*é«ãvãàsíÜHåÛvéHÜHÜ?èCÜDÚsòcð.çvÜmè2àsß2ãè=à.Ý.çIÜMÜÜíôãvÛâ`íé8çvíëÚ.Ý»sð.ìbÜHðsíëæôÝsì.æëóß ç
j
j
çvèGÜ]ãÛç:ÞCãoâ"è6ãÞ2íëÛ Ý.ù ßêíëÝ.ò?ßGèCãvß2Þ2Ýsß=Ü]Ü]ãvãíà.Ié ÜÛX»Üé]æÛì&ÜHèCãvãvà»ÜHè6çãXâ`íëÝsàsçvè6ð.ãXíôÛvíÜFçì Þ2ûrü ãvÜHí ù ÝÞ=æôéè è2æëæôÜHÜFìeçIæèè?ã&ÞêCW´ìbYC)WÜF$ çIuíôß2Ý ãvY à.CÜpu âO]]W Þ=$;" Ûvæ<ì¬: Uç r »ÛçI ããXð$â"Þ2è=æôç`óð.ãvàsàsè2íôçSçvÜDéÞ2ÜHÝsæëÜFééÜãðbÛvã:íéÞCè2ûæ
j
j
ð$çvóÞ2çIæôãvóUú ÜHðsò?àsàsçSè2èCçvãîÿÜXçvéíëð»òcè2Þ6Ýð.â"æôö»ÜóGÜMÛfãèkÞ Þpå é]ò?ÜHÞ=Û`èÝbçIùûyíôÚsÜSÝ.çvß2çIíëÝsæôíôÜXòcßkð.ð.é]àsæôÞ=Üè=ÝsÛFçIábé]ÜXÜHòpðbð$Þ=ãÞ6ÛvâOíÜ:çýÜHÜ Û`ò?\ âOè2éÜHìbíëÛvÜHÜMÜXÝ=òDãýìbíÚsòcçvéoéÞ2àÞ ãvå Þ2éÜÛoæëÛÜFçoÜHõèCìkÛÜæôÛ`èCà.ãvãÜXÜHà.Û ÛæëíôÞ2Ý.Ú.Üß=àéÚ.èCÛvÝsÛÜè2ÝUæëÞ=ã`ß2èCó Ýs`ì [ çè è6å ûyÜÜSã~ókó2Þ=è2Ú&ì åÜ åè2Ý=ÜÛãoèCçvß=ÜÜHÜHçOÝÞCè û
j
j
Û÷CÞ6òcâÞ å ÞCÜHû*÷pösæëíëíôÝÝ ù èGíëÝsìbßMUÜ »æôíëÝ.ß=íwàUãÜMãfösìbÚ.íôÛæëÜHö»éç"ãíëçvÞ=ÚsÝéoà|è2çýè2çOãvà.ãvÜMà.Ü ö.Ú.ù æôíôösÝsçìkè2Ú»æwçIãÜFÜìGÛÝsíôè6Ý ãÜ> æôóêà.Ûß=íç~æëÞ6ãòcâè=èCçfÝsìbì&ÜHéìsÞ2èCÛoÛ è6ù ãvÜíôÝ&Þ2Ý»íôçÝd çvÜ JÞ=Ú.òpÜÜXÝ»é]çIÜãvÛJíëÝ.7 ßUãçfà.èCÜð.Û:ð$ç~ÜHãÛvè2íôÛQÝ.ãßUÞ ç j
all "1" bulbs lit 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2
væôç Ü]Ü'ûr¯Uã"Ú.ú ãvÜÞDÝ»à.Ûé]ÜHíôÜ2ݯß2á.àUãvèCãoà.æô~æQÜHÚsÛvÞCçIÜXûfã"íãè=ç`à.çQÝ.ÜkÜFÞGè2÷ ìbçv®FíëÜ÷|æôócsö.Ý.è2Ú.íëçQãvæôÜösûyÛvçM÷CÞ=òcò4è2ÛvÞ2Ü?Ûãvíôíôæôß2Þ2íëàUãHÝsáãm÷Mãvãvãvà.ÞpÞcÜêæôãÜ]÷ à.ûrãä ÜS÷ ö.ösÚ.ÜHÚ.æôéoösæëà.ö»ç'ÝsçDsíôæôéHèCíëèCß=ÛæôàUÜGæëó=ã ì.á2è2ãKmà.Û Þ2ù Ü:Úsá*÷Ûýè2®HÝsÜ÷ó=ì è2ÜHç`Ýså ìGíôé]çÞ=è ÷ Ú. ä åæ÷SìkÜHÛö.ûyçÞ=Úsè æëæëkæôöêÞ6â«ú ö.æëè?íôíwÝãà×÷2ù òcíôÝ.ãvà.ÞCßMíãvçíôçvÞ2Ü'ösÝ»¯Uæë÷Ú.íôÝ ÜHûyùÝsÛíëÞ2é]ÝsÜFò ß ç
j
j
1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3
all "2" bulbs lit ´
Time
1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3
all "3" bulbs lit
1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3
all "1" bulbs lit
ãvÞcÛ íëûß=àUãà.ã mÜXü æëíôß2Þ6àUâ«ãvíôíëÝ.ò?ßpè2çIß2pÜ íô¯=Ý.ÚsÜ:ÜãvÝsà.éíÜç`íö.6ç æôíë®UÝ ù ä íô¶Ý.µGß?îrãçIà.ãvÛÜSíëÝ.çIßcpÜ ¯=Þ2ÚsûÜö.ÝsÚséÜæëösçvçà.èCÞ6Ûâ`ÛÝ»è2Ý.õáUß2ãÜFà.ì?ÜXíëÝUö.ãÚ.Þcæôösècç"éâ`íëÛoíëé]æôæ·æôÜ2èCþ ð.ð$ÜHè2ÛOãÞp÷2òcÞ å ÜH÷SûyÛvÞ=ò4æôÜ]ûrã
j
ä9· C0¸ ÌÍÎ0,-*
ÏiÍ:ÐDoºÍ ¸ ÌÑ.,ÇÌ CECGF * C6HF κÑ
2 3
3 2
2 3
3 2
2 3
èÛ?Ü åé]íôÜHüÛoÛé]çvÞ6æôÜ:Ü:âíwíôûãvÝsàsãvçIà.ãvÜÜFÜSæôè2íëß=ðsì|à=àsÞCãoè2çQûºçvÜSè?è2ð.çIç~ð»Üpã¯=ÛÜFè2ÚsèCíëÛºÜß=ÝsãàUéÞãfÜ:ö$æôíôÞ2ÜÝ.û8Ü ÷Cãªòcà. ÜSÞã:å ö.çIíëÚ.à.ÝsæôÞ=ß=ösÚ.÷Xç`æì|íôíÝGç`éèÛÞ2Ü òcé]å æôÜHÞbÜSÛé çvè2ù ÜHç`â`ì ÝsíçvÞGÜýçIìbÚ.íëÛÛð.ÜHé]ÛãvíôçvíôÞ2ÜÝ?ãvàsö$èCÜHãýéHèCãvÚsà.çvÜÜ`è2ãvð.àsð$ÜÜHócèCèCÛoèCÛÜýÝ»é]èCÜXÛÛÞCè2û^Ý.òcß2ÜFÞCìMãvíôè2Þ2ÛvÝ Þ=Ú.â`Ýsíôæëì æ
3 2
Three-phase AC motor
winding
winding
2a 3a
S
winding winding
1a 1b
winding N winding
3b 2b
ãvÞpãà.ÜSòcÞCãvÞ=ÛHá.è2Ýsì|íwãýâ`íôæôæ·ÛvÚ.Ý íôÝ|ãvà.ÜSÞ=ð.ð»ÞUçIíëãvÜSìbíôÛÜHéãíëÞ=@Ý Â
MONQPJRTSUPJV?W
M +>
vãø ÜÛÝsèC÷CãvíôÝsíôÝ.ìbßcÚsé]òcãvíôè2Þ2ß2ÝsÝ.÷ Üãvè2íÝséJìesÜ÷=æçIì.óçfÝsð.éoà.ÛÞbÛìbÞ2ÝsÚsÞ2é]ÜFÚsì|ç÷?öUòcóêÞCç~ãoãè6Þ2ãvÛoíôçÞ2Ý»â"èCÞ2ÛÛ ó?ù â`öíëóÛÜXàsâ`è å íëÝsíëÝsì.ß|íëÝ.èêßUç ÛvÞ2ãèCãvíôÝ.ßêò?è2ß2Ý.ÜãûyÞ=æëæôÞ6â¬ãà.Ü?èCæ j
« óMíëÝUãÛvÞbìbÚséíëÝsßèXð.àsè2çvÜçvà.íëûrãQÞCû·æôÜHçç^ãvàsè2¢
M
ìbíëÛÜHé]ãvíôÞ2Ý|ÞCû^çIàsèCûrãýÛvÞ2ãèCãvíôÞ2ÝêéHèCÝ ö$ÜSÜHçIãèCösÝ æëíçI®'às(uÜH°uì ºQãvÞSãà.Üýò?èCß=Ý.Ü]ãíô:é »Üæì.çmíôÝGçIÚ»éoàcèòpÞ2ãvÞ=ÛHá2èSì.UÜ sÝ.íëãvÜ j
M
sðíëè2Ýséß2íwãæôÜUÞ2´Û"ð.ãvàsÞGè2çvéÜcÛvÜFíëè6Ý»ãvìbÜÚsãvéàsãÜSíëÞ=Ý.ÝaÜHéòpÜHÞ2ççvãvè2Þ=ÛvÛó?çXÞ2ð.ûrà»ãvè2ÜçvÝaÜXÚsçvçvà.ÜGíëûrã èCÝ×è2Úbñbíëæôíôè2Ûvó&â`íôÝsìbíôÝ.ßeéÞ2Ý.ÝsÜHéãÜHìíëݯçvÜÛíôÜHçXâ`íëãvà×è&éè
j
M
vÛÜ â"å è2Üð.Ûoçvð.íëíôÝ.Ý.ßMßcíwãoèCçýÝócçvàsã~è6âOûrã`ÞcÛ÷CÞCàsãÞCèCããv÷MíôÞ2â`Ý íôÛvÜFçfÞ2Ýêèpð$Þ2æôóð.àsè2çvÜ ø+> òcÞCãÞ2Ûfâ`íëæôæÛÜ å ÜÛoçIÜíwãoçfð.àsè2çvÜXçIÜp¯=ÚsÜÝséÜ2áãvàÚsç
j
vãå Ý.Þ=Þ=ß2íëæwãvãoÜíèCãvèCß=à.æôæëÜ:ÜHóÛçvÞ2âOíëÝaÚ.Ü&Ûoâ`é]ÜÜFñbàsç"ð.èCíôãDæëçýÞ=ÛvíéoçÜFà»ì¯èCé]Þ=Ûoãè2òpà.éÜ&òcãÜíÞ=ÛìbíÝ.HÜHæëÜHèó ì?ÞCù öû:Ý.ókÞ6ãvâ`àsè?ÛvÝ×éÜHÞ2UÜ è2òc´çXð.òcàsãè2à.Þ2çvÜGÝ Ü ÷é]ð»KXÞ=Þ6Ý.÷×â"Ý.ÜÜHîyÞ2ÛGé]ÛMãvçvíôÞ2ób÷2Ý|ç~çIããÜð»èCò?ÛoÞ=÷=íëçcÝUõ:ãöé~Þ2óÞ=Ý.íëésÝ.Þ2íôß=Ý.Ý.Ú.ßcÝ.ÛoÜFè6Þ2éãvÝsãíôÞ2íëÜXÝ.Ý çvß QíìbãÜSà.à.ÛvÞCÜHíûçÜ ÜHé]è2å Þ=éoÞ=Ý.à æwsãoèCçvß2Þ2ß2ÚsÚ.Ü&ÛÛoèCé]çvãvÞ2Ü=íôÞ2Ú.þ Ý Ûoé]ÜFÞCçû
j
+
120 V
∠ 0o
-
- +
120 V
120 V
- ∠ 240o
∠ 120o
+
"line"
+ "line"
+
120 V - 120 V
∠ 0o - ∠ 120o
- "neutral"
120 V
∠ 240o
+
"line"
ãvé àsè2ÜæëæôÛÜHÜMì à.ò?ܺ$%ãèAгà.ó&UÛ ÜÞ2á^ÜmÛ:â`é]ò?à.Þ=ÝsíôèAæôó&ìbÜ?ÚsãvÝ.é]à.ÞCãvÜêÞ=ãXÛâ`ö$ç·ÜcíëæôÝ»ÜHèêè=ìbìbíëÝ.ÝsíôÝ.ÜHß=ÚbßýçSãvèAãÛoâ"à.èCæ^ÜèAò?óýâ`çvûyíôÛvÛvÜÞ=Ücæ å ò¦è6ÜFãvçããà.è2èCÜ éoÛàsÜcå ÜHÞ=ã~ìæwóãoð.èCèCíôß=ã:éHÜmèCãçIæôà.æëÞ=óaÜJÚ.~ÛéÚ.éè2ÜHÝsæëæôçºéÜHãîÿìÒíëâ`Þ=ÑíëÝÝsÓì.ð$Ô íëÞ2UÝ.UíôßUÝU çãS¢õ·íëãv ÝeÝiÞ6âfãvèÎà.èCÜcÛoK+ìòcZèfé]íôÞ=æôìsÞ=Ý.ìbè=Ý.æëìSÜ=ÜFéá8èCãvèCÛÜFÜ^æëì×ãvã~àsóçIÞ2óbð.Ú.çIíôß=éHãvàeèCÜHò|æôæëíëó ã á
Tj
"line"
+ "line"
+
120 V - 120 V
∠ 0o - ∠ 120o
- (no "neutral" wire)
120 V
∠ 240o
+
"line"
ú à.â"ÜHÜ
ݨ ÛvâOÜÜeòpÜFòpè2ÜFçvè2Ú.çvÛÚ.íëÝ.ÛßÜ å ÖÞ=$%æwгãoèC ß21Üè2× ÝsÔ'Øì¨ éÛÚ.Ü]ÛvûyÜHÛÛÜçQÝUãGãvÞDíôÝãvà.ãvÜXàsèCÛvòcÜHUÜ Þ2´ð.ÚsàsÝ=è2ã"çvÞCÜeû çvå óbÞ2ç~æëããÜèCò?ß=Üýçá`òcâ"ÜHè=ÜeçIÚ.ÝsÛÜÜHÜHìGìö»ãvÜÞ¯ã~âOö$ÜHÜÜÝkçvð»è2ÜFÝUé]ópí »ã~éeâ"ÞDè=ç?æôíëÝsãÞÜ
Õ Ó &
é]ä Þ=°uÝs( ìbå ÚsÞ=é]æwãvãoÞ=ç ÛçXíôÓÝ¯Ô è& ös1 è2æôè2× ÝsÔ'é]Ø ÜF ìeÛÜ]ãûyà.ÜÛÛoÜçfÜUã´Þ?ð.àsãvè=à.çIÜ Ü?å çvÞ2óbæëç~ããè2Üß2ò ÜSêòcú ÜHè=íëçIãvÚsàaÛvÜFãì|à.Ükè=é]è2Ûö»Þ=Þçç`å ÜGèCÝé]ókíôÛéÞ=Ú.Ý.íwÜãFá8é]ãÞ=à.òcÜGð»æôÞ=íëÝsÝ.Ü ÜÝUå ãMÞ=æwîïãoçIèCÞ=ß2Ú.ÜcÛéíÜSçSâ`ÛÞ2íëÝ»Ú.ìbß=à.íëÝsæëóß
j
j
Þ2ð.Û?àsè=æôçIÞ=Ü è=ìiå Þ=íôæwòcãoèCð»ß2ÜFÜkì.èCíôÎç Ý»é]® ÜFä õp° íôÝå Þ=èæwãoç ösnèCæèCÝsà.éÜkÜHìiãvÜHÛvãvò?à.Ûç ÜÜ h$%гðsàs¹è2"UçvÚ.Ü&3&çIÞ=ÐÚ.× ÛéèCÜêÝsnìÞ=Û?ÑæëÓÞUÔ è2ì Y"ÙÚ.Þ23&ÛcUÐÛãvàs× ÜûyÞ=é]æëæôíôÞ6ÛéâÚ.íwãvãkàsçvÜ|à.çÞ6èCâ`òcݱÜkèCæôö$Þ2Þß=åíôé2Ü=þ?ámãvãvàsàsÜÜ
j
j
éö$]ÚsÜSÛvÜ'ÛK+ܯUÝUZÚsé]ãèCÞ=çQæ¹Ý.'Ü ãÝ.¯UÞcÜFÚséãvè2ãvà.æsÜFÜSìãÞDðsçvàsð.Þ2è2àsÚsçvè=ÛÜ éçIÜHÜ:å çXÞ2é]æëèCÚ.ãÝsÛè2Ûìß2ÜÜÝUæôÞ=ãvãíôçè2òcHìsÜHçSû8ç"èCãvãvæôà.àsâ"JÜ ÜèAK+óbç&ç¯UZé]ÚsàsÞ=è2è Ý.Ûvå Ý.ÜXÜcÜHÛé]æôÞUãvíëÝ.Þ2ÜFã`ÜìGÞCåçIûGÞ=Þ2Ú.µsæëãÛoþ è2é]ß2ÜýÜHÞ=çÛOß2æôÛÞ=ÜHè=èCìcãvÜHíôÛç"ãösàsè2èCæôè2ÝaÝsð.é]ÜFà»ì·è2á2çvÜãà.å Ü:Þ2æëæëíôãÝ.è2Ü ß2ÜHå çHÞ2á·æëãèCè2Ýsß2ì Üýæôâ`íëÝsíôæëÜ æ
j
»Ï ϦΠ¸ *+,-,/¼ïÍ ¸ ÌÑ.,±ÇÌJZ+¾½ C Ð Z+¿ FUÀ8 *ýÌýÎ F ÐZ:Ñ ä9t
For "Y" circuits:
Eline = 3 Ephase
Ü
vÛç ÜHÞ2çvÚ.ÜÛoÝ òDé]Þ6ÜSösâ"æôÞ=è2Ü ÛýÝså æëÜé]ÞUÛFÜMè2ámì|ãvãÞ|à.ÜÜeãvæôÜàsòc÷ܲKXÜHß:Ý=÷×ãoÛç`Üé]Ü Þ=ãù .ÝÞ2ß2sæôÜ]Üß2ãIãvÚsãà.ÛÜÜHèCÛSÛ ãv"Þ2íôÞ2ûQø ÝÇãvÝ.àsíôÞ2ç?ÜGãvà.ÝsçvÜHè2ÞCÛòpãGéÜpãÞ2à.Ý.ÝsÜsè2ß=òpÞ2Ú.ÝsÜ&Ûoæëè6ó î ãv½ íôå Þ2õè2Ý|=æëííì±ç è Þ2ù ù ÝsÝ.ÜcÜÞ6â`é]ûyæôÞ2Ý&Þ=Ûkçvè2ÜMéçfÝsÞ2ãÝ.ÞCà.ãvÝ.ÜMíÜFé]é÷uÜcãÞíëÞ2Ý.ÜHûOßaæwãoãè.à.ãáà.Üc÷pÛð»ÜûyÞ2UÜÞ=´Ûýæôð.è2íëàsÛvãíëçè=ã~óçIß2Ü ÜHûyÞ2Þ2å òcÛSÞ2æëÜ]ÜFããè2è2Ûvéoß2íà éÜ
Iline = Iphase
â`íôÝsìbíôÝ.ß?íëÝêãvàsÜìbÛèAâ`íôÝ.ßcö$ÜæôÞ6âSþ j
"line"
120 V ∠ 0o
+ -
"line"
- +
120 V 120 V
∠ 240o + - ∠ 120o
éè=çIÜ j
j
ãvèCàsÝ»Üì|7 æëè2ÞÝ.ÛvÞ=QÜÞ=ð Ú.¯UÝsè=Ú.ì.ìêíì|é ãvù à»Ú.è6éoð ãýà.ãvÜHæôQÞ ÞUé ùÞ=ðÜÞCá»Ûû`Þ è2ã-Ýsà.ì íûçDé]ãÞ=íà.çÝsÜçIóãÜpÞe¯UìbÚ.ÚsÞ»ÜçvábTÜÝUãvãvà.áXæôÜHó?ÝíôÛoãéoà.ãvà.à.Üà.ÛÜHÜÞÛvÜS
â`â`Bçíôæëíôææôâºæ8ö$Þ=ö$ÜæwãoÜÝ.èCÝ.ß=ÞGÞÜ éíëål ÛoÞ=é]èAæwÚsâ4ãoæôèCèCß=ãvãvÞÜXíôÝ.è çIßGåÜHè2Üké]íëÚ.æíëèCÛûýÛö.ÜãvæôàsÝUÜ:ãÜGãvÞGãvàsðsãÛvèCÚsÜHÛvÜçIãvà&íôå Ý.éÞ=ß?Ú.æwãoÛvâ`èCÛß=ÜíëãvÝUÜHà çããè2è2à.ÛvÛvÜSÞ=Þ=Ú.Ú.ãvÝsÝsÞ=ðìì
j
ö.ÛÜHè ù þ
ä 4
° C0¸ ÌÍÎ0,-*
ÏiÍ:ÐDoºÍ ¸ ÌÑ.,ÇÌ CECGF * C6HF κÑ
120 V ∠ 0o
+ -
- +
120 V 120 V
∠ 240o ∠ 120o
+ -
æôè6íëãÝ.Ü è|å Ý.Þ2Þbæëãìbè2Ücß2ö$ÜcÜ]â`ã~â"íôæëÜæOÜö»ÝÜêã~'Üâ"¯UÞêÚsèCâ`æmíôÝsãvÞ&ìbíôÝ.ãà.ß=ÜGçHáð.ãàsà.è=ÜcçIÜ æëíôÝ.å ÜGÞ2æëéãÚ.è2ß2ÛvÛÜ Ü¢ÝUãX> â`Þ2Ý íëæôå æºÜHö$ÛçvÜcÜæôãvó2à.á*Ü ö»å ÜFÜFééè2ãÚsÞ2çIÛSÜ?çIÜFÚsè2ò éoàaÞCæôûOíëÝ.ãvÜêà.Üpé]Þ2ã~â"Ý»ìbÞ Ús~éÞ2ãíôÞ2Ý.ÛDíëÝsèCß|ãIãoðsè2àséoà.è2ÜFçvÜç
j
120 V ∠ 0o 10 kW
+ -
- +
120 V 120 V
∠ 240 o
∠ 120o 10 kW 10 kW
+ -
ãvàsÜú é]Ú.íëÛãvÛvà×ÜHÝUÜHãfè=éoíôÝàÜHæôÞ=è=è=éoàkì ð.ÛvÜFàsçIè=íçIç~ãoÜXèCÞ2Ýsû*éÜcãà.ÛvíôÜFçé]é]Üíôí Ûå éíëÚ.Ýsíwßçã`â`® ä íôæë° æ8ö»å Þ=Üæwão(uçXµ ûyµ
ÛvµpÞ=ò èCòcíëãðsçSçHþÛÜHçvð$ÜHéãí å Ü?ð.àsè=çIÜcâ`íôÝsìbíôÝ.ßeè6ãSãà.ÜGçvÞ2Ú.Ûoé]Ü=á
j
»Ï ϦΠ¸ *+,-,/¼ïÍ ¸ ÌÑ.,±ÇÌJZ+¾½ C Ð Z+¿ FUÀ8 *ýÌýÎ F ÐZ:Ñ ä 4®
è
P
I=
E
Ü 10 kW
I=
120 V
Ü
I = 83.33 A (for each load resistor and source winding)
Iline = 3 Iphase
Ü
Iline = 3 (83.33 A)
Ü
Iline = 144.34 A
òcâ"Ü
Þ2 Ûå ÜÜcÞ»ãá=æëàsÞUãèCà.ç~ãpÝÜ:èCÜHãvæôè2à.æºéoÜpãvàkà.æôíëæëÜGÝ.íôÝ.Ü?è=ÜSì éé]åÚ.Ú.èCÛvÛÝUÛÛÜãÜÝUè2ÝUãoß2ãOçÜFçXíôíôÝGÝÞCãû"ãà.à.ãvíôÜà.çOÛãK+Üà.ÜZÛvhé]ÜHð.Þ2UÜ à»Ýs´è2ð.Ý.çvàsÜHÜ?é]è=ãvçIð»ÜHÜÞ6ìð»â"çIÞ6Üóbâ"ÛSçIÜãvà.ÛfÜHÜHò çIÛvóbÜ=â"çIá8ãvß=ÜpÜHíò²å æëÞÜÞíôÝ ç"ù ãvÜHÜ'à.ì¯UÜcÚsèCè2ûÿã:æsè=éãÜFÞTãèCÛã® æëàsíô9
Üè69 Û ãM5µ âO9 7 Ü?èCÝ.òcÜMàsè ðsòpå çHÜ?íôábß2çIàUçIÚ.ÚsãSö»éoâ"ç~àaãoÞ2èCß=ÝsÝUÛvìbãvÜFíÜHè6èCÛãvæôÜHæëíëó Ûû
Vj
j
â"æôé]Þ=Þ=Þ2è2ÝsÚ.ìGìbæìkÚsãvà.é]Ûãví'ÜçfÞ=¯UÛ"Ü'Ú.¯UéíôÚsÚ.ÛÜèCÛvÛãvãÜÜFà.ÝUçQÛãoÜãçÞpÜXáÝ.ÝèpÜFÚ.æôé]òDíwÜHãvãvçö$æôçvÜÜXíwãoÛ Þè6®XåãvíôÜÝ.ßUÛ èCßMÁ ß2ãv4
ÜXà.°é]íé ð$Þ=ù ð.Þ2ÜHð$Ú.ÛHÝ»ÜáUÛì.òcçféÞ2Þ2ÞCÛÝsÜ:û^ìbé]éÚ»Þ2Þ=éðsçIãvãvð»Þ=æôÜHócÛÛOçXâ`ûyîïÞ=íëè6ÛÛ"ã Ü ãv®'à.°uÜX°
à.°Dâ`ÜSà.ûyÜèCÞ=ÜÝ»æëãýÜXçIâ"ÞCçIûºóbÜÛ"çIìbãvíôíôÜHçIç"ò?ãÝ.è2õ]ÞÝsábºé]íwÜXã`ø ö$íæëç`ãvÜ]à.ã~ç~â"Þ=ãíëÚ.Üæôæ·ß2ÜHàêÝæôÜHçãvçvçQà.Þ2ÚsíãçfàsÛéé]èCÜ:íôÝêÛéè2ãvÚ.Ýsàsíëì Üã
j j
ãv®'às°uÜ° °çvé¬è2òpð$Ü Þ2åÚsÞ2Ýsæëì.ãèCç:ß=ÞCÜpûO2î é® Þ2ä ð.° ð$åÜÛ:Þ2æëÛã'Üç`¯Ué]Ú.Þ=íôÝsÛvÜFìbì Úsé]ûyãvÞ2Þ=ÛS2Û hèkãv Þ çv´íôéÝ.Þ2ß2ÝsæôUÜ ìb´Ú»ð.éàsãvè=Þ=çIÛoÜpõ çIóbçIãvÜò ì.Üæôí å ÜÛíëÝ.ßkãvà.ÜcçèCòcÜDð$Þ6âOÜHÛp)î µ ° ùú õèCã j
vÞç ó
QçIõ]ãv7á$ÜHòíôÝ.ÝÜ`á*Þ=ìbè Ûíìbç~Ý.ãÜHÜHíëÛ`Ý»ÚbéãvãvÞãmÛoèCè2ù æºì Üâ`åÜHè2ð íôÛvÝ=Ücãvãoà.èCâfÜMß=è2ÜOð.çXÞ2àsû¹Ý.è=èÜHçIÜHÜ ½ ìbå ÜF´Þ2ìéæëÞ2ãíëÝ.è2ݯÝ.ß2ÜHÜFéHç`éè2ãçvèCÜHÜpãìpÞ=ãçIà.Ý.óbÜDÜcçIãvæôÞCÜÞ=û"ò è=ãvìkà.íôçºûyÜ?ÛíëãÞ2ðsç^ò àsæè2è2éoçvé àsÜ?ù è2æëÞCÝ.ÞUû$ß2è2è:íôì.Ý.çXÝ.ß ÜHâ"ÚbÜãvÛÛoàsÜpèCíôæbçãvâ`Þ|íôçíôûÿÛèCÜÝ.íô8ÞCæmãú Þ=Ý.ð»íëÜHãvÜHà?éݱÜHJèçîÿçvÞ2K+è2ÛÛvZó é]ö$Þ=ÜcîyÝ.Þ2ãvÝ.ÛÚsÜFÛvÜ éÝ.å ãvÜFÜFÜìÝì
j
æôÞ=è2ìêÜæôÜòcÜHÝ=ãoç j
+
winding
failed open! ì∠120 V
120o
120 V 120 V
-
êline
Even with the winding failure in the source,
voltage will still be 120 V and load phase
voltage will still be 120 V. The only difference
ëwill be extra current in the remaining functioning
ó source windings.
û û û û
íîÎï
ðñ nò ïuðó2î ¯ô îð ò îTï Jõ ó&ï ôö ò îQ÷ øyðù.øyðú ;õ øñyøyðúÒïuûÛî'ð ï ö8õ ½ ü ò ï
ððî ò3ý 'î ù#ó&ï ôö ò îQøþó5øyð òö î õ ó&î'ù
ûí õ 2ó î òUôö ö î'ð ý øð ý íî ö îÿ õ øyðøyðú²÷ øyðù.øyðúuó-j+>/ï
ÿ8û õö î ý íøyó ;õô ñ ýý ïuñî ö õ ð ò îI÷ ø ý í
õ K+¶ò ï
ððî òUý î'ù¢ó.ó ý îÿ
ó ô.
î ö øyðú õ ðÎï
û³îð¢ó&ï ôöqò î6÷ øyðù.øyðú þ
208 V
+ +
ì∠ 0Vo
120
- ì∠120 V
120o
- 104 V 104 V
winding
failed open!
ú
ï ö øyú
øyð õ ñªñyøyðîuï
ñ ý õ úuî °u( j
û
;õ øyñ ôö îøyð õBKJüò ï
ððî ò3ý î'ùcó&ï ôöqò î
ø þ û
Yø ý í õ ½ ¶ò ï
ððî òUý î'ùQñï õ ù ý ÷:ï5ï @ý íî ö î'ó&øþó ýqõ ð ò î'ó:ó ô.
î öö î'ù ôÛò î'ù
ïuñ ýqõ ú
îJ÷ íøyñîï
ðî ö îÿ õ øyðó õýý íî
û
K üò ï
ððî ò3ý î'ù ñyï õ ùnó ô.
î ö ó õ ð#î uîðn÷:ï ö ó2î ;õý îT÷ ø ý í ý íîÎó õ ÿ8î=÷ øðÛù.øðú
J
+ +
ì∠ 0Vo
120
- ì∠120 V
120o
104 V 104 V
-
winding 0V
failed open!
MONQPJRTSUPJV?W
¸ *+,-,/¼ ¸ "! Z $
¿ #%! ! CGF ! C6oF 4
µ
M'& íî ò ï
ðÛù ôò3ý ï ö ó ò ïuððî òUý îpù ý ï ý íî ý í ö î'îûÛïuøð ý óï( õ5ý í ö î'î ûí õ ó2îIó&ï ôöqò î6ï ö ñyï õ ù õ
ö î òõ ññyî'ù*),+%Ð.-0/Tj
M'& íî ý í ö îî ò ï
ÿ8ûÛïuðîð ý ó ò ï
ÿ8û ö øþó2øyðú õBý í ö îî ûí õ ó2îIó&ï ôöqò î6ï ö ñyï õ ù õ
ö î òõ ññyî'ù ÑÓÔ / -0/Tj
M "Ö +%.Ð - 121 )× ÔØ - øþó ý íî3uï
ñ ý õ ú
î6ÿî õ ó ôö î'ù54Ûî ý ÷/î'îð õ ð ý ÷:ïñyøyðî'óøyð õBý í ö îî ûí õ ó2î ò ø öqòUô ø ý j
M ÓÔ /0- 121 )× ÔØ -Bøyó ý íî6uï
ñ ý õ úuî8ÿî õ ó ôö î'ù õ
òö ïó&ó õ ó&øðú
ñyî ò ï
ÿ8û³ï
ðî'ð ý øð õÎý í ö î'î ûí õ ó2î=ó&ï ôöqò î8ï ö
ñï õ ù j
M "Ö +%.Ð -87Ú 9:9-UÐÛ×\øyó ý íî òUôö&ö îð ý:ý í ö ï ô úuí õ ð=ï
ðîñyøðî34Ûî ý ÷/î'îð õ5ý í ö îî ûí õ ó&î6ó&ï ôöqò î õ ðùQñyï õ ùj
M ÓÔ /0-7UÚ 9:9-Ð×Gøþó ý íî òôö ö î'ð ý+ý í ö ï ô úuí õ ðcï
ðî ò ïuÿ8ûÛïuðîð ý6ò ï
ÿ8û ö øyó&øyðú õ²ý í ö îî ûí õ ó2îó2ï ôöqò îï ö
ñï õ ù j
M<; < ð 4 õ ñ õ ð ò î''ù = K = ò ø ö òô ø ý >ó ñøyð?
