ADDITIVEMANUFACTURING

OFOPTICALLYTRANSPARENTGLASS

JOHNKLEIN
BACHELOROFARCHITECTURE
SOUTHERNCALIFORNIAINSTITUTEOFARCHITECTURE(SCIARC2010)

SubmittedtothePrograminMediaArtsandSciences,SchoolofArchitectureand
Planning,inpartialfulfillmentoftherequirementsforthedegreeof

MasterofScience
atthe

MASSACHUSETTSINSTITUTEOFTECHNOLOGY

September2015

MassachusettsInstituteofTechnology2015.Allrightsreserved.

Author________________________________________________________________________________
JohnKlein
PrograminMediaArtsandSciences
August7,2015

Certifiedby____________________________________________________________________________
ProfessorNeriOxman
AssociateProfessorofMediaArtandSciences
ThesisAdvisor

Acceptedby____________________________________________________________________________
ProfessorPatriciaMaes
AssociateAcademicHead
PrograminMediaArtsandSciences

ADDITIVEMANUFACTURING
OFOPTICALLYTRANSPARENTGLASS

JOHNKLEIN

SubmittedtothePrograminMediaArtsandSciences,SchoolofArchitectureandPlanning,on
August7,2015,inpartialfulfillmentoftherequirementsforthedegreeofMasterofScience

ABSTRACT
_____________________________________________________________________________________________________
ThethesispresentsanAdditiveManufacturingEnablingTechnologyforOpticallyTransparentGlass.
The platform builds on existing manufacturing traditions and introduces new dimensions of
novelty across scales by producing unique structures with numerous potential applications in
product,andarchitecturaldesign.Theplatformiscomprisedofscalablemodularelementsable
tooperateatthehightemperaturesrequiredtoprocessglassfromamoltenstatetoanannealed
product.Theprocessdemonstratedenablestheconstructionof3DpartsasdescribedbyComputer
AidedDesign(CAD)models.Processingparameterssuchastemperature,flowrate,layerheight
andfeedrate,canbeadjustedtotailortheprintingprocesstothedesiredcomponent;itsshapeand
its properties. The research explores, defines and hardcodes geometric constraints and coiling
patterns as well as the integration of various colors into the current controllable process,
contributingtoanewdesignandmanufacturingspace.Performedcharacterizationoftheprinted
material to determine its morphological, mechanical and optical properties, is presented and
discussed. Printed parts demonstrated strong adhesion between layers and satisfying optical
clarity. Themolten glass3D printeras wellas the fabricated objects exhibited, demonstrate the
productionofpartswhicharehighlyrepeatable,enablelighttransmission,andresemblethevisual
and mechanical performance of glass constructs that are conventionally obtained. Utilizing the
optical nature of glass, complex caustic patterns were created by projecting light through the
printedobjects.The3Dprintedglassobjectsandprocessdescribedhere,aimtocontributenew
capabilitiestotheeverevolvinghistoryofaverychallengingbutlimitlessmaterialglass.

Thesisadvisor:
ProfessorNeriOxman
Title:AssociateProfessor,MITPrograminMediaArtsandSciences

ADDITIVEMANUFACTURING
OFOPTICALLYTRANSPARENTGLASS

JOHNKLEIN

SubmittedtothePrograminMediaArtsandSciencesinpartialfulfillmentoftherequirements
forthedegreeofMasterofScienceinMediaArtsandSciences

______________________________________________________________________________________
ProfessorJ.MeejinYoon
HeadoftheDepartmentofArchitecture
MassachusettsInstituteofTechnology

ThesisReader

ADDITIVEMANUFACTURING
OFOPTICALLYTRANSPARENTGLASS

JOHNKLEIN

SubmittedtothePrograminMediaArtsandSciencesinpartialfulfillmentoftherequirements
forthedegreeofMasterofScienceinMediaArtsandSciences

______________________________________________________________________________________
ProfessorNeilGershenfeld
Director,CenterforBitsandAtoms
MassachusettsInstituteofTechnology
ThesisReader

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
_____________________________________________________________________________________________________

Firstandforemost,IwouldliketothankoneofthemostinfluentialpeopleinmylifewhomIm
privileged to have as a mentor: Neri Oxman. Neri thank you for all your support and
encouragementoverthelasttwoyears,myexperienceintheMediatedMatterGrouphaschanged
thewayIthinkandseetheworld.

