Topic X Problem Solving

1
LEARNING OUTCOMES
By the end of this topic, you should be able to:
1."

Define what a problem is;

2."

Describe how a problem can present an opportunity for

improvement;

3."

Explain the four stages involved in the process of problem solving;

4."

Explain the importance of goal setting in the problem-solving

process;

5."

Establish the general guidelines to effective problem solving;

6."

Discuss the role of Root Cause Analysis (RCA) technique in the

problem-solving process;

7."

Examine the common constraints in the problem-solving process;

and

8."

Compare and contrast the different approaches to problem solving.

X" INTRODUCTION
Regardless of what we do for a living or where we are, we spend most of our
waking hours constantly trying to solve problems. For many students, problem
solving is a procedure they carry out on a task assigned by a teacher. They view
the problem as something to be completed within a set time so as to avoid
punitive consequences. Unfortunately, in their daily lives, students, and people
in general, have a tendency to overanalyse every action or event deemed
problematic. The problems we face can be small or complex, but they need to be
solved in a constructive manner. Hence, problem solving is an important skill.
Whether we arrive at an effective solution or not depends on how we confront
the problem (Figure 1.1).

"

TOPIC 1

PROBLEM SOLVING

Figure 1.1: How we view a problem is the key to determining its outcome
Source: http://beautybrainsnbeyond.blogspot.com/2010/05/thought-of- day_20.html

1.1

WHAT IS A PROBLEM?

Based on some dictionaries, a problem is defined as:

(a)"

A question raised for consideration or solution (WordNet 2.0, Princeton

University, 2003).

(b)" A question to be considered, solved or answered (The American Heritage

Dictionary of the English Language, Fourth Edition, Updated in 2009).
(c)"

Anything, matter, person, etc, that is difficult to deal with, solve or

overcome (Collins English Dictionary: Complete and Unabridged 6th
Edition, 2003).

(d)" Any question or matter involving doubt, uncertainty or difficulty

(Dictionary.com, Unabridged).

TOPIC 1

PROBLEM SOLVING

Figure 1.2: A negative approach to a problem: "If the problem is too big, just blame it on
someone else!"

Depending on the context, some problems may be minor, personal or caused by

external factors. Some problems may be too big or too complex and need to be
passed on to people who are more capable of dealing with them. Figure 1.2
illustrates how NOT to go about it!
Different authors define a problem differently. Generally, we can define a
problem using three approaches:
(a)"

A problem is an opportunity for improvement.

(b)" A problem is the difference between your current state and your goal state.
(c)"

A problem results from the recognition of a present imperfection and the

belief in the possibility of a better future.

The definition that a problem is an opportunity for improvement will be the

focus of our discussion here. Thinking out of the box enables one to view a
problem as an opportunity a chance to open up new ways of looking at, and
responding to, the difficulties being faced. Seen from this perspective, problems
are not necessarily the result of external factors or to be perceived as negative or
"bad" events. This shift in perspective creates a new viewpoint or awareness of
the problem. New opportunities for improvement will present themselves to
you, and as they do, they bring about new challenges that demand a solution
from you.

"

TOPIC 1

PROBLEM SOLVING

Such a situation requires flexibility in approaching the problem at hand. This

requirement for flexibility offers a distinct advantage to creative people in the
course of problem solving, since changes in the problem necessitate innovative
and inventive adjustments in how it is solved. Perceiving problems as
opportunities for improvement nurtures a positive mindset, which can transform
you into a more confident person with more control of your life.
At times, a problem can manifest itself in different ways. An example is a
situation where we see ourselves in conflict with where we are at present and
where we want to be. When we can identify the difference between the situation
we are in at present and the situation we desire, we can define the problem,
which we can thereafter attempt to resolve in order to achieve our goal.
"Each problem has hidden in it an opportunity so powerful that it literally
dwarfs the problem. The greatest success stories were created by people
who recognised a problem and turned it into an opportunity."
Joseph Sugarman (Inglish, P. 2011)

ACTIVITY 1.1
"There is so far no limit to the rise in food and oil prices, a situation that
is leading many consumers and producers to a point where they are
carrying an unbearable burden." (The Star, 23 June 2008)
Identify one consumer-related problem that can result from the situation
reported above. Can you approach this problem as an opportunity?
Explain your answer.

1.2

WHAT IS PROBLEM SOLVING?

Problem solving and the techniques associated with it are domain-independent

reasoning components which specify patterns of behaviour that can be reused
across applications (Fensel and Motta, 1997). This simply means that problem
solving is a series of techniques, both cognitive and behavioural, that can be
applied in various fields or areas to generate solutions.
As Woods (1975) and colleagues suggested, "Problem solving is the process of
obtaining a satisfactory solution to a novel problem, or at least a problem which
the problem solver has not seen before."