î
ï
ñ ý õ ú
î=øþó5î ¯ôõ ñ ý ïçûí õ ó2î5
ïuñ ýqõ ú
î ý øÿ8îpó ý íîcó ¯ôõ
ö î ö ïï ý ï@( µ
÷ íøñyîñøyðî òôö&ö îð ý øþóî ¯ôõ ñ ý ï²ûí õ ó2î òUôö&ö îð ý j
Eline = 3 Ephase
Ü
M Iline = Iphase
M<; ðA4 õ ñ õ ð ò î'ùn½ ò ø ö òô ø ý ó 0ñyøðî6
ïuñ ýqõ ú
î8øþóî ¯uôÛõ ñ ý ïûí õ ó2îBuï
ñ ý õ ú
îH÷ íøyñî=ñyøyðî òôö&ö îð ý øþóî ¯uôÛõ ñ ý ï
ûí õ ó&î òUôö ö îð ý/ý ø8
ÿ îpó ý í îó ¯ôõö î ö ïï ý ï( µ j
& íïó2î6ó2î ý ó:ï@(oû ö øyÿ õö õ ðùQó&î ò ï
ðù õö 5÷ øyðù.øyðúuó:÷ øyññW4³î ò ï
ððî òUý î'ùQøðTîø ý íî ö ½
ï :
ö K ò ï
ð ú ôöqõý øïuðó
ý ï5( ï ö ÿ õTò ï
ÿ8ûñyî ý î ô ðø ý j & íîX õ
ö øyï ô ó ò ïuÿP4øyð õý øïuðóJï@(-÷ õ .ó ý í õý6ý íîpó2î÷ øðÛù.øðúuó ò õ ðY4Ûî ò ïuððî ò3ý îpù
ý ïuú
î ý íî ö øðc÷ øyññ4³î ý íîZ( ï òô ó ï@( ý íøyó ó&î òUý øyï
ðnj
[Yíî ý íî ö8ý íîc÷ øyðù.øyðúnó2î ý ó²ó&í õö î õçò ïuÿ8ÿïuð ò ï ö î õ ó&ó&îÿX4ñnï ö î õuò íO÷ øyðù.øyðú û õ ø ö øyó õ &ó îû õ
ö õý î
ý&öqõ ðÛMó ( ï ö ÿ8î ö ý íîI÷ øyðù.øyðú ò ï
ððî ò3ý øïuðTïuû ý øyï
ðó õ
ö î ý íîó õ ÿîS
M KE-K
M KE ½
M ½ ªK
M ½ ½
& íî ö î õ ó2ïuðóU( ï öò íïïuó&øðú õcK ï ö ½ ò ï
ð ú ôöqõý øïuðl( ï öý ö õ ðóL( ï ö ÿî ö ÷ øðÛù.øðú ò ïuððî ò3ý øyï
ðÛó õö î ý íî
õó ÿ8î õ óm( ï öJõ ðTï ý íî öý í ö î'î ûí õ ó&î õ ûûñø òõý øyï
ð
S K^ò ï
ððî ò3ý øïuðóû ö ï2øyùî ý íî5ï
ûû³ï ö&ý&ô ðø ý 5( ï ö ÿ ô ñ ý øyûñyî
ïuñ ýqõ úuî'ó>u÷ íøyñyîB½ ò ïuððî òUý øyï
ðóî'ð R ï2 õ íøyú
íî ö ñî>
îñ\ï( ö îñyø õ 4øñyø ý ø(Gïuðî÷ øðÛù.øðúX( õ øñþóï
û³îðf ý íîIï ý íî ö
ý ÷:ï ò'õ ðcó ý øñyñ@ÿ õ øyð ý õ øð5( ô ñyñ@ñøyðî3uï
ñ ý õ úuî'ó ý ï ý íîIñï õ ù j
A ö ï 4 õ 4ñ ý íî+ÿ8ïuó ý øyÿ8ûÛï ö2ýqõ ð ý/õ ó&û³î ò3ý ï@( ò ïuððî ò3ý øyðú ý í ö îî+ó&î ý óªï@(@û ö øyÿ õö õ ðÛù=ó2î ò ïuðù õö ÷ øyðù.øyðúuó
ý ïuú
î ý íî ö+ý 5 ï ( ï ö ÿ õQý í ö îî ûí õ ó&î ý ö õ ðóM( ï ö ÿ8î ö 4 õ ð K øþó õý2ý îð ý øyï
ð ý ïÎû ö ïuûÛî ö ÷ øðùøðúÎûí õ ó2øyðúl ý íî8ùï ý ó
ô ó&î'ù ý ïIù.î'ðï ý % î =
ûÛïuñ õ
ö ø ý =ï (Û÷ øyðù.øyðúuó jn î'ÿî'ÿP4³î ö0ý íîû ö ïuûÛî ö ûí õ ó&î ö î'ñ õý øyï
ðó&íøyûóH4Ûî ý ÷/î'îð ý íî ûí õ ó&î
÷ øyðù.øyðúuóï (½ õ ðù K S
¸ ¼ ¸
! o "! Z $
¿ #%! ! CGF ! C6oF 4u4
+∠0 -
o
ß î ý&ý øyðú ý íøyóBûí õ ó2øyðú ò ï ö&ö î òUý ÷ íîð ý íî=÷ øyðù.øyðúuó õö îð
q ý ó2íï÷ ðçøyð ö îú ô ñ õ
öK ï ö ½ ò ïuð ú ôö õý øyï
ð
òõ ð54³î ý&ö ø òrK jl@î ý ÿ8îIøyññ ô ó ý&öqõý îS
A1
B1
C1
T1 T2 T3
A2
B2
C2
Y-Y
t
A1
B1
C1
N1
u u u
T1 T2 T3
N2
t
A2
B2
C2
vï ý îTíï÷ õ ñyñ ý íîT÷ øyðù.øyðúÒîðùó5ÿ õöFK îpù ÷ ø ý í ù.ï ý ó õö î ò ïuððî òUý îpù ý ï ý íî'ø öö î'ó&ûÛî ò3ý ø
îQûí õ ó&î'ó O
« õ ðùÒ>Û÷ íøñyî ý íî5ðï
ð ù.ï ý îðùó õ
ö î ò ï
ððî ò3ý î'ù ý ï
úuî ý íî öý ïB( ï ö ÿ ý íî ò î'ð ý î ö óï(ªî õ
ò íY= K =.j+Ý õ øyðú
U
4³ï ý íÎû ö øÿ õ
ö õ ðÛùQó&î ò ïuðù õ
ö ÷ øðÛù.øðú8ó&î ý ó ò ï
ððî òUý î'ùQøð?= K =D( ï ö ÿ õý øïuðó õ ñyñï÷óo( ï ö:ý íî ô ó&î6ï@(oðî ô.ý&öqõ ñ
ò ïuðù ôòUý ï ö óZwvZx õ ðÛù5vy øyðcî õ
ò íTûÛï÷:î ö ó.ó ý îÿj
÷ .÷:î q ñyñ ý @õ K î õ ñyïï KQõý+õ5K+ ½ ò ïuð ú ôö õý øyï
ð
S
vï3
Y-∆
t
A1
B1
C1
N1
u u u
T1 T2 T3
t
A2
B2
C2
vï ý îíï÷ ý íîBó&î ò ïuðù õ
ö T÷ øðùøðúóDz4³ï ý&ý ïuÿ ó&î ý: õö î ò ïuððî ò3ý îpùcøð õ²ò í õ øyð
ý íîP=uù.ï ý q ==ó&øþù.îIï@(ï
ðî
÷ øyðù.øyðú ò ïuððî ò3ý îpù ý ï ý íî=
ðï
ð ù.ï ý =ó2øþù.îï( ý íîðî0{ ý ( ï ö ÿ8øðú ý íîJ½¾ñïïuûnj O ý î uî ö ò ïuððî òUý øyï
ð²û³ï
øyð ý
4³î ý ÷:îîð²û õ ø ö ó-ï@(<÷ øðÛù.øðúuó> õò ï
ððî ò3ý øïuð²øyó-ÿ õ ù.î ý ï õ ñyøyðî+ï( ý íîJó&î ò ï
ðù8û³ï÷:î ö ó.ó ý îÿ| O «U õ ðùT> j
}
t
∆-Y
A1
B1
C1
u u u
T1 T2 T3
N2
t
A2
B2
C2
Iôò í ¢ õ ò ï
ð ú ôöqõý øyï
ðÒ÷/ï ô ñþù õ ññyï÷~( ï öý íî=û ö ï2øþó&øïuðÒï(:ÿ ô ñ ý øûñî6uï
ñ ý õ ú
î'óJ;ñøyðî ]ý ï ñyøyðî²ï ö ñyøyðî ]ý ï
ðî ô.ý&öqõ ñ øð ý íîó2î ò ï
ðÛùQû³ï÷/î ö Ló .ó ý î'ÿ?( ö ï
ÿ õ ó2ï ôö ò îJû³ï÷:î ö óL.ó ý î'ÿ í õ øyðú5ðïðî ô.ý ö õ ñj
O ðÛù ð õ ñyñ.÷/î ý ôö ð ý ï ý íîB½ ½ ò ïuð ú ôö õý øyï
ð
S
∆-∆
A1
B1
C1
T1 T2 T3
A2
B2
C2
[Yíî'ð ý íî ö îIøþóðï²ðî'î'ù5( ï öJõ ðî ô.ý ö õ ñ ò ïuðù ô òUý ï ö ø ð ý íîó2î ò ïuðù õ ö =û³ï÷/î ö óL.ó ý î'ÿ?³½ ½ ò ï
ððî òUý øyï
ð
ó ò íîÿ8î'ó õ
ö î6û ö î0( î ö&ö î'ù54Ûî òõ
ô ó2îï( ý íîIøðíî ö îð ý ö î'ñø õ 4ø ñyø ý Qï@( ý íî½ ò ï
ð ú ôöqõý øïuðnj
>/ï
ðÛó2øþù.î ö øyðú ý í õýJõ ½ ò ïuð ú ôö õý øyï
ð òõ ðcï
û³î öqõý î5ó õý øþóM( õuò3ý ï ö øyñQÿ8øyó ó&øðúQï
ðî÷ øyðù.øyðúj³ó&ï
ÿ8îIû³ï÷/î ö
óó ý î'ÿ ù.îpó2øyú
ðî ö ó ò íïïuó&î ý ï òUö î õý î õý í ö î'î ûí õ ó2î ý&öqõ ðÛóM( ï ö ÿ8î ö 4 õ ð K ÷ ø ý í¢ï
ðñ ý ÷:ï ý&öqõ ðóL( ï ö ÿ8î ö ó ö îû
ö î'ó&îð ý øyðú õ ½ ½ ò
ï ð ú ôöqõý øyï
ðT÷ ø ý í õ ÿøþó ó2øyðú8÷ øðÛù.øðúøyð4Ûï ý í ý íîIû ö øyÿ õö õ ðÛùTó&î ò ï
ðù õ
ö =ó&øþù.î'ó>S
s C0¸T !
'U#Do ¸ V CECGF ! C6HF
"Open ∆"
A1
B1
C1
T1 T2
A2
B2
C2
& íøþó ò ïuð ú ôö õý øyï
ðøyó ò'õ ñyñîpù8= â =6ï ö =JûÛî'ð ½bj =DT( ò ï ôö ó&îî õuò í5ï( ý íî ý ÷:ï ý ö õ ðóL( ï ö ÿî ö óGí õ uî ý ï34³î
ï2
î ö ó&øNî'ù ý ïí õ ðÛù.ñî ý íîó õ ÿî õ ÿ8ï ô ð ý ï(û³ï÷/î ö0õ ó ý í ö îîøyð õ ó ý õ ðÛù õö ù5½ ò ï
ð ú ôöqõý øïuð
_4 ô.ýý íî:ï2uî öqõ ñyñ
ó&ø N'î.÷:îøyú
í ý õ ðù ò ïuó ýõ ù õ ð ýqõ ú
îpó õö îJï( ý îðc÷:ï ö&ý íTø ý jª«/î õö øyðTÿ8øyðùíï÷/î>
î ö ý í õý ÷ ø ý íÎïuðî÷ øðÛù.øðú
ó&î ý ÿ8øþó&ó&øyðú6( ö ï
ÿ ý íî8½ ó&í õ û³î ý íøyó6óL.ó ý î'ÿ ðïQñyï
ðúuî ö û ö ï2øþù.î'ó ý íîX( õô ñ ý6ý ï
ñyî öqõ ð ò îï( õ ðï ö ÿ õ ñ0½ ½
ó ó ý î'
ÿ j ; (Hï
ðî6ï@( ý íî ý ÷/ï ý&öqõ ðóL( ï ö ÿ8î ö óª÷:î ö î ý ïD( õ øyñ ý íî6ñï õ ùBuï
ñ ý õ ú
î õ ðù òôö ö î'ð ý ÷/ï ô ñþù=ù.î ðø ý îñ64³î
õ î òUý îpù j
2
Y
² ï
ðÛó2øþù.î öJõ=ò ø ö òô ø ý ( ï öJõ ó2øyðúuñî ³]ûí õ ó&î O ² ûÛï÷:î ö ó.ó ý îÿ÷ íî ö î õ±´ µJ
ïuñ ý Û ·µQÝCN O ² uï
ñ ý õ úuîIó2ï ôö ò î
øþó ù.îñyøuî ö øðúû³ï÷:î ö:ý ï õö î'ó&øyó ý ø
î6ñï õ ùS
120 V · ¶
¶ R 60 Ω
60 Hz
¸
ZR = 60 + j0 Ω or 60 Ω ∠ 0o
¹ E
I= ¸
Z
120 V
I= ¶
60 Ω
¹
I=2A
; ð ý íøþóIî0{ õ ÿûñî ý íî òUôö ö î'ð ý6ý ï ý íî²ñyï õ ù¹÷:ï ô ñþù*4Ûî5 õ ÿûÛó fnTº I j & íîû³ï÷:î ö ù.øþó&ó&øyû õý î'ù õýIý íî
ñyï õ ù8÷:ï ô ñyùJ4³îU@»µ÷ õý2ý ój"¼:î ò'õô ó&î ý íøyó/ñï õ ùøþó-û ôö î'ñ ö îpó2øþó ý ø
îD ðï ö î õ
òUý õ ð ò î ý íî òôö ö î'ð ý øþó/øð=ûí õ ó&î
÷ ø ý í ý íîBuï
ñ ý õ ú
î õ ðù òõ ñ òUô ñ õý øyï
ðó6ñyïï K ó&øÿ8øyñ õ
öJý ï ý í õý øð õ ðçî>½ ô ø õ ñyîð ýÞZ²¾ò ø öqòUô ø ý j ; (÷/î8÷:î ö î ý ï
ûñyï ý ý í3î
ïuñ ýqõ ú
î òUôö ö î'ð ý õ ðùÎû³ï÷/î ö ÷ õ uî0( ï ö ÿ²ó¾( ï öý íøyó ò ø öqòUô ø ý .ø ý ÷:ï ô ñþùTñïï K ñø K î ý íøyó>S
s@¿
·
µ ¸
À T U !ÁÁ'#DÂ !¿ Àmm#%!
e=
i=
p=
+
Time
vï ý î ý í õý0ý íî÷ õ
î ( ï ö ÿ( ï ö ûÛï÷:î ö øþó õ ñy÷ õ .óHûÛïó2ø ý ø
îðî uî ö ðî'ú õý ø
îÃ( ï ö0ý íøþó ö î'ó&øyó ý ø
î ò ø ö òô ø ý j & íøyó
ÿ8î õ ðó ý í õý ûÛï÷:î ö øþó õ ñ÷ õ .ó$4Ûî'øðú²ù.øþó ó2øyû õý î'ù4 ý íî ö î'ó&øyó ý ø
î6ñï õ ù õ ðù=ðî
î ö ö î ý&ôö ðîpù ý ï ý íîIó2ï ôö ò î
õ óªø ý øyó÷ ø ý í ö î õ
ò3ý øuîñï õ ùó-j ; ( ý íîJó&ï ôöqò î÷:î ö î õ ÿ8î ò í õ ðø òõ ñú
îðî öqõý ï ö ø ý ÷:ï ô ñþù ý õK îT@»µ6÷ õý2ý óª÷:ï ö&ý í
ï@(0ÿ8î ò í õ ðø òõ ñ\î'ðî ö ú õ 4³ï ô.ý3´2µ íï ö ó&îû³ï÷/î örý ï ý&ôö ð ý íîó&í õ ( ý j
O ñþó&ïTðï ý î ý í õýJý íî8÷ õ uî0( ï ö ÿ( ï ö û³ï÷/î ö øþó6ðï ýõý6ý íî8ó õ ÿ8îP( ö îĽ ô îð ò õ ó ý íîJuï
ñ ý õ úuîï öIòôö&ö îð ýpÂ
n õý íî ö <ø ý ó ( ö >î ½ ô îð ò ¢øþJ ó Å 1 ÚÇÆ )- ý í õý ï@(-î'ø ý íî ö6ý íîJ
ï
ñ ý õ ú
î5ï öòUôö ö î'ð ý ÷ õ
î0( ï ö ÿ²ó-j & íøyóù.ø î ö îð ý ( ö î ³
½ ô îð ò nû ö ï
íø 4ø ý ó8ï ôö 0 î {.û ö î'ó ó2øyï
ð#ï (Jû³ï÷/î ö øyð õ ð O ²Æò ø ö òô ø ý8ô ó2øyðú ý íî¢ó õ ÿ8î ò ï
ÿ8ûñyî0{ ö î ò3ýqõ ðú ô ñ õ
ö
ï ö ûÛïuñ õ
rö ðï ýqõý øyï
ð õ ó ô ó&î'l ù ( ï ö uï
ñ ý õ úuî òUôö ö îð ý õ ðù#øÿ8û³î'ù õ ð ò îH4³î ò'õô ó&î ý íøþóD( ï ö ÿÉï@( ÿ õý íîÿ õý ø³
òõ ñLó ÿP4³ï
ñyøþó2ÿ§øyÿ8ûñyøîpó ô ð ò í õ ðú
øyðúQûí õ ó&î ö î'ñ õý øyï
ðó&íøyûó jP[Yíî* ð ( ö Äî ½ ô îð ò øîpó õö îBðï ýý íî²ó õ ÿ8î@ûí õ ó&î
ö îñ õý øyï
ðÛó2íøyûó ò ïuðó ý õ ð ý ñ ò í õ ðúuî j
O ó ó ý&öqõ ðú
î õ óø ý ÿ õ Qó2î'î ÿ ý í3 î 4Ûîpó ý ÷ õ ý ï²û ö ï ò îî'ùT÷ ø ý í O ² û³ï÷:î ö òõ ñ òô ñ õý øyï
ðóøþó ý ï ô ó2J î / 7 Ô ) Ô 9
ðï ý õý øïu
ð õ ðÛù ý ï8í õ ðùñî õ ð ö îñy î õ ð ý ûí õ ó&î ö îñ õý øïuðó&íøûÛó÷ ø ý í ý ö øyú
ïuðï
ÿ8î ý&ö j
Ùï öò ïuÿû õö øyó&ï
ð ñyî ý q ó ò ï
ðó&øyùî öõ ó2øyÿ8ûñyî O ²Yò ø öqòUô ø ý ÷ ø ý í õ û ôö î'ñ ö î õ
ò3ý ø uîñï õ ù S
120 V È
¶ L 160 mH
60 Hz
É
XL = 60.319 Ω
¹ E
I= ¸
Z
120 V
I= ¶
60.319 Ω
¹
I = 1.989 A
ÁÁÁ<#DÂ !ÊMË! $ Ê HÊ_Ì Í ËTÎÏ! ¾ ÀmHÊ_Ì Í ÀÐÀHÊM!ZÀUÑÒÊ @Ó ´
e=
i=
+ p=
Ô
Time
vï ý î ý í õý/ý íî6û³ï÷/î ö-õ ñ ý î ö ð õý îpóªî>½ ôõ ññ84Ûî ý ÷/î'îð ò ò ñîpóªï(@ûÛïó2ø ý ø
î õ ðù²ðî'ú õý ø
îÕ & íøþóªÿ8î õ ðó ý í õý
û³ï÷/î ö øþó"4³îøyðú õ ñ ý î ö ð õý îñ õ 4Ûó2ï ö 4³î'ùZ( ö ï
ÿ õ ðù ö î ý&ôö ðîpù ý ï ý íî ó2ï ôö ò îÕ ; ( ý íî ó2ï ôö ò î/÷:î ö î õ ÿ8î ò í õ ðø òõ ñ
ú
î'ðî öqõý ï ö uø ý ÷/ï ô ñþù ý õK î8 û öqõ
òUý ø òõ ñyñ ðïðî ý ÿ8î ò í õ ðø òõ ñ³î'ðî ö ú ý ï ý ôö ð ý íîó&í õ ( ý 4³î òõ
ô ó&îJðïû³ï÷/î ö
÷:ï ô ñþ ù 4³î ô ó&î'? ù 4 ý íîñï õ ùÕ & íîIúuîðî ö õý ï ö ó&í õ ( ý ÷:ï ô ñyù54ÛîBî õ ó ý ï=ó&ûøyð
õ ðù ý íîIøyðù ôòUý ï ö ÷/ï ô ñyùTðï ý
4³î ò ïuÿ8î6÷ õö ÿ õ ó õ5ö î'ó&øþó ý ï ö ÷/ï ô ñþùÕ
Load
È
Lload 160 mH
120 V
¶
60 Hz
· ¶
Rload 60 Ω
@Ó À"Ö U !ÁÁ'#DÂ !× Àmm#%!
É
XL = 60.319 Ω
¸
ZL = 0 + j60.319 Ω or 60.319 Ω ∠ 90o
¸
ZR = 60 + j0 Ω or 60 Ω ∠ 0o
¸
Ztotal = 60 + j60.319 Ω or 85.078 Ω ∠ 45.152o
Ø
¹ E
I= ¸
Z
¹ 120 V
I=
85.078 Ω
¹
I = 1.410 A
O ýJõ ( ö >î ½ ô î'ð ò Îï@(oÓµBÙCN ý íî ´ Óµ8ÿ8øyññyøíîð ö .óï@(øyðù ôòUý õ ð ò î5ú
ø
î'ó ô óÓµÚÕ Û ´ ¿JÜï(ªøðù ôò3ý øuî ö î õ
ò ³
ý õ ð ò îÕ & íøyó ö î õuò3ýqõ ð ò î ò ï
ÿP4øðîpó÷ ø ý í ý íîBÓµ±Ü±ï@( ö î'ó&øþó ýqõ ð ò î ý ï( ï ö ÿ õTý ï ýqõ ññyï õ ùøyÿû³î'ù õ ð ò î²ï@($Óµ
Ý R ÓµÇÕ Û ´ ¿6ÜU³ï ö sÚÕ µÞ2BÜàß »s Õ ´ sáÄÕ ; (/÷/îq ö îðï ý6ò ïuð ò î ö ðî'ùc÷ ø ý íûí õ ó&î õ ðú
ñyî'óP;÷ íø ò í÷/îq ö îðï ý6õý
ý íøyóBûÛïuøð rý H÷:î²ÿ õ ò'õ ñ òUô ñ õý î òUôö ö î'ð ý øð ý íî ò ø ö òô ø ý 4 ý õK øðú ý íî²û³ï
ñ õö ÿ õ úuðø ý&ô ù.î²ï( ý íî6uï
ñ ý õ ú
î
ó&ï ôöqò ± î ´ @µuï
ñ ý ó õ ðùnù.ø øyùøðú¢ø ý X ÿ ý íî=û³ï
ñ õö ÿ õ úuðø ý&ô ù.î²ï( ý íî=øyÿ8ûÛîpù õ ð ò îs Õ µÞ@±Ü Õ?[Yø ý í õ
ö ô q
ý õ
û³ï÷/î ó ûûñ ?
ïuñ úuîJï ( @µ8
ïuñ C ´ ý ó nCº I Ûï ôö ñyï õ ù òUôö ö î'ð ý øþó ´ Õ » ´ µ õ ÿ8ûó>Õ & íøþó øþó ý íî3âú ôö î õ ðnTº I
õ ÿ8ÿ8î ý î ö ÷:ï ô ñþùTøðùø ò'õý îIø ( ò ï
ððî òUý î'ùTøyðcó&î ö øyî'ó÷ ø ý í ý íî ö î'ó&øþó ý ï ö õ ðùTøyðù ôòUý ï ö Õ
[çî õ ñ ö î õ Ú ù K ðï÷ ý í õýö î õ
ò3ý ø uî ò ïuÿ8ûÛïuðîð ý ó6ù.øþó&ó&øyû õý P
î Nî ö ïQûÛï÷:î ö õ ó ý íî ¢îĽ ôÛõ ñyñ õ 4ó&ï ö 4¢û³ï÷/î ö
( ö ï
ÿ õ ðù ö î ý&ôö ð¹û³ï÷:î öJý Çï ý íî ö îpó ý @ï ( ý íî ò ø ö òô ø ý Õ & íî ö î ( ï ö î õ ð cøyðù ôòUý ø
î ö î õ
òUý õ ð ò îBøyð ý íøþóñï õ ù
÷ øyññ³ñø K î'÷ øyó&î+ù.øþó ó2øyû õý C î Nî ö ïIû³ï÷:î ö Õ & íîJï
ðñ ý íøyðúñy0î ( ý:ý ïBùøyó ó2øyû õý îû³ï÷/î ö íî ö î+øyó ý íî ö îpó2øþó ý ø uîû³ï ö&ý øyï
ð
ï ( ý íîñyï õ ù=øyÿû³î'ù õ ð ò î Õ ; (H÷:îñïï K=õý:ý íîI÷ õ
î ( ï ö ÿ^ûñyï ý ï (Ò
ïuñ ýqõ úuî òUôö ö î'ð ý õ ðÛù ý ï ý õ ñ<ûÛï÷:î ö ( ï öý íøyó
@
ò ø öqòUô ø ý ÷:îIó2î'îíï÷ ý íøyó ò ï
X ÿ 4øyð õý øïuðT÷:ï Fö K ó S
e=
+ i=
p=
Time
-
O óJ÷ ø ý í õ ð ö î õuò3ý ø
î ò ø ö òô ø ý ý íîûÛï÷:î ö6õ ñ ý î ö ð õý îpóT4³î ý ÷:îî'ðûÛïó2ø ý ø
î õ ðùðîú õý ø
îBøðó ý õ ð ý õ ðîï ô ó
õ ñ ô î'ó+ï2
î öý øyÿîÕ ; ð õ û ôö îñ ö î õuò3ý ø
î ò ø öqòUô ø ý ý í õýõ ñ ý î ö ð õý øyï
ð?4Ûî ý ÷/î'îð¢û³ïuó&ø ý øuî õ ðùcðîú õý ø
îû³ï÷/î ö
øþó5îĽ ôõ ñyñnù.øøyùî'ù ö îpó ô ñ ý øyðúçøð õ ðî ý ûÛï÷:î ö ù.øþó&ó&øû õý øyï
ðOï@(N'î ö ïÇÕAÙï÷:î uî ö 0øð ò ø ö òô ø ý ó5÷ ø ý í ÿ8ø{îpù
ö î'ó&øyó ý õ ð ò î õ ðÛù ö î õ
ò3ýqõ ð ò îñø K î ý íøyó+ï
ðî ý íîûÛï÷:î ö ÷ õ
î ( ï ö ÿ ÷ øyññoó ý øyñyñ õ ñ ý î ö ð õý î34³î ý ÷:îî'ðcûÛïó2ø ý ø
î õ ðù
ðî'ú õý ø uî 4 ôýý íî õ ÿ8ï ô ð ý ï@(JûÛïó2ø ý ø
îÎûÛï÷:î ö ÷ øyññ î { ò îîpù ý íî õ ÿ8ï ô ð ý ï@(+ðî'ú õý ø
îQû³ï÷:î ö Õ ; ð ï ý íî ö
÷:ï ö ù ó ý íî ò ïuP ÿ 4øyðîpùcøðù ôò3ý ø uî ö î'ó&øþó ý ø uîIñï õ ù¢÷ øyññ ò ïuðó ô ÿ8îÿ8ï ö îûÛï÷:î ö+ý í õ ðø ý6ö î ý ôö ðÛóC4 õuòrKQý ï ý íî
ÁÁ ãÇ"!8Ñ Cä ! o ÀmHÊ_Ì mäÚ ËÎ o ! ËX'#D ! @ÓÛ
ô<; ð õ û ô ö îñ ö î'ó&øyó ý ø
î ò ø öqòUô ø ý õ ñyñ ò ø öqòUô ø ý ûÛï÷:î ö øþó²ù.øþó&ó&øû õý îpù'4 ý íî ö î'ó&øyó ý ï ö ) ó ÕVü ïuñ ýqõ úuî õ ðù
òUôö ö î'ð ý
õ ö îøyðÎûí õ ó&î÷ ø ý íÎî õ
ò íÎï ý íî ö Õ
ô<; ð õ û ôö îñ ö î õuò3ý øuî ò ø ö òô ø ý 0ðï ò ø öqòUô ø ý ³û ï÷/î ö øyó5ù.øþó&ó&øû õý îpùè4 ý í îQñyï õ ù
;ó ÕYn õ ý íî ö Gû³ï÷/î ö øyó
õ ñ ý î ö ð õý îñ õ 4Ûó2ï ö 4³î'ù6( ö ïuÿ õ ðù ö î ý ôö ðî'ù ý ï ý íî O ² ó2ï ôöqò îÕ"üïuñ ýqõ
ú î õ ðÛù òôö&ö îð ýõ ö îZ¿µ á ï ô.ý ï@(
ûí õ ó&î÷ ø ý ícî õ
ò íÎï ý íî ö Õ
ô<; ð õ²ò ø öqòUô ø ý+ò ï
ðó&øyó ý øyðú²ï( ö î'ó&øyó ý õ ð ò î õ ðù ö î õ
ò3ýqõ ð ò îÿø{.î'ù ý íî ö îI÷ øyñyñ
4ÛîBÿï ö îû³ï÷/î ö ù.øþó&ó&øû õý îpù
4 ý íîñï õ ù
)ó @ý í õ ð ö î ý&ôö ðî'ù
24 ô.ý ó&ï
ÿ8î/û³ï÷:î ö ÷ øñyñù.î0âÛðø ý îñD4³îùøyó ó2øyû õý î'ù õ ðùó&ï
ÿ8î/÷ øyñyñ.ÿî ö î'ñ
4Ûî õ 4ó2ï ö 4³î'ù õ ðÛù ö î ý ôö ðî'ùÕHüï
ñ ý õ ú
î õ ðù òôö&ö îð ý øyð8ó ôò í õIò ø öqòUô ø ý ÷ øñyñÇ4³î ï ô.ý ï(³ûí õ ó&î%4 õ õ ñ ô î
ó2ïuÿî'÷ íî ö U î 4Ûî ý ÷/î'îð±µá õ ðÛù5¿µá_Õ
#;""'3C'½A9<,A"'>"' #e#;9<( ,#W21/,+>,C ,F (*9 1 F D ' $S4-&D ,<( Z$ 9<#;54 &4 # A &D 4T.f < '36ò 1 )ð@9
îBð ïìÇ+íëgÇH Å-0/ F /C 4T.^ +G/,M' $ C1'><,". (,C,9<+3, (*/ $S4 /, 1# Õ¾ç/,J'><#;,<( 1F '( ; q $ (&+)(?9+)!'><C"9
4 /! ¾ (0/ $ (?9 A , D #;')#;@( ,F ; $ 9<#;N9<# 4 /,+) $ C1'>"9 D (0/1N(?9 A F , D </ $S +3.U <
= ,+ =/,3 =' $ C1'><,". = 4 /,""'3/,h@/ ( (*9" AÄÕ ; ( ; q $ (&+)(?9+)!'><Ce 44 A 4 /! (0/ $ 21/,+>C , D
' $I4-&D <( ,F 4-/ / ( # (0/, $S +>.Y(*/ $S4 + {*½A9<,1'V' # $ 9<#;34 &D 9<( ED /^ '3 4 /,+) $ C,<'V9 D #
(0/, #(*+)M,"'> $S "')@ (Õ
& , # 2 + 4 /! ½A9<!'>/1<#O +)!'><C * [. 4@ #B/( 4 /! O/ #"'3#;,<( 1F 1(,<( 1F , D
' $I4-&D <( 7:+3+G9<#"'><CW#"(&+)m ½A9<A"'>"' #:= S
Ø 2
2 E
P = true power P=I R P=
R
Measured in units of Watts
120 V · ¶
¶ no R 60 Ω
60 Hz reactance
¹ Load
I = 1.410 A
È
Lload 160 mH
É
XL = 60.319 Ω
120 V
¶
60 Hz
· ¶
Rload 60 Ω
n # * [. 4- #x/ -l 4 !/ z"9 ,F ,('>2 ,F , D 44 , 1zR +3 "/%/, </ < x'>I"'3C,/1/ $S "')(
l /, $ ÕP &( +3+ ')# òt
B? ë ð2ìïu ?{
b ÓÓ À"ÖJJ8cxBÁÁ1dX5DÂ
B×DÀMcM
Impedance
phase angle
ô Kx/! D '3##"' 4 ED oA.SR+3/1 D '3#B *l0 ED "/1#Cë H òt
B? ÕOn_"9 J4 /! O'3#6#". $ o@/1+>'3 ED oT. + "
Kf, D '3# $S ,#"9 ED '3e 9<'VN/ l !"#R7:~=:Õ
ô Kx/! $I +>.o@#;/1"o &D D "9 ED '>m+3/1 D
D 9 /
'># ,(?"'32 U4 / 4- ""' #')# *l0 ED /Z1#
" ð, ë ñ ò<t
B* Õ| 1('>2 4 /! 5')#%#;. $ o-/,+3'3 &D oA. + ; ^k D '3# $S 1#;9 &D '>
9'>%/ l
üP/,+>L ³ $S4 #L³a| ,(?"'32 7züxJ|J=0Õ
ô nz/,+ 4 /! P'3S,U ² (*'>(?9'> F o@/, UD ')#"#"' 4 ! &D D ,o<#;/1"o &D- "9<" ED ')#P *l0 ED /R,#CðròòÇð " ìÇë
òt
B? ÕP 4<4 A 4 /! P'3#O#". $ o-/,+3'> &D oT.R + ; 6I, D '3# $S ,#"9 ED '>I < 9'>B/ l üP/,+>L³ $S4 #
z7 üx5:=Õ
ô n # & [. 4- #8/ l4 /! % "'3C,/1/ $S "')(*,+>+3.e +3 &D "/e/, /, >Õ%qh'>C J"')C1+ 1F
Kp DL 1( AM+ C, QF kp/ 4<4 /A#;'> + C, QF , D ep . 4 / T9<# + <C ÕOn / 44 /1#"'V C1+ '3#
½A9<+/I (*'>(?9'>& # ' $I4-&D <( 7g`G= 4 ,# ,C,+ Õ
"')C1+ 1F # 4- ('>2 +3. F <4 /! l 1(/,8"'3/')#8,+3#"/ ½A9<+\"/^ < (*/1#"'> / l ! 4 ,# <C,+ Õ J#"'><C
2!+39 # l / $ +),#; y $S4 + (?'3(*9'> {
True power
Power factor = ª
Apparent power
119.365 W
Power factor =
169.256 VA
²Q = °E2
±X
. . . solving for X . . .
±X = °E2
²Q ±X
C = ´2πfC
1
±X = ³(120 V)2
. . . solving for C . . .
119.998 VAR
µC =
±X = 120.002 Ω ´2πfX
1
C
µC =
´2π(60 Hz)(120.002
1
Ω)
µC = 22.105 µF
¹ Load
Itotal = 994.716 mA
¹ ¹
¸995.257
IC = Iload = 1.41 A
¹mA È 160 mH
Lload
120 V ·C XL = 60.319 Ω
¶
60 Hz º22 µF
· ¶
Rload 60 Ω
ÁÁ1d §dÀxJ¨$ÀUÑ_¨_NcHÊMË©5DÂ
B×DÀMcM b Ó¿
¸
Ztotal = ZC // (ZL -- ZR)
¸
Ztotal = (120.57 Ω ∠ -90o) // (60.319 Ω ∠ 90o -- 60 Ω ∠ 0o)
¸
Ztotal = 120.64 - j573.58m Ω or 120.64 Ω ∠ 0.2724o
ô Kx/A/1 4 /! l ,(?"/1U'>¾ ² (?'3(*9'V $ L.mo ¾¿ (*/, ( &DGF ¥/,U ³ #;,o+>')# &D !h2!+39 (?+3/1#
"/ ´,F oTY. D<D '>< C 4 ,,+>+ +\ ,(?@( / 4 4 /1#"'V S?® (?R/ l +>/A D #8 ,(?@( Õq l < +3/1 D #
b Þ@µ À"ÖJJ8cxBÁÁ1dX5DÂ
B×DÀMcM
,(<( 3' #M'3 D 9@("'32 '><"9 07 ')( ')#N+ $ /1#;J+36L.#6M'>+3+zo = F@4 +3+ +BFðròÚð1 ë ð2ì ')#M
'3# &&DED "U / (?/1" (? 4 /T/, 4 /! l , (/,ÄÕ
PX [À ¢ª$¨£?mªR f*¡ C¢Á£@ª$¨HX¢¤mP¢¢ J$¨"£08¥
&&D ')# #6"/W(?/1" (? l /1 4 /A/1 4 /! l 1(/,M'3Y ²¾4 /! N#;.#; &$eF .,/,9 4 /,o<,o+3.W/1Q
L2 +39y9.W/ l ¬T/!M'3CI +3/1 D # y,(? '3 D 9@(,<( '> ".# /U9<# %l /,M.,/19N(*,+3(*9+)!"'3/,@# ÕP»O/19
$ L.Yo Sl /,""9< S </,9C / L2 '3<#["9 $I A(*+3+ &D 6ò<t
B* ê0ð10ët î ë * /^ +3+O.,/19Z ! <
4 /! l 1(/,P')#M7:8T9 $ o Po [ * 8µ% D´ = F , D 44 A 4 /! M7: '3( (*,o â<C19 ED oT.¬T'3C
Y21/,+> $S D '3CY'3m2,/1+V#, D
$ 9<+V' 4 +3.T'><C
oT.