MeejinYoon,thankyouforprovidingthearchitecturalframeworkthroughourmeetings

andconversations,whichguidedthewayIstructuredmyworkintheMediaLab.Yourpractice
isoneIaspiretoasanarchitect.

NeilGershenfeld,thankyouforyourguidanceandencouragementthroughoutmytime

here at MIT. My most enjoyable memories are from my time down in the Center for Bits and
Atoms,andyourwayofthinkingaboutmakinghasleftapermanentmarkonme.

JohnOchsendorf,ithasbeenanhonortoengagewithyouhereatMIT,asyourworkwas

oneofthereasonswhichdrewmeintothecommunity.Ilookforwardtocollaboratingtogether
onthelargescaleglassstructure!

Peter Houk, not only have you and the MIT Glass Lab been an incredible source of

inspirationformythesis,youhavealwaysbeensomeoneIcouldreachouttoatanytimeandcount
on.Ithasbeenatruepleasuretocollaboratetogetheroverthelast2years.

MarkusKayser,outofallthepeopleintheMediatedMatterGroup,Iveworkedtogether

closelywithyouoverthelasttwoyears.Thankyouformakingthisexperienceoneofthemost
intellectuallystimulatingperiodsofmylife.Ivenevermetanyonewhohassuchauniquewayof
perceivingtheworld.Yourworkonthesolarsinterhadsetthetoneformyinterestsinthegroup,
andImconfidentwewillcontinuetocollaborateforyearstocome.

ChikaraInamura,weveworkedtogethernowinAsia,EuropeandAmericaforover10

years,andeveryprojectthatweputourheadstogetherhasturnedouttobemybestwork.Ivery
muchlookforwardtokickingoffthenextseasonofI|K.

WillPatrick,youandIenteredtheMITjourneytogethertrappedinasmallremoteoffice,

andbuiltagenuinefriendshipthroughourcuriositiesthatblendeddesignandengineering.

StevenKeating,notonlyhaveyoumademestepoutofeverycomfortzoneIveeverbuilt

priortojoiningthegroup,thestrengthandcourageIwitnessedthroughyouwillstaywithmefor
the rest of my life. Thank you for pushing me to technically challenge myself in ways I never

thought I could achieve, and thank you for your generous gifts of maple syrup from your
hometowninCanada.

GiorgiaFranchin,thankyouforjoiningtheMediatedMatterGroupandbeingmypartner

incrimeontheglassprintingproject.Ivebeenfortunatetosharethisunique,closecollaboration,
betweenamaterialscientistandanarchitect,andthishasprovedtobeoneofmymostvaluable
experienceshereatMIT.

KellyDonovan,thankyouforeverythingyouhavedoneformethroughoutmytimein

MediatedMatterGroup!Yoursupport,guidance,adviceandretreatstotheRebelRanchHorse
FarmmademyMITexperiencepossible.

SunandaSharma,JorgeDuroRoyo,LaiaMogasSoldevila,DanielLizardo,thankyouall

foryourcomraderyandfriendship.Icouldnthaveaskedtoworkwithamoretalentedgroupof
individualsoverthelasttwoyears.

James Weaver, your inspiration and knowledge about the entire world is simply

unprecedented.ThankyouforallthemeetingsatyourofficeintheWYSStodiscusstheexciting
intersectionofmaterialsandbiology.Youaretrulyoneofakind.

WillLangford,thankyouforallthefabrication,material,physics,mechanical,electrical,

robotic,cookingandbakingknowledgeyouhavesharedwithmyoverthelasttwoyears!Your
alwaysareagenuinesourceofinspirationformeandIverymuchvalueourfriendship.