TOPIC 1

PROBLEM SOLVING

As a whole, problem solving involves a series of steps, from the identification of

a problem leading to the development of a solution. Problem solving can be seen
as a structured, directional-oriented process. However, in determining the
direction for the solution, we need to define the problem first, followed by the
desired goal or the changes we want.

1.2.1

Stages in Problem Solving

As highlighted in the previous subtopic, to better understand problem solving

and to improve our personal problem-solving capabilities, we should view
problem solving as a process that leads to a positive result. The importance of
this approach is that it focuses on the process of attaining the solution rather than
the solution itself. This means more emphasis is placed on the steps in reaching
the solution than the end result. Thus, it is vital that we understand the various
stages involved.
The four stages involved are presented in Figure 1.3.

Figure 1.3: Stages in problem solving

(a)"

Recognising and defining a problem

A problem can only be solved when its existence is recognised. However, in
certain situations, a problem is only recognised when it becomes a serious
matter. After recognising a problem, the next action will be to thoroughly
define it. A problem can be referred to as a closed-ended problem or an
open-ended problem. A closed-ended problem involves all circumstances
surrounding the deviation from the norm that need to be defined. On the
other hand, an open-ended problem involves both identifying and defining
your objectives and any hindrance that can stop you from attaining them.

"

TOPIC 1

PROBLEM SOLVING

The main differences between closed-ended and open-ended problems are

summarised in Table 1.1.
Analysing a problem thoroughly is important in order for you to fully
understand it and subsequently come up with various solutions that can
help in achieving your goals. Analysing a problem involves identifying and
bringing together relevant information, and presenting it in a meaningful
way. It eventually helps you to decide what the best solution would be.
Table 1.1: Differences between Closed- and Open-ended Problems
Closed-ended Problems

Open-ended Problems

Have one or a limited number of

possible solutions.

Can be solved using many different

methods.

Problem analysis involves identifying all

the possible causes before looking for a
solution.

Problem analysis involves looking for

information which will help to
suggest a range of possible ways to
solve the problem.

(b)" Finding possible solutions

Generally, coming up with various actions to solve a problem involves
finding out what appropriate actions to take, what the hindrances are and
finally working towards achieving your goals. It may be necessary to
modify and combine ideas using any creative technique available in order
to devise a workable solution. In truth, the more ideas you have to choose
from, the higher the probability of finding an effective solution.
(c)"

Selecting the best solution

This is a decision-making process that is based on a comparison of the
potential outcomes of alternative solutions. This stage involves:
(i)" Identifying the characteristics of the possible solutions, including
any limitations that might be encountered;
(ii)" Eliminating the solutions that cannot overcome the limitations;
(iii)"Evaluating the remaining solutions;
(iv)"Evaluating the risks linked to arriving at the best solution; and
(v)" Coming up with a decision to implement the chosen solution.
It is believed that a problem is considered solved when a solution has been
implemented. However, in certain circumstances, the selected solution has

TOPIC 1

PROBLEM SOLVING

to be accepted or authorised by other individuals in order for it to be

implemented, and this may involve several strategies of persuasion.
(d)" Implementing the solution
Three steps are involved in this stage, as presented in Table 1.2.
Table 1.2: Steps Involved in the Implementation of a Solution
Step

Description

Planning and preparing to

implement the solution.

Involves the conclusion of all efforts and thorough

planning that describes the sequence of actions
needed to fulfil the objective, timescale and
resources required at each stage.

Taking the appropriate

action and monitoring its
effect.

Problems or potential problems have to be dealt

with immediately in order to ensure that things run
smoothly.

Reviewing the success of

the action.

This is important to estimate the efficacy of the

action in solving future similar problems and to
make sure that the problem has been solved.

To sum up, the emphasis of a closed-ended problem is on defining and

analysing the problem to indicate possible causes, whereas the focus of an
open-ended problem is on the idea generation stage to come up with a
broader range of possible solutions. It may be necessary to recalibrate the
work done earlier, during any stage in problem solving.
In all the four stages discussed, we need to use our reasoning and thinking
skills. These will be discussed in later topics.

SELF-CHECK 1.1
1."

Explain the four stages involved in problem solving.

40"

Explain briefly the differences between open-ended and closedended problems."