X $I$S D '3CY'3X $I4 #=0ÕZqm+ ## l L21/,o+
(?'3(?9 $ #;@( #.,/19 $ L. L2 "/¼9<# ,¾/1#(?'3+>+3/1#(?/ 4@ /¼(*/ $S4 21/,+>C D (?9 A L2 ?l /1 $ # F
$S 1#;9'3C 4< ,# # ' l J'3YÂÃaÄÅÃ[Ã;Æ5, D (*+)(?9<+3"'3C 4 /! l ,(?"/1MoA.W (*/1#"'> / l ! 4 ,# # ' l >Õ
º/A#[P+3'>¬ +3. F .1/,9IM'>+3+ L2 1(*( #"#\/5 !" $S l /1 $S ,#"9'><CJ"9 M4 /! F /1# D '3C%.,/19(*,
(?/ $S4 CA'3<#;J(*,+3(*9+)!"'3/,/ l 44 A 4 /! 7 l / $ $ 9<+V' 4 +3.T'><CW"/,,+_21/,+>C D "/+x(?9 A
$S 1#;9 *$S 1#0= ÕHç<"/ $ 2!,+>9 #B/ l "9 , D 44 A 4 /! F .,/,9W(& D $ '3 1("'32 M4 /! B, D
4 /! l 1(/,Ä Õ"å E # D /S, y $S4 + %4 "/1o+ *$ /S# * /!s '3# 6/,¬# {
wattmeter ammeter
P A
240 V
Load
RMS
¶
60 Hz
Ç
Wattmeter reading = 1.5 kW
Ammeter reading = 9.615 A RMS
ç\'>#; F &&D "/
(*,+3(*9+)! 44 A 4 /! S'3f¬üxDÕO (*, D / ')#UoT. $ 9<+V' 4 +3.T'><C
+>/A D
2,/1+VC oT.W+3/1 D (*9" A {
S = IE
S = (9.615 A)(240 V)
S = 2.308 kVA
J #R (&
# &,F b Õ Ûµ1¯¬üxÈ'3# $ 9<( +)C Zâ@C,9 , ´ ÕÉe¬A F '3( +3+3#R9<# ! W4 /!
l ,(?"/15'3Y '3#%(*'>(?9'>%'3#5 4 /T/,S7:#"9o<#;,1'3,+>+3.+ #"#J ´ =:ÕÊN/! F â@C,9 4 /! l 1(/,8/ l
'3#M+3/1 D oT. D '>2T' D '><CS "9 %4 /! MoT.U 44 , 1 4 /! {
ÁÁ1d ËdmBJDÀMcHÊ ÀxJ¨5DÂ
BÐ×DÀMcM ÀM JNÀMcHÊ*%Ë b Þ ´
P
Power factor =
S
1.5 kW
Power factor = º2.308 kVA
Apparent power
Í2.308 kVA (S)
Reactive power (Q)
???
kQ = 1.754 kVAR
q l '3#+>/A D ')#, + (?"'3( $ /,"/1 F /, $ /1#;IT.h/ '> D 9<#["')+ ² +3/1 DQF '>M'3+3+ L2 Y+)C1C,'3C
70'3 D 9@("'32 = 4 /! l ,(?"/, F ')( $S <#_ !x +3+ L2 "/%(?/1" (? l /,x'>PM'V SrðFòÇð, ëat / l 4<4 "/ 4 '3
#"'> ,F M'3 &D '> 4 +3+ + Õ¼ÊN/!Î S ¬T/!È < $ /,9AU/ l ,('>2 4 /! 7 ´ Õ,Þ@»
ŸxJ|J= F (*,
(*,+3(*9+)! #;'3 / l (& 4 1(?'>"/, &&DED /W(?/19A ,(?6'># ?® (# {
bÞb À"ÖJJ8cxBÁÁ1dX5DÂ
B×DÀMcM
²Q = °E2
±X
. . . solving for X . . .
±X = °E2
²Q ±X
C = ´2πfC
1
±X = ³(240)2
. . . solving for C . . .
1.754 kVAR
±X = 32.845 Ω µC =
´2πfX
1
C
µC =
´2π(60 Hz)(32.845
1
Ω)
µC = 80.761 µF
|M/19 D '3C8 ')#B,<#" \/ ® "/R¯µ ¶ ç F (& 4 +),( !B#"'3 / l (* 4 ,(*'V/,x'3 (*'>(?9'>B D (&+)(?9+)!
< #;9+># {
wattmeter ammeter
ª
P A
º240 V
·C Load
RMS 80 µF
¶
60 Hz
Ne¯µ ¶ ç
(* 4 ,(?'>"/1BM'3+>+ L2 (* 4 ,(?'>"'32 ,(?@( / l ÛÛÇÕ ´ Þ3Ü F C,'32T'><CI(?9 A/ l Þ Õ b Û,¯R $S4 # F
D (?/1" # 4 /, D '3C^ ,('>2 4 /! %/ l´ Õ Þ@ÛÞW¬ü\5|Ï7 l /,% < (& 4 1(?'>"/1Ut@ì<uwv*=0ÕWT'>@( (& 4 1(?'>"/1& #
(?9<" AQ')# ´ ¯µá\/19z/ l4 ,# xl "/ $ < +3/1 D #G'3 D 9@("'32 (?/,A"'3o9'>/1%"/J(*9" A D L F (& 4 1(?'>"/1& #
,(?"'32 84 /! MM'3+3+ D '> (?"+3.^#"9o1( l "/ $ < +>/A D # ,(?"'32 84 /! F #;9<+V'>CS'3 {
1.737 kVAR
(capacitive)
n 4 4 A 4 /! 5(&Yo l /,9 DYl "/ $ "9 , D Ð ,(?"'32 R4 /! J2!+39 # F 9<#"'><CW <
1.5 kW
#; D DWl /1 $ / l KO.A 1C /, ^n /1 &$e{
ª
Apparent power = (Reactive power)2 + (True power)2
50
0 100
"needle"
magnet magnet
wire coil
qR/1 D Q/59<# #;[.A+ B$S $ /!2 &$I A\#"9<( ,#z < J#"/,T2!+ D #"'3C, F ,+V <!'><CJ(?9 A
$ @9 #[6o I"
'>A"/ n ')#'3# $ /1#; 1#;'3+3.I1(*(?/ $S4 +>')# &D /,9C 9<# / lzD 2T'3( #(*+3+ &D
t
1 ¦
#L D '3/ D # 9@# ED '3 y $S4 + (*'>(?9<'V D&$ /1<#;"!"'3C (* !"'3/,^/ l\ $ /,')( l 9 <(?' # l / $
D '3#;"/1; &D 7:/,% (' &D =5#;'3 6L2 ¾'> /19C,/,'3C^'>A"/ +)o-/,! D ,'>+x/!2 /!, D . D '3/ D #
6/,¬S1#O . D / FE 9<#; *$S&$ o . ,( 1(6+>'3¬ /1 L.2!+32 Jl /, + (?"/,<#B"/</! { ,(?"'3C
b
b ÖJJ8cxB×<dXRÖ!Y5cx#"%$©Ö&"[%Ö(')"*c+*
, # , (*/, D 9@("/- l /M- /1 %4 /1+ , "- '>[. , D , ^'3<#"9+ , "/- l /- , </ < - /.8D<D +>. /19C QF , -0-/! , D '> , (
D '3/ D #;. $ o@/1+ 4 /1'>A#1231 4 ¦5
7608:9<;=9-0>@?6A6A9B@B7?C-09D560?FEG@E l 9HF9ID560-AEGJKEMLN- , 6A8K9-&6A8 , G@L#?608?F6 ,O EG:9P>@?FQ836
9?y7;=9D6 <-0- , G:Q9IB?CG , o:-0?RB7Q9S l ETK-UB7?CEVB:9 O L#?CHCH O 9-0W9(6AE O 6A99-J 608:-AET:Q8X608:9J>@9609-<>@EMW9>@9G36<?CG ,
DEG O 6 , G36<B7?C-A9ID560?FEG608:-AET:Q8KET76 , HCHY;=E-A6A?CEG O E l 608:9R DZVDHF9 {
50
0 100
"needle"
magnet magnet
wire coil
- +
will
Meter movement needle
always be driven in
the proper direction.
AC Bridge
source rectifier
<GKE6A8K9- O 60- , 6A9QZ l E- , ;:- , D560?CD , H\ >96A9->@EMW9>@9G36? O 60E-09B79 O ?CQG[6A8:9>EMW9>@9G36(L#?608:ET76(6A8K9
C? G:8:9-09G36(;\EH , -A?F6%Z O 9G O ?F6A?CW3?F6%Z]E l 6A8K9 6%ZV;\9 O nP8K? O >@9 , G OU, WE?CB:?FG:Q@608:9JT O 9E l ;\9-A> , G:9G36> , QG:96 O
^/-0E,o , o:HCZJ608:9 O ?C>@;:HF9 O 6PB79 O ?CQG? O 6AEJT O 9 , G:EG:> , QG:960?>9B_?C-AEG`W , G:9U6AE>@EMW9#608:9GK99B:HF9 , Q , ?CG O 6 O ;:-0?CG:Q
6A9G O ?FEGaSK608:9bW , GK9Ro\9?FGKQ , 6A6A- , D6A9BX60EML , -0B ,`O 6 , 6A?CEG , -AZXDE?CHcE l L#?F-09b9GK9-0Q?39BeoVZd6A8:9I e T , G36A?F6%Z60E
o=9f>9 ,O T:-09B
×Kg>×gmRÖih ¨ajYjxU*W$Uk[Y(jxBU* l
Iron-vane electromechanical meter movement
50
0 100
"needle"
wire coil
iron vane
O >@9G360?FEG:9Bo\9 l E-09m?CGb608:? O o\EVE,¬nSo608:9P9HC9D560-AE O 6 , 60?CD , 6p60- , D560?FEGo=96%Lm99GJ6%LqE(>@96 , HV;:H , 6A9 OO 9; , - , 609B
oVZ , G , ?C-/Q , ;_D , GUo=9UT O 9IB6AEbQ9G:9- , 6A9 , G:99B7HC9 >@EMW3?CG:Q l E-0D9#;:-AE;\E-p60?FEG , H:6AEf608:9<WEH6 , Q9Mo\96%Lq99G@6A8K9
;:H , 609 O Pn 8:? O LmE-¬ O T O 6 ,O Lm9HCH l E-N ,O ?F6UB7EV9 O l E-< S:E- O 8:ET:HRB^q OA, ZS T O 6 ,O ;=E3E-AHCZÕPnP8:9 l E-D9 O
?CG3WEHCW9IB , -09PW9-AZ O > , HCHrS>TKD8 O > , HCHC9-6A8 , G6A8:9#> , QG:960?CD , 6p6A- , D6A?CEGIo\96%Lq99G , G9G:9-AQ?>9BDE?FH , GKB , G
?C-AEGW , G:9S , GKB ,O/O TKD8@6A8:9 O 95¥ 9HC9D6A-0E O 6 , 6A?RD*(¥ >@96A9- >@EMW9>@9G36 O 609GKB60ERo=9 l - , Q?CHC9 , GKB9 ,O ?CHCZB7? O 6AT:-o\9IB
oVZs;:8VZ O ?RD , H)>@EMW9>@9G36 ft T76S l E- O E>98:?CQ8 WEH6 , Q9 , ;:;KHF?RD , 6A?CEG O S=6A8:99HC9D6A-0E O 6 , 60?CDJ>@EMW9>@9G6(? O
, GX9HC9Q , G36P6A9ID8:G:EHCEQZ
nP8:9 , 608:E7B7h
9 | , Zn)To=9Nu |xn<v>@9G60?FEG:9Be?FGw6A8K9x >@9609-0?FGKQ!D8 , ;76A9-X? O ?CB:9 , HCHCZ O T:?F6A9IB l E-
@> 9 ,O T:-0?CG:Q WEHF6 , Q9 O S39 O ;\9ID? , HCHFZ@? l 608:9y9HC9D560-AEGo=9 , >z? O#O Lq9;76 O ?RB79 6AE O ?RB79 , D-0E O0O 608:9 O D-A99G`E l 6A8K9
6AT<o\9L#8:?CHF96A8:9>@9 ,O T:-09BY WEHF6 , Q9JB7-0?CW9 O 6A8:9Io=9 , >{T:; , GKBB7EML#G |Q- , ;K8:?CD , H)-A9;:-A9 O 9G36 , 60?FEG]E l
6A8K98 L , W9 O 8 , ;=9 , GKB`G:E6 T O 6 , >@9 ,O T:-A9>@9G36qE l > , QGK?60TKB79yD , Gd9 ,O ?CHFZSo=98 , B`L#?F6A8 O TKD8 , B79WV?RD9
}<EMLm9W9-IS |xn% O 8 , W9#6A8:9(B7? OA, B7W , G36 , Q9 O E l Lq9?FQ836S O ?39S O ?FQG:?F\D , G6q;\EMLm9- DEG O T:>@;760?FEGaS , GKB l - , Q?FHC?6%Z
0u o=9?CG:Q~> , B79E l 9W , DT , 609BQH ,OAO vyLmE-¬3?CG:Q , Q , ?CG O 6b6A8K9> ~ E-b608:9 O 9-09 ,O EG O S)9HF9ID56A-0E>@9ID8 , G:?RD , HB
>@9609-#>@EMW9>9G36 O#O 6A?CHFHa8 , W9 , ;KH , D9f?CGd;:- , D6A?RD , HYT OA, Q9
?F6A8 O E>@9E l 608:9 , B7W , G6 , Q9 Oy, GKBxB7? OA, B7W , G36 , Q9 O E l 608:9 O 9@>@96A9-b>@EMW9>9G36609D8:G:EHFEQ?C9 O 8 , WV?CG:Q
o=99G~B7? O DT OAO 9B , HC-09 , B:ZS7608:9-09b? OU, GKE6A8K9- l , D56AE-D-ATKD? , HFHCZ?C>@;\E-p6 , G36 l E-#6A8:9B79 O ?CQG:9- , GKB]T O 9-<E l
>@9609-0?FG:Q_?CG O 6A-0T:>@9G36 O 6AEUo=9 , L , -A9(E l% nP8:? O ? O 6A8:9f? OAO T:9fE l |<ZX>9 ,O T:-09>@9G36 O Lm9 , HC-A9 , B7Z¬3GKEMLfS
>9 ,O T:-09>@9G36 O@, -A9]E l 609GD ,O 6_?CG ,xO D , HF9]E l ;=EMLm9-@9 T:?CW , HC9GKD9SPD , HCHC9B(]
u`EVE6 9 , G
T , -09Iv l E-U6A8:9 OA, ¬ 9fE l >@9 , G:?CG:Q l T:H&DE>; , -0? O EG O L#?F6A8[ , G\B]L#?608sE6A8K9-5 L , W9 l E-0> O E l W , -AZV?CG:Q
O 8 , ;=9 <Ê EG:9#E l 6A8:9U>96A9-+>EMW9>@9G36+609D8:G:EHFEQ?C9 OO E l , - B7? O DT O0O 9IB?CG:8:9-A9G36AHCZb>@9 ,O T:-09m6A8:9J|U
W , HFTK9
E l , Gf z T , G360?6%Z s96A9->@EMW9>@9G36 O -09HCZV?FG:QxEG!6A8K9X>@E6A?CEGNE l , >@9D8 , G:?RD , HPG:99B7HC9u:¥-A9ID56A?FK9IB¥
U - O EGVW , HSK?C-AEG W , G:9S , GKB]9HF9ID56A-0E O 6 , 6A?RDv , HFHc6A9G\BX6AE`>@9D8 , G:?RD , HFHCZ , W9- , Q96A8K9J?CG O 6 , G36 , G:9ET O W , HCT:9 O
?CG60E , GxEMW9- , HFH , W9- , Q9bW , HFT:9 l E-y6A8:9_L , W9 l E-0> Pn 8K? Of, W9- , Q9W , HCT:9_? O G:E6fG:9ID9 O0O0, -0?FHCZ]6A8:9 OA, >9 ,O
<|
Y S , H608:ET:Q8`> , GVZ6A?C>9 O ?F6P? O >? O 6 , ¬ 9G ,O O TKD8 < W9- , Q9 , GKBWU|
@ W , HCT:9 O - , 6A9 , Q , ?FG O 6 9 , D8_E6A8:9-
,O#O TKD8 l E-P608:9 O 9y6A8:-099fDE>@>@EGXL , W9 l E-0> O 8 , ;=9 O {
l¯ ÖJJ(jxB×KgXRÖ!Yjx#"%$©Ö&"[%Ö(')"j+*
RMS = Peak
ª
AVG = Peak
P-P = 2 (Peak)
V?CGKD59 |<
O 99> O 60ERo=9#6A8:95¬V?FGKB@E l >9 ,O T:-09>@9G36/>@E O 6/;\9E;:HC9 , -A9#?CG36A9-09 O 6A9IB@?FG_E1o76 , ?FGK?FG:QfL#?F6A8 , G
C? G O 60-ATK>9G36S , GKB`9HC9D560-AE>@9D8 , G:?CD , H:>@96A9-m>@EMW9>9G36 O G , 60T:- , HFHCZ@B79HC?FW9-y1M ? 12 >@9 ,O T:-A9>@9G36 O - , 6A8:9-
6A8 , GW|<
YSL#8 , 6 , -09N >96A9-qB79 O ?CQG:9- O 6AEbB7EV 8:9 , 6SE l DETK- O 9,Õxn ZV;:?RD , HFHCZb608:9 ,OAO T:>@;76A?CEG@? O > , B:9
6A8 , 6y6A8:9_L , W9 l E-0> O 8 , ;\960Eeo=9_>@9 ,O T:-09B? O QE?CG:Qd6AEo\9 O ?CG:9su0oVZ l , -y608:9_>@E O 6bDE>@>@EGcSa9 O ;\9ID? , HCHFZ
l E-m;=EMLq9- O Z O 6A9> O vS , GKB@608:9G6A8:9(>@96A9-P>EMW9>@9G36 O D , HF9? Om, HF6A9-A9IBUoVZ6A8:9 , ;:;K-AE;:-A? , 609<>JTKH60?F;:HC?RD , 60?FEG
l , D6AE- E- O ?CG:9<L , W9 O Lm9 O 99P6A8 , 6|<Z? O 9 T , H760ERÒ Ò 60?F>@9 O 6A8:9U;\9 , ¬JW , HFT:9#L#8K?FHC9J<W9- , Q9m? O Ò 3
6A?C>@9 O 608:9_;\9 , ¬nS O EXLm9@D , GB7?CWV?CB79@EG:9J\QT:-09 oVZs608:9@E608:9-y60EXE1o76 , ?FG , G , W9- , Q9 6AE |U
XDEGVW9- O ?CEG
l , D6AE-#E l Ñ ÑEÒ,Ó {
0.707
0.637 = 1.1099
qGNE6A8K9-_LmE-B O S/6A8:9s>@9609-_>@EMW9>@9G36_L#?FHCMH o\9[D , HC>? oK- , 6A9B6AE?CGKB7?RD , 6A9 , ;:;K-ALE y7?C> , 6A9HF¾Z Ñ Ñ1Ñ60?F>@9 O
8:?CQ8:9-f6A8 , G?F6JLqET:HRB~E-0B:?FG , -A?CHCZ!uG , 6ATK- , HFHCZ:v(?FGKB:?CD , 6A9L#?608G:E O ;=9D? , H , DDE>@>E7B , 6A?CEG O q6>JT O 6 o=9
O 6A-09 O0O 9IBb608 , 6/608:? O ¥D8:9 , 6 ¥EG:HCZbLqE"- ¬ O Lm9HCH:L#8:9G608:9<>@9609-/? O T O 9B60Ef>9 ,O T:-09m;KT:-A9 O ?CG:9#L , W9 O ETK-0D9 O
Ê<E6A96A8 , 6 l E- 60-A? , GKQHC9<L , W9 O S608:9(- , 6A?CRE o\96%Lq99e
G |<
, GKWB UW9- , Q9<? O GKE6 608:9 OA, >9 ,O l E- O ?CG:9(L , W9 O {
0.577
0.5 = 1.154
?F6A8 O T , -09dL , W9 O S 6A8:
9 |U
, GK G >@96A9-dD , HC3? o:- , 6A9IB60E
B <W9- , Q9XW , HFT:9 O`, -09]?CB:9G36A?RD , H Õ~Us
D, DT:- , 609HCZ[-09 ,
B |<Z xWEHF6 , Q9@E-bDT:-0-A9G6bEG , ;:T:-09 O ?CG:9_L , W9@L#?CHFH 4 tM
Q?CW9@6A8K9`;:-0E;=9-fW , HCT:9`L#8:?CHC9
?CGKB7?RD , 60?FGKQ@6A8:9b> , QG:?F6ATKB:9bE l , GVZ36A8:?CG:Q_E6A8:9-#6A8 , G , ;\9- l 9ID56 O ?CG:9bL , W9 nP8:? O ?FG\DHCTKB79 O 6A-0? , G:QHC9fL , W9 O S
O T , -09JL , W9 O SnE- , GV Z ¬V?CGKBE l B7? O 6AE-A6A9IB O ?FGK9L , W9 ?F6A8x8 , -0>@EG:?RD O o=9DE>@?FG:Q , Gx9W9- ;K-A9 O 9G6;:8:9
G:E>9G:EG?FG`H , -0QN9 ;\EMLm9- O Z O 609> O S608:? O > , 6A6A9-qE l , DDT:- , 6AN9 |U
_>@9 ,O TK-A9>9G36 ? O G:E O > , HCHK> , 6p6A9-
×Kg>×gmRÖih ¨ajYjxU*W$Uk[Y(jxBU* lÓ
nP8:9 ,O 6AT7609J-09 , B:9-UL#?CHCH&GKE6A96A8 , 56 qU8 , W9bE>@?6A6A9B[6A8:9 |xnÐ¥>@EMW9>@9G36¥ l -0E>608:9I|U
UW9- , Q9
7B ? O DT O0O ?CEG nP8:? O ? O o\9ID , T O 9 , |\nL#?608J?F6 O ;:- , D6A?RD , HFHCZyLq9?FQ860HF9 OAO 9HC9D6A-0EGRo=9 , >¥>@EMW9>@9G36¥UB7? O ;:H , Z O
6A8K9`^9 , ¬uE-b^9 , ¬ 60E ^9 , ¬d? l ZETxL#? O 8\vE l , G L , W9 l E-0>{- , 6A8:9-y6A8 , GhUW9- , Q9E-R|<
36A?CHCHrS ,
O ?F>@?CH , -(;K-A1E o:HF9> , -0? O 9 O { 8:EML|B7E]ZET~B:96A9-A>@?CG:96A8:9U|<ZW , HFT:9@E l , L , W9 l E-A> l -0E>?F6 EGVW9- O ?CEG
l , D6AE- O o=96%Lm99G_^9 , ¬ , GKBS|<Z@EG:HCZJ8KEHRB O EfHCEG:Q ,O 6A8K9<L , W9 l E-A> l , HFH O G:9 , 60HFZ?FG360E , ¬VG:EML#G_D , 609QE-0Z
E l O 8 , ;=9!u O ?CG:9SP6A-0? , G:QHC9S , GKB O T , -A9 , -09]6A8:9~EG:HCZ!*9 y , >@;:HC9 O L#?F6A8w^9 , ¬ |<
<W9- , Q9XDEGVW9- O ?CEG
l , D6AE- O Q?FW9G8K9-0,9 Õv
. G:9 , G O Lm9-y? O 60E[B79 O ?CQG[608:9_>@9609-f>@EMW9>9G36 , -AET:GKB[6A8:9_W9-0Z[B79KGK?60?FEG~E l |<Z { 6A8:9_9 ® 9ID560?FW9
8:9 , 6A?CG:QXW , HCT:9JE l , h G WEH6 , Q9 DT:-A-09G36 ,O ?F6f;\EMLm9- OU, -A9 O ? O 6A?CW9bHCE , B VT:;:;=E O 96A8 , 6608:I9 O ET:-0D9
6A^ E o\9>@9 ,O T:-09B]? O DEGKG:9D6A9B , D-0E O0O<, -09 O ? O 60E-UE l ¬VG:EML#GsW , HCT:9S , G\B]6A8:98:9 , 6ET76A;KT76E l 6A8 , 6(-09 O ? O 6AE-
? O >@9 ,O T:-09B!L#?608 , B:9WV?CD9sHF3? ¬9 , 608:9-0>@EVDET:;KHF9 nP8:? O LqET:HCB!;:-0EMWV?CB79 , l , ->E-A9sB7?C-09D56_>@9 ,O TK-A9
>@9G36>@9 , G O E l |<Z ]6A8 , G , G3ZsDEGVW9- O ?FEG l , D560E-(DETKHCBYS l E-U?F6(L#?CHFHLmE- ¬L#?F6Ah 8 JÊM»L , W9 l E-A> O 8 , ;=9
L#8 , 6 O E39W9- {
sensitive
meter
movement
AC voltage to
be measured
thermocouple bonded
with resistive heating
element
8:?CHF9[6A8:9xB79WV?RD9 O 8:EML#G , o=EMW9s? OO E>@9L#8 , 6D-0TKB79 , GKBLmET:HRB O T ® 9- l -0E>T:G:? TK9[9G:Q?FGK99-0?CG:Q
;:-0E,o:HC9> O E l ?F6 O EML#GaS7608:9JDEGKD9;76<?CHFHCT O 6A- , 6A9IBX? O W9-0Z O ET:G\B nP8:9f-09 O ? O 60E-<DEGVW9-A6 O 608:9 WEH6 , Q9yE-
DTK-A-09G36 T , G360?6%Zx?FG360E , 6A8:9-A> , Hu8K9 , 65v T , G60?6%ZS)9 ® 9ID560?FW9HCZ O T , -0?FGKQ]6A8:9`W , HFT:9 O ?CG-A9 , H 60?F>@9 nP8K9
O Z O 6A9 > O > ,O0O LmE-¬ O 60E , W9- , Q9P6A8:9 O 9yW , HCT:9 O oVZ@6A8K9;:-0?CGKD?C;:HC9E l 6A8K9-0> , Hn?FG:9-p60? , S , GKB`6A8:9G608:9>@96A9-
DO , HC9U?F6 O 9H l ? O D , HF3? o:- , 6A9IB@6AEQ?CW9 , Gd?FGKB:?CD , 6A?CEG^o ,O 9BEG_608:9 O T , -A9 -0EVE6 E l 6A8K9U608:9-0> , Hn>@9 ,O T:-09>@9G36 {
;=9- l 9D5N6 |#EVE6 s9 , G T , -09<?FG\B7?CD , 60?FEG , HCHn?FGdEG:9yB79W3?RD91ÕPqG l , D56S7EG:9(> , E-m?FG O 60-AT:>@9G6P> , GVT l , D56ATK-A9-
8 ,O ?F>@;:HC9>@9G609BX608:? O 6A9ID8:G:? TK9f?FG36AE_?F6 O 8:?CQ8 9GKBXHC?FGK9bE l 8 , G\B78:9HRB]9HC9D6A-0EG:?RDy>JTKH60?F>@9609- O l E-5¥M6A-0T:9
|<
¥_D , ; , o:?CHF?F6%Z
, HC3? o:- , 6A?CG:SQ WEH60>@96A9- O#, GKB , >@>@96A9- O l E-<B7? ® 9-A9G6 l T:HCH O D , HF9y- , G:Q9 O E l E;=9- , 60?FEG? O >JTKD8X6A8K9
O0, 9 ,O L#?F6A8 ?CG O 6A-0T:>@9G36 O { O 9-0?F9 O ¥>JTKH60?F;:HC?C9- ¥d-09 O ? O 60E- O(, -A9@T O 9B~60EsQ?CW9@WEH60>96A9-f>EMW9>@9G36 O
@
>
8:?CQ8:9-<- , G:Q9S , GKB]; , - , HCHC9QH ¥ O 8VT:G36 ¥@-09 O ? O 6AE- O#, -A9fT O 9IBX6AE , HCHCEML , >>@96A9->@EMW9>@9G6 O 6AE`>@9 ,O T:-A9bDT:-
-09G36 O o=9ZEGKBd608:9?C-<G , 6AT:- , HY- , G:Q9 }UEMLq9W9-S7Lm9 , -09fG:E6<HC?F>@?F6A9IBX6AE@6A8K9 O 9f6A9ID8:G:? TK9 O<,O Lq9fLm9-09fL#?608
5 { o\9ID , T O 9Lq9@D , Gs6AEXT O 9J60- , G O l E-A>@9- O L#?60h 8 Sn>@9609-y- , G:Q9 O D ,
G o=99HC9D560-AE> , QGK96A?RD , HFHCZX- , 6A8:9-
6A8 , Gs-09 O ? O 6A?CW9HFe Z ¥ O 6A9;K;\9IB]T:<; ¥_E5- ¥ O 6A9;:;=9BsB7EML#GaS ¥ O E>@960?F>@9 O l , N- o=9ZEGKB]L#8 , 6U-09 O ? O 6AE- O LqET:HCBX8 , W9
;:- , D6A?RD , HCHCZ , HCHCEMLq9IB l E- ^E609G36A? , H nc- , G O l E-0>@9- O u^ n% O v , G\B T:-A-09G36 n)- , G O l E-0>9- O u n% O v , -A9_;K-A9
D? O ?FEG?FG O 6A-0T:>@9G36@B79WV?RD9 O > , GVT l , D6AT:-09Bx60E;:-0E7B7TKD9`W9-AZx;:-09D? O 9`- , 6A?CE O E l 6A- , G O l E-0> , 60?FEh G o=96%Lm99G
;:-0?F> , -AZ , GKB O 9IDEGKB , -0ZfL#?CGKB7?CG:Q O nP8K9Z@D , G , HCHCEML O > , HFHS O ?C>;KHFN9 >@96A9-/>@EMW9>9G36 O 6AEf?CGKB7?RD , 6A9<*9 y
6A-09>@9HFZ@8:?CQ8_WEHF6 , Q9 O/, GKB`DT:-A-09G36 O ?FGd;\EMLm9- O Z O 6A9> O L#?608 , DDT:- , DZ , GKB_DE>;KHF96A9U9HF9ID560-A?RD , HK? O EH , 6A?CEG
u O E>@96A8:?CG:Q@>JT:HF6A?C;:HC?F9- , G\B O 8VT:G36#-A9 O ? O 60E- O DETKHCBdG:9W9-<B7EVv {
l¯1Ò ÖJJ(jxB×KgXRÖ!Yjx#"%$©Ö&"[%Ö(')"j+*
fuse fuse
precision
step-down
PT
ratio
t 9D , T O 9qEK608:9 O ?39 , GKBJ9 7;\9G O 9PE=?CG O 6A-0T:>@9G366A- , G O E-0>@9- O So608:9Z , -A9PG:E6+T O 9IBb60E O D , HC96 >@96A9- O
0-120 V AC movement range
E- , GVZ , ;K;:HF?RD , 6A?CEG O E6A8:9-P6A8 , Gs8:?CQ8]WEH6 , Q9 , G\Bd8K?FQ8]DT:-0-A9G6 / E- O D , HC?FGKQ , >@?CHFHC? , >@;sE-#>@?CD-AE , >@;
>@EMW9>9G36q60E , - , G:Q9UE6ÑIl,ÒbWEH6 O E-<¡ , >@; O S3GKE-0> , Hn;:-A9ID? O ?CEGd-A9 O ? O 6AE- O u>JTKH60?F;:HC?C9- O#, GKB O 8VT:G36 O v , -09
T O 9BYS T O 6 ,O L#?608s
¢ £¤d¥£¦¨§
¢ ^EH , -0>? 9Bu vb>@96A9->@EMW9>9G36 O >T O 6T O 9dB79WV?CD9 O D , HCHC9B
©ª
« ¦b60E¬=9 , ¬:HC9`6AE~?FG\B7?CD , 609^
T , G36A?F6A?C9 O
¢ HC9D560-AE>@9D8 , G:?CD , Hn>@9609-<>@EMW9>@9G36 O S:L#8:96A8:9-<9HC9D6A-0E> , QG:960?CD(E-U9HC9D560-AE O 6 , 60?CDS:G , 60T:- , HCHFZ`;K-AE
W3?RB79s608:9N1 «® 12 « W , HCT:9E , >9 ,O T:-09 B T , G36A?F6%Z °¯ 8:9 O 9?FG O 6A-0T:>@9G36 O > , Z¬=9- , GKQ9B!60E
?FGKB:?CD , 6A9y±<
`W , HCT:9SV¬:T76#EG:HFZ@?Fc608:9 O 8 , ;\9(Ea608:%9 L , W9E-A>²? O ;:-09D? O 9HCSZ ¬VG:EML#G`¬=9E-098 , GKGB Õ
¢ VE D , HFHC9B
®5³K« (]
>@9609- O T O 9sB7? ® 9-A9G36609D8:GKEHCEQZx60Ex;K-AEMWV?RB79d?CGKB7?RD , 6A?CEG O -09;:-09 O 9G360?FG:Q~6A8K9
, D560T , Ha±U
xu- , 6A8K9-m6A8 , G O ¬9Lm9B , W9- , Q9<E-#;=9 , ¬:vmE , G L , W9E-A>
ïy´Uð´ µùP÷<¶·÷Jü]¸P¹ ûRüý»ºs¼ûú\÷ ö ÷Nûú·ùP÷Jöø÷JüIõ
½ G_?C>@;\E-p6 , G36/9HC9D6A-0?CD , H T , G36A?F6%ZJL#?F6A8_G:Ef9 TK?FW , HC9G36/?CG` D?F-DT:?F6 O ? O)¾ ®A«¿³K«4=ÀÁM& -A9 T:9GKDZJ>@9 ,O TK-A9
>@9G36P? O W9-AZ?C>;=E-A6 , G36m?CG> , GVZ , ;K;:HF?RD , 6A?CEG O E , HF6A9-0G , 6A?CG:QDT:-A-09G36IS9 O ;=9D? , HFHCZ@?FG ½ ;\EMLm9- O Z O 6A9> O
B79 O ?CQG:9IB@6AE-ATKG`9 D?C9G360HFZ , 6mEG:9U-A9 T:9GKDZ , GKB_EG:9<-09 T:9GKDZ@EG:HFZ )Â c6A8:9 ½ ? O ¬=9?CG:QJQ9G:9- , 6A9B@¬VZ
, G_9HF9ID560-AE>9ID8 , GK?CD , H , HF6A9-AG , 6AE-S6A8:9#-09 T:9GKDZL#?FHCH=¬\9UB:?F-09D6AHCZJ;:-0E;=E-A6A?CEG , H76AEy608:9 O 8 , 6 O ;=99IB@En6A8K9
> , D8:?CG:9S , GKB-A9 T:9GKDZDET:HRB_¬=9<>@9 ,O T:-09B O ?F>@;:HCZ¬3Z>@9 ,O T:-0?CG:Qy6A8:9 O ;=99IB@En6A8K9 O 8 , 6 &Â Y-09 T:9GKDZ
G:99B O 6AE]¬=9@>9 ,O T:-09B , 6 O E>@9@B7? O 6 , GKD9-0E>{608:9 , HF6A9-AG , 6AE-S=6A8KET:Q8aSYE608:9-y>@9 , G O Eq>@9 ,O T:-A9>@9G36
L#?CHFHa¬=9fG:9ID9 O0O0, -0Z
. G:9 O ?F>@;:HC9y¬:T76UD-0TKB79f>@96A8:E7BXE)-A9 TK9GKDZ`>@9 ,O T:-09>@9G36#?CGd;=EMLq9- O Z O 6A9> O T:6A?CHF?CÃ9 O 6A8:9f;:-0?CGKD?C;:HC9
EP>@9D8 , G:?RD , H -A9 O EG , GKD9 W9-AZs;:8VZ O ?CD , H/E¬7Ä%9D6b;\E OAO 9 O0O ?CG:QX6A8K9`;:-0E;=9-A6%Z[E#9H ,O 6A?RD?F6%Z!u O ;K-A?CG:Q?CG:9 OAO v
×Kg KgÅÆ<ÇÈ'&Ç $IÖ<ÉNÊU$UkÌË UÊ(*7Ç[ÇqÊ*'&Æ<Ç [Çq$j lÍ<Ñ
8 ,OU, Gs?CG:8:9-A9G36U-09 T:9G\DZ , 6UL#8:?RD8[?F6L#?CHFH);:-099-U6AEdW3?C¬:- , 609 <¯ 8:9f60T:G:?CG:Q`E-AÎX? O, Q-A9 , 6<9 , >@;:HF9JE