Michael Stern, the collaboration with you over the past two years has not only been

incrediblyfruitful,butyouhavechangedthewaythatIapproachdesign.Itisveryrarethatan
architectandmechanicalengineerworktogetheratsuchahighbandwidth,andyoursenseof
pragmaticlogicalthinkinggroundedmyworkandmadetheG3Pprojectcometogether.

Erik&MartyDemaine,thankyouforyoursupportandsenseofhumorintheglasslab

whenthingswouldcatastrophicallygowrong.Yourjokesandplayfulspiritsalwaysputasmile
ontheteamsfaceswhenwewereinneed.

JohnDiFrancesco,TomLutzandSethCimarronAvecilla,thankyouallforallthesupport

downintheFabLab.AsyoucouldprobablytellbytheamountofhoursIspentintheshop,itis
mymostfavoritespaceinallofMIT.ThankyouforsupportingeveryprojectIbroughtdown,and
yourwillingnesstohelpmerealizemyvisions.

KevinDavis,CornelleKingandJessicaTsymbal,thankyouthreeforallyoureffortsand

supportinhelpingourteamrealizetheMITMediaLabGlassExhibition.Yourdedication,and

10

dowhateverittakesattitudetoensurequalityprojects,hasenabledourgrouptogrowthrough
eachexhibition.

LindaPeterson,KeiraHorowitz,thankyoubothforallyourhelpduringmytimeherein

theMITMediaLab.Yourwillingnesstoalwayslookafterourwholecohortandtakethetimeto
makesurethatIamontrackisgreatlyappreciated.

Corning Incorporated, thank you for inspiring and hosting our team in Cornings

headquarters,SullivanParkandtheCorningMuseumofGlass.Ivelearnedanincredibleamount
ofknowledgeabouttherichhistoryofglassthroughthetripthathasgreatlyinfluencedmythesis.

LornaGibson,thankyouforopeningmyeyestotheincredibleworldofmaterialscience.

YourcoursewashandsdownthemostchallengingexperienceIveeverwentthroughinmy
entirelife.Itwasalsoequallythemostrewarding.Thankyouforallyoursupporttakingthetime
tositinyourofficetoshareyourknowledgeandpassion.

IdliketothankZahaHadidandPatrikSchumacherforalltheincredibleopportunities

youprovidedmeduringmyfiveyearsatZHA.Thankyouforbelievinginme,andnotthinking
twicetothrowmeinthefire(s)allovertheworld.

Id,alsoliketothankthehighlyinfluentialpeoplewhoshapedmycareerasanarchitect:

CristianoCeccato,SatoshiOhashi,ArmandoSolano,MichaelGrau,ShajayBhooshan,EricOwen
Moss,MarceloSpina,PeterTesta,ElenaManferdini,AlexisRochas,MarkBurry,JaneBury,David
Gerber,SanfordKwinterandStevenCohen.

Last,butfarfromleast,Iwouldliketothankmyfamily.Icannotevenbegintoexpress

howthankfulIamtoeveryoneandhowgratefulIamtohavecomefromsuchagenuinegroupof
people.Thankyouforeverythingyouhaveeverdoneformeandallyourencouragement.This
thesisisdedicatedtoallofyou.

11

12

CONTENTS
_____________________________________________________________________________________________________

INTRODUCTION&BACKGROUND __________________________________________________________20
1.1.

Glass______________________________________________________________________________ 20

1.1.1.

History&Context______________________________________________________________ 20

1.1.2.

PropertiesOfGlass_____________________________________________________________ 21

1.1.3.

GlassApplications&Advances__________________________________________________ 24

1.2.

1.1.3.1.

ArchitecturalWindows____________________________________________________ 24

1.1.3.2.

Lenses___________________________________________________________________ 26

1.1.3.3.

AutomatedGlassForming _________________________________________________ 27

AdditiveManufacturing_____________________________________________________________ 29

METHODA:GLASSSINTERING______________________________________________________________33
2.1.

DirectSparkSintering_______________________________________________________________ 33

2.2.