"

1.3

TOPIC 1

PROBLEM SOLVING

IMPORTANCE OF GOALS IN PROBLEM

SOLVING

Problem solving centres on thinking about goals and ideal states that one would
like to achieve. Usually, when a goal is reached, the problem is considered
settled. However, this will only happen if the goal originally set is appropriate.
Defining a goal is essential to determine how much of a problem exists or
whether or not there is a problem in the first place. There are, of course,
innumerable problems that need solutions. Do not get carried away by trying to
solve every problem you identify and do not let others set goals for you that you
will not be able to achieve (as illustrated in Figure 1.4).

Figure 1.4: Set yourself realistic goals; do not try to solve all problems and do not let
others set goals for you that you know you cannot meet

TOPIC 1

PROBLEM SOLVING

Robert Harris (1998), in the following excerpt, gives a very good example to
illustrate the need for a goal to identify whether a problem exists:
Let's say you have just brought a pizza home from the pizza parlour and
it is beginning to cool. If your ideal state is to eat very hot pizza, then you
have a problem you may define it as how to keep the pizza from
cooling, how to heat it back up or how to eat it quickly. On the other
hand, if you like moderately warm pizza, then you do not have a
problem. Similarly, if your friend comes over an hour later and you offer
him a piece of leftover pizza only to discover that your oven is on the
blink, you have a problem: how to heat up the pizza. But if your friend
says, "I really like cold pizza better than hot", you do not have a problem.
Source: http://www.virtualsalt.com/crebook3.htm

As the above example illustrates, in order to determine whether or not a problem

exists, and to what extent it does, you must first consider:
(a)"

Your goal(s); and

(b)" Your current state.

Your goals must be achievable within the boundaries of your capabilities and the
tools you possess. Take time to think about your goals and plan your strategy.
Remember, failing to plan is planning to fail.
Goals are never static. Your priorities will change over time, and so will your
goals. The changes may involve a major rethinking of your lifes purpose, or they
may be small refinements to your holiday budget. Whatever the changes may be,
it is essential that you keep your problems and solutions in tandem with your
goals.

1.4

GENERAL GUIDELINES FOR PROBLEM

SOLVING

These guidelines are meant to help you analyse, define and solve problems in an
orderly way, and to give some structure to the various problem-solving activities
you encounter. When using these guidelines, it is important to keep in mind that
problem solving does not proceed through a predetermined sequence of steps at
all times, nor is it necessarily linear. Rather, problem solving is a recursive
process whereby you must continually go back and forth between steps, and
repeat some steps. This can best be viewed as a problem-solving cycle (illustrated
in Figure 1.5) whereby each process can feed into another process through
feedback and correction.

10 X
"

TOPIC 1

PROBLEM SOLVING

Figure 1.5: The problem-solving cycle

Whenever we are faced with a problem, an effective solution to the problem can
be developed using the six steps, as shown in Figure 1.6.

Figure 1.6: The six steps in problem solving and decision making

These steps can each be broken down into smaller steps to better enable you to
carry out the problem-solving process. We will look further into each step in the
following subsections.

TOPIC 1

1.4.1

PROBLEM SOLVING

11

Explore the Problem

This is the first step in the process of effective problem solving. The problem is
investigated and broken down into sub-problems; the terms are defined and the
nature of the problem is determined. Some research should be done on whether
the problem has been encountered in the past, and if so, how it was resolved, if at
all.
Obviously, the nature of the problem will determine how much time is spent on
problem exploration. Simple problems may not need extensive exploration while
complex problems may require extensive exploration. Compare, for example, the
amount of exploration needed to determine why a little bulb is not working in
your house and why a car is not working properly. Problem exploration may
involve some steps which include:
(a)"

Problem statement
(i)"

What is the problem?

x" Is the problem multi-faceted? If so, what are its various facets or
aspects?
x" If the problem was passed on to you from someone else (another
individual or another department, for example), it might be useful
to have a statement stating the problem as was given to you and
another statement stating the problem in your own words.
x" In any problem definition or statement, it is useful to state what
the problem is not. By doing this, you will have a clearer idea of
what it is.

(ii)" Restate it differently.

x" Restate the problem in a completely different way.
x" Do this several different times.
x" This helps to separate the real problem from our verbal
representations of it.
(iii)" Make a broad statement about the problem.
x" State the problem in abstract terms, perhaps even with a
philosophical slant. Often, how a problem is worded reflects a
specific instance of a broader issue. By restating the problem in
more general terms, one is able to determine if this is so.

12 X
"

TOPIC 1

PROBLEM SOLVING

x" Using general statements allows the issues surrounding the

problem to be argued from different perspectives; thereby
suggesting solutions that would not otherwise be considered.
(b)" Problem clarification
(i)"

What are the key terms of the problem?

x" Use words with similar meanings.
x" Define the terms recursively, making them more general or more
specific, until the problem is articulated as best as can be.
x" With this technique, the problem is broken down into its
attributes, components and general features, so that possible
solutions can be more readily apparent.
x" Anything that is ambiguous or uncertain about the problem must
be clarified. It is not uncommon that problem statements
originally written are vague and fuzzy, and need to be fine-tuned.