6A8K? OÏ&O 6A-0?CÎ9P?6qEGKD9 , GKB?F6 L#?FHCH\DEG36A?CGVT:9m6AEbWV?C¬:- , 6A9 , 6 , 6AEGK9 O ;=9D?=Dm6AEf?F6 O HC9GKQ6A8 Ð EG:Q9-&6ATKG:?FGKQfE-0Î O
8 , W9HCEMLq9-P-A9 O EG , G36P-A9 T:9GKD?F9 OÏ 608:9?C-P6AEG:9 O L#?CHCHY¬\9fHCEMLq9-PEGX6A8:9f>T O ?CD , H O D , HC96A8 , G O 8:E-p609-mE-0Î O
 > , Q?FG:9 , -AEML°Eq;:-0EQ-A9 OAO ?CW9HCZ O ?CÃ9BX60T:G:?CG:QXE-0Î O(, -A- , GKQ9B O ?RB79 ¬VZ O ?CB:9 ¯ 8K9Z , -A9 , HCH+>@ET:G36A9IB
EG , DE>>@EG!¬ ,O 9S , GKB608 , 6`¬ ,O 9d? O WV?F¬K- , 6A9B , 6_608:9X-A9 TK9GKDZE(6A8:9]>@9 ,O TK-A9IB ½ WEHF6 , Q9uE-
DTK-A-09G36vU¬VZs>@9 , G O E , G~9HC9D6A-0E> , QG:96 (Ñ 8K?CD8:9W9-U60T:G:?CG:QXE-0Îs? O DHCE O 9 O 6?CGx-A9 O EG , G36<-09 T:9GKDZ]60E
6A8K9-09 T:9GKDZ_Ec608 , 6#WV?F¬K- , 6A?CEGL#?CHCHn6A9G\B`60E O 8 , Î9<608:9y>@E O 6fuE-m6A8K9(HCET\B79 O 6v +Â c6A8K9E-AÎ OÒ 6A?CG:9 O Lm9-09
K?C> O Zs9G:ET:Q8aSYLm9DET:HRB O 996A8:9@-09H , 60?FW9J>@E60?FEGEq9 , D8~¬VZ]6A8:9HF9G:Q608~E/6A8K9¬KHFT:-yLm9LmETKHCB O 99 ,O
Lm9f?FG O ;=9D5609B]9 , D8]EG:9y-0E> , G]9G\B WV?C9LÓ;\9- O ;=9D560?FW9 qÑ 9HFHSK> , Î9 , DEHFHC9D6A?CEG]E+ÔM60T:G:?CG:Q@E-0Î O ÔET:6
E ,`O 6A-0?C;sE O 8K996>96 , H)DT:6?CG , ; , 6A6A9-AG , Î3?CG]6AE , - , Î9S , GKB]ZETs8 , W9y6A8:9` ©Õ® 1M
©4 2 ®A««
-09 T:9GKDZ
>@9609- Ï
to AC voltage
sheet metal reeds
shaken by magnetic
field from the coil
¯ 8:9T O 9-E+6A8:? O >@96A9-WV?C9L O 6A8:99G\B O E , HCH)6A8:E O 9T:G:9 T , H&HF9G:Q608[-A99B O(,O 6A8K9Z , -09JDEHCHF9ID56A?CW9HFZ
O 8 , Î9G , 6q6A8:9U-A9 TK9GKDZE=608:9 , ;:;:HC?F9IB ½ WEH6 , Q9P60Ef6A8K9DE?FH ¯ 8:9UEG:9UDHCE O 9 O 6 ?CG`-09 O EG , G6+-09 T:9GKDZ
6AE608:9 , ;:;KHF?C9B ½ L#?FHCHYWV?F¬:- , 609(6A8:9f>@E O 6SKHFEVEÎV?CG:Q O E>96A8:?CG:Q@HC?FÎ9y6A8:? OÏ
Frequency Meter
52 54 56 58 60 62 64 66 68
120 Volts AC
ÖU?C¬:- , 60?FG:Qs-099IBx>96A9- O ScE¬3WV?CET O HCZS , -A9@G:E6J;:-09D? O ?FEG~?CG O 6A-0T:>@9G36 O S&¬:T76b608:9Z , -09@W9-0Z O ?C>;KHF9 , GKB
6A8K9-09E-09(9 ,O Z6AE@> , GVT7 , D56ATK-A9U6AE@¬\9y-0T:QQ9B ¯ 8:9Z , -09E6A9GdETKGKBEG O > , HCH=9G:Q?CG:9 B7-0?CW9GQ9GK9- , 6AE-
O 96 O E-f608:9`;:T:-0;=E O 9_E O 96p6A?CG:Q[9G:Q?CG:9 O ;\99B O E]6A8 , 6f6A8:9`-A9 TK9GKDZ? OJO E>@9L#8 , 6bDHCE O 9@6AE Òu¡Ò]?CG
lÍ3l ÖUÊUË(jÇ Æ×KgÊRÖ![ÇjÇqÆ#"%$J×Ö&"%Æ%Ö(')"j+*
TK-AE;\9ovq}U9-A6AÃ
Ñ 8:?CHF9_-099IB 6%Z3;=9@>@96A9- Of, -A9@?C>@;:-A9ID? O 9SY6A8K9?C-bE;=9- , 60?FEG , H;:-0?FG\D?C;:HF9_? O G:E6 `Â GxHF?C9TEm>@9D8 , G:?RD , H
-09 O EG , GKD9S\Lm9> , Z O T:¬ O 6A?F6AT76099HF9ID560-A?RD , H)-09 O EG , GKD9 , GKB~B79 O ?FQG , -A9 TK9GKDZX>@96A9-yT O ?CG:Q , G[?CGKB7TKD6AE-
, G\BbD , ; , D?60E-a?CGf6A8K9/E-0>ØE , 6 , G:ÎyD?C-DT:?F6mu; , - , HCHF9H?CGKB7TKD6AE- , G\BbD , ; , D?60E-5v &. G:9 E-c¬=E608DE>@;\EG:9G36 O
, -09<> , B:9 , BMÄ%T O 6 , ¬:HC9S , GKB , >@96A9-m? O ;:H , D9B_?CG`608:9yD?C-0DT:?6q6AE?FGKB:?CD , 6A9(> , 7?C>JT:> , >@;:HC?F6ATKB79EcWEHF6 , Q9
, D-AE OAO 608:9]6%LqEDE>@;\EG:9G36 O ¯ 8:9 , BoÄ%T O 6A>@9G36`ÎVG:E¬)u O v , -09XD , HC?F¬:- , 609B6AE O 8:EMLÙ-09 O EG , G36-09 T:9GKDZ
E- , GVZsQ?CW9G O 96p60?FG:Q\S , G\B[608:9@-A9 T:9GKDZs? O -09 , B[-0E>{608:9> , 609-y6A8K9@B:9WV?CD9@8 ,O ¬=99G , BoÄ%T O 6A9B~E-
> , 7?C>JT:>Ú?FGKB:?CD , 6A?CEGXEGX608:9f>@96A9- O0O 9G60? , HFHCZS3608:? O ? O#, 60T:G , ¬:HF9y\H609-UD?F-DT:?F6<L#8:?RD8d? O<, BoÄ%T O 6A9B , GKB
6A8K9G-A9 , B~?FG , > , GKG:9- O ?F>@?CH , -y6AE , ¬:-0?RB7Q9_D?C-DT:?F6uL#8:?RD8>JT O 6b¬=9_¬ , H , GKD9BE- , ÔG3TKHFHRÔ]DEG\B7?60?FEG
, G\B`608:9Gs-09 , BKv
Resonant Frequency Meter
Sensitive AC
meter movement
HC9D6A-0?CD , HCHFZS608 , 6 T , -A6AÃ(D8:?F;d? O 9 TK?FW , HC9G36q6AE ,JO 9-0?F9 O Ð -A9 O EG , G36qD?F-DTK?6 ¯ 8K9(B7?C9HC9D6A-0?CDU;:-0E;=9-
6A?C9 O E T , -A6AÃJDEG36A-0?F¬KT76A9 , G , B:B7?F6A?CEG , H&D , ; , D?F6A?CW9b9HF9>9G36U6AE6A8:99 T:?CW , HC9G36(D?F-DTK?6IS , GKBs?CGs6A8K99GKB
?F6<HFEVEÎ O#O E>@9608:?CG:Q@HF?CÎ9(6A8K? OÏ
Crystal equivalent circuit
âC
capacitance C
â characteristics
caused by wire of the quartz
connections
across quartz
ãL
¯ 8:9ÔD , ; , D?6 , GKD9Ô , GKBeÔ?CGKB7TKD6 , G\D9Ô O 8:EML#G?CG O 9-0?F9 O`, -09[>@9-09HCZ!9HF9ID560-A?RD , H<9 T:?CW , HC9G36 O Ef6A8K9
T , -A6AÃ Ò O >@9D8 , G:?CD , H\-A9 O EG , GKD9<;:-0E;=9-A6A?C9 OÏ 608:9Z_B7EG:E6m9 7? O 6 ,O B7? O D-09609UDE>@;\EG:9G36 O L#?F6A8:?CG`608:9D-AZ O
6 , H /¯ 8K9(D , ; , D?F6 , G\D9 O 8:EML#Gd?FGX; , - , HFHC9HnB7T:9(6AE6A8K9fL#?F-09(DEG:GK9D560?FEG OP, D-AE OAO 6A8:9fB7?C9HC9D6A-0?CD@u?CG O T:H , 6A?CG:QVv
T , -A6AÃU¬\E7B7Z@? O -09 , HS , GKB_?F6q8 ,O , G_9än9D56mEG@608:9U-09 O EG , G36/-A9 O ;=EG O 9#EY608:9UL#8KEHC9 O Z O 6A9> ½ TKHFHYB7? O DT O
O ?FEG[EGD-AZ O 6 , H)B7ZVG , >?RD O ? O G:E6G:9ID9 OAO0, -0Z8:9-A9Sn¬:T76L#8 , 6yG:99IB O 60E¬=9JT:G\B79- O 60EVEVB , ¬=ET76yD-0Z O 6 , H O ? O
6A8K? O -A9 O EG , G36<D?C-0DT:?F6U9 T:?CW , HC9GKD9 , GKB]8:EMLÓ?F6D , GX¬=9b9 V;KHFE?609B]L#?F6A8:?CG , G]E O D?CHCH , 6AE-<D?F-DTK?6<60E , D8:?C9W9
, GXET:6A;:T76<WEHF6 , Q9(L#?608 ,O 6 , ¬:HC9S7ÎVG:EML#Gd-A9 TK9GKDZ
-0Z O 6 , H O S ,O -A9 O EG , G36&9HC9>@9G36 O So6%ZV;:?RD , HCHCZ(8 , W9 >TKD8J8K?FQ8:9-Ôak(Ôu ¿³ 1Mß ©
Á v&W , HCT:9 O 6A8 , GJ6 , G:ÎfD?F-DT:?F6 O
¬:T:?CHF6d-0E>å?CGKB7TKD6AE- OX, GKBwD , ; , D?F6AE- O S#;:-0?FG\D?C; , HCHFZB7TK9[6AE!6A8K9~-09H , 60?FW9 , ¬ O 9G\D9E O 60- , ZN-09 O ? O 6 , GKD9S
> , ÎV?CG:Qy6A8:9?F- -A9 O EG , G36-A9 T:9GKD?F9 O W9-AZB79KGK?609 , GKB;:-09D? O 9 t 9D , T O 9m6A8:9<-09 O EG , G36-A9 TK9GKDZJ? O/O EHF9HFZ
B79;\9GKB79G36 EG@6A8:9U;:8VZ O ?RD , H7;K-AE;\9-p60?F9 O E T , -A6AÃbu , W9-AZ O 6 , ¬:HC9 O TK¬ O 6 , GKD9S>9ID8 , GK?CD , HCHFZ:v5S6A8:9U-A9 O EG , G36
lÍæ çUÊUË(jÇ Æ²èKgÊbç![ÇjÇqÆ#"%$Jײç&"%Æyç(')"j+*
-09 T:9G\DZW , -A? , 60?FEGEMW9-P6A?C>@9fL#?608 , T , -p60ÃbD-0Z O 6 , HY? O W9-0ZSKW9-0Z_HCEML ¯ 8:? O ? O 8:EML ¿³ 1 ®
ÞJé ª « é «4
L , 60D8K9 O E¬76 , ?FGs608:9?C-U8K?FQ8 , DDT:- , DZ Ï ¬VZd>@9 , G O E , G[9HF9ID56A-0EGK?CDyE O D?FHCH , 6AE- O 6 , ¬:?CHC?FÃ9B]¬VZX6A8:9-A9 O EG , G36
, D6A?CEGXE , T , -A6AÃfD-0Z O 6 , H
E- H , ¬=E- , 60E-0Z , ;:;KHF?RD , 6A?CEG O S608:ETKQ8aS39W9G`Q-A9 , 6A9-+-09 T:9G\DZ O 6 , ¬:?CHF?F6%Z@> , Z¬=9B79 O ?C-09B +¯ E , D8:?C9W9
6A8K? O S 608:9sD-0Z O 6 , HP?FG T:9 O 6A?CEGN> , Z¬\9];:H , D9B!?FG , 6A9>@;=9- , 60T:-A9 O 6 , ¬:?FHC?CÃ9B!9GVWV?C-AEG:>@9G36]uT O T , HCHFZ , G
EMW9G\v5SV608VT O 9HC?F>@?CG , 60?FGKQ@-A9 TK9GKDZ`9-0-AE- O B7T:9y60E@6A8:9-A> , HY9 7; , G O ?CEG , GKBXDEG36A- , D560?FEGE)608:9 T , -A6AÃ
E-`608:9~TKH60?F> , 609?CG , -A9 TK9GKDZ O 6 , GKB , -0BN608:ET:Q8aS<G:E6A8:?CG:QNB7? O DEMW9-09B!6A8VT O , - O T:-A; ,O0O 9 O 6A8K9
, DDT:- , DZ_E ,O ?CG:QHC9y-A9 O EG , 60?FG:Q , 60E> +¯ 8:? O ? O 608:9f;:-0?FG\D?C;:HF9fEc608:9 O E D , HCHF9IB~1
ª é ©ÀÀ ß ªÀê S\L#8:?RD8dT O 9 O
, G , 60E>Em>@9-DT:-0ZuE-fD9 O ?FT:>`v O T O ;=9G\B79B~?FG , W , DT:TK>XSY9 :D?F6A9B~¬VZsET76 O ?RB799G:9-AQZ]6AEX-A9 O EG , 609 , 6
?F6 O EML#G`T:G:? T:9<-09 T:9GKDZ +¯ 8:9-09 O T:HF6A?CG:Qb-09 T:9GKDZ@? O B:96A9ID5609B ,Oq, - , B7?CE L , W9 O ?CQG , H , GKB_608 , 6mE-0> O
6A8K9b¬ ,O ? O E-#608:9b>@E O 6 , DDTK- , 6A9fDHCE7DÎ O Î3GKEML#Gd60E_8VT:> , G:?F6%Z Pë , 6A?CEG , H O 6 , GKB , -B O H , ¬=E- , 6AE-A?C9 OP, -AET:GKB
6A8K9bLqE-AHRBX> , ?CG6 , ?CG , 9L°E)608:9 O 9b8VZV;\9- , DDT:- , 609yDHFE7DÎ O S , G\Bd¬K-AE , B:D ,O 6#-A9 TK9GKDZ O ?FQG , H O ¬ ,O 9IBdEG
6A8KE O 9 , 6AE> OÒ WV?F¬K- , 6A?CEG O E- O D?F9G60? O 6 Of, GKB~6A9ID8:G:?RD? , G O 60E]6AT:G:9_?CG , GKB~T O 9@E-y-09 T:9GKDZD , HC?F¬K- , 6A?CEG
;:T:-0;=E O 9 O
ë EMLLm9sQ96_60E6A8K9[;:- , D560?CD , H<; , -A6 Ï EGKD9sLm9[8 , W9 , Ûª³7®AÀ« E , DDTK- , 6A9X-A9 T:9GKDZSP8:EML{B7ELm9
DE>@; , -09#6A8 , 6 , Q , ?FG O 6 , GT:G:ÎVG:EML#G@-09 T:9G\DZ6AEJE¬76 , ?FG , >@9 ,O T:-09>@9G365 . GK9UL , ZJ? O 60EJT O 9 , ± ¯ ,O
, -A9 T:9GKDZ DE>@; , -0? O EGB79WV?RD9 q , 6A8KEVB:9y± , Z ¯ TK¬\9 O 6%ZV;:?CD , HCHFZ_8 , W9y>@9 , G O E&B:9K9ID56A?CG:Q@608:9f9HC9D6A-0EG
¬=9 , >|?FG608:9P8:E-0?FÃEG36 , H ,O Lm9HCH ,O 608:9#W9-p60?CD , H , 7? O )Â =>@96 , H:;KH , 6A9 O+, -A9PT O 9BJ6AEf9HF9ID560-AE O 6 , 6A?RD , HFHCZbB79K9D6
6A8K9`9HC9D6A-0EG O Sc608:9-09_L#?CHFHq¬\9 , ; , ?C-bE#;:H , 609 O 60Es6A8K9`HF96 , G\B-A?CQ836bEP608:9`¬=9 , > ,O Lq9HFH ,Ob, ; , ?F-JE
;:H , 609 O#, ¬=EMW9 , GKB¬=9HCEML608:9f¬=9 , >
CRT with horizontal and vertical deflection plates
horizontal
deflection
electron "gun" plates view-
(vacuum) screen
electrons
electrons
vertical
deflection light
plates
 Lq9 , HFHCEMLeEG:9 ½ O ?CQG , Hn6AE`B79K9D6<6A8:9f¬=9 , >ÚTK; , GKB]B7EML#GuDEG:G:9ID56#608 , 6 ½ WEH6 , Q9 O ET:-D9(60E
6A8K9yÔW9-p60?CD , HRÔbB79\9D560?FEG;:H , 609 O v , GKB , G:E6A8:9- ½ O ?CQG , H\60EB:9K9ID56P6A8:9(¬=9 , >ìHF96 , GKB`-0?CQ836(uT O ?CG:Q6A8K9
E608:9-q; , ?C- EcB79\9D560?FEG`;:H , 609 O v5S3; , 6A6A9-0G O L#?FHCH\¬=9(;:-AE7B7T\D9B@EG_6A8K9 O D-099G_En6A8:9 ± ¯ ?FGKB:?CD , 6A?CW9UEY6A8K9
® 1
©ª Eq608:9 O 9@6%LmE ½ -09 T:9GKD?C9 O ¯ 8:9 O 9_; , 6p609-0G Ob, -09_D , HFHC9Bí ©RÛÛ 1î ª³VÛU 2 ³7®A«Û , G\B , -A9 , DE>@>@EG
>@9 , G O E+DE>; , - , 6A?CW9U-A9 T:9GKDZ>@9 ,O TK-A9>9G36m?CG]9HC9D560-AEG:?RD O
 P6A8:9`6%LqE]-09 T:9GKD?C9 O, -09@6A8:9 O0, >@9S)Lm9`L#?CHFHqE¬76 , ?CG ,sO ?C>@;:HF9`KQT:-09_EG608:9 O D-099GEm6A8:9 ± ¯ S
6A8K9 O 8 , ;\9@E 6A8 , 6fKQT:-A9¬=9?CG:Q[B79;=9G\B79G36bT:;=EG~6A8:9_;K8 ,O 9 O 8:?F6b¬=96%Lm99G~6A8K9@6%LqE ½ O ?CQG , H O }U9-09
? O#,O0, >@;:HC?CG:Q@E Ð ? O0O0, Ä%ET O \QT:-09 O E-P6%LmE O ?CG:9 L , W9 O ?CQG , H O E)9 T , Hn-A9 T:9GKDZS O 8:EML#G ,O 6A8:9ZLmET:HRB
, ;K;\9 , -`EG!608:9s , D9sE , GE O D?FHCHCE O DE;=9u , G ½ WEH6 , Q9 >9 ,O T:-0?FG:Qx?CG O 60-ATK>9G36`T O ?CG:Q , ± ¯ ,O ?F6 O
Ô>@EMW9>@9G360Ô3v _¯ 8:9@K- O 6b;:?CD6AT:-09@? O Em6A8:9 Ð ? O0OA, Ä%ET O \QT:-09E-0>9IB¬VZ6%LqE ½ WEHF6 , Q9 O ;=9-A9D6AHCZ?CG
;:8 ,O 9yL#?F6A8]9 , D8dE6A8:9- Ï
èKg KgÅÆ<ÇÈ'&Ç $ç<ÉNÊU$UkÌË UÊ(*7Ç[ÇqÊ*'&Æ<Ç [Çq$j lÍ3¡
OSCILLOSCOPE
vertical
Y
DC GND AC
V/div
ï trigger
ï timebase
X
DC GND AC
s/div
 U608:9X6%LqE ½ WEHF6 , Q9 O, -09XG:E6_?CGN;K8 ,O 9dL#?F6A8N9 , D8!E6A8:9-S ,xO 6A- , ?CQ836@HF?CG:9]L#?CHFH#G:E6_¬\9XE-0>@9B
± , 6A8:9-SY608:9 Ð ? OAO0, Ä%ET O KQT:-09L#?FHCH6 , Î9@EG6A8:9 , ;K;\9 , - , GKD9E , G~EMW , HSY¬\9IDE>@?CG:Q];\9-p9ID560HFZD?F-DTKH , -(?F
6A8K9f;:8 ,O 9 O 8K?6<? O 9 , D56AHCZðñòU¬\96%Lq99GX6A8:9y6%LmE O ?CQG , H O S , G\Bd?F&6A8:9?F- , >;KHF?F6ATKB:9 O<, -A9y9 T , H Ï
OSCILLOSCOPE
vertical
óY
DC GND AC
V/div
ï trigger
ï timebase
X
DC GND AC
s/div
?FG , HCHFZS?FY6A8:9#6%LmE ½Uô O ?CQG , H O/, -09#B7?F-09D6AHCZE;:;=E O ?FG:QfEG:9 , GKE6A8K9-/?CG`;:8 ,O 9bupõÍñò O 8:?65v5S3Lq9UL#?FHCHK9GKB
T:;]L#?F6A8 , HF?CG:9 , Q , ?CGaSVEG:HCZ`608:? O 6A?C>@9f?6<L#?CHFHc¬\9fE-A?C9G36A9IB`?CGX6A8:9fE;:;\E O ?F6A9fB7?C-09D560?FEG Ï
lÍ çUÊUË(jÇ Æ²èKgÊbç![ÇjÇqÆ#"%$Jײç&"%Æyç(')"j+*
OSCILLOSCOPE
vertical
Y
DC GND AC
V/div
ï trigger
ï timebase
X
DC GND AC
s/div
Ñ 8:9GLm9 , -A9J , D9IBsL#?F6A8 O ?CQG , Hc-09 T:9GKD?C9 O 6A8 , 6 , -09JG:E6608:9 OA, >9S Ð ? OAO0, Ä%ET O \QT:-09 O Q96 T:?F6A9 ,
¬:?F6>@E-09`DE>@;:HF9 ô EG O ?RB79-f6A8:9EHCHFEML#?CG:Qs9 , >@;:HF9 Ob, G\Bx6A8:9?F-Q?CW9GW9-A6A?RD , HÝo8KE-0?FÃEG36 , H)-09 T:9GKDZ
- , 6A?CE OÏ
ö vertical
OSCILLOSCOPE
DC GND AC
V/div
ï trigger
ï timebase
X
DC GND AC
s/div
OSCILLOSCOPE
vertical
Y
DC GND AC
V/div
ï trigger
ï timebase
X
DC GND AC
s/div
ö vertical
OSCILLOSCOPE
óY
DC GND AC
V/div
ï trigger
ï timebase
X
DC GND AC
s/div
 GdD ,O 9 O L#8:9-096A8:9-A9 T:9GKD?F9 O Ea608:9(6%LqE ½Uô O ?FQG , H Oq, -A9G:E6P9 , D56AHCZ ,JO ?C>;KHF9y- , 6A?CEJEc9 , D8E6A8:9-
Lissajous figure: Horizontal/Vertical frequency ratio is 3:2
u¬KT76@DHFE O 9ov5S&6A8K9 Ð ? O0OA, Ä%ET O KQT:-09`L#?CHFH , ;:;\9 , -J6AE~Ô>@EMW9S Ô O HFEML#HCZxD8 , G:Q?FG:QsE-A?C9G36 , 6A?CEG ,O 608:9d;K8 ,O 9
, GKQHC9¬=96%Lm99G`6A8K96%LmEL , W9E-0> O -0EHCH O ¬=96%Lm99GXñ3ò , GKB[õIÍñò &Â )6A8:9(6%LmEJ-09 T:9GKD?C9 OP, -A9(HFE7DÎ9B_?CG , G
9 , D56U?CG36A9Q9-- , 6A?CE`¬\96%Lq99Gs9 , D8sE608:9-IS\6A8:9 Ð ? OAO0, Ä%ET O KQT:-A9JL#?FHCH)¬=9 O 6 , ¬:HC9JEG]608:9JWV?C9L O D-099GsE+6A8K9
ô ± ¯y
¯ 8:9;:8VZ O ?RD O E Ð ? OAO0, Ä%ET O KQT:-09 O HC?F>@?F6 O 608:9?C-fT O 9T:HCG:9 O0Of,Oy, -A9 T:9GKDZ3øDE>@; , -0? O EG]6A9D8KG:? T:960E
D ,O 9 O L#8:9-09y6A8K9y-A9 TK9GKDZ- , 6A?CE O#, -A9 O ?F>@;:HC9f?CG609Q9-#W , HCT:9 O u%õ Ï õScõ Ï l7Saõ Ï SKl Ï S Ï æ\S7960D v qù 9 O ;:?F6A9f608:? O
HC?F>@?F6 , 60?FEGaS Ð ? OAO0, Ä%ET O KQT:-A9 Ob, -09 , ;=E;:TKH , -b>@9 , G O EP-09 T:9GKDZDE>; , -0? O EGxL#8:9-09W9- , G , DD9 O0O ?C¬:HC9
-09 T:9G\DZ O 6 , GKB , -Bxu O ?FQG , HYQ9G:9- , 6AE-5v+9 7? O 6 O
¢ £¤d¥£¦¨§
¢ Ü E>@9P-09 T:9G\DZb>@9609- O LmE-0ÎbEG6A8K9<;:-0?FGKD?F;KHF9#En>@9ID8 , G:?RD , H7-A9 O EG , G\D9SM?CGKB7?RD , 6A?CG:Qf-09 T:9GKDZb¬VZ
-A9H , 6A?CW9(E O D?CHFH , 60?FEG , >@EG:Q ,O 96<E)T:GK? T:9HFZ6AT:G:9IB]Ô-099B O Ô O 8 , Î9G , 6P6A8:9f>@9 ,O TK-A9IB`-09 T:9GKDZ
¢ . 6A8:9-y-A9 TK9GKDZ>@9609- O T O 9_9HC9D560-A?RD@-09 O EG , G6bD?F-DT:?F6 O u Ð ô 6 , G:ÎxD?C-0DT:?6 O S&T O T , HCHCZ7v60Es?FG\B7?CD , 609
-A9 TK9GKDZ . G:9E-(¬\E6A8DE>;=EGK9G36 O ? O > , B79J60Ed¬=9 , BoÄ%T O 6 , ¬:HC9SYL#?F6A8 , G , DDT:- , 6A9HFZsD , HF?C¬:- , 609B
lÍÍ çUÊUË(jÇ Æ²èKgÊbç![ÇjÇqÆ#"%$Jײç&"%Æyç(')"j+*
, BoÄ%T O 6A>@9G6(ÎVG:E¬aS , GKB ,O 9G O ?F6A?CW9J>@96A9-(? O -09 , BXE-(> , 7?F>T:>ÚWEHF6 , Q9bE-DTK-A-09G36 , 6U6A8K9;=E?CG36
E)-09 O EG , GKD9
¢ -09 T:9G\DZD , G¬\9X>@9 ,O T:-09B?FG , DE>@; , - , 60?FW9@ ,O 8:?CEGaS ,O ? O 6A8:9]D ,O 9dL#8:9GT O ?CG:Q , ô ± ¯ 60E
Q9GK9- , 6A9]í ©RÛÛ 1î ªM³VÛf 2 ³7®A«Û5 ±#99-A9GKD9d-A9 T:9GKDZ O ?CQG , H O D , G¬=9]> , B79XL#?608 , 8:?FQ8!B79Q-099dE
, DDT:- , DZX¬VZ[E O D?CHCH , 6AE-yD?C-DT:?F6 O T O ?FGKQ T , -p60ÃD-AZ O 6 , H Oy,O -09 O EG , G6yB79WV?RD9 O E-yT:HF6A- , ;:-A9ID? O ?CEGcS
, 6AE>@?CDfDHFE7DÎ O ?CQG , H O 6 , GKB , -B O u¬ ,O 9IB]EGX6A8K9b-A9 O EG , G36P-09 T:9G\D?C9 O E?CGKB7?CWV?CB:T , H , 6AE> O vPD , Gs¬=9
T O 9IB
yú ´_û0ü ýwþÿ
&·
^EMLm9-#>@9 ,O T:-09>@9G6?FG ½Uô D?F-DTK?6 O D , G[¬=9 T:?F6A9 , ¬:?6(>@E-09JDE>;KHF9 X608 , GL#?608 ù ô D?F-DTK?6 O E-6A8K9
O ?F>@;:HC9-09 ,O EG@6A8 , 6#;:8 ,O 9 O 8:?F6m> , Î9 O DE>@;:HF?RD , 6A9 O 608:9y> , 6p609-m¬\9ZEG\B`>JTKH60?F;:HCZV?FGKQWEHF6 , Q9<¬VZ`DT:-0-09G36
KQT:-A9 O E¬76 , ?FG:9IBL#?F6A8>@9609- O |Ñ 8 , 6]? O G:99B79IB? Od, G?FG O 60-AT:>@9G6 , ¬:HC9[60E!B796A9-A>@?CG:9[608:9;:-0E7B7TKD6
u>T:HF6A?C;:HF?RD , 6A?CEG\vcE ©4KÛ
1 4
1 4=«ªM³VÛ WEHF6 , Q9 , GKBJDT:-0-A9G36 c E-A6AT:G , 6A9HFZS608:9qDE>@>@EGb9HF9ID560-AE7B7ZVG , >E>@96A9-
>@EMW9>9G36PL#?F6A8]?F6 O<O 6 , 6A?CEG , -AZ , GKBd>EMWV?CG:Q_DE?FHaB7EV9 O#, \G:9PÄ%E¬]E)6A8:? O
¯ 8:-099(;:8 ,O 9y;=EMLq9-m>@9 ,O T:-A9>@9G36PD , GX¬\9 , DDE>@;:HF? O 8:9BT O ?CG:Q6%LmEB7ZVG , >@E>@9609-#>@EMW9>9G36 O L#?608
, >@>EG O 8 , 6JHF?CG:ÎV?CG:Q]6A8:9@6%LmE]>@EMW3?CG:QsDE?FH O 60EQ96A8:9- O E]608 , 6 ,sO ?CG:QHC9@;\E?FG36A9-b-09Q? O 6A9- O ;\EMLm9-fEG
D
E
, >@96A9-_>@EMW9>@9G6 O D , HC9 N¯ 8:? O SmE¬VWV?FET O HFZS/> , Î9 O E- , - , 6A8:9-9 7;\9G O ?CW9 , G\B!DE>@;:HC9 >@EMW9>@9G36
>@9D8 , G:? O >]S7¬:T76<?F6<? O<, LqE-AÎ , ¬KHF9 O EHFT:6A?CEG
½ G_?CG:Q9G:?CET O >96A8:E7B_EaB79-0?FWV?CG:Q , G_9HF9ID560-AEG:?CD<;\EMLm9-/>@96A9-uEGK9#6A8 , 6qQ9G:9- , 6A9 O+, G_9HC9D6A-0?CD O ?CQG , H
-09;:-09 O 9G36A?CG:Q(;\EMLm9-?CGJ608:9 O Z O 6A9>i- , 6A8K9-&6A8 , G@>9-A9HFZf>@EMW9 , ;=E?CG609-5v&? O ¬ ,O 9BEGb608:9<} , HFH79ä=9ID56 ¯ 8K9
} , HFH+9ä=9ID56f? O(, GT:GVT O T , H&9ä=9ID56fK- O 6(G:E6A?RD9IB[¬VZ } } , HCH?FGNõÍ ðKS=L#8K9-09¬VZ , WEHF6 , Q9J? O Q9G:9- , 609B
, HCEGKQJ608:9fL#?CB76A8sE , DT:-0-A9G36pøD , -0-0Z3?CG:QDEG\B7TKD560E-P9 7;=E O 9B6AE , ;=9-0;\9GKB7?RDT:H , -#> , QG:960?CD(\9HRB Ï
voltage
The "Hall Effect"
current N
current
¯ 8:9#WEHF6 , Q9PQ9GK9- , 6A9IB , D-0E O0O 6A8:9<L#?RBV608_E=6A8:9# , 6S3-09D56 , G:QT:H , -+DEGKB7TKD6AE-+? O B:?F-09D6AHCZJ;:-0E;=E-A6A?CEG , H
6AE¬\E6A86A8:9> , QG:?F6AT\B79UEY6A8:9yDT:-0-09G36/6A8K-AET:Q8_?F6 , GKB@608:9 O 6A-09G:Q6A8`EY6A8:9> , QGK96A?RD#\9HRB , 608:9> , 60?ø
èKg :gËÇ ÆÓ[ÇqÊ*'&Æ<Ç [Çq$j lÍð
D , HFHCZS?6q? O/, ;K-AE7B7TKD6Uu>T:H60?F;KHF?RD , 6A?CEG\vEn6A8:9 O 9P6%LmEfW , -0? , ¬:HF9 O &¯ 8:9 , >@ET:G36/EYÔ} , HFHKÖ+EHF6 , Q9Ô(;:-0E7B7TKD9IB
E- , GVZsQ?CW9G O 96fE#DEGKB7?F6A?CEG Oy, H O E]B:9;=9GKB O EGx6A8:96%ZV;\9_Eq> , 609-0? , H+T O 9BE-y6A8K9 , 6S)-A9ID56 , G:QT:H , -
DEGKB7TKD6AE- m 6U8 ,O ¬\99G]ET:GKBX6A8 , 6 O ;=9D? , HCHCZ;:-09; , -A9IB]Ô O 9>@?CDEGKB:TKD560E-ÔJ> , 609-0? , H O ;:-AE7B7T\D9 , Q-A9 , 6A9-
} , HFHcWEHF6 , Q96A8 , GXB:E_>96 , H O S , GKB O E>@E7B79-AGs} , HFH ä=9ID56UB79WV?CD9 O#, -09y> , B79yE&6A8K9 O 9
 6q> , Î9 OqO 9G O 9#6A8:9G`608 , 6m?aLm9ULm9-09#6AE¬:T:?CHCB , B79W3?RD9UT O ?CG:Q , } , HFHFø9än9D56 O 9G O E-/L#8:9-A9U6A8:9(DT:-0-09G36
6A8K-AET:Q86A8:9_DEGKB7TKD6AE-(L ,O ;:T O 8:9IB¬VZ ½Uô WEHF6 , Q9J-AE> , G~9 V6A9-AG , H+D?C-0DT:?6 , GKBs608:9@> , QG:96A?RDK9HRB
L ,OmO 96mT:;d¬VZ , ; , ?F-mE-mL#?C-A9yDE?FH O 9G:9-0Q?CÃ9IB_¬VZ@6A8:9yDTK-A-09G36PEa608:9 ½Uô ;\EMLm9-PD?C-0DT:?F6S36A8:9f} , HCH=WEHF6 , Q9
LmET:HRB¬\9X?CGB7?C-A9ID56;K-AE;\E-p60?FEG~60E[608:9>T:H60?F;KHF9XEUD?F-DT:?F6DT:-0-A9G6 , GKBWEHF6 , Q9 } , W3?CG:Q[GKE> ,O0O 60E
>@EMW9suTKG:HF?CÎ9 , G9HC9D560-AE>@9D8 , G:?CD , H+>@EMW9>@9G36vSa6A8K? O B:9WV?CD9_? O, ¬:HC96AE[;K-AEMWV?RB79 ©4:Û
1 4
1 4n«0ª³VÛ ;=EMLq9-
>@9 ,O T:-09>@9G6 Ï
A Hall effect power sensor
voltage
Rmultiplier
AC Load
power
source
óY
DC GND AC
V/div
ï trigger
ï timebase
X
DC GND AC
s/div
Ü T m.m9z ?Bu"'vBT T'T | 6v"'m.rZq q ,"v T z{vu x'm=,!n6u q qv x q7q'r6z"T7l qvhq7u:¬"q^T T7uZT Rh/
'v k v"q^k T7u ks2f vBT
q o k f x k ,k x%f'm.m.r gf q k kn/v 9fgZg f Rh6k T7f l"'T o s2u"f o k h/q f 0 Ü u"xf lW'kv k v"f q^T7fu s2f vBT k qNf x%f'm.km fg _à ª'\ «®_k ¿³"f ß ©*(Á
This is a moderately ugly "sine" wave. Definite harmonic content here!