LichtenbergSintering________________________________________________________________ 36

2.3.

LaserSintering _____________________________________________________________________ 39

METHODB:GLASSFDM_____________________________________________________________________42
3.1.

SystemDesignAndConstruction_____________________________________________________ 42

3.1.1.

SystemImplementation_________________________________________________________ 42

3.1.2.

Hardware_____________________________________________________________________ 45

3.1.2.1.

HeatingElements_________________________________________________________ 45

3.1.2.2.

FrameAndCarriage_______________________________________________________ 49

3.1.2.3.

MotorsAndBearingBlocks_________________________________________________ 50

3.1.2.4.

SafetyMeasure ___________________________________________________________ 51

3.1.3.

3.2.

Software______________________________________________________________________ 52

3.1.3.1.

CadModel_______________________________________________________________ 52

3.1.3.2.

SlicingAndGeneratingGCode_____________________________________________ 53

3.1.3.3.

MotionControl___________________________________________________________ 54

SystemOperationCharacterization____________________________________________________ 55

3.2.1.

MaterialCharacterization_______________________________________________________ 55

3.2.2.

ProcessCharacterization________________________________________________________ 56

3.3.

3.2.2.1.

TemperatureDistribution__________________________________________________ 56

3.2.2.2.

PhysicsOfGlassFlow _____________________________________________________ 58

3.2.2.3.

FlowEstimation __________________________________________________________ 60

FabricationOf3dPrintedGlassParts__________________________________________________ 61

3.3.1.

Method_______________________________________________________________________ 61
13

3.3.2.

ParametersCalibrationAndDesignSpace_________________________________________ 63

3.3.3.

FallingFluidDeposition ________________________________________________________ 66

3.3.4.

ColoredGlassPrinting__________________________________________________________ 67

3.4.

CharacterizationOf3dPrintedGlassParts_____________________________________________ 69

3.4.1.

ScanningElectronMicroscopy(Sem) _____________________________________________ 70

3.4.2.

ResidualStressesPolariscopy __________________________________________________ 70

3.4.3.

PreliminaryMechanicalTesting__________________________________________________ 72

3.4.4.

OpticalProperties______________________________________________________________ 73

3.5.

LimitationsAndFutureWork ________________________________________________________ 81

CONCLUSIONS______________________________________________________________________________86
AUTHORDISCOLOSURESTATEMENT _______________________________________________________89
REFERENCES ________________________________________________________________________________90
FIGUREREFERENCES________________________________________________________________________93

14

LISTOFFIGURES
_____________________________________________________________________________________________________

Figure1:Egyptianglassblowing;Floatglass;Haletelescope................................................................................20
Figure2:Sculpturalglassdesign;Sphericalsolarconcentrators............................................................................21
Figure3:AshbyCharts;Sodalimeglassmaterialprofile........................................................................................23
Figure4:CrystalPalaceinLondon;Formingcylindricalglasstubes....................................................................24
Figure5:FloatGlassmanufacturingprocess............................................................................................................25
Figure6:GalileoGalileiusinghistelescope;RobertHookeusinghismicroscope..............................................26
Figure7:OwensBottleMachine;ThomasEdisonsfirstlightbulb.......................................................................27
Figure8:ExOne/Shapewaysinteredglass.................................................................................................................29
Figure9:Varyingglasscomposition..........................................................................................................................33
Figure10:Sinteringtestsetups...................................................................................................................................34
Figure11:Electrosinteringexperiments....................................................................................................................35
Figure12:SinteredglassLichtenbergstructure........................................................................................................36
Figure13:SEMoftheLichtenbergglassfusiondetails............................................................................................38
Figure14:SLSglassexperiments................................................................................................................................39
Figure15:Depositedglasspowder.............................................................................................................................40
Figure16:EvolutionoftheFDMglassprintingprocess..........................................................................................42
Figure17.RenderedcrosssectionoftheFDMsystem............................................................................................45
Figure18:Platformhardware......................................................................................................................................47
Figure19:DepositingmoltenglassintothePrintAnnealer....................................................................................48
Figure20:Theassembledprinterframe&carriage.................................................................................................49
Figure21:SteppermotorconnectedtoACMEleadscrews....................................................................................50
Figure22:Emergencystopbutton..............................................................................................................................51

