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molecules travel to target cells. In plant cells, the hormones may travel in vessels or diffuse the
the air as a gas. Hormones may vary in their size and molecular structure.
Types of Animal Hormones
Modified amino acids- i.e. epiniphrine is a modified tyrosine.
Proteins-i.e. insulin is a large protein
Steroid Hormones- i.e. testoterone and estrogen are steroids.
b. Pheromones are chemicals secreted by one animal to affect
the behavior of another animal.
Direct contact- Cells have cell junctions which is in
contact of the cytoplasms of adjacent cells occur. This allows for
signaling substances in the cytosol to pass feely between the
adjacent cells. Animals cells can communicate via direct contact
between molecule on their surface of their cell membranes. This
is common in embryonic development and the immune system
(secretion of interleukin when macrophage and virgin-T cell
make a match).
Now the dimer is phosphorylated at every tyrosine by ATP. Now the receptor is activated and can
trigger with a number of transduction-signal pathways. This may include the transfer of a
phosphate to another enzyme. Triggering a number of these pathway is the main difference
bewteen this receptor and the G-protein-linked receptor.
c. Ligand-gated ion channels. These channels are protein pores on the plasma membrane that
open or close in response to a chemical signal allowing or preventing the flow of ions into or out
of the cell. Examples include Na+ or Ca++. Once the signal attaches to the gated channel, the
protein changes shape and a pore opens. This allows for an immediate change in the
concentration of ions.
d. Intercelluar receptors-Some signal receptors are NOT found in the plasma membrane. Instead
they are dissolved in the cytoplasm. This means
the signal must be lipid soluble to make into the
cytosol. These signals are usually steroids
hormones, thyroxine, and nitric oxide. i.e.
Testosterone enters the cell and binds with a
receptor protein found in the cytoplasm. This
complex now moves to the nucleus where is acts
a transcription factor and helps transcribes certain
genes.
Transduction-After reception, the cell needs to
process the signal. This is called tranduction and
is a mult-step process. Usually the molecules that
are processing the signal are proteins that are
activated by phophorylating them. Protein kinases
phosphatase is a protein that will remove a phosphate group from proteins and can deactivate a
protein kinase. Between the receptor molecule that is activated and signal-transduction pathway
that is to be activated there may be a second messenger. Note-The the hormone or signal that
attaches the to the receptor site is called the first messenger. The most common secondary
messengers
include
a. cyclic AMP
(cAMP)
b. Calcium ions
and inositol
triphosphate.
cAMP-i.e.
When epinephrine binds to its receptor site, it is found that there is a corresponding increase in
the amound of cAMP found in the cell. cAMP is a derivative of ATP. An enzyme (adenlate
cylase) in the plasma membrane causes this
reaction to occur. In this example,
epinephrine activates a receptor site, which
in turns activates the G-protein. The G
protein now activates adenlyate cyclase,
which then makes cAMP from ATP. cAMP
activates the epinephrine pathway which
ultimately increases the amount of glucose
in the blood stream.
Calcium ions and Inositol Triphosphate (IP3)
Some signal molecules in animals induce
responses by increasing the amount of Ca+
+ in the cytosol. This is used in the muscles
and nerves
and certain
hormones.
Most of the time Ca++ in the cytosol is low because it is pumped
into the E.R., the mitochondria and also outside of the cell. The
release of Ca++ from E.R. reservoirs involves diacylglycerol
(D.A.G.) and inositol triphosphate (IP3). These two messengers
are made by the cleavage of certain kind phospholipid in the
plasma membrane. This is done when the G protein acitvates an
enzyme phospholipase C. Phospholipase C cleaves a plasma
membrane in two to make D.A.G. and IP3. IP3 will then move to
the E.R. and bind with a IP3-gated calcium channel to allow Ca++
to flow out.
Types of cellular
responses
1. Ultimately
activating an
enzyme
2. Synthesis of a
particular enzyme
or protein
1. Activating an
enzymeUsually when
cAMP, Ca++ or
IP3 is activated
then it will interact
with a specific enzyme to start the cascading effect
Scaffolding proteins are large relay proteins to which other relay proteins are attached
Scaffolding proteins can increase the signal transduction efficiency by grouping together different
proteins involved in the same pathway
Termination of signal
Inactivation mechanisms are an essential aspect of cell signaling
When signal molecules leave the receptor, the receptor reverts to its inactive state