é «V(«® 'v g_k q+q7h s2f T k.sf q¬ f T^T f `Îvh i v k v f m f xT7h/v k xAx k xVm f q26q2m1h i øR f ?Bu f v!xVr Û à «À%(r®5³ é ; ß Á Þ «® 0
Ñ l"'T8T7l k q k v!qKT7u s2f v/T g h f q k q o hY| k.gf n6 o l k x'm{ f o f q f vBT'T k h6v@h/vU ô ± ¯ h/ gZk n k T'm gZk q o m.}rAq7x% ff v
hT7l f ½Uô |6h/m]T'n fÒ qR f ?Bu f v"xVrÔ/q o f xVT7u s 0 ÔW[/u"qKT@/q+ o k q s q o m k Tq+x¬ f s h i l k T f m k n6lBT k vBTh k Tq
xVh/v"q^T k T7u f v/TxVh/m1h/xVh s o h/v f vBTq l"h is u"xla fg z{h/6vn f z"r f m1m.h i zn6 f%f v5z!'v g ¬m.u fQk q k vXTl"YTm k n/l/TzT7l f
q o xT7u 'v"6m1rVÃ q o m Tq øR ?Bu v"x%rq n/v"'m vBT7h Tqx%h6v"q^T k T7u f vBT#R f ?Bu f v"x k1f q%z!'v ggZk q o m.}rZq3T7l f
f q7f um]T k vUs T7l f R h/ s f hE k l k q^T7h6s2n/k fs]g Ï f f k k k
1 3 5 7 9 11 13
Total distortion = 43.7 %
/xl2vBu ¬ 3h6v+Tl l"h6 Ãh6vBT6m"q7x'm hCT7l q T 3 o q vBTqtl"6 h/v xhCT7l Ruv vBT6m=R ø
B? u f v!xVr60"h6 s ½ s2f f k x'v f o h i3f k tq7rZqKT f%s qz6Tf l f ÔKõÔ
k s2f o f f f q f v/fTqf ñf <Ã Tl f õ<qKs T3l"'k s h6v k x'f zBh6 ¾ g ³ ; s2/ f é « ; (w ß f z
T7l f Ô6¡Ô(Rh6õÍñ
UÃ T7l f ¡' g l"' s h6v k xVz'T7l f Ô¡Ô(Rh63¡ññ
UÃ T7l f ¡}T7l+l!' s h/v k xz'v g q^hh/v=0 ¯ l f ¬m&6xÎ
f xT'vn/m f q f o f q f v/TT7l f f m&YT k | fs 'n6v k Tu gZf qth f 6xlAh=Tl f q f l"' s h6v k xx%h s o h/v f vBTq k vTl fNsf 6q7u fg
ðB çEDUÊUËNÇ Æ²èF"ÊbçHG[ÇÇqÆ8IKJJײçLI%ÆyçNMOI%P
½Uô |6h/m]T'n f 0 ¢½ o u" f z@ñ <Ãq k v fji }| f
i h6u"m g q7lh i h6vm.r2T6m1m&¬m&6xÎX¬"'hY| f T7l f Ô:õÔ i8k T7l-vh¬m&6xÎ
¬"6q8q7lh i8k vn+YT'm.mChY| f 3T7l f h6T7l f PR f ?Bu f v"x%r s ' 0Î f q3h/vTl f qx%'m f z7¬ f x'u"q f o u f q k v f
i }| f l"6q v"h
l"6 s h6v k xxVh/vBT f vBT<0
£Eh 8?Bu"'m TKr T qq7u"xla6qT7l q n6lBTU¬ ¬ T7T T7hA/q ªYM«®(ª « T qz\¬ x'u"q Tl r
' f8gZf qi3k n6f v f<g Th k gZk q s2o m.f }rf h/vm.rT7l"h/q f R fk ?Bu s2f kv"x k1f qÎf vh fi vf T7hf¬ f f f n f f<v g f YT fg ¬rT7l f ; o h i3sf f yf q7rZqKT f%s f 0 Â v2f T7l f%f f ø
o l"/q ½UôWo h Lq7rZqKT q o h v"6vBTcRh6Em&'n o h E oo m x%YT h/v"qz | v7øwvu ¬ l"' h6v x%q5T v
T7h@¬ f f x%6v"x f m f<itg f h/uZTz6f%v s g q^h2h/fvg m1rs2l"k' s h6v k x%q f k qKf T k v"n i3k f vXq k n6v k k,!x'vBk T s2f 6f q7uf f ' fs Tl f f fh g gg øwvBsu s ¬ k f fg f 0 g
T qm Î Tl q 6 | rAu!q Rum vXTl l!'v qh Apq Î m1m T xlv x 'v5=z ¬ x'u"q ä vBTTKr o qh
vh/vm k v f f 'f 8m.h/k g f q3T f f v g f T7h+f n f vf f YT fNf gk ä f k f vBTf q o f xTg7u s Ô6q k n/v"k YTfug f 0q f Ô i l k k xk lXx%'vXf x%m1u f fjTl gZf k Tf 7h/f :u ¬m f q7lhf h'T f
T7hT7l f q^h/ux f hT7l f o h ¬m f%s 0 ¯ l f q f-sf T f q i h/A Î!¬Br| f 7r?Bu k x Îm.rq s o m k vnT7l f ½Uô |6h6m1T6n f 'T
s 'x%v7r h o gZk hä x f qf q^vBh/T o qh k vB6Tm1q m'xVm.h h6v"no uT7Tl fNOi T7}h | fo Rh6A Rs h6 q^l"v ou f z gZ k n x%k6T mk à k h6v"u"nQ Tlh/6q f v"'o m.h rZk q vBTq q3Th l k 7v Rh6o Û s( YªT k³7h6®5v5©«z®6v :¥ g ®7 u!q Û k vªMn2® é
s2h6qk Ô ¥ Ôjf 'm.n6h6 T7l s Lh6vsTlh/q f 'T o h f v/Tqs Thj's2 | f k 'Tl"' h6k.f v mx R ?Bu k v! xVr fN¤ 6n6v T7¤ u q0 ¯ l o ; 7hZ¾ x qq
¤E¤ k s fg k k f s k f f s k gf f f
k'qQv!'v"m.h'rT q sqth/u"vXxlHuq vm k ÎufAm&YTi l!YxT2T7x%l u f TÜ |/£ h6Â m1ôT6 n o h68h6n/xVu s vBT T f m.m&q}| WRxVh6h s o 0 uZT f T7h g h i l f v o f p Rh/ s2k vnWWh/u k1f
k k.s fg k k f f i f s
úy´_û¦ § ¨ ªydV«X¬j ¸dV+¸<·XdL
©
½ q q Tl ù ô 6q7u vBT3x xVu Tq%zBT7l x xVu T x%h6vZ,!n6uYT h/vÎvh vA6q3 Õ®5©:%3« x%'v¬ | 7r
u"q f Ri3uf m i }iri8T7h k sf 6q7u sf f uv:Îvf%h s2i fv2|Y'm.ku f qkh= f q k fq^T6k v"x f 0k ¯ l k q k qyT7u fk i8k T7l ½Ui ô /q itf m1m$z'v g2i3f x%6f v@ ofo m1r
T7l f | f r@q s2f o k v"x k o m f T7hTl f 6xxVuYT fNs2f 6q7u fs2f vBT3hLu"v:Îvh i v k.s o f<g 'v!x f q0
¯ h | z'T7l ¬ n x xVu T h60 ÎZqy6qt o h{T høwx%h o h/v vBTy|/h6m1T'n | qtxVh6v"v xVT /xVh/qq
T7l f q7 s2f f q7k1fh6i u"x f f|/h6m1Tk.6g n f f z i8k k T7lXk i ; ³ ßß® «%( «À%(ª® ks2f T f i s hY| f%s s2f vBTf xVh/vv f xT f<g f¬ gZf k T itk&gZff f vUT7l fs f Th fgk v gZk xYT f
2xVh/v gZk T k h6vh Ô¬"6m.6v"x f ÔQ'PT Ã f h2|6h6m1Tq Ï
R1 R3
null
R2 R4
½ vrh6v h Tl Rh/u q qKTh6q v-T7l ¬hY| ¬" n x%'v¬ T7l q q^T7h6hyuv:Îvh vX|Y6m1u zC'v Tq
|Y'm.u f x%6v]¬ f fjgf T f f s2k v fg f ¬rUk 2'T k k hhOf Tl f h6T7l f f 8T7k&gl f%f f z i l k xf la' f f Ô6f x%6k m k ¬YT fg z Ôjh/ ii lhBq f f f q k q^T6gXv"x k f q
' f Îvh i vT7hj o f x k q fgZf n6 f%f 0 Ñ l f v+T7l f ¬ k&g n f8k q k v@y¬"6m.6v"x f<g xVh6v gZk T k h/v à f h
|6h6m1T6n f 6q k v gk xYT f<g
¬r+T7l f vBu"m1m gf T f xTh6 s2f T f zZTl f 'T k h i h60ÎZq3h6uZT8Th¬ f T7l k q Ï
èF"¯ÊbçH°mÆIK±×#Ç°çLI%ÆfçNM5I%P ð/¡
In a condition of balance:
²R ²R
1
²R = ²R 3
S v hT7l |Y6v/T'n q8hyu"q vn¬ n x xVu TTh 6q7u q q^T6v"x q8Tl"YTNT7l |6h/m]T'n hT7l
o h itf f q^h/ux f+f k q g k f m f |Y'vBf T0U£y6kxT k x'm.m1rk.q g o f f Î kk vn!z=k T7l f l s2k n6f l f
T7f l f f q^uk o"o m1rWf|6kh/m]T'n f zCTl f f@f /q k.f f k T k qThf
2 4
gZq f v"T fq xVT T | QxVh/T v gZk T m.kUm h6v@¬ h0 k1½s ¬"n/' m&'Yv"T x f @¬ q^f u T oi3o f%m.f r_v@|6T7h/l m]f T'Rnh6u3m f q k q2q^T7Th/hq T7i8l k T7lo hBT7lq7q f ¬ vum m1TKm rgZfhT f xv"T7h/xVz/'q v g T7lu"q6q7T7ul fNs h6vB fT
o f f x kk q kk h/fXv=0 k i8h i3k f | f fzTl f fi8f k m1m)f ¬ f vh@Ruv g s2f vBf T6mf f g h6 k v/T7fh g u!x fg k /k qk 2 f q7uk m]Thfy2f<m gHf q7q s2f f h6n/f s2f Yf T f
o h itf q7u oo m1rA|6h6m1T6n f uvm k Î f h'T7l f TKr o f q8h E f q k q^T6v"x fNs2f 6q7u f%s2f vBTqxl f%s2f q0
 o 'v!x ¬" n q h60 ÎjTl q z/h/vm1rTl ¬"6m.6v"x ?Bu"'T h6v q T7l À0ª é<ànß « á?/u!'vBT T qzB/q ¬h'Tl
s 'n/vs k Tu f<gZg f 'v f g o k&l!g 6q f f i /xVh/qqTf l f xVs2h f s o h6v f vBTqf hT7l f fT i f h gZk | k k&gZf k q i8s k u"q^T_¬ fXf ?Bu"'m k vh/k k.gf f Rh62T7l f
vum.m gZf T f xVT7h6 Th k v gk xYT f ÔÃ f h"0 Ô ¯ l f vBu"m1m gf T f xTh6<zZh xVh6u"q f z s u!qK<T ¬ f gZf | k x f x% o ¬m f h gZf T f xT k v"n
| f 7rq s 'm.m ½Uô |/h6m1T'n f q0 ½ vq f v!q k T k | f h/qx k m.m1hBq7x%h o fAk q2h *T f v³u"q fg Rh62T7l k qz36m]Tlh6u"n6l| f rq f v"q k T k | f
fq7h6m f uxVT7x h s2R f x?Bl!u 'v v"k x%x%r 6m q s2f T Tf l vs 6hYu | f%s2h2f vB6TvqQn 'v 0 gf | f v`l f g o lh/v f q q s 'm.m3q o f Î f ql!}| f ¬ f%f vu"q fg`k T7l f
f f f k i8k k gZk f
General impedance bridge
Z1 Z3
null
Z2 Z4
null
²R ²R
unknown
capacitance
âC âC standard
capacitance
s
x
null
²R ²R
Ü o m Ô6q7r T7 x'Rm Ô#¬ n qOq^u"xl/q=Tl q 6 q^hv" ¬ x%'u!q Tl r l ¬ TEq^r T7r 7h6Aø
k.s 6n k.f s q k.s2f k m&' k TKsrZs2y¹Rf h s k m f ¹*T8T7h2k.g k f n/lBT0 ¯ l f T i f hf¬ k.g f n f x k xVs2u k fTg q8q^lf h i vUf ¬hYf | f f%'¸ f k ¬"6k m.6v"s2x f<s2g f ¬r@ g Rs2ÄKu"k qKT k v"n
T7l f x%'m k ¬'T f<g f 6xVT k | f xVh s o h6v f vBT ÐLº h/ ô º 0 ¯ l f r-' f d¬ k Tjq k1s o m k , fg ¹Rh s Tl f%k
f 'mFø$m k ¹ f x%h6uv:ø
T f o '7Tqz!6q o 6xT k x'mLq^r s2s2f T7 k x%'m)¬ k.g n f x k xVu k Tqh'¹*T f val"}| f @x%6m k ¬YT fg z!|}6 k ¬"m f f q k qKTh6 k v-q f k1f q
h6 o 66m1m f m i8k T7lAT7l f f 6xVT k | f xVh s o h6v f vBT3Th¬!'m&'v"x f h/uZTqKT}r2 f q k q^T6v"x fk vAT7l f uvKÎBv"h i vAxVh s o h/v f vBT0
èF"¯ÊbçH°mÆIK±×#Ç°çLI%ÆfçNM5I%P ðB»
¶3uZTz k vT7l f lr o h6T7l f T k x%6m i h/7m g h'¹ o f ^¹ f xTjx%h s o h/v f vBTq%zOT7l f q f q k.s o m f+¼ k&g n f x k xVu k Tq g h@ÄKu"q^T,"v f Th
k m1m.u"q^T7YT f Tl f
¼ 6q k xNx%h6v"x f o T<0
½ v fV¸ s o m f h'¹OQm k T^Tm ff%¸ TQxVh s o m f%¸k TKr@ g"gZfg T7h2xVh s o f v"qYT f ¹Rh/ f 'mFø i h6m g2f ä f xTq3x'v ¼!f ¹Rh6u"v g
kh6v+uT8T7l 6f vq7uhø~v:x%Î'vm.mh fg³v½Uq ¾:¿ ; q Õ%À x%¾ %o 6¿ xz i Th6l Ak ø$x lq u!qKq Tf h6qt x%ho ''m.v!m f Ym!T x%h6 v5o 0 6x½ k Tm1mOh6Ax%ø$ o f q6k x qKTT7h6h/qtqKTl"'}v | g 'q7g+h k1s o fg h66u"v"v/x T8f h6T7h ¹ ¼ vB'T m&'v"v"x 6f m
f q k q^T6v"x f z ¼f@i k TQm k f T f k.f 6mh6 f ?/k u k |Y'm f f vBkT :k vTl sQf ¼¹Rh6k s k h6¹ gZk1f m f xT k x2l k f 'T k vnXm.h/f qq f qs2 f i l s k xlT f v g kT7haf q o h k m
T7l f%k
h'T7l f i8k q f o f 7¹ f xVT7m.r- f /xT k | f v"'T7u f q0Á l k q k vBT f v"6mL f q k qKT'v"x fQs }r ¼f h'¹ k vBT f f qKTT7h s2f /q^u" f z
'v g q^hTl f Ñ k.f v ¼ k&g n f 'T^T fs o TqT7h g hq^h ¼ r o 7hY| k&gZk vnX ¼ 'm&'v!x k vn k1s o fg 6v"x f T7l"'T k q7v Ò T Ô o u f Ô
f%k T7l f Ï
The Wien bridge
âC
²R
x
²R x
s
âC
s
null
²R R
¶ vn@Tl"YTNT7l 6 T hUqKT'v 6 xVh o h6v vBTqT7h ÄKu"qKT A q qKTh6N'v x% o 6x Th6 Tl q
¼ k.g n f%fk i8k m.m"TÎ f f m k fT7T7m ff s h6i f T k1s2f g T7h ¼g 'm&'v"s x f T7l!f 'v+Tl f h6¼!T7f l f g q itfÒf| gHf q f%f vAf q^khj¹:'<0LÁ g l f xVh sj¼k v k f<g+f ä f xVk T
h'¹Â º 'v g ô º k qTh'm1T f jTl fUs 6n6v k T7u gZf 6v g o l"/q f 'vn/m f uvBT k m3T7l fA¼ k&g n f 6xl k1f | f qQ-x%h6v gZk T k h6v_h'¹
¼Îv6m.h 6v"q%x z/f T70 l S v!o x6f 6Tm1l"m Ym T ¼ 6o m.6v"6x fNv"x k q3/h'x¹=l Tk.l f | f<T g z/h T7l f T q f T^T k v"v n/q3h'¹OY T7º l 'v g YT ô xº 'm.xm1'r/vz6¼!v f Tf l g u"¹R7v:h Îs vh T7l vfk 8x% x%o 66m k.x ¼ T'Yv"T fx g
'v g ¼ f q k q^Tf 6v"x f
gZf f T f k1s s2k v ffg gUs fYTl f%s Yf T k xi 'm.m1r@gZf ¹R7f h s sk T7l f<f
g+¼ s 'm&'v"x f%fNs f ?Bu"k YT k h/v wÃ=g Ä Ý Ã{Å f ÷ Ã{Æ Ý Ãi Ç 0 k f
 T q26qq7u vTl h o YT h/vh'¹Tl Ñ v n T7l"'TTl qKT'v 6 x% o 6x Th6jl!6qv n/m n m
vk /T f v"'k mL f q k q^Ts26fv"gx f k zh/N'f TNm f /f qKTNT7k l!YT f q k qKTf 'v"x fjk1f k q¼'m. k&fg g f r]Îvh i v-f q7hTl"Yg T k gTx'v ¼f k ¹:6xVT7h6 fgaf k vBT7khAk.T7¼ l ff
¼m Î6m.6v"m x fxTf 7?Bh/u"m1rB'T T k x%h6qv=z 0 Ñ l k. f v T7¼ l k&g vBn Tf q
7v"' 6f mu" q q f ¹Rq^uTmE'v!¹Rh6x gqf T f m&s2YT k v | k vm.rUnUlT7l n/f l=|Y0+'m.Á u l f qr-h'¹m6 Ô6m1hB'q7m&q7q7r7hAÔu"xq o /x6k qNT7h6¹R gZ?Bfu q k v"n6xVv!r q
k ff f k i f f fk f f k fk f k f k f f fg f f
s2x% f o T 6f x q%Tz h6¼qf x'' u"q f Tl f¼, 'm&'v"x f'v h6¹yT7u!l q^fu"6¼ m1m. rUk&g h'n ¹ fk ?Bqu"¹R6 fm5?B|Yu 'f m.uv"xV3r ø 'gZv f o f Tv l gZf TvBh To 0 TÑ lh@f vq u"q^q T7f<h/g-q8k va6 Tl k qN ¹:6q7l |Yk h/'v= z{ T7l m f
'v g 6k f g ÄKu"qKf
T fs gU¼ gZr f s2¸Zf f6g`v"q h'¹Lg T7l f q s2f Îvfh ¼ 0 f g f i f k fjs gZf k ¼ f
½ v k vBT f f qKT k vn`|Y6 k YT k h/vh/v³T7l k q+Tl f%s2fk q@¹Rh6uv g³k v³T7l f v f%¸ T ¼ k&g n f x k x%u k T<z8u"q fg T7h o f x k q f m1r
s2f q^u fk v g u"xT'v"x f q0
/
ð/ çEDUÊUËNÇ Æ²èF"ÊbçHG[ÇÇqÆ8IKJJײçLI%ÆyçNMOI%P
ãL
x
²R x ²R
null
âC
s
²R ²R s
Á l k q k vn f v k h6u"q ¼ k&g n f x k x%u k T k q Îvh i vU6qT7l fQÈ á \ ¿ ßß]® ½A¾:¿ ; Õ%À ¾ % ¿ q7h s2f T k1s2f qqÎvh i v o m. k v"m1r@/q
T7l f2È á \ ¿ ßß ÕVÀ ¾ ¿ z{'v gUk q u"q fg T7h s2f /q^u" f uv:Îvh i v k v g u"xVT'v!x f q k vUT f s q8h6¹Lx%6m k.¼ YT fg f q k qKT'v"x f
'v g x% o 6x k T'v"x f 0 ô 'm k.¼ 'T k h6v7øwn6 gf
k v g u"xTh6q6 fQs h/ fgZk1
x%um1TNTh s 6vBu¹:6xTu f T7l!'vx o /x k T7h/qh'¹
q k1s2k m.6 o f x k q k h6v5z6'v g q7hTl f u"q f h'¹CNq k.s o m f Ô/q^r s2s2f T7 k x%'mRÔ k v g u"xT'v"x f3¼ k&g n f k qvh6T6m i }rZq o /xT k x'm$0
¶ f x'u"q f Tl f o l"/q f q7l k ¹*Tq
h'¹ k v g u"xTh6q'v g x% o 6x k Th6q6 ffV¸ 6xVT7m.rah o"o hBq k T f2f /xl-h6T7l f z5Ux% o 6x k T k | f
k.6s q3o Tl fg rU'v"'x f x%l 'v ¼ 0 6m.6v"x f h/uZT'v k v g u"xVT k | f
k.s o fg 'v"x fk ¹LT7l f r' f m.hZx%'T fgAk vXh oo h/q k T f m f n/q h6¹E ¼ k&g n f z
f f ff
½ v"h'T7l f g |}6vBT'n f h6¹Ou"q k v"n22a ¸Zitf m1m ¼ k.g n f T7h s2f /q^u fNk v g u"xT'v"x f 'T7l f tTl"'v2q^r s2s2f T k x%6m
k vv g u"u"xVxVTT7h6'v!qx 0f2a¼ 'k.n/g v n fjT k xqNT7, l f2m f qNm k.x%s26vk v"'T k h6vh'x%¹ us2m]TNf 6T7hUq7uq^ l fs2m f vBz{T 'f v 7h6 | g vau f T7q h s 'm.umOT7 u"6m h/kuv vBg Tu"h6x¹T'xVv"h6x u fQo m¼vf T n i3f%f Tv-T i vh
kxVh g m&q va n xf 'k v vBf T7g h u"x q^¼!u fgZqKTk]'
vBT 'm 7h6q k1f vXg x 7TgX fvXxVf h/v T s h6v"q0 Ñ s TlXvh@q xVh/v k v ¼u"fxTi3h68f%f Th
f 6k xVT k i8k Tl ¼ k vUk&g T7l f f - ¸Zk itf m1m g ¼ k&f g n f zB¼ T7l k q o k h ¼ f m f%sÉk q k f m k.s2f k v!Yk T f<g 0 gZk k k f gAk g
h/ 6q q^Th o 'T h6v=z{Tl qKT'v ' x o /x T7h6 ô º 'v T7l q q^T7h/ v o ''m.m m Tl T Â º N'
s gZf |Y'f k k.¼ f m f z6v f g¼ h'k Tl s u"fq^T ¼!f g g ÄKu"g q^T fg T7h@k /xl k.f | fN¼ 6m.6g v"x f 0Ef hf itk f | f z/k T7l f
¼ k&g f n f i8x%k6v ¼k f
s gZf Th f
i h6q 0 q^Î T7h/k ¹E Tvl f o 'x%'o m.6m x m k Th6 T7lQk q8T7, l ¸Zfxg o v/h6x 7v T7øwh/|Y'zY 'k v ¼ m f h/ v 'v h6gA¹"Ts l h/ h'f T7l T7l!L'vXT h6hv f 0L f h q k qKTh6| s z vjgTf l |}6m.'k T^ T ¼ myf+xVh/'vZT,"m n/f u6q^'T8T T7h6l v f
fk k f i8k f k g f f f i i3f f k f f k
k TLv T 'Î m&f 'q v"s x h/v n f T7 'k 6n/m v ø~'Tv u g ø f 76v h6O o g l"ÄK6u"q q^T s20 f v/TLT7h6xl k1f | f¼ 'm&'v"x f zY6qOT7l f3gZk ä f f vBTL|Y6 k ¼ m f f q k qKTh6q k vBT f 6xVT
k ¼ Êv"m Î k Tl s o m& vk Ñ gZf v g n zf T7l 'm&'v!x h'¹LT7l a m.mø Ñ v n q v o v v/Th'¹q^h/ux
¹R f ?Bu f v!k xVr6f z/'v f gk v2q7k h s2f k1x%f /q f ¼ qLk&T7g l k qf ¼ k&g fn ¼ f x%6v ¼f f8s gZf f Th ¼ ¸Z'i3m&'f v"x f k k.vf T7l ¼ f ok&g f f
q f k v"x kf h6gZ¹ f s2f k1¸gZf<gf ¹R f ?/u f v"x k1f fq
¹Rh s Tl f ½Uô |6h/m]T'n f q7h6ux f zBT7l f m k1s2k T k vn2¹:6xVT7h6 ¼f%k vnT7l f
k v g u!xT7h/ Ò q qKT ¼k m k TKr@hY| f 8 i8k.gZf ¹R f ?Bu f v"xVr
'vn f 0
Á l ' h/ |Y' YT h6v!q r/h6v T7l q q n/v"qz uZTU-¹Ru"m1m qxVu"qq h/v q2vh'T ''vBT l 0
Ë f v f 'f mFø f o u" o fUh/sq f8k1s f o fg 6k v"x k fN¼ k.¼g nf f x k g xVu k Tfq3'fa fgZf s k 'vuZ¹:/¼xTu f<g+i l k xglk x%6v ¼k f q i8k k Txl fg@i k vBT7h s h6f<g f T7l"f 6f v
h6v f x%h6vZ,!n6uYT k h/v@¹Rh6 s ¸k.s u s > f%¸k.¼k m k TKr@h6¹Lu"q f 0
Ì_ÍÎÏAÐVÎÑÓÒ
èF"]ÔBÊbç_IKJP=ÆMOGÇJQ\ÊLI% J Æ<ÊJPZ±AMmçÇqÆP
Õ ðÖ
Ì ½U'ô T hN¼ h6 k.¹ g n f o x k x%6u v"k x Tq q i h6Y0TÎXl h6yvWT7T7l"l 6f v+q7 sq qKf2T'¼ v"/x q k x q o k v"m.m"x k o q7m fum1/T q v@ù bô Ô ¼ 6 k.m.g 6nv"f x x k Ôx%xVu h/k Tv q Ï T Tl"h6v@YTj6q ¼ v 'm&'xv"YxT fg
k k1s fg f f f k f i8k f k ¼ f<g gZk k k gk f<g
¼ r@T7l f vum.mø gZf T f xVT7h/ gZf | k x f 0
Ì ëq7x%uh m.o m gZq f T ô f xVÂET7Á h/qq¹Rz6h/l ½Uô o l¼ h/ v k&g qn f q s o }m r , ¼f h6q Lf v"uq v"k T k | f+o m f ,m f xT7hz's2h/Lf 6xvl"rN6v h6k T7xl 'm s2f T | f x s x%hY |o f s2m f vBh6T¹"qz= h/n qx qKk T m.m1hAøø
f Ò f g f s k fg s k f<g f gZf k f ¼ f f k f
k6vx%nQx%u| f 67xVr2r q s q6Ym1#T m ýUô h"|60 h/m]T'n f m f | f m&q0 Ð k Î f ù ô vum1m gZf T f xT7h/qz k Tqth/vm.r f ?Bu k fg o h k v/T h'¹5x'm k1¼ 'T k h6v
k f
Ì ½UrAô +¼ qK Tk.g 'nv f 6x k xVu k Tqo x''v v"¼!x f h6h'¹"¹Tq l f Ô6m&q7'r s2TKr so f T7 h6k vUx'TRm Ôl TKr q7o f8i l q f f 'v2Th uo :v h6Î vh i h6T^v T7h k.s o 3fh'g ¹L'T7v"l x f8k q ¼ 'n m&'0 v"xS f<g z
T7¼ l f r_x%6v g ¼f gAÔ'vk.s h/v"q^fr g s2s2f f T k x%6k.m9s2z Ôak u"q k vn o f ''m.m f m f k1s o s2ffg 6v"k&gZx f@f q T7h ¼ 'm&'¼ v!x f q s f k.f q k.s fo f¼ g 'k&g v"x f f qzth/
f | f vUx o /x k T6v"x f q ¼ 'm&'v"x k vnh6uT k v g u"xT'v"x f q0
Ì ½U½ ôëUù ¼ o k&gl"n6fq x 'k vx%n/u m k TqQh'u"¹*qKT T f vl"}o | f@h o s h6m1r f T7l!'T'xvl h/v f Th g ÄK'u"m&'q^Tv"s2x f 0 vBTzyq k v"x fA¼ h6T7l k.s o f<g 'v!x fs 6n6v k T7u gf
f fs ¼f f s f<g ¼ f
Ì qÜ h v"s2q fjT k.| s o TKf<r g o 'v!q x fj¼}r k&g n f u"x qk x%u k /TqQq6¹R f ?/u¹R f v"?/x%u r f v"x%r ø~6q q7f uv" q k T k | fvBT i l k m| f x h'Tq l f ¹Nq6m16m8 fxVh vh'oT<0Nh/v Á l vBf T2¹R|} 6f m1?Bu u f q2v"'x%3r ø
6f x%x%uk Yk T ff m1_r Îvf h i s v50 ¼f fg f f sf f%s2f gZf k f k s f f f
ú×_ûØ §©¨ d% 5LyÙXLNd þQÚL L«aÙÛ8
[/u"qKT/q gZf | k x f ql"}| fN¼!ff v s gZf Th sf 6q7u f x f 7T k v o lrq k x%'m=?Bu"6vBT k T k.f q8'v g f o f 'T T7l"'T k vZ¹Rh/ s 'T k h6v
kl"vA}| Tl f ¹Rh6 v s h6 ¹ ù ô T7l"f 'm T f xTh k T7x%l 6m=q qk n6v"6m.q T7T7llXf Ý s ô hZ0 xVh/u o m f qz"qKT k vUn/6un f q%z o o 7h ¼!f q%z f Tx'0Üz!q o f x k 6m gZf | k x f q
ÞwfT ¼k qf%f h'¹*T s f vgZv f f x f qq767g r2Th ¼f f s2¼ m ff i8Th k gf T f xT6v g T7'v"q s2k T T7l f o lrq k x%'m o h/q k T k h6vh'¹ sf xl"'v k x'm o 6^Tq
| k f m f xT k x%6mtq k n/v"'m&q0aÁ l k q k q f q o f x k 'm.m.rT7u f@k vT7l f , f m g qQh'¹'uT7h s 'T fgs /xl k v f T7hh6m xVh/vBT7h6m6v g
h ¼ h'T k x%q0Ýßq k.s o m f 'v gAf /q^r i }r2T7h g hQTl k q k q i8k T7lX o h'T f vBT k h s2f T f Ï
potentiometer shaft moved
by physical motion of an object
+ voltmeter indicates
V position of that object
h | <z o h6T v/T h T qyl"}| Tl h v2uv ?Bu o h m q0Eh6h6v z'T7l r m1rQh6v o lrZq x%6m"xVh/vBT6xVT
-
T¼f i3f%f i3vaf T7l f f Ô i8k o f f 0ÔAk s2'v f g f T7l f f q f k q^T'f%v!k x f i q^T7 k o z k i l fk xl s¼ f 'fv"s qT7l f rXq^u:ä f f Tfl ff f ä f xTqh6¹ o lk rZq k x%6m i3f 6
hY| f T k1s2f 0`Ýq o h'T f vBT k h s2f T f q itf '<zOTl f%k o h o h67T k h6v"6mh6uT o uZT2| f q7u"qQq^l"'¹*T o h/q k T k h6v ¼f x%h s2f qm f qq
'v m qq x 7T v50Oàyh/u n6lBT8l"}| 'm. r o v"x T7l q ä xVT l v u!qKT vnTl |6h6m.u xVh6vBT7h/m
h6vg 6vf h6m g f gZk k h Ïi l f vs2k T i8k q^T k vnXf Tl f f Îvg h ¼ f%zO¸ r/h6f u k.fs2k n/fl/g TQl f k 6Jf Ô6f qxVYi Txl f k v"nÔUg}á q^h/uvk g qQxVh f s2k vnXs2h6uf Tjh'¹ T7l f
q o f Î f q0EÁ lh/q f vh k q f q8' f T7l f f q7um]Th6¹ o hh6 i8k o f xVh/v/T6xVT k vUT7l f |/h6m.u s2f xVh6vBT7h/m o h'T f vBT k h s2f T f <0
Ým&q7h"z{T7l q o lrZq x'mxVh/v/T6xVT T v o
'v qKT o xV YT qT7l o h/qq m TKrah6¹3'x vn q o '0Î vn
T¼f i3f%f vTl f k T i h-/k qT7l fAi8k o f ¼k q f s i3hYf%|f fg i80 k Ñ f k Tl s g h/q^T k o h6T f f v/T k hf s2f T ff Qx k xVk.u ¼k k Tqk zLT7l f xVuk f vBT k qQq^h-k m1h i
ðÍ çEDUÊUËNEâã²èF"ÊbçHGaâEâtã8IKJJײçLIKãyçNMOI%P
T7l!YT i8k o f j'x k vn k q
v f n/m k n k.¼ m f z ¼ uZT k T k q o h/qq k.¼k m k TKraTh ¼!f x%h6v"q k&gZf fg 0Þw¹3Tl f o h'T f vBT k h s2f T f k qTh
h o 'T v'v v| h6v vBT l xVh u"q^T m |Y o h/th/ g u!qKT k q o f q f v/T<zBT7l k q o h6T f v/T k 6m¹Rh6 'x k vn
T7¼f 'v!q^m&f YT f q f<kg+vBTk h@ o fh'T f vBk T k 'm{s¹Rh/f 'vi fVf¸ o f m.h/q k sjh6v=¼ # k.¼ f