(ii)" What are the assumptions made about the problem? Under what
circumstances would a solution work?
x" This step involves the conscious listing of all assumptions that can
be identified. The listing must be impartial, without prejudice or
judgement.
x" It is important to list the obvious assumptions because often it is
those that later turn out to be alterable.
x" Many assumptions are necessary while some are not.
(iii)" Obtain further information about the problem.
x" Get ideas for solving the problem by researching how similar
problems were approached or solved in the past.
x" Often, you may discover alternative solutions used previously to
solve very similar problems faced at present.
(c)"

Explanation of the problem

(i)"

Brainstorm with others the issues surrounding the problem.

x" Articulate the problem carefully and listen to your own
explanation; then, try to visualise how someone else may see the
problem.

TOPIC 1

PROBLEM SOLVING

13

x" Discussion may help you find a solution from someone else who
has encountered a similar problem or has a different perspective.
x" Generally, when discussing a problem or idea, listen to yourself as
well as to others you talk to.
(ii)" View the problem from different perspectives.
x" Would your problem look different to different people? How
would the issue you consider a problem look like when viewed
from a different perspective?
x" To get the best perspective, the problem should be looked at from
the points of view of those who cause it, those who suffer from it,
those who have to fix it, those who have to pay for it, etc.
(iii)" Ask a series of clarifying "Whys?"
x" Asking "Why?" can serve a purpose similar to that of broadening
the definition of the problem, which can lead to new ways of
looking at the problem and at possible solutions.
x" You can also ask yourself if the problem is a symptom or result of
another problem. For example, at first glance, the production of
low-quality cars appears to be a problem of quality control. A
deeper analysis, however, may reveal it to be a symptom of a
bigger underlying problem, such as poor management, sloppy
work habits, unreliable parts and materials, old machinery, bad
maintenance and so on.
(d)" Put the problem in context
(i)"

What is the history and historical context of the problem?

x" It helps to know the history of a problem. By knowing what has
worked and not worked before, you can concentrate your efforts
on solutions that are more likely to succeed.
x" Even if the problem appears to be the same, the context in which
the solution worked (or not worked) previously will put a
different spin to the solution now.

(ii)" What is the problem environment?

x" What are the contexts surrounding the problem?

14 X
"

TOPIC 1

PROBLEM SOLVING

x" What factors contribute to the cause of the problem and cause it to
continue being a problem?
x" By understanding the contributing or perpetuating factors, you
will be able to take steps to prevent a problem from recurring.
(iii)" What are the circumstances affecting the problem?
x" Is the problem affected by specific conditions?
x" Would different conditions or circumstances worsen the problem
or reduce it?
x" Would removing the conditions or circumstances eliminate the
problem?
(iv)" What are the constraints?
x" Constraints are the limitations imposed or the requirements that
must be observed in solving the problem. They are part of the
solution framework that must be kept in mind. It is therefore
important to identify the constraints.
x" Examples of constraints are legal obligations, contractual
requirements, environmental concerns, physical circumstances,
financial and budgetary considerations, factors beyond your
control and so on.

ACTIVITY 1.2
Problems constrained by budgetary or legal realities are constantly
encountered by governments and large industries. Can you think of a
few examples from real life? Can you find one or two examples in the
newspapers?"

1.4.2

Establish Your Goals

Now, let us look at the second step of problem solving goal setting.
(a)"

What goals would you consider ideal?

(i)"

Very often, instead of considering what an ideal solution to a problem

would be, we simply settle for a quick solution.

TOPIC 1

PROBLEM SOLVING

15

(ii)" We may reduce our expectation for practical reasons like the
constraints discussed above but we need not do this until we have
envisioned the ideal scenario.
(iii)" Sometimes the ideal scenario, after discussion and analysis, may seem
more achievable than previously thought.
(b)" Establish realistic and practical goals
(i)"

In order for goals to be measured, they must be clear, definite and

precise. A list of such goals can be used to monitor the progress of
problem-solving attempts.

(ii)" Setting up goals gives direction to problem-solving tasks and gives

the problem-solver an objective to aim for.
(iii)" The goals must be realistic, otherwise achieving the goals will seem
an insurmountable task.
(iv)" Try to be as specific as possible in describing your goal; do not
hesitate if your goals remain vague or unquantifiable.