15

Figure23:3Ddesignspace..........................................................................................................................................52
Figure24:G3PcustomGCODEGenerator................................................................................................................53
Figure25.ExperimentalviscositydataandresultingVTFequation.....................................................................56
Figure26.Temperaturedistribution..........................................................................................................................57
Figure27:Moltenglassflow........................................................................................................................................58
Figure28:MoltenglassexitingoutofthenozzleatT~990C.................................................................................60
Figure29.MoltenglassatT~990C............................................................................................................................64
Figure30.Objectsprintedusingtheplatform...........................................................................................................66
Figure31.FallingFluidDeposition............................................................................................................................68
Figure32.Detailofacoloredprintedobject..............................................................................................................69
Figure33:Characterizationoftheprintedparts.......................................................................................................72
Figure34.3pointsbendingtests.................................................................................................................................74
Figure35:Opticalpropertiesandcausticpatternsofprintedparts.......................................................................75
Figure36:Causticpatterns..........................................................................................................................................76
Figure37:Causticpatterns..........................................................................................................................................77
Figure38:Causticpatterns..........................................................................................................................................78
Figure39:Causticpatterns..........................................................................................................................................79
Figure40:Causticpatterns..........................................................................................................................................80
Figure41:3DPrintingvsPressManufacturing.......................................................................................................80
Figure42:Aconceptualdesignfora3Dprintedglassvault..................................................................................85

16

17

LISTOFTABLES
_____________________________________________________________________________________________________

Table1.Glass3DPrinterevolutionsteps..................................................................................................................43
Table2.System96StudioNuggetsdensityandCTEestimations....................................................................55
Table3.Flowresistanceinthecrucibleandnozzleassembly.................................................................................60
Table4.Annealingcycle..............................................................................................................................................62
Table5.Printedobjectsparametersandfeatures.....................................................................................................65
Table6.Samplesspecifications...................................................................................................................................70

18

19

INTRODUCTION&BACKGROUND
________________________________________________________________________________________________

1.1. GLASS
1.1.1. HISTORY&CONTEXT

Figure 1: (A-top left) A painting of a carving from the tomb of Akhti-Hotep and Ptah-Hotep which shows early
Egyptian glass blowing. Image source: Italmole S.N.C (B-bottom left) Pilkington float glass process. Image source:
Corning Museum of Glass (C-right) Hale telescope at Palomar Observatory made from Pyrex. Image source:
Corning Museum of Glass

Ancient yet modern, enclosing yet invisible, glass was first created in Mesopotamia and
AncientEgypt4,500yearsago.Preciserecipesforitsproductionthechemistryandtechniques
oftenremainguardedsecrets.Glasscanbemolded,formed,blown,platedorsintered;its
formalqualitiesarecloselytiedtotechniquesusedforitsformation.
Thestoryofglassislargelyaboutpeopleovercominglimitationsimposedbysubstantial
difficultiesinherentinthematerialitself.Amongthesedifficultiesareachievingandsustaining
theelevatedtemperaturesnecessarytomeltandformglass,developingmethodsofforming
glasswithoutbeingabletotouchitwiththehumanhand,andtheproblemofthermalshock
(resultingincrackingorcatastrophicfailure).
FromthediscoveryofthecoreformingprocessforbeadmakinginancientEgypt(Figure
1A),totheinventionofthemetalblowpipeduringRomantimes,tothemodernindustrial
Pilkingtonprocessformakinglargescaleflatglass(Figure1B),tolensesthatenabledhuman
kindtoseedownintothepetridishandoutintotheuniverse(Figure1C),andtothedrawn

20

fibers that revolutionized the way humans communicate across the planet, each new
breakthrough in glass technology occurred as a result of prolonged experimentation and
ingenuity,andhasgivenrisetoanewuniverseofpossibilitiesforusesofthematerial.
ThethesispresentsanAdditiveManufacturingEnablingTechnologyforOpticallyTransparent
Glass,whichbuildsonexistingmanufacturingtraditionsandintroducesnewdimensionsof
noveltyacrossscalesbyproducinguniquestructureswithnumerouspotentialapplicationsin
product,andarchitecturaldesign.
In other words, the thesis aims to contribute to a quantum context everevolving,
constantly breaking through limitations in order to discover new capabilities of this very
challengingbutlimitlessmaterial.