Êq vnQÝ ô v"q^T h'¹ ù ô z ' m T7hxVh o m T m.r+}|6h q7m vnQx%h6vBT/xT T v o 6^Tq ¹ u"q
YYÀ ¾ k Õ ß ¿ ($À7 ; k ÛRäVåYÀ f é g ¿ À k v"q^T f g ith'f ¹C f o h6T¼ f fvBT k h sf s T f 0 f ù f f | k x f q k&s g gZk&f gZk¹Rh6Tl k q o u o ¼h/f q f i36f%f f x'm.m f<g kÐ Ö itù f Á Ò q%f z
i l k xlq^T'v g q¹Rh/tæ k v f ' Ï ' k ¼ m fçk ä f f vBT k 'm{è
'v"q^¹Rh6 s2f q%0LÁ l fgZf q k n6v@h6¹='v Ð Ö ù Á³m1hhÎqym k Î f T7l k q Ï
The Linear Variable Differential Transformer
(LVDT)
éAC output
éACê "excitation" êvoltage
voltage
S ¼ | k h/u"q^m.r6zBTl k q gZf | k x movable q (9À ; core ÛRäVå'À é À Tl"6q8+q vn6m o 'r v vn o h rA6v T v"6m
q7h6ux f h6¹CÝ ô |/h6m1T6n f z/'v g T i hjq f xVh/v g 67r ¿ i8Ïyk v k gZk vnBqtx%h6vk v f xf T fg2k1k s v@q f k.fi8qpk ø ¼ gZu"k xÎ k vn¹:it/f q^l f<k g@h/v=¼ 0OÞwT k q f%}¸ 'À f ¾ Õ ß ¿
f k
¼q f xVx%h/6v u"q 6f 7Tr l f xVv h/ fNvkn/q q¹R6 f f T7xVh h/vs v hY|xT f¼!f0T ¶ itff vvAn+T7'l f
6i8vk n v gZk vT7nBh2q%h0Eo"ÞwTo hBk q q ¾ ë/¿xlÀ ¿ ;h6T7( ¾l ß ¼f õx%Í6ñu"òq f h6uZh'T8¹5Th6l ¹ f
o l!i 6}q r2 T7l f T 'i v!h q
T7l!f YTyTg l f h/uZi8T o k ugZTk h'¹{T7l k q f gZf | k x ff i8k f<m1gm ¼!f T7f%l k f ¾ ë¿ À ¿ ;f<ì ¿g ¼f T i3f%f v2T7fl ff |6h6m1T6n f f h6u T o uZTth'¹{T7l f T i hq ff x%h6s2v g f 'r
i8 k q7v ugZm]Tjk v'n/T
q0 T7l Ñ l h/f uZv-T o TuZl Tf T xVh/ fkv"q
'm&x q f vBT f m1 m f<g 6v gahX¼ h'|6Th6l m1Tqi80+k v ÞwTgZk vqnBx%qN66m1m f h6ß uT o 'uZÀ T7T k vnUx%'T7u!l q f qT l s2f xVh/|6 h6m1Tq6n ¹R f z{T7l h f v fh'T ¹
f f f s2k i8k ¼!f+íf k fg ¾ ; ¿ ¼!f f f f Ò f%f<g s
s h'T Á k h/l v k Ý qô q^T7|6 h6k m1n6TlB6pTn øwm k h6v uZf T 0 o uZT rj6v Ð Ö ù Á v xYT qLT7l o h/q T h6v2h'¹!T7l hY|Y m xVh/ 0 7h|6h/m]Tq 'v!q
T7l!YT8T7l f f xVh6 fk q8x f fvBT f f<g 0yÁ ¼ l f ¹Ru7T7l f i k }grQk Tl f f xVh/ ff k q ¹Rk h sk x f vBT f f8o s hBq k T k h6¼ v=f zTl f f n6 Ãf 'f T f o f x f s2vBfT'n f
h'¹ v o uZT Ô x TYT h6v\Ô/t|6h/m]T'n m1m q vYT8Tl h6uT o uZT<0yÁ l o l"/q h6¹OTl h6uZT o uZT|/h6m1T'n f f m&YT k | f
T7hkTl f
fV¸ x k TfV'¸ T k k h6v|6k h/m]T'n fk v gZk x%fN'Ti8f k q i ¼l f k xl f%f gZk f xT k h6f vU¹Rh s x f vBT f f T7l f x%h6f fk q8h f ä{q f T<0
Á l o 'r` |Y'vBT'n h'¹6v Ð Ö ù ÁÕhY| o h'T vBT h T Q¹Rh6 o h/q T h/vHq v"q v"n qjTl q v"x
h'¹ o lrZfq k x%6mLk.s x%h6vBT/xT g ¼!f T itff f vT7l f2s hY| k vn'v g f q^TYT k h/v"'f r k o s2'7f Tqf 0jÁ l f x%h6 k fk g h f qf v"h'kTxVh/kv/T6xVTf Tl ¼ f2fi8k ff
i8 k o v h6gZT k vv/n/T qzh ¼ uZT8T q^m k.z"gvf h6q k vUq 'T7v l g h6uZTT l i8k o Tl hBk q7vUq jv"m TKh6r@v"x%h'h6¹v xVg u!'xTT k vvnjn+T7'u v¼'f 0yx'Á 0 lu"qz6Tl f Ð Ö ù Á g h f q3vh'TPÔ i3f 'Ôm k Î f
î ¸ f x k Tk YT s2k h6f v+f h6¹CT7l f Ð k Ö ù Á f f k qTKr f o k x'm.m1r]k.¼õIk ñ
k |6h/m]TqtÂf Ü k h6tm f q7qzZYT¹R f ?Bu f v"x k.f q6vn k vn
¹Rh s o h itf m k v f
T7hTl f l k n6l6u gZk h ñ]Î í 'v"n f 0 S v f o h'T f vBT k 'm gZk q g |Y'vBT'n f h6¹3Tl f Ð Ö ù Á k q k Tqj f q o h6v!q f T k1s2f z
i' l k xl q k q s h/z!q^T7T7l m.r gZ¹R f o ?Bf u v gZv!f xVv/r Th6vAu"q^T7T l f ¹R l f ?Bn/u l f v"xVT7r@hAh66¹Om1Tm.h l f Ý ô l"Y|6T h6| m1T6n |/f h6q^m1h/T6un x fø~q 0EÞwv"¹Eq | v"f n27r@x ?Bu xVuk xÎ@Tq f vq o h6h/uv"n/ql-f xVT rZk1s2x%m f qq
h'¹fjÝ gZô f Tk h fg gZf T f f s2k v f f |6f h/m]T'n s f m f | f ¼mtf 6qk T7l f f xVh/ f+k q siïhYi | fg 0f Á5f h k m.m1u"q^T7Yf T f f Tl fk o h'T k f vBT k k 'm o f h ¼ m f%s l f f f z
èF"]ÔBÊbç_IKJP=EãMOG-âJQ\ÊLI% JÕEã<ÊJPZ±AMmçEâtãP ðð
k.s hY6| n k v f vaT7l 'k vq f%¸ h/'uZn6Tn fluYv T fg qx q8f v"h''¹E T k h Ï 6q v o Ð Ö ù q Á xVh/o v h i30 f Á fl g¼ h/rjuZT
o uñ
T h'¹Eí T7|6l h/m]q T'Ð n Ö f ù q7h6Á ux h6f uz mi8kv T7lT T7l | f vxVh6m1hf hμ!fm k v"Î n
s2q v f<gAk }| g x%6u"q Tl g f<xVgh/ h6k1us2m f f hYf| Tg l7h/un6f l"h6uZT Tq8'vn k h6¹ h6T h6iv ¹Rg h6 Ò T7f l f Ý ô q^h/uk x f
|6h/m]kT'f
n f i xVh6u"fNm ¼!g f x%h s o f m f T f f aq k fvn/i m f x%rZgxV¼m f f
#s ÞwT i f<h6g um g¼f 'm s h/q^k T k1s o h/qf q k.¼ m f s Th k gZf T f ¼! f s2k v f fk v"f q^T6vBT'v f h6u!fq
xVh/ f o h/q k T k h/v k ¹ k T s hY| f qt¹:6q^T f Tl"'vUTl f
k v!qKT'vBT6v f h/u"q q^h/ux f |6h6m1T6n fg h f q0
Ý|Y6 k YT k h/v
h6vT7l f Ð Ö ù Á k q5T7l f aÂ Ö ù Áz}h/ Í h6T67r Ï ' k ¼ m fçAk ä f f vBT k 'mè
'v"q^¹Rh6 s2f <0=Á l k q gZf | k x f
iq^T7h60În6qtlBh6T3vm 'v m s 0h/Âcq^Ö T ù T7l Á f qq x%s2'v f o k v"xVxh6k v!o qKm Tf 7z u"f%xV¸ T x f o ¹RT3h/T8l"m YT8TT l f xVh/ h'f T h6f v|6h/h6m1¹L| f ¡6qt ñh6òv¹Ruq7m.l"Fm øw'x ¹*T xVk mv"q^ T f h'g T h'h/¹ v=s 0 hY| k vn k v
k kf Ò ¼f f<g k.s2k fgUs k k f s k
ô h6vBT k vu k vn i8k T7lUTl k q o k v"x k o m f z i3f l!}| fi l!YT k mq Îvh i vU6q @ðñ ;ì )À7å h/ð ¿ ß Û ñ ; z i l k xl k q gZf | k x f
xVh/v"q^T7u"xT fg 2m1h6T m k Î f i h/uv g øwh'T7h/ o h6m.r o l"/q f Ý ô s h6T7h/8h68n f v f YTh6<0LÁ l f 7h6T7h6 k q ¹R f%f T7h+ f |/h6m.| f
Q¹Rum.m=¡6 ñ3ò}z á u"q^T8m k Î f s h'T7h/0 S vAT7l f h'Th6 k q8q k vn/m fi8k v gZk vn+xVh6v"v f xVT fg T7h22q^h/ux f h'¹LÝ ô |6h/m]T'n f z
sT7l"u! xlpø o m kl"Î 6f q T7l àQf z"o6m] Tk1ls h6'un/r lUi8q7rk v v"gxklvnHh/q h'¹j6T7lv Ð Ö h6 ù ÁTl"0 'Á vUl Tf l qKTYT7o h/l" 6i8q k q v gZl!k }v| n/qU' f v u"q7u u"6m1T m1m.r k vTl f ¹Rh6 s h6¹j
ff f i8k s f ff f f¼!ff ¼ k Ï
AC voltage
source
rotor three-phase
winding stator winding
stator rotor
connections connections
Ü u"x~ l ÔYT7'v!q T^T 5ÝY x | Ô o ql"}| v-u"q h6v-q7l o qTh m&}rAu o hBq T h6v=z{h/T7hU m&}r
v"}| k n/YT k h/v"'m!n6rs2h k o hBf q k T k h6f vAfkhY| f f y¹: k k m1r2m.h6vn fgZ¼k q^f%Tf 6v"x f q%f0g Á l f h6v"k m1r gZk ä f f f v"x f¼gf gT i3f f%f vT7kl f k Ô'T7'v"q s2k T7Tf f Ô
'v g T7l f Ô6 f x fk | f Ô k q i l k xl-h/v f n f TqTu7v fg¼ ra6vah6uTq k.gZf ¹Rh6x f 0Á l f Ô' f x fk | f Ô@x%6v á u"q^T
6q f /q k m1r
¼o fh/q u"T q fh/g v=0 /q8T7l f ÔYT6v"q sk T^T f Ô ¼ r¹Rh/x k vn k TqNq7l"Y¹*TT7h+Tu7va6v g m f T7T k vn+T7l f q7rBv!xl7h+h/vT7l f m f ¹*T s YTxl
kk
Þw¹CT7l x | qEh'Th6 qm ¹*Ttuv o h z T m.m{6xT36q o hBq T h6:v ø 7h6 T xT7h/z/n v YT vnQ'v@Ý ô
|6h/m]T'n f f YTf T7l ff k 7f h6T7Ò h/ k ¹T7l kf q7l"f Y¹*T k q6i3vBrBf Tlfgk v"nk h'i8Tl k f T7l!'v~ðñ ò h/kk BÖMñ òf q^l k ¹*T gZff g f ¹Rh s Tl f f f q^l"'¹*k T o h/q k T k h/v
h'¹Tl f T6v"q sk T^T f <0Á l f f x f%k | f h'T7h/ i8k m1mLvh@m.h6v"n f n f v f YT f 'vrUT7h6?Bu f 6v g xVh/v"q f ?Bu f vBT7m.r i8k m.mOv"h
m.h6vn f 8'uZTh s YT k x'm.m1r s 'Txl o hBq k T k h6v i8k T7lUT7l f T7'v"q s2k T7T f Ò q Ï
AC voltmeter
ö voltage signal
output
ÝqyT7l q^rv"xl"7h!ó qEh'Th6 qTu7v z/T7l 7h6T7h/xVh m m.m o h6n/ q7q | m.r'm n6v T7l 6xl+qKTYTh6x%h m9z/T7l
f q o f xT k | ffs 'n/v f T k xQ, f m g q k ¼f%k vnfõ<g ñò of l"6q f ø~q7l k ¹*k T fi8g k ¹R7h s h6v f f 6k vf h'Tl f <k 0jÞ~v i8¼!k f T itf ff vT7lhBq f o h/k q k T k h/v"fkq%z
T7l f q f o l"/q f øwq7l k ¹*T fg , f m g q i8k m.m s2k]¸ Th o h g u"x f @7h6T7h68|/h6m1T6n f q7h s2f%i l f f
¼f T i3f%f v[ñò'z)õ}ñò<zh6Mæ3ñò
q7l k ¹*T<0jÁ l f o 6xVT k x%'mL f q7um]T k qN gZf | k x f x% o ¼ m f h'¹ o hY| k.gk vnU'v k vZ,!v k T f m.rX|Y' k ¼ m f ø o l"6q f Ý ô |/h6m1T6n f
i8k T7lUT7l f T i8k q^Th'¹L2ôvh ¼W YT7T6xl fg T7h2T7l f 7h6T7h68q7l"Y¹*T0
Ü hj¹:'3T7l T7'v!q u!x q qxVu"qq l!}| 6m1m vAh'¹=Tl v u"xT | |Y6 TKr/0L h | <z T q o h/qq m Th
s 'ô f T7'v!q g fu!x f q i g l k xflAh o gf k YT f h6fvg |Y6 k f ¼ m f ¼x f%of /x k T'v!x ff k /q g i3f m.k m$zf Ý ô ¼k.f f%k vnu"q fitg f ThQf q f k v"q k f Tl f xk.l"¼ 'f vn f
k vx o /x k T6v"x f 'v g n f v f 'T f Q|Y6 k ¼ m f h6uZT o uZT|/h6m1T'n f 0
 ETl"YTTl x% o 6x T'v"x T vQT h
xVh/v u"xVT | q^u"^¹:/x qL|Y' q T7lT7l h6L¹:6xVT7h6qõ
T7l f hY| ffs7m&f sjo¼o fk vn
6 f h6f ¹{T7lhBq f k T i hq^ftu"¼^¹:f /x i3f f%qfzYTl fi gZk q^T'v!g x f8¼k f T f i3f%f v2Tl f f%s z'k.v f g i8Tl k fgZk.f m f f%xVf8T7 s k x8x%á h6v"q^T6vBTyh'¹
T7l f
s 'T f k 'm k v ¼!f T itff vAT7l f q^u7¹:6x f q0EÞw¹LT i h2h6uZTh6¹OTl f%f h'¹LT7l f q f |Y6 k ¼ m f q8x'v ¼!f , ¸Zfg q^T ¼k m k.í%fg
'v g Tl f T7l k g 'm.m1h i3fg T7hX|Y'r6zCTl f v`6vBr sf 6q7u f%s2f vBT
h'¹8x% o 6x k T'v"x fQ¼f T i3f%f vTl f q7u^¹:/x f q i8k m.m ¼f
q7h6m f m.r k v gZk xYT k | f h6¹Exl!'vn f q k vUTl"YT T7l k g |}6 k ¼ m f 0
x'm= q 6xl qtl!}| m.h6vn u"q h'¹yx o /x T | q v"q vn@T7h T xT o lrZq h/m1h/n x%'m=xl!'vn q v
m k | k vn f<¼ gZh k gZk.f q0yf Ýf q f 'f m.r6yq õIfðñBÖZzZ sË f gZs f 6vAf f q f 6xl f 3k v"k f s2ff g jk 0 ô fs2gZff f o m&6x fg T k i h s2k f T'm o m.'T f f q h/k v
f%'km1T7T l 7f v!
Yq T k&gZm1f r,"h'¹tm.m vn¼f6Yv T k v"n¹Ro TKh6r nAvl n f 6T^q Tm1'¹v h'g-¹ sm.hBf h 6q7u0 Ü fg Tm&l 'f x% o 66q7x uk T 6v"x f vBTxqCl"l!'v}|n f q f q^v u"o m]T k ^v¹Rnh/ ¹R7h s h/T7v
l f lBu l f '67v T
f f k gf%s k k f ¼ g k.sk s2f fs2f f¼f%f f s2fg s
¼f%k 6vv"n/qq i8h'¹tk T7xl o s2/f x TT'6m v"o x m.'T xf l"q 'o v"m.n /x qf<0Qg "h/h6v Tl f h6 xl f o qK Tx6v q gAx%¼ 6o xô{6x zT f | x%h6 gZk v"/nQq^u" f q o k 'vBT7Th6qNh'r+¹3'h6v g n/'xv' 6gZxk T /x| 6TKr6xTz k h/v T¼ 'r m
s2o f h qOl"}| kv v"q f 7T v/Tf hh/7nB'v"q s q fo x f'm.m.k rf Tl l 6k ^Tk =fjh/v
s2T7f l T o fqLsh'f ¹"xYTl T LT7u qz'x%k k o 6x s2T'f v"x
¼f f¼!ff k f f<gk Rf f k f f f k f f ¼f k f
¼f%xk vTn YT s2h6f v6q7¹Ru ?BfugA¼!v"f xVT rit'fv f vAqT7l v"fjq sT f | T6m vo h/7uh ¼!n6l2f |/6h6v m1g T'T7n l f
¼ h T g xrTh6h6<¹Oz'Tvl h6f T q^u u"¼Zq^TyáKf T7xVl T0yo ö u k T7lXo +vnq7u 6
xVT x h6k.f v vBT7m.uZr@Ttl 6k m.n6q7lXhÝT7l ô
fVÛ%¸åY÷ k o Û k h6¹5Tl f 6xVf T | l 6g ^Tf x'v k k f8 f m.r vBT o f8T gZf 0 f á f s k k ¼ f
; f kf f ¼!f f gZk k f f fg
ø ô v u"xT | T6v"q u"x qzCx% o 6x T | T7'v!q u!x qNx%'v'm&q^h T7h q m1¹ øwx%h6vBT v u"v Tq%z
uvm k ô kf fQT7l k fg gk f xVk T f o lrq k h6m.g h6n k x%f 6m f%¸ s o km f k q fgZf q7x% k.¼!gf<g f ¼ hY| f 0 Ü h sf ¼!Tf26s v"q g gZu"f x f q ¼i f h6ôf ¼ r s 6ô k k vfn2g h/v f k h'¹
T7l f x o /x k T7h6 o m&YT f q s hY|Y ¼ m f z f%k T7l f k vq7u"xlW i }r/qThA|Y67rUT7l f hY| f m. oo k vn' f @h6T7l f2gZk qKT'v"x f
T v@T7l o m.'T q%0 S T7l tT7'v"q u"x q h/7ô r hY| vnj m xT7 x YT 6m v'v h6uZT T v+T h
,¼¸Zf fi3g f%o f m&YT f qf õ f f g f i ¼ s k gk1f f k s f k k g ¼!f itff i
¡ñB çEDòùNEâã²èF"_òbçHGaâEâtã8IKJjú²çLIKãyçNMOI%P
Pictoral diagram
capacitive
sensor
Schematic diagram
Á l fN¼ k.g n f x k xVu k T k q v"h'T3T7l f h6v"m1r i }rT7h f ä f xVT k | f m.r k v/T f o f T3T7l f
gZk ä f f vBT k 'mCx% o 6x k T'v"x f h/uZT o uT
h'¹=q7u"xl@NT7'v!q g u!x f <z ¼ uZT k T k qyh6v f h'¹{T7l f q k.s o m f q^TyT7h k.s o m f%s2f vBTt6v g uv gZf q^T6v g 0Ýq i8k Tl2T7l f ø6û ù Áz
T7l f |6h6m1T6n f h6uZT o uZTh6¹"Tl f¼ k.g n f k q o 7h o h/^T k h/v"'mBT7hTl fgZk q o m./x f%s2f v/Tyh6¹"Tl f T7'v!q g u!x f /xT k h6vQ¹Rh sÿk Tq
x f vBT f o h/q k T k h/v=z''v g T7l f gk f xVT k h6vjh6¹"häCq f T i8k m.m ¼!f k v gZk x%YT fgQ¼ r o l"6q f q7l k ¹*T0Á l k qLô k v g h'¹ ¼ k&g n f x k x%u k T
kxVqh/v q k1s2T k m.h66v k'vXm.m¹RT7ul v"xVT T k h6vXTz h@uZT7lT8f 'ô T7k l v g 3u"T7l q fgi8n6k T7 lq^h'T7¹ k vXn/'6m&'uv"n fx q%õ k T o k qq vh'vBT Tqk vBTTl f v gZf<'g n6v T7h Tu ¼!fQk vh'¹O T7l þ'¼ 6?Bm.u"66v"v/x T f<gTKrþ
gZk k f k1s2f ¼ f f
gZf f%f k.sj¼ f f f f fs k gZf f k
¼f%k vn s2f 6q7u fg 0
¡ñæ çEDòùNEâã²èF"_òbçHGaâEâtã8IKJjú²çLIKãyçNMOI%P
Ù!#"%$'&)(
Á l f rq+*}r-,7l.*/,jv f x f qq k ,Kr k q0,l f@s h/,l f1 h6¹ k v| f v2, k h/v43Ý5,jm f */q6, k v7,7l f x8*6q f h'¹5,7l k q ¼ hh6ô{z4,l.*9,'* g *'n f
k q:rB, 1 A u f q633,Ýr q;* *'v h'k ¹Cv g, u"*6q<x, l 1k *'vm nDf 3Um f Xx=, r1 h6q<v ,7k u xq k vEv!,q6q, 1 u"x>,7h 1 zÞ* im.r-*6q¹ ¹Ru"h q<1 , x f*9g , ,7hu"q ,f l7*+,7lq7u ¼@? q<,+*'*'vv r g ,K* r 1og h6, n fV¸ * , o ¼ l hh6x8ô*'m g u 1kh vn q
s'* v h 1 qxVu f 1 o mG'* f v.*/, h6k v"q v!, l q gZhh/f ôz!l.i3*}| f1v"f@n@g q o k vE, 1 u"x1 l!, fgWi8k*9,l"h fAs q6, u"n6n6m vnH,71 hx%h k o f8l1F1 v 1
,7o l fNh g s m ¼ */, fq81 3k 1 '* Ý fm fVi8¸ k , vl n k vI3v"q7ök umJh ,:1 ,q hfk r v f , u k itr f8¼ 17f */,7q5l f,7l s *'k vr k v!xVf h o 1+1f x s x=,C3 *'v"q i3k.s2f1 f q k v,l fs2¼ f *6xô21 h'¹I,7l k fN¼ hh/ôH,7s h2q f1mf f x=f , f<gg
1 ¼ R h6f%svE,S6* x=, v"gnLgZk , l k o u m q7l k o á hY1 | i 7, h fL6* K@v M8NONQP x 1q k f v¹Ru@, m ,Kr23îy| vT,7lh/un6l!,l o * , x%umG* , ,Þ
k f ¼ k f1 1 fg ¼!f fV¸Zf1 k fNk k k f f 1 k 1 fV¸
i 6**6qNqX,7u"l q k vAnl.q<,X* g-,l ¼f%r{f ó v k v | o 1 l k vE,U* '* v 3jgXk v r o h o uu"mV* q61,u",7h q f ¹Rh| 1 * x%,7h6l u o m f *'h'¹[¹3,Nr ¹Rhf * 1 ,7ql zW,7l v f r, x%mV* k1s2, fh/gv-s h6¹\r,7xVl h s o mG* hk h6vEô ,
i 6* q f , 1 7, l f q vEg-, f q6f8, 1 h6v]f 7, 1 l g o * ,1 f8zZY 6* v f Þ q71h6f m.| k1fi 7, h^"A f2v gZ1 6* v-'* m_, 1 v.*/f , | f%¸ , f<gZ,`3 k k f%kVN1 ¼
i s2v f v"i8nLk j* q7gZu k ,+k * f8m 71 f '* m_, v.*/, f%| kV1 6* 1q h g 1 f xVum_,af<, g l.'* vÞl.g * '* n f1v 3ck b f u fV¸zE7, l
, f%hB¸ h/,ôZq kq8k v h gZok 71 k,<vE, ,z ¼ 2*u@k ,)m1hO,7¼ ,l f\fh'¹1 f *'vZf8m.¹Rm.h1 rn/hB*9kh , g
fh6¼ ivhÞth6ôZ¹ s q5m_,q f%1ffs26* gZq fk1
g * o ¼h k ,d,S,7'* hvEh,83Cl fb *}h |rgh/k1h'ves ¹f,7, l l ftk s fg *9,q<l', *'v1hf g h/ô,7ql f f1m ffq7i3q fkh6v21uZ,f , k1s2o h'm ¹k&f g vEo *9K, , r2k vEv"h', n ¹ z
¼'* v , lh/s2q k 7, l.f<*/g , q<, m1k m 1 s vn o k v2, f i k.u s , 1 o v!q | s23 f f¼f ¼ itf871 f 1 k
g Þg, /* fqth/u@, h'it¹5¹ f871 u"f q<, k*9, h/¼vhf%k 7, l.*/8, 1 Þk xVh fgAo itm f871 feY k f
å9k f%¸ kTf 3l ký f À À ÷ ¹ h v"h/,F<n qC'* v.oqpVo@n`6* q3Þ#r.*2o
i 1 1 k s k fg-5i ¿>jSj Nj ¾ ¿ ìm ¾ ì ¾ ì ¾ m j 1 s
¼r.6*n%nv.vo qfx>'ss2¹t_tVn x>rQ,F.p vq6, n@u.o@¹us %n 1 vE, rOq%n8z * 1 u@q8
3,\*Xq<r <n x>o /s 1 v.p soZ* * 1 rrnOnOsEsE*/*/t@tdvCv56* /*qdq;,Fs ,+s o '* u@ô2,na,+1 rZn8*2n oZ* sE¼ /s t_/nô'zW6* r.qc1p n2*/rwW?gs Y u.o.*O* t_p_K, tVr!n5/* 1p vq ¹uo s Bs1 s q7qF*/p ,Ft_pVn26s 3cvBx 1p vE|2,Fn s],F,Fr.r.nn
rOn`* 1 q%z"Þ:r.s *Oo!n ¸ o n 1 pVn%v"xn8¼ oT,Fr.n ¼ n%vZnAZ,1 s6¹ 1 n<x>np.|Qp1v"n2¹ 1 s n8n'p.v"q6, 1 u!x=¼ ,FpVs6v *6v.o!n%v!1 x>s6u ¼ 1 *6nOn s nv2,yp.¼v s r o u 11 q7uZp_,
's ¹dt_n`* 1 vZ1p v"nLn8t_<n x=, 1 6s v..p xqy¹ 1 s s s '* vr o ns o t_/n z@1p v!x>.t u.o@.p vnqF%n |2n 1 */tD,Fn`6* xSrZn 1 qa's ¹ s .p vZn01p vTntVn s n v2,S* 1 rh'* v.oqrZ1p n2r
qxSrZsQsOtzL3 ÁCrZn8p 1 q<n8tJ{Dn qqa/* q7qF.p q<,+6* v"x>n o tV}* r2n8oh
* ô2%n r 1 s2t_ny.p v s r^s98v v@q<7, uDo@p_<n q%z o }* |Q.p vne,+rZn;vC}* r¹us 1 * 1 nvC* 1 o@.p vn
v:x* r.1 */n8,:n 1 ,FrZ*'nvDr@on2¹|*/}* q7|2xn;p1vD,+s*9,Fsp.vnHnH3:rZs 3:¼3 ¼ rO3yÞw¹fs6vZt.rÞ x>s/uZtGo]n ¸ ,Fn%vDoq,+rZn
nOp1¹[,;s6¹d,+rZnp 1 rZn8t o ¼ rn2p1|Qp.vn^,Fshs/,+rZn 1 o ns o tVn
bQ!s zÞXo@n xpVo@n`o-,+s '* ô2nU,+rZn sQ6s ô¹ nn81t r-}* |9*/pVtV* tVnO
3 -s nU,+r.'* v},Fr.*/, zCÞ;oZn x>pGo@n`o-,Fs '* ô2n'p_, s o %n v=z
¹usOtVtVs9v:p1vn,+rZnqF* s nyo@n%s |2ntVs o s n%vE¼ , s s@o@n1 tu!q<n`oLp.v^,FrZ¼ n s *6ôEp.v1nes6¹!¹ 1 nn8qFs'¹[,6vC* 1 n :s s/q<,yvZs/,Ss * ¼ t.re,Fr.n8þ |~* 1 pVs6u!þ q
Ê; ÞÕ u@,+p_tVpJ,+p_n` ntVn8*OFn8o r ,+rZ@n nnqbQ6s ¹[,6v5* 2n Z/s uv.oZ*/,FpV6s v=z)'* v.oB,+rZ@n ø4.p vu s2Dn */,F.p vZ-<
@<,Fn zdv:rZs2Fn
¹|* s n:pGf 1 s9v:1p v.;1 %n |2%n vH*OE Þ)¼ v 1 p_,F}n =E3 ÁC1 rZn:OsE*/tQvC1 *Od,Fs xsOQ
1 pVOrE,),FrZn5,Fn ¸ ,fUFse*O¸ ),+s 1 1 sO,Fn x>, s
'6* u@s ,Fr.s 1 <rZpV
p_¼ .u@p ,Un ¸ 1 's n`¹DFt_Fn8t_2
B*/*/tEtVnt_Ds9v> *6vQ
Os6*Ov..n'>n2,+O3 s ÁCo@rZpV<pGf, 1 v:p ¼ pVt_u@1t ¹u,FZnhtZ*6*/v.DoD
o ~¹us s 10 */s@t o@p1n8¹u
O/s ,+ôErZpVnHZy,Fn6s ¸ ¹W,e<,+,F*Os .oZFZ* pJ,eoU,+o@rZpGn<p, 1 p s9v:Z,F%pVsOZ'ntVn`p oZ0p_,+v:*/,FpJ,+pVsOr.*
Q ¼Z1 1+ 1 1 1¼
¡N»
¡N fòùEâã²è`_ò°0^ f;<A°eeC
Z
T.oZ*On Z1 W>ns2.Eo@
pVZ1 p_q2rE*H,X.pG0s/,Fv:pG>rZnUp ,FshFpV,+8r.*/*9tVt_,;
!n,+wWn n`1+= ,n8sOo !ì ,FåSr. nñ p ý ¿ ä v5m 3+s Ý;ôWE
2sO@Z,XnHFn2*On */þ t5>øIsOQpV
QntV.Vn ¹[F, n8þ y,F*OrZt n8n8p 1*2o@
q1 n`n *9,+pVp_<2,8n'Wv5>s9s O1 n ô!pVFZp ^ ,F.r.t_
n
A.¼ ZneÁCtVnrZEnq*/tA W<sO,hpVE<,+.CSrpVTø4 pG1 >n`n8*9.,:<nAo@n>Þ',S*/*/pV.t3 Zt_pVn8o,Fs
71v5s ô%1 vC*O¼ ',Fr.n Ë 1 £tø Ë nZn *O3t 1 £\ tVpVU ¸ ø4pG>n8.<n71 6s ¹y,Fr.n
1 nnTbQs'¹[,6vC1 * 1 n@Zs2Z.oZ*/,FpVsO Ë ÊX>3LÁCr.n Ë £ø\I1rZs9v5n2n 1 IpG'pVE,Fn8.o@n8o,Fs}1 sOQ
Qt_n%¹[¼ ,'vas 1 ô@es6¹y>s ZZ,Fn 1
pGF*/:s'.¹[ZD,6vCs/n`,;* * 1*2p_nOZ:Oh>*OtVv:.n8*ohp_,F1 r.*/*Ot_p_,F!CrZp_,+s2,;rZZ>n
OsOrH¹ .tVp_no,+n'\¼ Fp_Es'n,¹[,6¹u1 svCs@1 o@* .,+r.ne>*9,F>s,;s 1 *O
'ZtGZ*/ZtV.pVZ8O*9p_.,6,F*O
OpVsOO"In:ÞC3 pGS rZö¼ZsE1rZ<s2nen*2-s2o'ZsOn8ne,FZrZs'sOn ¹fZ1 ,F@2r.rHtVn8n +,Fys'F[D,Fs9r.n`OnL>n p_1 AD¡Xvaen8sF>p_1s22ô@E}f
Q'stVb@Vn ¹ >¹[,pV,+nn .ø4¸ pG,8>nEn8pJ.ø4,S#FpG>n8v5n8 .s ¼ <1 nn2o@E.pVZ*/s
¡0bZødÞ C1 *25>sO,FQrZ
QnetVnVs ¹[
,FpVZpV *Ot,FZrZs/pG1,+#pV,+nn ¹us,81:Þc 2
.1 * 1 */s EHá ,Fn8n8>n8,8o^3 ,+r.*9,5ZsUpV.6, D=,Fs v5sO. tVo nXtVp p_,Fn`o
h*0,Fn ,CpV.< p_n8E,1
¹us 1 ,FrZn8þ p 1 Znn`oZQ*OyÞ)þ rD*Oo ¼ n¸nhv:p_,Frhn 1 1F1 s 1F?g1 pGoZo@n8',+n ¸ , ¼ sQs61 ô@E¹ 1 s 1 * á s 1¼ . ¼ tVpVFrZn 1 8¼ 3OÞó F¸ 1 nC,FrZpG
¼ sQs6ô
pVn>Tw s p_,+y,+;p_Z,Fp_s!,FpG*/FZ{t pJ¹u,0s 1F9 * pVv:*OEp_tV,tZ*/sOD,;o FpV*/.,Fo@pGKpVE¹u
pGo@n8.O*On t 1
2nsOZ.n2p ¼ n @,;nE*/,SQ
O
3 s2ZZns r.*O,+rZ5n ,+rZn n8O¹ 1pVZn8n8Zo@pVZs T <,F,FsDo@SnrDE*/,0Z2's nX¹\n8p_,8t_n`Z=tV,n2sOn .1 */pV82p_ ZtV n8*
v:pVZ r.¹us */1 ,0
2*9sO,F7pVsOI*OL3 aÁC¹ rZ1 n8s 1 4 Q]p ,+¹4rZ
2pVsOh¼ sQ.s6*2ô F\4pJn`,Co@sOp_,FHpVZ,+!sL1 pJF,'Y s *2X1 ns2
2 ZsOnyn8¹utVnFn8nOtcEZ
Os2n81 hn8v:+Fp_* tVt1 ¼
-n;p1¹a2
2p_QsOpV7Ze>s ,+rZn nH*OF s1 sEFn>0,+*]rZp_..<1n%¹uZn>t#,<,+Zn pVn8,FnHr.*O1 s' ¹
v:r.*/*/Q1+,;. *O
Ots2E *OoZ1 n8o@pVZnpVeOn8s o4t3 n8o@Zp_s ,F1 pVZ,Fer.nU,+sep_D
O6s2, 1 .>rZ,Fn`s * 1 ,s ó 1 # n8>t_s2n`2=,+, n1 Es2,8Z3EpV8ÁCCrZ ny1 's s2¹uZn8tV+
Fp_s28.¼ *9*/,StzSZ r ¹unn8pV=t #¹ ,F1 rZnpGn0%õ),+ shp1¹4.