1.4.3

Generate Ideas

For problems to be solved, we need to generate ideas to look for possible

solutions. The following will give you ideas on how to find possible solutions.
Generate ideas for possible solutions
(i)"

Read, research, think, ask questions and discuss.

x" Start by gathering information about your problem, and this includes
reading, discussing, brainstorming, asking questions and seeking
opinions. Be curious, look for ideas and learn as much as you can about
the problem.

(ii)" Use idea generation techniques such as brainstorming, forced relationships,

random stimulation and so on (these will be discussed in detail in the next
topic).
x" Generate as many ideas of all kinds as possible. This will give you a
vast pool of ideas from which you can choose, adapt or stimulate other
ideas.
(iii)" Allow time for ideas to develop during various stages of idea generation.
x" The major cycle of creativity has several stages, namely:
" Preparation: Initial thought, research, study, work;

16 X
"

TOPIC 1

PROBLEM SOLVING

" Incubation: Time to let the unconscious work;

" Insight: The flash of recognition of a solution path, also called the
eureka experience or the eureka moment;
" Implementation: Working out the solution; and
" Evaluation.

1.4.4

Select Your Ideas

Now, based on the ideas you have found, evaluate and choose the best solution.
(a)"

Evaluate the possible solutions for likelihood of success

(i)"

Evaluate the ideas and possible solutions that you have collected so
far.

(ii)" Set up another possible solution that can be implemented (Plan B)

in case your main plan does not work.
(iii)" Your evaluation will involve finding the solution that will be the most
effective (works best), efficient (costs the least, in terms of money,
time, etc), and has the fewest side effects.
(iv)" Establish a ranking order for the possible solutions.
(b)" Choose the solution(s)
(i)"

Select one or more solutions to try.

x" From the solutions ranked near the top of your evaluation list,
choose one or more to try. (The solution chosen for
implementation is not always, or even necessarily, the very topranked one).

(ii)" Allow others to see and criticise your selected solution and to suggest
improvements or alternatives.
x" It is important to let others criticise and evaluate your solution
because you will then have a chance to improve it.
x" Do not let criticisms affect your confidence in ideas you believe
are good, but also do not be blind to criticisms that legitimately
point out your weaknesses. Always be willing to incorporate new
ideas.

TOPIC 1

1.4.5

PROBLEM SOLVING

17

Implement Your Action Plan

Once you have selected a solution, you can implement the action plan. However,
it is best for you to try out the solution and make necessary changes before the
actual implementation.
(a)"

Try out the solution(s)

Experiment with the idea; test it on something closely resembling the reallife scenario you are facing. This is especially vital in solutions that may
affect people's health or life.

(b)" Make adjustments or changes as needed during implementation

(i)"

Always remain flexible in this application phase. Practically every

solution needs some modification when put into effect.

(ii)" Remember that the goal is to solve the problem, not to implement the
solution; don't expect that your solution will be exactly as you
originally proposed.

1.4.6

Evaluate and Follow Up

Now, after you have completed all the earlier steps in problem solving, it is time
for you to evaluate whether or not the steps that you have taken are effective.
(a)"

Investigate whether the solution(s) worked and to what extent

(i)"

Do you require modifications? Do other solutions need to be tested? Is

a different approach needed?

(ii)" One of the most frequent failures of problem solving is the lack of
evaluation of the implemented solution. The solution may not have
worked or not worked completely or it may have caused other
problems in the process.
(b)" Do not deal in absolutes (success or failure only)
(i)"

Remember that many solutions are better described as partially

successful or unsuccessful, rather than a total success or failure.

(ii)" In many cases, an incomplete remedy is better than none at all.

Next, let us learn about a popular mechanism in exploring a problem.

18 X
"

1.5

TOPIC 1

PROBLEM SOLVING

ROOT CAUSE ANALYSIS

Root Cause Analysis (RCA) is a popular and frequently employed technique that
assists individuals in finding out why the particular problem happened in the
first place. Basically, its main aim is to investigate the origin of a problem which
is carried out using a specific set of steps together with associated tools. By
identifying the main cause of the problem, you can determine what happened,
why it happened and also find out the steps that should be taken to avoid its
recurrence in the future.
In general, RCA works on the principle that systems and events are interrelated.
According to this technique, a symptom can be traced back right to the initial
action that had actually triggered the cascade of events leading to the current
problem. The three basics types of causes that are usually looked at include:
(a)"

Physical causes tangible, material items that failed in certain ways.

(b)" Human causes a mistake committed by an individual, or a certain task

that was not carried out accordingly by an individual.
(c)"

Organisational causes a faulty system, process, or policy that people

employ to make decisions.