O<sO nUH,FZrZtGpG*/;^*2y,+s'¼ * o@1 pG%n 6¹u, n1 1p n.@,+nn
Os2 1^ s@o@p_A.n`oOn 11 FpVsO6s ¹:,FrZpG^,Fn ¸1 ,`#
Os21 D6,hOpVOnT 1 n8o@p_,Lv:þr.n 1 nT 1 þ n`o@pJ,HpG^oZZn%u,Fs nOc,+rZn!s 1 1 p_2¼ p_.*Ot
,FZ*/rDZn *9,F,arZ,;s v:S1 rDr.4*/sE*O@n8.,+OoBn n 1 *O>
OQs9s2
O2hsOn .O#n'pVO,+nn:rZtGFpG,+:n^rZnyv:,+r.sQn s2¸ n8F,#n+5,FsLp_ s@pVao@*~p_ADv5s * */ne1 ,Fn:o@pVsOn>s6.,S¹ */e,FpVrZt* 3 n81 nHp 1 >¹ s21 n82n8,So@*/spVZ n8o},+s'p_%Fp
O s2pV tV* 1 1 tVO
^n 1 FFr.p_s2* 1Dny=4*O*O..oho n8oZ
2pJsO,a ,FrZ n;.,F<n ,e¸ ,`n3E.FÁC r.1 nn
¸ Þg, D6, 1 n nE1 ,FpVsO.n8o],F1 r.*/,X*/t_,Fr.sO Z21Ar ÞC6, pVOn0,+s */pV2,S*/pVq,+n8SrZ.pV8*/tI*2> *2>
pV-*/tVt4's ¹),FrZpG sQ6s ô{ó
ôQ>s2p_tVEtG0,Fnv:E ,`pJ,+4rZ,FsOr.@n¼,U< ¼s9á 2n8sQ=8, *9 ,+p_s2*/4,<,Fn */1 .pGo% ¼Zo@1n8s2Fn*OoBOn`*/y.o%,+rZr.nh*1 @71 ,¼ s 1 sE 6, */n8QF
}Dn`W=,`s/Q3 ,+nÞ0E,F6pG, */t#s2ZoZO*OtVZ
!On n1 .81 3@sO î#tV*/n82>,nL1 pVn pJ,6D
n p *Onp E¼ ,+e*/,F*OpV.sOo
sOntVn8>,F, rZnXpV'.<* rZ1 s@,a6s ô ¹Z,F1A rZn n2.1 n`n *Oo@Zn tV1s2FpV¼ sO@4,CDsOn>Z,+OtV
H3v: y1 pJpV,+Orqr >Wp 1s9>vaZn p_,+a nDtVn8s9=v5, n 1 pG1 Un8op ¼ >
hZp_ ,+ X*O<t_r.t 1 sO¼ Z*/tG,<o ,Fn 1 nLpVn8t_\n%¹[v:,yrZ,F1 n sq1 ny,FrZ,+nLrZ¸n 1 * n;1nepGa s'Z¹fs , 1 *OpV7 p_ô^Zn`'s o ¹
1sE's /s ¹uô n`1 FFp_n8s2* .*/*OtG8Q3¢
ÁCt_pGrZ1 * n^p_¡;tVpJ¸,6n`
<pVO¹us }bZv:>r.pVn*/.,:pVjn yø4oZpGsO>Zn8n0.? <v:nLp_,F>r!tVn8*1pJ,S1 ytV
T>s2<,+E1 */,F,Fnn8Ey,S,F1 3 r.*/,;Zn8pJ,+rZn 1 ÞC¼ Zs 1 */Q
TsOE, 1 p ¼ 1@,Fs 1 5,+1 s,+rZpV
¼ ¼ 1 ¼ 1
× £¤!( Ù!&d($L¥§¦qL¨ ¨©
F+xXD>ZpVn`nn->.p_AD6s nq ¹;n8,FpVr.oZ..n<,+*/¼ */Dn`,F>pV6sOn8,4]vCf's *~tG¹e*
@^,+varZ,FpVs s7Z2ôBtV]n8pV* 'va1 ªs ,Fr.1 ôQrZnqpVs9Z,v«*2,+o@*/rZDpJ,+pVo¬Zp_s22.o@h*/n v5tV1 tVpV
%sO1n *2ô2>pGnHn8Z@n,F,Fs1 n`*OotX¹us2O>t_tVs2n8s9Q.v«Z>tVn+.,+rZF¹usp_n-s2.p_D,F+ r.o@¹pV.1's=,6,+
Qp_2Dn ,+nTrZ*/s2s'Z¹yF n tV1 n8sEs * *O¼ SZ<=rn pVZ1 õT9D*9,Ff,+s*Op_s2tJs ,+.¼rZ8FsO¢3 n .1 OOÞr n
pVtVn8=,+ *OnQ
s ,F*2n <n`, HtVsQ* /s ¼ ô * n8¼ 1 *On oZp_o@1Zn`D< pVO*/.,Fn8rZo n ¼ 1
®,Fr.n8*OoZq.,+s*/,F*/s tV1t_s9Hv,+s ,+rZ1 nUn8p_<Z ,F¹u.s o@1 n8En!,: ,F1 shpV.tVn81 p_* ZtVqn8qs2T 1 ,FnrZQn8p_ps2.s9Fv:t_
]tV1n8,Fr* 1 .sO.n8oOr!,Fr *'1 ,sO..Ot_r
n ¸ Z ;tVs 1 *~1 *9Q,+pVZs 1 h1
H,S¸*/Z1 ¼s@2r2n8, +3 1
@Fn1t ¹ s21 <,X6s ¹#1 ,FrZn^ntVn8>, sOZpG;,FrD*9, ÞôQZs9ve{ Þ;*/Z 1 n`>pG*9,Fn',FrZ1 nHFn.Fn'6s1 ¹y¹ D6, */1,FpVsO
pV<Z,F.n o@Wn8En.,+ Fp_ 2nO*~@
eZr.sO*~,:2nnaOpVn ^
2,FsOn8Z*2SnXrZ r.pVZ*O5,+,FrZrZnn Fn8n*OtVO.n`5L s ¹ 1 1 s sO¢ .D¼ s sE/s ,+ô@ZZL3 p_,6Ýy
ht_,F,FrZshs2FZn>O,:rHZ!ntVn8*L>, tG1 *1 sOZs pG5*9>,+ss
HWp_sOTZ,Fn8r.En,+pc* s91 v:n51 q,6
QrZZ1 s pV8*/n`tVt_
*'s/¹cDoHn`¸ o@v:.rZ*/nH,FpVsO,+rZp_.¹ 2s #2sU*v1 o@1n`sOo@Z.0=,+,+p_rZ2nn'1 6nWó n cZ< WsUn8s2>Z,FpVn:O/n,+s'õ\1 ,+*On7 tVôtI¹u,+s rZ1 1 n'rZ<n8,Ft_.4o@3cn8¯-E,XsErZ6,\s9v°,Fn ¸ ,Fr., ¼ p_ZsQE6s ¼;ô@a* 1 <n'n8n F Z1 Z,FWs's2*OFn8ZoT 1 ,+1s2s*OSv5rLs ,Fr.ôWny.,F,+rZ*2n8^ ô
*,F/r..n Zt_
T<n8,+t_rZ2s2n8F8nU3 ÁC 11 rZp_Dne >p_pVDZo@t_n`.y=,+,+p_sq2nUFD*/n`Z> p_ADsEU*O1 pVS.r4<Q,+*/*ODC>.n8F;Vn ¹u,F.rDtI*9,;*OC,+rZp_,ynLpV<8,FZDpGCo@nr.E* , oq ,F*~sH
TA.s .1XoT pVT*~
T,F1 rZZnesO, .*O¼ OnLn`*a¼ 6s t_¹fn'* ,FsqsQn ¸6s ô Z1 t_3 s 1 n ¼
ys9v5n2n 1 5,Fn ¸ , ¼ sQ6s ô@To@sO5 ó ,T1 r.*~On-,+s ¼ n},+rZpGqvC*~
O3 Þo@pV+>1 s92n 1 n8o,Fr.pVTv:rZn8p Þ6,S* 1 ,Fn`oª¼ ,Fst_n`* 1 ¬*
è`Z± Z±òUfe²LU³}´5ât±Qú8âaµaâ\²^¶c ¡NÖ
>n8s 1 */s9taQZpV>o@@p nL,Fn Z*/1 .pJ,S *Oe1 t_s2
@,+ Fs n81 *:2 *Os6p_¹#`O*OôQsOt_tVZt_n8,+s9oq*Ov:Ob n2tVn8£yDo@Þ>2R nh1Fîy1 p_nB3EÞg,:,8n8"t_pVn`C¹ =1 *U,n Y ,Fs2Zn Zn¸ pV.,8$?¼
Of*2 ><n>s n`,So/3NZZ@pVÝyn8,Ft_n ,FnXrZ6ss2F¹dpZOF'sZr ¹[tG,6*9.vC,Fs/pV* ,FsO1 r.7nyp_Zp_pGELq,+*OnpV .o@Y n n`ZohpJ,+>nLn8,+st_tV*2nyE,'Os@sQo@*Os@ntJ,+o t4n *2p .1 *9>¼.,+p_ZpJ2,SpVnOatGo@3*Op_..Þo
1tVn8* 1 ZpVZ1 'r.s9v,Fs^.FnX,+rZpGCDs9v5n 1 ¹uZtD,FsQsOtzZÞ 1 *Oo@ne*^o@ pGFs9On 11
{õ) bZ£Þ R î®sOZtGo ¼ n0¸ .Fn8ov:p_,Fr.p_!1 *U,+n ¸ , ¼ sQs6ô
,FvCs!*~
O 1 n8,Fr.Fnn E,Un`>*Op o@1 >n Zp_,U><s2p Z tVoBZtGtV*9n8,+* p_s2B.X,FrZ,Fs-nh*/>tVs2tV.s9v>n8@6,+,+0.o@pV.n82o@,SD=,F,FpVs On8þ t_
s ¼ Fn
}1 OpVn Eþ ,Fn ,FrZ nhn>.,+rZp_Zn-Zs bZ £nÞ .R *î¹uó sX1 s2,+@rZ,Fn. @,SF0ntV*2O0n88va32n8ÁCt_t#rZ*2pV
o@*/En`o@*/pV.4=2,+,Fp_2rZnn81 tV
®< rZ¼ s2
B1 ZtGp_oE,Fn 1n0 * 1 n,Ft_n;pVZ1 ,F s^ Z.
o@n n ¸ .<,+tV*O*O..oh*9,+rZp_s2s9.vª+>,+3 s'.. FnX1 ,Fp_rZ,5n ,F1F¼ rZ n s 1 nOFnItVp_O1 n`1 FEn npVZs9 QpVo@Zb pV£ZÞ 'R *LîW.n Fn8¹un8o%=,+s9t_2
hn +1 Y* */¹un .oBn8s9*/ODn 1
s'¹fn Ýy¸ W.n s/1 ,Fp r. n n82*O,S*9o@,+9p_*/s2E],S¼ */s2Oqn,+¼ ,FrZs%np 1p_.s9v:t_DTo@p_.s 1 % Zs @,+n Z1 @C,+v:n pJ,+*/r-.>*Op t_1
@FZn8pJU,;pVFp * ZtG,F*9n ,+p_s2, .sQC/s 1s'ô¹d,FpVrZ'n8,Fp rZ1 nTs9v:n !Zo@1 p n`<pV8pVO*/4t53 On p_AD*/,FpVsO
p_<,0,+*9*2,+oZn oZ;nE,Fs],SL,F1 rZs2n^>¹|sO*ODpJ,+>r4n\Z,+, D 61,+n8p_ZFnBE,F,Fn`rDo*9,h3 öv:r.p_,F*9 r.,HsOr.@*2,e o@1 n nn8s2.6v , 1 */p_,<,F,FpVn8sO.8pGD^,Fp_rZD¸ n o@¼n1 n`n`*Ooo@*2n 1>pG t_*/%n ,F¹[nO,X3,+sÁC,+r.16* nTôOn' ,FsrZnHt_1 n */@,+rZv:s pJ1 ,+ór
¹|*/p_,FrII 's ¹:>s2 1 <n24pV,+r.*91,Up_,UpGesOZtV
}*20OsQs@oB*2¼,FrZn*O@,F1rZs 1 p_,6
-pV%v:r.pVSr7p_,UpV01 ZtG*On8o%*/.oB,+1 rZn¼ *O8 > 1 *O
's ¹ap_E,Fn 1 1 n,+*9,+p_s2-,Fr 1 s2ZOrBv:rZpVSrBpJ,epGZ.o@n 1 <,FsQs@o3 ÝyZ,FrZs 1 8t_.p ôOnH*/tVtfrQ */ ¼ npVZE4* 1 nLt_pG* ¼ tVnL,FsTn 1+1
,F*/r.Dn8n oD*O ~Zs <p_.n81 t_^2>n8s 6s yH¹d,F,+ r.rZ*/Zn0,XZ,FpGv:n */r.,y,F*/nTv:,;DpJ,F,+r.sQr!nLs 1 */tVsO
OZ.3`,F rZösn1,Fp_n,Fo@rªn n8+o@* 1n p ¼ Zn`s2tVyn8.86pG3 ;, 1 pV*/.,Fo@pVsOn8.n8o!8c, rZ1 s9Zv5n23;n2¡Xn n1 d,+sOrZ.n <, 1 1 n`*9*O,+o@p_s2n .1 y8*O*/tV®Fsqp HFn 1 On8n0o@pG,F*9sT,+n>tVtG
* 1 <]p ¹un8
]n,F¹ur.s n1
bZ£Þ R î®pG:pV2, 1 s@¸ o@D>n8o]pV],+rZn 1 ¼ sEs/ôq¸ n`* 1 t_
hs24.*/DoqrZs2Dn%¹uZtVt_
]p_-*^On82,+t_n0n8ZsOZ2r!v5*~
H,+r.*9,yp_,;o@sQn8F=ó ,
>1s2n8E*/,+,F*/nHpV.>0s2Z*/%¹u.Fs9p_Os2n 4j3 QpVZnvs 1 6s ,+¹CrZs2Zb F£n^Þ Rv:î·pVFrZv:pVZp_,FTr ,FsT*/t_n`Q*
1 n * s 1 ZnOt_nh*TSp r.>*/Z@p_,+,+8n 231 pVÁC}rZ,+n rZnn ÂyVn *~¹u
n 1 nDn >nHs Os2n't_ {W *OnTFrEu
Os2ut_ */.n rZûpV`
Z>p rZ1 pV>tVZs2p_F,XsOZFp rQ
Z6s tV*/¹I,F,FpVr.sO1 pV! 1 sQsO6s ô1 * 2 n C
pV-ZpGn>¸n8t_pG
26,+3 n. nO ¼ @,¸ bZ£ Þ R îªpV1 ¹ 1 n8nOW*hQp 1 ,F1ZnU s Z¼ tVn nE,+1 p_Z,FrZn'SrD* 1 1 pJ,S* ¼ tVn
¼ 1
+ §Û#¸]¹!$;º¼»>( «X¬L(;½¾(;¹H¿)&
)p <,8' Þ)v:pVFrL,Fs,Fr.*O ô
Uv:]p ¹un2Ov:rZsE<nC.*/,FpVn.n:o@ 1 p_Z,+rZs2Fn *OQ
U*/.o^tVsOZn2nZpVZ2C*/.o^v5n%n ô2n.o.¢À
's ¹)1 ,6
QZpVZHr.*O ¼ nn8Tn ¸ , 1 */s 1 o@pV.* 1
O3
o@F's n`¹[*~,6OÞ;vCs *O* 1 tVFnX*/s]tV.tCv:F,Fn8pGr.Foqr}n ,Fs,+ s]s ,+1 6*r.n-ôO*/n*9"w ô-,FsrZ,F1 pGrZoZ sE* <¼ sQn^t_6sn!v:ô */ZrZD*/sEo®.<nHoqZsOtV,Fn8Wr.*2nn < ? n`1 F*<sOW¼ n8t_1 n2>>H3,Fn^pVO<ÁCn0s6rZ¹[ ,6Un v5sO¹u* s21 t_n^tV* s9o@v:np_2.nnBtVsO pG hõ *%n82t_pG,06,hn>w 6s s¹1 9,+*01 rDpVsO*~.OQ n ¹ 1 n*2n!o@n^>s ,F rZpGZ0Zn,Fn 1?
1 ¼ 1 1 1 H 1
ÌEÁc Â-Ã.n Ä s2Ei .¾ "k a÷O,FÅ s xXWnnE1 ,+*9p_s2,FpV4Z3 ]b@
Q<,Fn U ø4pVQ. Áds 1 9*/tGoZ{ Â:pGSr.* 1 o bE,S*/tVt */IW*O.o *hrZsE6,'s ¹cs/,+rZn 1 :,+sQs
1
Ì«Æ ¾ é§,Fn ¸ ,yn8o@p_,Fs 1 A ¶ 1 * ¯ sEs2t_n8.*O* 1 */.o]s/,+rZn 1 3
ÌjÇ ì ¾ À ì ÷ ¾ m o 1 '* ¹[,FpVZH 1 s2 1 * ÁCp î\oZv5* 1 oZ83
Ì ð@ÈcÉ/Ê l p 1 >Zp_,y<p .tV*/,FpVsO! 1 sO 1 * h,FsQs */Q
qsOE, 1 p ¼ @,Fs 1 a,+s n82,+p_s243
Ì Á î §,Fn ¸ ,y 1 s@n8+<pVZH<
@<,Fn ¡XsOD*/tGoTË0Q@,+rT*O.oTs/,+rZn 1 3
ÌÌ ¿ Å ¾ k äVå o@s@> n8E8, ¹us 1+ */,<,+p_ZhF
@6,+n qÍ 1 nn'b@'s ¹[,6vC* 1 nÍ.sOZ.o.*9,FpVsOI3
Ì øÏÎ Á î o@s@> nE8, ¹us 1F *9,F,FpVZh<
@<,Fn ø4n`<tVp_
n ød* Ds 1 ,y*O.oqsO,FrZn 1 83
ÌÁ ¾ é p *OOn */ZpVZZtG*9,+p_s2] 1 s2 1 * h,FsQs */Q
q>s2E, 1 p ¼ Z,Fs 1 5,Fs nE,+p_s243
Ð N2Ñ f òùX¶Eâã²è`Z±_òXÒ0^C¶¶f;<]ÒeeC
Ô kW
}Õ'Ýyný ñtV.n8j =¾Gj,1 n`,+s2>*OZpG*9ZpG,+Op_0rEs2,h6,+pV.Co@n */pVn8tG FesUs pV.n1 nT¸ t_,F.*n8oZ.¼ nLo@s2@n`,+oh,HrZn ,FnstVn8Â:=, Ð s 1 ¼pGqn n81 o@,3p p_1 ,Fø\>pVsO.3Z7pJ¶a,S's9s'
Q¹ ,+tVr.n8*/<,+Ö*2o*/OQv:
7ÕOrZÓs/sE,+åW<rZn;Û'n 21A ÜL1 ¼ 6Õ9,5sEk s/n8ÓOô o@Ý 3p_å,FåIpVêsOx;)],FÞ5rZs'n n¹d1 É .kp * m ÀDo å8sÓ'Ë ÷1 ,Sì>*/ms EåY,LÀ ó ñTe,+n ÊF¸ n8¾ ,+>À ^s2ì ÷.pV¾o m
n8oZpJ,+p_s2Ts61 ¹fÉ k m À7å8Ó'÷ ì>m ¾ å9k m åLl3ý ¿ ì>m À7å/k ¾ ì M8j × É=×Z*/DoTÍ.s 1+1 n`6,:Ì ¯-Ø ¿p ÙG% Ú ó lCkE¾ ß ¾ k ¿¿ ÀZà j  å m ¿ Ý å<åê 1 3 1 1 ¼
ÁCr.*Oô@#,+sU,Fr.n<,+*/w!s6¹4,Fr.nÞ5ntVtVp_Z2r.* Ý;2,+p ZnÂy*2o@p_s^¯-.Fn @v:rZsLvan nXOn8Zn sO.\nZs2ZOr,Fs^t_n,
n0Þ4,Fn v:1F1pG<s rL1 p ,Fí sen;F,+DrZn`n>p 1p_ADn8<*O,+t_* tV
0¼ tV,FpVrDFr */ ôUnEá2,yn>w v:1 p_n8,F
r î# t.ôQ
qZ8n * 1 */nDY 1 oL*^*O*/t_.tE,Fo]r.{Ds2F*2n5<rT*/L, Zà#Zp_s ,81 3 ôE,+s9v:'âypVO1 rhb@SrZsQsO1 Bt ¹us L1 ¼ npVZ0v:pVt_tVp_.
,Fp_,+sHNrZ¹ussE6, *O
.oB¼ sQs6sOôE,F*2n8CE,8.32* 1 ÁC,Cr.s'*/¹I ,+ô@rZenp *O1 tVFxXsqW,+ns-]¡XÞ5*~sQQs6pGôo%ã bQ1 v5s ná n8n>,,8[@ä@*/åQ.å2oqæC,FçFs èQè/ éE*'éQô2éCn;ê<ëO,+ì@rZí@n0ë~A îW1 ïE6ï2,Cð@n>ë\w ês ï21 ñQ,:òQp_!5*O>.s2oB2, Þ51 p ¼n8 @,+Rp_.'s9v ,+s
nv:tVtapGo@un ä@1+åE *OåE.æCo@çFpVèQnè9.éQéQn0éC÷usêFóZô~,FòEr.ä@neåZsOë/Zì@tVí9p_.îDnë2åQ2å@n õO<ñapVsOêSö9]ï~s/î ÷)d,F÷urZs 1pG: øW1 sQs9s6Eô pGo@3 pVZhnD>sO 1 *OOn n82,`.>s2.<, 1 .=,+p_2nU 1 pJ,+pVpV D*/D1 o-* ?
C
ù 1 r.*O ô@;,+s ¯-pGS1 r.*/n8t\bE,F@, í ÷us 1 1 o 1 *9÷[,+p_.Tr.pVU¡Xn8FpVOb@>pVn.+n ø4pG>nD<n2d*/Do ,+as Â:pVSrD* 1 oBbE,S*/tVt */%÷us 1
ZpVsOZøIn8*2n 61 ,Cp_.øZL@,+,rZ>nen >,+s2*O.p_.>n8t_
h@,yZs/sO÷f,y>t_n`sO*OQ<
Q,8tV n>÷[,83 */Q
h,+r.*/"ôQ5,+s
.* n8E,+:*/Do,+rZs2Fn,Fn8*2SrZn 5s/÷ pVZnev:rZsh+*~vpV
pV2,+nLntV*t_n`oZ=n8,+.Fp */1 tIne*2,Fo@sqO1 t_n8n`E* ,F1 1 nO*/L3 øWÞasO@r.,;sOZn8t_s n`1 =,
21 sOpG>Tp_,6øQ
O
q */rZ.n8o t_ZpVv:ZrZH@s s/ôQ,+rZp_Dn o@1 :t_n`*Oo!C1 ,F
2rDsO*9T,yr.{D*~* O nn'rZpVn82t_,+Wsqn8o *h .*2nOF3 F1 pVsO!÷u s 1 o@pGFs9On 1
q*O.o
ùdsOQ
Ë0ZZr.*OtVo@,8.á2ZtV
]ú N2NZM
·û
ü ý þ ° þ ÿ
R sOQÞc
n 1 p_2ø.r2*/, ,Fp Ú >M`s2×OE×O
Q×/pV? Zú HNON2s/N ÷d,F¯-rZpVpGSyrDo@*/s@n>tI bQ,F@n8,EÛÜ,y9pVCå%$@Wå!n Ý!§Eí'pJ,F2,Fó#n8o4ê<ï2.ñEpVò!*OQ
n`o@pV 3
1 1+
à ßh áqc(râU½ã-»>(
R sOQ
p_2r2,0tG*~vOpVOn`n ,+*Op_%n Z>tV.Fp_2n pVOrE,+X,FsT,+rZn*/@,+rZs sO÷C*]vas pV.>tV.o@pVZ!,+rZn pVOrE,+,+s->sOQ
2
s@o@ùCpJ÷urZ1
Tn^*/pV.oZoTn8*To@s/pG6÷e, 1mOpV>øZs2@Q,+
En0tVn>,F1 ÷[rZ,onemv5pGs 1,F
s!v:u,FrZpVt_nt_÷uZm tV1 1t_n8
1 1 ns@2o@s D
=nU,FpV,FOr.n2n^ mänmOZ*2>oZtV.*/<1 @pVQ,S*9pJ,6,+
-p_2sOnO÷\ mL,+1*OrZ
.s2oFn m21 o@pVOpG6rE, ,+1 XpVøZZ@.,+p_oZs2n '1 1m >1 n pV1 O,SrE*/,+pVS =3 ,+n 1+
v5*/Ds o 1 ùC
>8rZs2QnL.v:o@p_rZEp_,F,FpVt_pVn8nUsOE.*O,X8t_s/t4÷c<sqsO,+rZZ,FpGpVr.;n8*/ tV,0pV1 n *On E.
2F*/n'sOpVTZpG;nLZ,F.sq*/o@BnøW1 nL>,FsO*qrZQnU
!On8+*/Z* .n oBn*/o@tu,FpGnmO61F,> 1s2pVQøZy
E@*OtV,+n>.nU÷[o],o,FmHr.sO,FnLrD.v5*9oZ,spJ,+1 8p_
s2*/. s :1 øW*OnL51 *O,+s2rZZDneZn tV1 sp_tVn`
T1 o!p_2*/p_,F,<DsT, */1 */tzpVøZ3 Q@
,+n8o}pV.oZo-n sO1 p_÷#9va*9,+s p_2n
,FZrDZ*9ø.,\t_pGr.<r.*2n8foT 1 Zs/.,Fo@n`=n ,+p_s2p_,+^5.,Fn.o@n 1 >sOQ*~
h
1 øWp_2nUr2>,`s23dZùCp_n`rZopGc.tVo@pVpG<1n, .Fp_øZnyZ<,F,+n8*9o4,+n8.f*/,+.rZo s2Fnys@>o@n pJ1 AD,Sn8*/opV^3 sO.oZpJ,+p_s2.cZ.oZn 1 v:
rZpGSr*0v5s 11
å
Z
r n 1 `
n O
*
m
O @
o 1 n`<pVO}+1F> pVnD> nAmqpV*T6, 1 */,Fn2
q÷us 1 1 ,FrZnHo@n2ntVsO n82,s/÷a* 1 ,+pJ÷|*2=,SX*2*qv5*~
T,+s 1 n>÷us 1F ,Fr.n
nb@QQp_n8p .1 s2>Ün 4npG>En8,].uF.n^s/vC,L*OWnvs2ZtVpJn`,F,FUn8*O%.*Oo.oBFZoZø.nFnZY tVs9Z
Onn`Eo},+t_
7*Oep *! <1, s9*92,+nHnO,FrZ
Tn]÷us ZZpVOn s 1 +*/s/t\,FpV<Z,+]*O.,FoZrZ* nh1 o7 s/s2÷y tVpVn8E+pVyZs/D÷:d+,+>rZpVpGnL.¡Xn^n8F*Op_.2o
* 1 ,C,Fr 1 sO.Or 1 n÷us 1+ s/÷d,F1 rZnen8EQp 1 s2 nE,83 1 1 1 1 1
à ßho n '½ æ J( ç}
¹ =a¿ $L¹!&
m1*I.pVs/n,F.pG>Fn^An mhZtGF*Or.*On8t_o-t øQ
!n`*/,F!r.nL,Fr.v5pVs ¡;n`X<pV>OsO}Q
bZ>p_pV2nr2.,Xin rZsO4tGpGo@>nn8.<<n2,+3:*9,+ùCp_.rZqin ,+4r.pG*9>,0n8.pJ,0FnUpGX*/Z.ZZtVøZpVn8tVpV:FrZ,+sqn8o}*/QZ
].o@van s 1 ,+
rZv:n^rZ,FnpVSr XsOs/E÷#,+*O,+rZp_DpV
¡Xn8FmFp_2å%!s b@p_m n8.F>r.n*/tVIt pVn.n8*/FnOÖ3 <D1 S
rè */Ö*9÷us 1 n n8E,FpVsOZn`1 ov5s 3ùCr.én IpVn.Fn!*/tG<s%*/ZZtVpVn8^1 ,FsB,Fr.nT1F s2@,F.@,hs/÷
,F>r.s2<nQ
åBpVOs rE1 1
,5
ftG*~sOve.t_3
BpJ÷; +*/pGo%sO@,+Z@,^sO.<,F1 p_,FZ,Fn8Ls* mOoZn 1 p_9*91 ,+
p_2nhvas 1
mTs/÷C,+rZntVpVn.Fn86o å%s 1
*2Uo@nA.Zn8o7øQ
m
E 1xX4ø t6n8=,cÍZs 1F m0Fr.*/tVt n8*/H*/Hn Qn`>@,S*/øZtVnCs 1 Wn 1 ÷us 1+ */øZtVn\÷us 1F s/÷W,FrZJn å%s 1
/øDn8p_.0*OHn øWs@o@p n8E,
s/÷),Fm2r.b@n sOåB s >1 n
¡pV-*9,S<*1s m Fnr.,S*/*/tVZt 2p_øZn`tV*/n ,+n8rZo@nqpV s pVO3 pV7s/÷:,Fr.n!xXø!t6n`=,LÍ.s føWnpVZ ,+rZnqn8E,Fp n2 *2SrZp_.n n`*OoZ*OøZt_n2
1 n>÷un 1F1 n8o^1 ÷us 1F s/÷,+rZ
n åBs 1
÷us 1 >s2E
QpVZ1 L*O.oH÷us 1 rQ */ s@o@1+p_AD */,FpVsO%u.F.*/tVtV
L,+rZ1 n;tG*/ .O.*OOnO2?g1n.s@o@p_.
ÐMÐ
Ð MAê f^ ]º_X¶a`;b °Fë ±K²
`a@ì:²4)`\²^a`Ö´Ia`\²!`
ss/,+1 rZ÷un s 1F o.*9*9,+,e*^pVBZn`v:>n`r.FpV+S* r7
H>s ÷us WpVs2.F<n8,+oB*/tVtGs *910,FpV1sOn8IZs >1 sOo@Zn8o}A.OøE
*9,F,+rZp_s2n q s Z,F>rZs s 1 ZídpVZtG*9tV,F.pVesOT*OEs/
B÷d,F*OrZns å% s .*OE3
QpVZADt_n`I+ 1 pV@,+0s 1
1îZ* ZtVn8esO^÷ m21 bQs2 1 1 n¡X*/,+%* m-p_D>tV.o@nOføZZ1,^* 1 nZsO1 ,'tVp p_,Fn8o,FsDd,+rZn÷us2t_tVs9v:1pVZ
pJ÷:,+rZnMå%s 1
pG'*O
p¡ *9*O,+O*'n^íQpJA.÷dtV,FnqrZnà>s å% s DsE<n`pGCoB*/*OT.o%¯ n8ã,o@î p_,Fg n`oB3pV tG*~è ã\
On g Ð è oZ÷usp_21+pJ ,S*/*/t,8*/I.,FoZrZp_n8s B,+n`rZ>ns so@1 pVZpVO pV.*/tc*2o@ãan; ÷ g s <s2* 1 å n^ A.Þ t_nqpV÷us ,+rZn]*/,CbQ*Os2. o@1 pVsn
A.>s tVn 1 Dn8sE<s n`1 o}o@pV*OZ0q*OsO}÷a1
*/Z%@÷u*/s .*Ot_*/s2,<q,Fn`<o}s2 .1 tV>M *OnOp_N WE,F,+nrZQn,B1 AD,Ft_rZn2nH,Fs rZ1 pVn8O}pV.,+*/r. t *9å ,0A. 1 tVÞ nHpVADX1 t_n^,+rZpVn^X,F,+rZrZnnbQbQs2sO 1 1 >n^n^¡¡X*9*/è ,S,+4*'* ídí4pJpJ÷a÷aè,F,FrZrZïnïn 1+ å%å%ss 1
v5v5*2*2
>>ss DZp_sEtG<*9n`,+o®p_s2TpV#sOI.*O<ùd,Fp_n,FLZ,Ff1Fn0,FrZ,Fr.nðn'IbQ*OsOùd n >neA.¡tVn2*9,S+*ZH3À *O.oª*/Q
p *OOnTA.tVn8*O.oD9s 1 >.<1 ,Fs *O 1 sE^Zn8n8+F* 1 1
7÷us 1
m @,Fr.s 1 mLFr.*/tVt n8*O],+rZnU>s21 Q
1 pVOrE,5r.sOtGo@n 1 |Sas/÷I,+rZn å%s 1
3
ùCrZn0pV.o@pVEpGo@.*Ot4tVpVn.Fnn`:* 1 n 1 n>÷un 1F1 n8o,Fsh*OJmO
Os243 m
à ßh+ nH½ñòóL¤H¿)&ôâU¹éqõ:$L"ïö]óL¤H¿
ùC*O'rZn
<Wå%n8spJAD18
*/tVpGt_
%>o@s2n8E+
1 p_pV2øDrEn`,LoB,+øWrZnn tVs9 ve@3q,+rZùCs rZ1 pG3 iI pVt_t n.1 pVFOnrE,+o@Ln`F,+ s7pV,FøDrZn`ns,Få%rZns 1,F
n * 1 n U1*/n8DFo%n 1 OsOn8.o®oZøQpJ,+
p_s2.,FrZen Z.oZ@n ,+rZs v:1 rZapGnSZr7>,Fnr.Zn,
Z,FrZs *O1 o.Do@n pJ1F,+ p_s2p_4,+QC
O
2s2sO ]1 ,Fs*~
>s2Qn>
O÷un @o@,FpGse6, ,+1 rZpVøZ^n @å%,+nUs */.o O,S */t s@o@*OpJ÷uøD
Ts21 @>s2,aZp_,8p_n`@C*O.s/÷do-,F|rZ1+*2naå%o@pGs=,S1*9
,+3 n8ohøQ
ïm9÷|*/p D<ndm2 1 ZsO,Fn:÷ s
p_,80 t6.<,;*OC
2sOTvas2ZtGo] *OE
]1 >sOQ1
1 p_2r2,+n8o */1
,Fn 1 pG*/t
ZDo@n 1 sOQ
1 pVOrE,CtV*~ve3 1 Y 1
<h , 1 pV>j#;,FsO¬ùn8[o j1UícrZq1 pVs9OFvarEn,UnUn8O,+bQn s n81 >dsO,F
OpVWsOsOn f 1 *9ø]o@,+nOs )m2FDs}n \x 1 */÷u,Uså 1F
O sOhr 1 1h n8s9 *Ov:o%; ¬ùs 11 jàpG s/m2
,+C)rZøWnøD1nn`v:tVs9*OpGve<.nh3 <npVE,F,FrZn 1<n å%1 n>,Ls 1 *O
.oDs 9 s 1 n8i n Qå#n`>6@ù:,+nhâ
x,Fr.÷XMn ù å% s 1J
jpG'å Z 1 h n ??