RCA has been found to be effective in investigating the patterns of negative

effects, identifying hidden flaws in a particular system, and also uncovering
specific actions that have contributed to the problem. Thus RCA can be applied
to practically all types of problems as long as one is determined to go far in his or
her investigation with a good judgment and common sense. The steps involved
in the RCA process include:
(a)"

Defining the problem in this step you are to observe what is happening
and at the same time look out for specific symptoms.

(b)" Collection of data this step is important to prove that the problem exists,
or that the problem has been there for a period of time and has created a
particular impact. In this step, assistance from individuals who understand
the situation and are most familiar with the problem will help you in
tackling the problem better. CATWOE is a useful tool that can be employed
at this stage in order for you to look at the problem from different
perspectives [the Customers, the people (Actors) who implement the
solutions, the Transformation process affected, the World view, the process
Owner, and Environmental constraints].
(c)"

Identification of possible causal factors this stage allows you to recognise

the sequence of events that led to the problem, the conditions that
permitted the problem to occur and the other problems that surrounded the

TOPIC 1

PROBLEM SOLVING

19

occurrence of the main problem. The most important fact is that one should
always look for as many causal factors as possible.
(d)" Identification of the root cause(s) this step is carried out to find out the
reason behind the existence of the causal factor and the occurrence of the
problem.
(e)"

Recommendation and implementation of solutions in this final step, you

are supposed to come up with ideas to prevent the problem from occurring
again, planning the implementation of a solution by the assigned
individuals, and identifying the risks that may arise with the
implementation of the chosen solution.

You are encouraged to plan ahead to predict the effects of your solution in order
for potential failures to be spotted even before they occur using tools such as
Failure Mode and Effects Analysis (FMEA), Impact Analysis and Kaizen.

1.6

CONSTRAINTS

According to Drner & Wearing (1995) and Funke (1991) some of the constraints
faced in solving difficult problems include:
x" Lack of clarity of the situation in this case, one may face difficulty in either
initiating or continuing in the problem solving.
x" Polytely this involves complex problem-solving characterised by the
presence of several goals or endings.
x" Complexity problems with a large number of items, interrelations and
decisions.
x" Dynamics problems that cannot be solved due the insufficient time frame
provided. In certain cases, the exact time required to solve the problem is
unpredictable.
Finally, we will explore the term solution again and relook at planning of the
solution.

1.7

WHAT IS A SOLUTION?

In everyday life, our understanding of solving a problem is by eliminating the

problem. This is just one approach to solving problems. There are problems,
however, that cannot simply be eliminated. These include things like waste, wear
and tear, or the occurrence of illness. Often, such "problems" are related to the
laws of nature and are therefore an integral part of our existence. When faced

20 X
"

TOPIC 1

PROBLEM SOLVING

with such problems, our main task is to make them less disruptive to the process
of reaching our goals. For this purpose, Harris, R. (1998) defines solution as the
management of a problem that successfully meets the goals established for
treating that problem. Harris goes on to clarify that "sometimes the goal will be to
eliminate the problem entirely; sometimes the goal will be only to treat the effects
of the problem. As such, it is vital to realise that your goal as a problem solver
will be shaped by various factors that include your ambitiousness, resources,
values and expectations, as well as the possibilities inherent in the problem itself.
Problems can be solved by applying two basic approaches:
(a)"

Addressing the cause or source of the problem; and

(b)" Addressing the effects or symptoms of the problem.

Harris conveniently calls these the stop it and the mop it approaches
respectively. Each of these approaches has three basic forms.

1.7.1

The Stop It Approach

When we use the stop-it approach, we tackle the problem in such a way that, for
all intents and purposes, the problem no longer exists. There are three ways in
which the problem may be tackled:
x" Prevent the problem
x" Eliminate the problem
x" Reduce the problem
(a)"

Prevent the Problem

(i)"

Preventing a problem from occurring (or recurring) in the first place is

probably the ideal solution.

(ii)" This is often done by approaching any task with the desire for utmost
quality, regardless of cost or time.
(iii)" The prevention approach is often difficult to apply because it requires
predictive foresight (the ability to foresee a problem before it occurs).
(iv)" However, most problems appear unexpectedly.
(v)" Similarly, by preventing misunderstandings, the need for lots of
damage control and emotional healing can be avoided.

TOPIC 1

PROBLEM SOLVING

21

(b)" Eliminate the Problem

(i)"

An excellent way of dealing with a problem is to eliminate it.

(ii)" There is no recurrence of the problem if elimination is properly done.

(iii)" You should always consider elimination solutions as possible
solutions.

"
(c)"

(iv)" Elimination solutions, however may not always be feasible. For

example, the AIDS problem might be solved by eliminating unwanted
social behaviours, such as sexual practices and drug use. Parties with
vested interests would expectedly resist the implementation of such a
solution. Therefore, the mop-it approach is the usual approach taken
to solve the AIDS problem.
Reduce the Problem
(i)"

There are problems, such as garbage production, that cannot be

eliminated entirely. When faced with such a situation, reducing the
problem can prove to be highly effective.

(ii)" We can lessen the impact of practically any problem by reducing its
size. A real-life example is the current approach to the flow of illegal
drugs into many countries. Most governments use reduction
strategies to approach the illegal drug problem. The flow of drugs
cannot be eliminated as long as demand continues, so law
enforcement agencies work to reduce as much as possible the routes
of entry, the middlemen dealing the drugs on the street and the
number of end-users.

1.7.2

The Mop It Approach

A mop it approach focuses on the effects of a problem rather than on the problem
itself. There are three forms of the mop it approach:
x" Treat the problem
x" Redirect the problem
x" Tolerate the problem
(a)"

Treat the Problem

(i)"

In this form, the damage caused by the problem is repaired or treated.

(ii)" Note, however, that by itself, a treat it solution is not going to be

nearly as effective as some form of stop it solution.

22 X
"

TOPIC 1

PROBLEM SOLVING

(b)" Redirect the Problem

(i)"

In this approach, the problem is deflected, either physically by

moving it to another locality (a common solution in garbage
problems) or by postponing its solution by redefining it as not a
problem.

(ii)" Remember that a problem is a problem only when someone defines it

as such.
(c)"

Tolerate the Problem

In this form, the effects of the problem are tolerated. It is debatable whether
this can be considered a form of "problem solving" but for the sake of
completion, we will leave it in the list. Basically, in this scenario, the effects
are taken for granted and measures are taken to endure them.

The best approach is, of course, the stop-it approach. However, this is not always
possible in all cases, and it may be that the only solution to a problem at hand is
the mop-it one. Nevertheless, an effective problem-solver will always consider
stop-it solutions before exploring mop-it alternatives. It is also important that
problems be solved by treating the root (or underlying) causes rather than merely
addressing the symptoms.

1.8

IDENTIFYING POSSIBLE SOLUTIONS

It is believed that the best way to have a good idea is to have a lot of ideas.
Thus, identifying possible solutions to a particular problem is also known as
looking out for optional solution due to the fact that the main objective is to
bring to an end the list of all possible alternatives to the particular problem. A
wide range of conceivable solutions can be generated using a variety of creative
techniques.
This works best where a team is concerned. Every team member should
contribute one or more suggestions in order for all ideas to be taken into account.
This is important because when all viewpoints are thoroughly considered by the
team, members have a sense of direct ownership in the decision making process.
Eventually, this can assist the team in coming up with a consensus later in the
decision making process.

TOPIC 1

1.9

PROBLEM SOLVING

23

PLANNING THE SOLUTION

It is often vital to plan the solution before you can proceed to solve it or choose
the most suitable tool for it.
Planning your solution can be approached in the following way:
(a)"

Defining four or five key causes of the problem, followed by identifying the
intervention needed to resolve them.

(b)" There may be several alternatives, with the best one depending on the cost,
effectiveness and forces that favour or impede it.
(c)"

You can determine the best approach in the following manner:

(i)"

Write down clearly what you expect your results to be.

(ii)" Evaluate possible alternatives. Are the alternatives doable, practical

and feasible? The following techniques are helpful:
x" Generate ideas by brainstorming.
x" Identify how forces can affect the viability of alternatives by using
the force field analysis.
x" Identify and explore the Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities
and Threats of the alternative solutions using the SWOT analysis.
x" Benchmark your processes with another similar organisation and
look for learning opportunities.
(iii)" Follow the analysis process to resolve the most important causes of
the problem:
x" Compare the effectiveness and viability of the alternative
solutions by using the prioritization matrix.
x" For the strategies selected, use the hierarchical flow chart to
determine which activities are the major focus, and what the
chronological order of their execution is.
(iv)" As part of your implementation plan, use the programme matrix to
define your goals and allocate the resources (human, material,
financial, time) that you need.
These techniques are explored again in later topics.