à ßh hù p$LÜ" öé¹ óúâUé¹ qõqs>&I¿)
]I¿ >$^¹
ãf¡n *91+,+ *qpVs/+÷#Fp_,+s2rZ'n pGcåB s1 */E,F n`p_oe%,+*/sUQo@
pV<, 1 n8pVo@øZpV@ ,Fn2OZ .øZs9t_EpGFpGo@r^n`s o!1 ,Fs/r.,+*/rZ,Xn 1 ÷uv:.t_pVtcFnC>s2 Q1
n8FnpVOErE,c,;OZn 1sOø.,FpG*/>,FnHp */.>o s2ZoZp_n`pV+f>s/tG*/÷Dp ,FrZn nyn8s/E÷\,Fp vC1 ny* bQs2*O E1 ,6
On
v:*/tVrZsOn.1 LnUv:*Op_Z,FZrTtVpV,F8r.*/n øZtVåBnO1
Zs pGy3 sO.FZpG>Zs2.<tV
Z.1øZt_pGFrZn8o!s2!*Ot_td>sO.p_n`Z*O1 .o-*H>sOQ
]s/÷),FrZpG^IpVn. Fn01 pVXo@pV<, 1 1+pVøZ1 @,Fn`o
f
ã n +
1 V
p +
F
_
p 2
s
V
p U
11
*/E,Fn`o-,Fs oZpV<, 1 p_ø.@,Fn2IZZø.t_pG<rs 1 s/,Fr.n 1 v:pVFnH 1 n`<n8E,esOZpVn80sO÷a,+rZn]xX!ø t6n`=,'ÍZs 1F s/÷
,F,Fr.rDn
*9,yå%sOs.1 n
sOQ÷dp_T,+rZ*/n0Q÷u
sOtV tVs9n8v:o@p_pVZ H *O@o.Zo@.pJo@,+p_n s21 .,F*/rZt4nsO,Fn.1FoZ pJ,+ap_s2÷u.s :1 *o@pG<n , 1 p_øZnZ, ,FpVsOqsO÷)bQs2 1 n¡*9,S*L*OøDs92nX*O.oq*OtVFs' 1 s9QpVoZn8o
|
E
* 0
C
ù Z
r ]
n Q
b 2
s >
n
¡ 9
* +
,
* V
p e
V
p .
_
t .
Z
o 8
n
o V
p 7
F
, Z
r ]
n F
* 1noZ pV<, p_ ø.@,FpVsO4co@pG<, p_øZZ,Fn8o7..o@n ,FrZnq,Fn es/÷C,+rZpV
4pG>n8u.øWF n1í@s v1 p_,<,+n-sOwWn pVyp_.t_Do@n8o!v:p_,Fr!,+rZn'o@pG6, pVøZ@,+p_s21 4Z9*/tVpGoT÷us */,y1 t_n`*O<,:,Fr nne
21 n8* Cs 1+÷u s *Oyt_s2Z
1
*O÷^Uh^,F7rZn]sOTo@pV,F<rZ, 1ni1 pVøZ2@,+,FnpVsO®Zn>pV,='51 p_v:rZ n 1 nOpVEZ,]÷us uv:*HrZpGSSr.rZ* n8O2n n1 .pV's/,yt_s2 Z1 On8n */1 ,F>n )v:,+r.p_,F*/rT* , Z*O.ZøZ<1 WtVpVs t_
,+*/? *O,FpV8sO>!n8+*/F.p_1 øZo tVn*On8o.oZo 1 pV*h1 n`F1]s2<|,+F81..S*/rQ
O*Os2'Z*n
*~
|`1 n8> n8p_,F2r.np 1 *Ho!.sOQ*1 1
,6
s/è÷)C,Fv r.n'1 p_,<bQ1 ,FsOn8 -1 >s/1 n0w n ¡1 *9÷u,+s *H1 1 sOsO÷Iø@,+,SrZ*/npVZåBpVZ1 Hs 1 ,F
rZn^o@1 pVbQ<, sO1 pVøZ1 >@ne,F1 n`¡o!*9*O,S*s*91 ,y1 o@ZpVZs's2,+sH<,8,F.rZ*2nU yFo@n8n`>F,F pVsO1 pV!øDn`*/oTøWs9p_-O%n .íE* s 1 1 * ?
>s1 */.r§n |øDpV*Ot *O.øD*s92,6nO
O5ZpV*Oq.p_oTD>sOtVZ.tVo@
n8p_oª÷)
2v:sOp_ ,Fr¬n`,F>rZnn}pVOn`oZohpV<, ,+1 rZp_nLø.@xX,FpV!ø sOt64n83>,;ùCÍZsrZpGs2sO@÷I,F,+pVsOrZn åBpGs 9*Ot_pG*/oªtVsOsOZZHtV
®v:p_p_,F÷Ur-
O<s2DSrT* 1 *On ]*sOwWZn sO 3 ?
Hj# sO 1 *~
>sO1 Q
-*/Do}o@pG6, 1 pVøZ@,+n^,F1 rZïn å%s 1
np_,FrZn 1 1 */,FpG;s1F 1 ÷us 1 *÷un8nO4*O1 .
o}p_÷ao@n`<p 1 n8o
2sO *~
-sOwW1 n 1
vC* 1+1 *O2,6
H 1 s/,+n8>,FpVsO]÷us 1 ,Fr.nåBs 1
3
°0ë ± ë ±3c@±cµe²;û)a]y¶)C² Ð M9ü
,FZr.sOnX,0ùCsOtVp ,FrZ rZn'np_,F*On`Ov5o s 1 ,+n8s!2c*9p_.,+p_p_qs2t_D],FrZ<sOpVn0sO÷f%+,F>rZp_sO7näWn;åB*]sOsZ÷1Z,F
øZrZtVv:nàpV8pJ4 *9,+r ,+pG>p_s2n8s/4.,+FrZ4n1nø íQ1 1 Zs2vas *2s oZ1o@
*2sQC6n8,`v:54rZ<>DpGs SS r}rqZ* */pV1 2tGne*9 ,FZpVnsOsO2I,X*/,Fø.spV*2sO1 <Hn`s/o!O,+s2rZsOpVn o^!10,+,+ rZrZnXn8nio@,Få%pGn *qs -1
\oZsO-sE÷4n`<,F0.r.ZSnºr s/4,e*2pGø>:n81 øZ.pVZ@Fn,
÷us 1 ,+rZn%å 1 s 1
13
1 1 1+
àhß oß ½ý $<qsçsJâ ¿a $L¹
ãf*/Dn o'1+ ,+sepV+Fo@p_pVs2<-, pVpVøZ@ ,F1 nC*/,+ErZ,+n8nyoTo@n,Fs pV9 *9,Fs@pVo@OpJnC÷u
-v5ss 1 +Z* .o@Zn tVnL,F÷ r.1 snC ,Fn *T>#s2o@Qn`
TFsO÷cpVøD,FrZn`o'nïpV%å ^s ,F1rZ
nyWF n8>1 s@,FpVo@sO.L÷up_s.]oZ*qpV<oZ, n p_1 ø.p_9@*9,FpV,+sOp_2Hn'*/v5øWs9s O1
n2
1 s9QpVo@n`o,+r.1 *9,C,+rZn0÷usOtVt_s9v:1 pVZ^,Fn 1F :1*
1 n n>, 1 1+ 1 1 1
|*E5ùCrZneZnveDo@n 1 p_9*/,FpVOnvas 1
pGCZZø.t_pG<r.n8oTZ.o@n 1 ,Fr.n0,Fn 1+ Cs/÷d,FrZpGr4 pG>n8.FnO3
,Fr.nuBå øWas ùC1
r.@n0s 1oZn v:1 p_p_9,Fr-*9,+*^p_2nXOn v51 Fs pV1sO
qpGsOC÷dO,+pVrZOnnT%å *^s Z1
nv·@pV!.* */ Q
nOZvCF*~sL
O,F3 r.*/,Cp_,+CD* n0s 1 ,Fp_,FtVnU*OqZsO,CøWnU>s2@÷u.Fn8o]v:pJ,+r
o@n n 1 pV|9*/`*9pV .,FypV O*/nXZ,< va, 1 s s2pVøZ1
@1 Q,FpG*9n`*/,+oT@n,+,FrZ*/sHs@,+1 ,+rZFrZrZnUs p_1]s FrZpVpVCOp_7pV*/.,< */, 1 t1 n8pVoZøZpJ@@,U,F,Fn`pGr.eohs O,+DípVsLO*/n8
2. sO 4Qs2÷usv: 1 rZpV,FpV*/t_rZ,FnXn0nq,FZr.oZs/npJw ,+ pVn 1 n*9n,+.n 1 .n8pV*Oe<tW,;øW+øWn>* nU,6 v5pVZ.nn8tV>n8%tVoq.o@,Fs rZn`1 n<o!.%å v:Fn8pJsoq,+1r-
÷ 1 ,Fs rZ*O .n'oBZ,+rZn,Fv°nàrZnåBva.ss n1v
1pV.o@ pG*9,+p_.L,+1rZne.*/,F 1 nU*/.oq,Fr.1 nUoZ*9,+n8Cs/÷c*/Q1
s@o@1 p_AD1 */,FpVsO.CsO÷I,+rZn Bå s 1q
*2o@neøQ
Os243 1
àhß þ Hß ½ÿ $ c(y&I¿)5 ¿a> $^¹!&
j#n8sO<, pV>,F*~pV
UsO.ZCsO,fo@n`p F DpVsEøD<n`n:oT*OEp_T
U,F÷ur. pV1 J,+rZI n pV1cn1 .n8F<,nO1 3 pG=,FpVsODds2',+rZnJ%å s 1
s 1 */Q
UsO÷Dp_,+co@n 1 pV9*9,+p_2n5v5s 1
IøWn
2sO.o',Fr.s2Fn
1 1 1
àhß hþ òJ: (;"]¿aUâ ¹é: (
pV*/R QsO
*hQ
QZpVpVOZnrEv§.,+Q)v5o@ pGs 61,*/
1 EpV5øZ,+n8p_@.oe,+oZp_,+ZpVs08^*9
O,Fs sOn`15^; øQ*2s@
e>o@,Fn8pJr.@÷u
Qne,+pV*OIZ.LpV>nen,FrZ.sOnàF÷fn:%å ,F* rZs n`nC1<
neE.,+|t_p_n tZD1+*O> tV..o'o@3JpV2gZsO÷cLpG
Ooø.s23f@-ùC,:o@rZZsn:s/,C>ZsOsOt_pQ,y
Q÷upVpJsOZ,+tVn8.t_oqs9/v°o@,Fs^pG,+<,rZF*nep_øZ,FZn .,F1Ft_pV pVsOZH;Ls/s ÷ 1÷fs ,F rZs@pG^,+o@rZpJI AWnàpVBå *9n,+.s p_Fs21nO
s/÷),Fr.1 nBå s 1
1 s2@,+FpVoZnes/÷I,+rZn0,Fn 1F yoZn8+ 1 p_øWn81 o]p_T,+rZpV^4 pG>nD<n0pG:n@ 1 n8+<tV
h 1 sOrZ1pVøZp_,Fn`oqøQ
qtG1f*~ve3
4pG>n8gg .÷f÷cF÷u*/nOs Q@1
q
O*/s2.Q *
,y1 n8*~sO*2
÷f<s2,F.rZ4s/pG.,;r>4 sOs2pG.Q>o@n8
Op_.@,FFpVo@sOnepGD6pV, yy1 pV*÷uøZsO1 @ZnU,+.pneoT s W,+1:shs2 FøDn8s@n'o!o@p_s2pJ ÷u-
q
O,FsOrZs2@n!{.pGå%,F=r.,ys */v:1,y
p_÷u,Fs r!*/1,:øZ,+*OrZpGo!t_nUtz3
OtG*~sOve!@,+,FshrD*9÷uZ,;t_A..tV* tI,+,;rZFnLr.*OsOt_t4.øWo@nUp_,FpVpVsOED,Fn ys/ ÷fn>,+,+rZn8pVo
pV]p_,+5ø 1 s2*2o@n81<, n`*/ZpVZH>sOD<pG6,+nE,Cv:pJ,+rq,+rZnXtG*~ve@*/.o]Zs^s/,+rZn 1 .* 1 ,SasO÷4,Fr.nàI pV1 n.Fn0<r.*Ot_t øWne*91w n81 =,+n8o3
àhß H½ÿ $¾º@eâ cIâU¹^¿ö
ù:#î â^ã,îZhrå 5î bZx
b!yh x
Ë>hX< b76 ¯}ã,ã,yh [xrÞ^aî ¡'6 ¡
D\î ù;¡ xm ù: âºbðî#< b #î Xm ùJ aî X;¡ ù°R ã,xî;¯fyh aî¯
bð6 ù:å#ùJ6 \î ù:¡â Þ; j Þ:b.x
ã\ ã,;÷ 5ùJ R î; Þej 5î*x å å 7hr6 h R X5X÷ ù¬¡Lj
6Íu 6 ù:g ^Þe5î ÷;bZbTù Í)x
xh ù 5ã 6¯
fh6ùJùeî\ R¡ ÷^ù; x §h ù:ã,â^÷ºî·yh 6ã5¯ x0ã,b!5;î î\3 ¡å hrh Xùeîabxͯsî;h R â Xù Þ¬[6ù¬j x
h ?
Ð Md£ f^ ]º_Xa¶ `;b °Fë K± ²
`a@ ì:²4)`\²^a`Ö´Ia`\²!`
à ßh h½æ & y»â½¾(; $'¥·»â
8»=¿ö
66;º¡ 0xNhrî îR Þ
ù0î\7;6ùR b@6â ¡º îa ;Bù ù: âº#î b@ ã;÷;î ù:R â0 x
\h·7î\x
ºh î\R ¯}xã,; ùJ hrh 6jLÞ¬ ÷Xx
ù;h x
Rh;xbHÞeb!îKî 5
÷º î\ÞeX5îùe Íf x
h ¡ r¯ j§ ¡ºg îahrbî ¥R 6ù0
RÞ^5 R ÷Xî5¡^b 6íI )g x0)bZÞeb÷Xxù NÍ ÷x!b ù@îyc[¡6¯
6ù ùJ îa\¡
x ù;h xL,ã )hyã,xhyuÍ x 6ùyR ÷^b íchr
x îah ¯sî\¬Þ X÷ùGb 6^ xî5ͧbZb!Ob ÷;6Þ:Xb@Jù ùeî,6hrùJhe÷X÷XùJã\î ùeg FxxeXx'¡0âbxrx
åDh«îb!Þ
î,î,h h ??
R
x Þ¬÷;÷Xù54b 6xî\ù¬Í¬¡jLDù: x
^â Xh°î\¡ ù;÷xx
!b h)îù xr ¥Í¬6j« ù:R ù:râ 5^â <÷;ðb î5¡º
xå¬6h
x j«g hyxËH^#Íîx îg [Þº[ îag ¬Þ · îa56 Í 6R¬ù î¬jLJ¡ x
Þºå¬h§<^â!b xî\î\ù:¡ ù:⺺â xî,î,ͬh5h½å#ù:6<^â b!î§îaR ã5x x0XhJb.Jù <Gb b!h 66¬Þ R g[ù06¬ù 64 j b@ùJ xhJJÍjZR !b ù¸å ÷ R [jâ ?
¡ ¯ g îy3
î\X¡xÍ®Jù î;hy¯}b ;¡ R x;º¡ 6eù FxXb
: íaç 7í 2ócêGå -Q,å +( Iê @è @è \ç 5ç î G-Eæªî
! "$#
øDR < s2t_@,+ne9*/tVZnO@2n8=,+s 1 Ð ü Þ5Þ5s@sQs2o@<ne,FpVZZtV.s/,8 M2R MOM O sOM t_,+Ð *Oø@O n0AM £Z<s2M >n88.úOú
t_R ,Fn >M pD1 *9,FZpVpJZ,yh*O>. */tV
@n<EpG,8 M`NON Þ5Þ sQpGs2o@<2,Fn0pVZ.p Q>, .1 *OpJ,`..6ú÷us 1FúZ Ðn 1 Ð sOZ1 .n8=,+p_s24× .ú N Ð
t_,Fn 11 Dn>*9,+n,Fs D1 .ú%úZø .ú1F1Ð ü M ÞÞ 11 pGpGo@o@22nOnOZZ¯ F
1 *FQv5n>n,tVt ×? pGå*OpVtn.4N ú .ú 1× £
H ZtVp_A.n 11 Dú M`Ñü
ZZtVtVp_p_A.,F.n o@1 2n */2Zn>,+pVO.úOú N ÞÞ 11 pGpGo@o@22nOnO!!ååHrZpVnn`4 *9D,+<ú ,F1 s2ZnO.ú Ñ F× ú ê
ZZtVtVp_p_,F,F..o@o@n2n2D.W*~2M 2 M8n n* 1 */ On2 M ú ÞÞ511.D <r4p_.@.2 nZ n R 1 */O,FsOs ×%t_1 ,+Zü *Oú On0<s2 >n88ZúOú
ZZtVtVp_p_,F,F..o@o@n2n2.7Why8n B¯ *
2b ? ,FM2s M? Wn8*
M2M Þ5.
p_..Q, 1 */D6÷us 1F n 1 sOZ1 Zn`=,+p_s24× .ú N Ð
RR */.tGF>
. t_.øW8sO t ÷us '1 ø 8*/.*2>p_,+*O.>n27 ø N
D*/ZtV
QtVp_F,FpG.o@ n2 .R 2n8>= p ,+s 1 ZZMp_,8úê £ RR */*/DD*O*O>>p_p_,+,FpV*OO.neüO>Nn2sO7 Zø ZNN tVpVZ. ú
DD*/*/tVtV
Q
QFFpGpGZQ÷Í.sOn 1Zp_n8n 1 .1 >
qM Ð oZê s M8N2N */pV4 Ð ø RR */*/DD*O*O>>p_p_,F,FpVs On ' ø1 n8*2=,+*O.>n2'M ø Nü 7øO9M úü/Ñ
DD*/*/tVtV
Q
QFFpGpG@Z.F1 n * 1 Y p_*On`t_tV nzt Ð ÑOÑ M RR */*9,+DrZ*Os@>o@p_,Fns 11 hyQ*~9
*N 1 ùdpG*/ZøZøWtVnOnOW ÐúNZø1øM
DD*/*/tVtV
Q
QFFpGpGZQ,+Fpn 11 p_nUn` o@? .s Ñ * 1 O*O* t_p_tVIn tz × Ð ú@ø M`NON RR rZtVsQs 1 oZ */ ,Fs .FpVpGO/ .M ú ú £
D.O*/tVtVnO
ZÛ8n21 n8Z=<,+Ws n8>,Ð 1 M Ð £ M RR sOsOpVtVtzs .
ùI n`<tG.*ZF.pGú */MAt[£ = FÑ ê %ú ø
EE,+,+np Zn8.FsO*..D*Oú .N >1 n2£ ø ü ú RR ss H1ZtVsOn T ?zQ s@o@øWn0n OMs2 tJ,S*/O.n2ú Ð M8Z× ú ø Ð
Ep_,+,Fp r 11 n8FsOn>,+.pV*OO.Z>v:n2p_ ,Fr-M n`>M Ss r.*/..t_pVn8] */tzQ M ú ê øWn 8 RR ssOD<Zn tVn 9T*9,+Qp_s2 q sOøWa÷ n 11î\*ZM81n × p_,FOr
2 G nd,F*~pG£/v ê2sON÷6 Ð
,F11 s,Fp_÷|*O pV>e,8t_ s@ n`*O.F ú 1 n n E,8 MAêü 1 ê2N RR ssO1.n02,+t_1sEn F8. ú M ú ú M 1 M8×
,<Z,+,Fns/Q, .*O*/.,FpV<sO÷u4s
M øn Ñ1M êZú Ð RR sOãa.bZZt_ZpVZZ1 Dp_,8. <Ñ pVOD*/tz M ú ü dM ü/Ñ
2n 1 */12n* .1+ t_p_,F.1 oZnO N R M ú@Zú%ø Ñ RR 1 n8s2<+,8<s92MOn M ZÑ n>,6v5s
ÞCÞC*/*/..oo ? n8.t_*2p Fap_.A.*/t_,F,Fn pVsO]A.t_,Fn 1 M Oø ú RR 1hf
Qù0<,+D*Oú%tø%.ø ú1 ú 1
dM £ZM
ÞCÞC*/*/..oo ??z1<,Fnt6s2n`q=,CA.t_A.,Ft_n ,F1 n 1 MAO£/ø M ú× øOú R 1ù0Dú dM ü Zú Ñ ø ×
? 1 M
ÐMø
Ð M`Ñ 6²º²º` &%
RR 1+1 n8n8EE,5,8@, tV1 p_*OZ.n2<D÷uú s 1+ n 1 Zú Mdü Zúø × Í)Í)p_p_t_t_,F,Fnn 1 ..ø.ø.*/*/..oo ? n8.t_*2p F8p_ .*/,FpVsO4 M ø/ú
RR @,+1+1+s/11 n8w E,8÷ @n Zr.Z*2n8<.n2>.êE
2ú Ñ êEÑ Í)Í)p_p_t_t_,F,Fnn 11 ..ø.ø.*/*/..oo ??z1<,Fn t6s2n`4= ,8MA£2øOM ×ú ø/ú
R
@>tVnO7ø 1 Y MA£Fê MA£2Ñ Í)Í)p_p_t_t_,F,Fnn 11 ..rZt_s9p_v2r .? ?.*O*O+8+ dM M £1ú £
¡¡ Rè 1 FsOQ9*/t n>,+n 1: s9On nE,8 MAê .ú%ø ü Í)Í)p_p_t_t_,F,Fnn 11 . Zn`s/<,Ss2S? .r4*/ EM ,8øO ú dM £ø
¡¡XnR t_,+n*hM Y >.s2p_9@*/A.tV2nE,`*/ ,F pVsOR 4Z ú n8*2ø < 1 n n8E,8 M ê ÍZÍZs2s2 1 p_p_1 nn 1 1 */ù .*/*O.t_
@<F÷upVs 8 M M Ð ê ê Ð
¡X¡Xn>p_n8,Ft_n`n`==,+, s 1pG0.ú rZ× n8ú */1 ,FpVZ. ê ÍÍ 1 nn Y 1 ZZn8n81 ..>>
2
1 Ñ Dn,Fú n ÑO1+N Dú M ê
¡X¡Xp_p_s@Wo@sOtVn2nU 1 */M EÐ Ñ,Fn8 ZM .Ð *.× ..ú %ú ø Ñ.ü M ÍÍ 11 nn YY ZZn8n8..>>
2
2ZQ ÷u>Z@.,+s/oZwf1* AM nÑZ£1EM ê ,+*OtdM £OÑ ú
¡X¡Xps 1 n8>*/,;pV4>@÷1+1 n n8EZ,8n8.M >
2M Ð ø ÍZÍZ1..t_.tY ?=vC,+p_*~s2O4n .1Fn8p_Z=n2,+pJ AW*9 ,+p_s24 M êDM M £
¡X¡Xss/,; >*/s2pV4QO@n,+1Ep ,+Y p_nOs2 4MEÐ , ø */.M <÷us n @ú ÍZ..oZ* n82,S*/t÷ 1 n£ Y Zn8.>
2 M ú £
1 1+ 1 NON gg n*/.Zn 1rZ*9pG,Fs n 1 Z.úZ*ODt_úp ÛÐ n ü Ð
nOîyEZ<F
øDøWs2sOt@t ÷us÷us 1 pV.O<sO,+t_*/,+*OEO,S*/n2Z n8sO.7 fø 2sOt_,+*/2nO êE× üON £2× g 11 sOZ.o4D%ú Y ø 1 M £
î\î\o.o.o@o@
q
q >> 1F1 nnEE,8,:1 t_sE£1êF8 ú Zü%úOü ú2ú ü â;â;*O*OtJt_÷tI? n>vCw *~n8O=n ,`D1 n`ú =,Fp_AD8*9,FpVsOI M Ð ×
îcî#w tVn8n8>>, ,FpVpVOXn 1FA.11 n8n8tVFo4pVD<,+ú *O. >n2M Ð £%M ü â;âyn`* *91F,+p_Zs2DZ.pVOo@ pVnM tVú Ñ2n8£ >Ñ , pVO
î#î#tVtVn8n8>>,, 11 sOs tV
E,F*/pG2XZ8n>*/,+.pVNX*2>pV.M`p_,FNo@s .1 > ,FÑ pVsOú 4Dú âyâyn`n8*9,+p_
OZ DZpV.o@.>,FpV1 OnO ÑZ£FMê
î#î#tVtVn8n8>>,, 11 ss2<,+*/*/,F2pGZ n>,+pVXn>,+vCn *~OnOs9Z2ú n N nE,8Zú ø1ø âyâynpVO1 r, 1 ÛO.Z*2.üOFZN 5pJ,`AD tJ,+Ñ n
î#î#..nn 1 OO1
O
OQ
WpVs/Z,+n>n,+EpV ,FOpG */M8tz N 1yü âyâysO
Q,;Wn >? s2øD.s2o@t_.pG>,F÷usZ1.1 .>úO,FAMpVú sO£1Ñ 4£ Z, p_2sOZs n,
O
îî Y ..1 *O*Ot_t_pp ÛÛnn 1 QdM £Z*OM ZrZpG/ M8NÐ ü ây
@<,Fn 1 1 n`<pG.ú2úOú 1 1 ê.M
î YY ZpV9*/tVn1E,8 1 R ,Fsh¡ M R £ Mê =pzQ.FF
øWøWsOsOt.t ÷u÷us s 1 p_. <1+,+1*On8E2,+,`*/ .ü1nü sO7Dø#ü > nE,8 !ø
÷6Í..*2F=
,+s øW@sODt s9÷uv5s 1n ÷ Z1 nú Y Zn8.>
2 ü úZ' ø/ú D*/2n` p_oZ.*/* D1 >
hnOQW1 ú Ð øDn 1 7 ø Ð ø 1+1 ê2× £O× N
Í.Í.**216,y*2oÍ.1 7 sOø N p_n 1ù */ü/D× 6÷us Ð .ú ú .o@DDn`=oZ,+*/*OD.>>nn2 *9,SSüFrZê p_..ê.ú FÑN2ê× Zú M2M
ÍZÍZnn 1F1 p_s ,FnOn8 F£sO1 üD*/1 E,\1, *O.6÷us 1F n M Z£ ú ø × ..o@o@DD==,+,+*O*O..>>n2n2Z tVü/n8N *Z
,F*O.O*OnOtZú2ú Ð
ÍfÍ)p_Ífn81Fù0tV1 o4 Z1 M nÐ tVn8£ >Z, ú pV× Oú .ú 1 Ð 1F 1 N ..o@o@DD==,F,FpVpVsOsOIIZ ntV n8@>,+, .1 */s tz Ð*/2M`Z%Ñ n>ü ,+pVO.ú
Í)Í)p_p_n82tV o4 nO4 4*/pGO+.F1 F* n>t6,FsOpG/..N8ú ZN ú M` N M`N Ð ..o@o@DD==,F,FpVpVOOnUner.sOn8Z*9,+.p_t_.pVZ.. M ú ü 9M ü/Ñ
Í)p_t_,Fn 11 MOMdü MA£ZM FÑ ê £Fê
6²^²
` '% Ð M`×
..o@o@DD==,F,FpVs On 1 n8*2=,S*/.nO ü/N ü ú yyssO,+1 ,+*/sO,FpV sOè 4:ZùCWrZsOn8tGs* 1 n Ð .ú M`N
.sO<,+*O92*/,S*/Z1 Zn n8üOsON .n>5,Fn 9*/tVZs9n2O n ê2× n8E£O,8× .ú%ø1ø yysOsO,+,+*/SrT,FpVsOA.4t_,F n 1 n8 >,+ø/*O1 úZOZü tG* 1 Ð ü
661FFsOsOtGtG*9*9? ,F,FpVpVsOsOqIQ, ,1 */*/..<<÷u1y÷us s 1+ n n 1 M8× ø Mê yy. t_t øW n n,F.n >1 s1 Dú M × .ú t_n .ú Ð .ú Ð
1 1+ 1 M`1× £ yy øWøWnn 11 Z p n`*/ *OtzO pVÐ .ø * 1
OM` × Ð ø £
á2sOZtVnO.ú ×ON
ËË0nR
Q#øW s2M * ø@o FÑQêZpG*/.s. y øWn 11 .1F8*/tG* 1 Zú Ð .ú £ Ð
Ë0Ë0pp 1 SSrZrZr.r.s/s/1 ww è e ÞcR s2 tJ1F,S1 */n2E× àn ,rdI*~*~veve M øQø@ ÑFú@ê xxXr=,S*~Or n2 I× *~ve ø@7 ø
àË Þº1 \ M ø@ è ê ú@ 1Ñ ê M ê 1Ñ ê xXxr+>éépVt_tGèè r*9,+Ip_s2*~4v M ü1ü ê FÑ ê
#I*ODO<
2p_ Z^øWsOZt r.÷u*2s <1 nep_DFrZo@p_.÷[,8=,S*/. nO üO7 N ø @ú xx++>>pVpVt_t_tGtVs2*9,++s>s21 Dn2M2M8dM Nü ü
I4n`* *O o@p_pV.Z*/H,Fn`Zoqr.*2p 1 <s2neTFrZsp_÷[1,8nO .M`ú2× úO ú ü@M 7 ø M @ú £O× xXOn 1 ,+sOZn2 M %ú ø@Ñ .ú × ú
44n`n84*
Û */J2nXI*~pV.veo@ D=,+*O.>n2DM`úO×ú Ð ü@M M £O× 4ãf..FF
øWøWsOsOt t ÷u÷uss 1 p_, ..<,+n*OEW,+s9*/v5.n nsO.Dú CDÐ s9v5n 1 ü/N 7ø N
44pVpGZ+Fn2F* Zèt6DsO.s2t_a
QA.Z2rD üO*ONFn2n0.Fú
@6,+n .ú êEÑ ãcãc** 1 */*/tVtV tVtVnntt*/>p.*Ot_Z1
@p_F, pV1 8ZÑOtVn8Ñ 8 1 £
44p_sE,*OÛeov:@p.1 sOnOZ tV£%p_.ü n81* Zú 1Ñ ê ãcãfn8* *11 */tV tVnxt R1 1 n`<s21 .*/.nOFÑ ê M8N2×
44sQs9vs2T.*O*22F,+anA.Zt_D,F*Zn .1 ú M ×2ú N ãfãfn8nD*
Eo@? Z,+tVM2s M? Dn` *
Ð M2M
%ÞX¡? ù0Dú ×2Ñ 1 Md£ ãfã#nrD1 *OpVFsQnOo4 Ñ M8N
¯ ¯ *O*OOOZZnn,F,FpGpG;AD* ntGoZt_Dp_A.ú n 1 .ú2ú Ð N ã#ã#rDrD*O*OFFnn01FM8ns/Ñ ,S*9Z,+n8p_.s2>4n2Z.ú ú Ð Ð ø
¯ ¯ *OF* QOZp n,F pG;ADãfntGs9ova n 1 s/N ,+ù */M8,F*/NpVZ..<÷u.n ú ê1ùCê rZn8s n .ú ã#ã#rDrD*O*OFFn0n0FFrZrZY p_p_÷[÷[,U,8Z 2M8n8Ñ >,Fs ZÑ ú
¯ ¯-nF* ,FQn v5 n@tVWt ? s9åvanpVnT÷|*Oø =1 1 ,+pVs o@12.neú%>ø p 1 1 ZpJ,`.ú %× 1 £ M`N ã#ã#rDpG*/*O.Fs.nOQ, 1 */D6÷us 1F n 1 1 M8£ ×2Ñ
¯-¯-s@sO,Fo@s Z1 tV..ú83cOn`1=,Fs 1 Ð 1ü N ã#ã#pVp_,+n SÛ8rsQn tVn8× =., 1FpGpV>8p_*/,6t[
O=. ú Ñ ú
¯-¯-sOsO,F,Fss 11 @ZpVF.
EêDo@DM .Sr>,FpVs2sOZ4sODDú ê @Ð ú Ð ãfãfsOsOtGtG** 1 p_,6Z
O sO ,+ */,FR pVsO 4Ð Ð Ñ ü øQ.ú2ú
¯-¯-sO@,F,+s.11 */~tI2p_n.ZoZn .1 =*/1 ,S,F*/s .1 FnOn> ,8 M8ê × Ð ãfãfsOsOtVtVnO
Q1ZZ*Or.tJ*2,+<n n21 @.ú*9Ð,+s 1 N@Zú ú Ðê Ð £ Ñ
¯-@,+.*/tIp_.oZ.=,+p_s24 Ð M`Ñ%ü ãfãfs/s/,+,+nnEE,F,FpGpVs*/t , n1 ,F*On .M<Z÷uús 1+ ø ê n 1 Zú M ê Zú ø ×
yyn8s2@ , 1<*/pVQt4.<sOs2.pVo.oZ*/.tz= ,+s 1 .úOú Ñ ãfãfs9s9vyv5no@n 1 ÷|n`*Oo=,+ps 1 s2.T1 ú s × 1 nOZúOú2ú
yys2s2Z.?tVFp_p_ZQn`.* F1 sOpGoZs */ tz Ds2M`ú ZN nE,S M Ð × Zú ×ON ãfãfs9s9v5v5nn 11 ÷|*OD=*/,+tVs pJ,611:
2 Dú üOn>,+× n 1 Dú%ø N
Mü 1CY ×2N
ÐúN 6²º²º` &%
ãfãfs9s9v5v5nn 1C,Y DpV*O*/ZtVpJO,6
tVnO.ú n,Fn 1 Dú ×ZM h:h:sQsO,+s/*9, ,+? ¯ p_.n8*/ ? *Ob OY Z.n* ,F1pGn2 A.Mnê tGoZ.úúø1ø
ãfãfs9s9v5v5nn 11 E2Z*O1 Zn82.*/* ,F1 pVnOEnO,` .£%ú üú £ Ð h:h:ZZtVtVn8n888Z..Fn * 1 p_*On`t_:tVn>tp p Z1 >p_,+Z8p_,+8 Ñ1ê ê%ê
ãfãfs9s9v5v5nn 11 O,1 n8Z*2n2=,FDpVúOn2Ð.ú ü £ Ð h[Þ¡Xù0 ú 1 ×2× 1 ÑFê
ãã\1ù0p .ú * 1 1
H@1 , ú1 ø*O.<£÷us 1+ n 1 >sOpVtz ê b b@*/.,FF
*/øWøZtVsOn t ÷usn`*O1 >*/,FZs .Z* ú1 n8E,CWs9v5n 1 @ú £ Ð
ã#
E,+r.*/M 2ê s 1 n8*/]× ùCrZns 1 n Ð × b@b@*~*~vCvC,+,+1 sEsEsOsO,F,FrTrTv5v51 *~*~22nOnL 1M8N ú M`Ñ
LLZYF
.*/tVøDp_,6s2
ht ÷|÷u*Os >,Fs .1 .*Oút_p_Ñ,6
Ð ÷|*2=,Fs b@b 8R */hetG* 1 QÐ øWn 1 .ú Ð Md.ü ú £ Ð
LX.Z*OF
t_p_ ,6
høD÷|s2*Ot >÷u,Fs s 1y1: 1Y n8*2=,FpVOn0Ws9van1 1 Z£ú ü £ Ð bQbQn`n8t_>n`sO=D,FoZpVM Q* pJ1,6Ñ
H
2 , 1 ø*/.<÷us 1+ n 1 >s2p_tz ê