24 X
"

1.10

TOPIC 1

PROBLEM SOLVING

TAKING RESPONSIBILITY

Finally, it is crucial to take responsibility of a problem should we want to bring

about constructive change to the situation. When we deflect ownership and
blame only external circumstances for the problems we face, it can lead to a
feeling of helplessness which will undermine our capability to find a way out of
the problem.
External locus of control refers to a person who believes that his problems are
caused and determined by external stimulus, which are beyond their own
personal control and hence there is nothing he or she can do to change a
situation. This mindset can be unhealthy in the context of positive thinking.
We should not succumb to defeat with the belief that forces outside of ourselves
affect our ability to succeed.

x" A problem exists when there is a mismatch between what actually happens
with what we want or expect to have happened.
x" A problem can be defined as an opportunity for improvement.
x" Problem solving is the process of obtaining a satisfactory solution, preferably
in a novel way.
x" Problem solving can be seen as a structured or directional. The stages in
problem solving are:
" Recognising and defining a problem;
" Finding possible solutions;
" Selecting the best solution; and
" Implementing the solution.
x" Defining a goal is essential in determining how much of a problem exists or
whether or not there is a problem in the first place. It is vital to realise that
goals change with time and so do the problems you face.
x" Whenever faced with a problem, an effective solution can be developed by
following these steps:
" Problem Exploration;

TOPIC 1

PROBLEM SOLVING

25

" Goal Establishment;

" Idea Generation;
" Idea Selection;
" Implementation; and
" Evaluation or Follow Up.
x" Root Cause Analysis (RCA) involves the following processes;
" Defining the problem;
" Collection of data;
" Identification of possible causal factors or root causes; and
" Recommendation and implementation of solutions.
x" Constraints faced in problem solving include lack of clarity, polytely,
complexity and dynamics.
x" Two basic approaches to solving problems can be tackling it at the source, or
tackling its symptoms or effects.
x" It is important to plan the solution for the problem before proceeding to the
actual process of solving it.

"
Closed-ended problems

Root Cause Analysis (RCA)

External Locus of Control

"Stop It" Approach

"Mop It" Approach

SWOT Analysis

Open-ended problems

Thinking out of the box

Problem-solving cycle

26 X
"

TOPIC 1

PROBLEM SOLVING

1."

Based on your understanding, explain what constitutes a problem.

2."

A problem can be seen as both an opportunity for improvement and a

yardstick showing the difference between your current state and your ideal
state. Can you elaborate on both of these states?

3."

Elaborate on the process of problem solving.

4."

Explain briefly the steps involved in implementing the solution to a

problem.

5."

Problem solving centres on thinking about ideal states that one would like
to achieve. How is goal setting useful in enhancing the problem-solving
process?

6."

Whenever faced with a problem, an effective solution to the problem can be

developed by following these steps:
x" Problem Exploration
x" Goal Establishment
x" Idea Generation
x" Idea Selection
x" Implementation
x" Evaluation or Follow Up
Briefly explain the processes involved in each of these steps.

7."

What are the three types of causes that are usually looked at in the Root
Cause Analysis (RCA) technique?

8."

List the common constraints faced in difficult problems.

9."

There are two basic approaches to solving problems:

x" Where the cause or source of the problem is attacked;
x" Where the effects or symptoms of the problem are attacked.
Can you elaborate on these approaches?

10." Describe briefly how to use the SWOT Analysis approach in solution
planning.

TOPIC 1

PROBLEM SOLVING

27

Adair, J. (2010). Decision making and problem solving strategies: Learn key

problem solving strategies; Sharpen your creative thinking strategies; Make

effective decisions (2nd ed.). London: Kogan Page.
Bedell, J. R., & Lennox, S. S. (1997). Handbook for communication and problem
solving skills training: A cognitive-behavioural approach (1st ed.). Canada:
John Wiley and Sons.
Drner, D., & Wearing, A. (1995). Complex problem solving: Toward a
(computer-simulated) theory. In Frensch, P. A., & Funke, J. (Eds.), Complex
problem solving: The European Perspective (pp. 65-99). Hillsdale, NJ:
Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Fensel, D., & Motta, E. (2001). Structured development of problem solving
methods. IEEE Transactions on Knowledge and Data Engineering. (913-932).
Retrieved from http://people.kmi.open.ac.uk/motta
Funke, J. (1991). Solving complex problems: Human identification and control of
complex systems. In Sternberg, R. J., & Frensch P. A., (Eds.), Complex
problem solving: Principles and mechanisms (pp. 185-222). Hillsdale, NJ:
Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Harris, R. (1998). Introduction to problem
http://www.virtualsalt.com/crebook3.htm

solving.

Retrieved

from

Sternberg, R. J. (1998). Thinking and problem solving (Handbook of perception

and cognition) (2nd ed.). San Diego, California: Academic Press.
Woods, D. R. (1975). Teaching problem-solving skills. Engineering Education,
66(3), 238-243.
Woods, D. R. (1980). Problem solving workshop. Annual Conference of American
Society for Engineering Education. University of Massachusetts, Amherst.