1.1.2. PROPERTIESOFGLASS

Figure 2: (A-left) Artist Joanne Mitchells sculptural glass design. Image source: North East Art Collective (Bright) Andr Broessels spherical solar concentrators.Imagesource:Inhabitatweblog

Glasscontinuouslyconvertsintoliquiduponheating,andhasanamorphousstructurewitha
randommolecularorganization39,41.Sodalimeglass(aformofglassthatisusedworldwide)
isprimarilyobtainedfromthemeltingof70%sand(silica),15%sodaash(sodiumcarbonate)

21

and5%limestone(calciumcarbonate)39,41.Thisrawmaterialmixtureiscommonlyreferred
toasbatch,andhasnotchangeddramaticallysincetheEgyptians39.
Glass random molecular structure impacts its material behavior under different
temperatures.Sodalimeglasshasaworkingrangebetween1000F1700Fwhichenablesa
slowtransitionfromasolidtoaliquidstate39.Thisworkingrangeenablesglasstohaveits
uniqueformingcapabilitiessuchasmolding,slumping,fusingandblowing39.
Sinceglassis an inert chemicallystable substance (in itsapplication environment) with
high durability it is manufactured in large volumes as containers, vessels and laboratory
equipmentforthefoodanddrugindustrytopreventcontaminationtosensitiveproducts.
Glasscapacitytorefractandreflectlightgiveitveryappealingopticalproperties(Figure
2A) 41. When light travels through glass that is formed into different convex and concave
geometries, it will deviate (refract), and focus, which causes the formed glass to exhibit
propertiesofopticalmagnification(Figure2B)37.
Electroniccomponentsareoftenintegratedwithglass,dueitsgoodelectricalinsulation
propertiesanditsabilitytowithstandheat.

Apropertyprofileofglasscanbeseenin(Figure3)whichshowsthespecificvaluesforthe

mechanical, thermal, electrical and eco properties (for the materialand molding processes).
ThreeAshbychartsarealsoshowntosituatethestrengthvsdensity,strengthvstoughness
andenergycontentvscostagainstothermaterialclasses.Thechartsshowthatwhileglassis
brittle with very little toughness, it has a higher compressive strength than concrete, and
requireslargeamountsofenergyforitsformingandshapingprocesses34.

Chemicalprocessesandcompositesweredevelopedoverthe20thtofurtheraugmentthe

propertiesandperformanceofglasssuchglassandpolymerlaminations(forsafetyglass),heat
treatingandchemicaltempering(toincreasethecompressivestrengthandcontrolshattering),
andtinoxidecoatings(toallowlighttopassthroughbutnotheat)37.

As a result of glass material properties, and advances in manufacturing process, it has

made its way into numerous industries with varying applications. Most notable are the
architectural,automotive,aerospaceandmedicalindustries.

22


Generalproperties

Values

Units

Density

2,4002,490

Kg/m3

Price

0.81.7

USD/kg

Mechanicalproperties

Youngsmodulus

6872

GPa

Yieldstrength

3035

MPa

Tensilestrength

3135

MPa

Elongation

HardnessVickers

439484

HV

Fatiguestrength(107c)

29.432.5

MPa

Fracturetoughness

0.550.7

MPam1/2

Thermalproperties

Max.servicetemp.

443673

T.conductororinsulator

Poorinsulator

T.conductivity

0.71.3

W/mK

Specificheatcapacity

850950

J/kgK

T.expansioncoefficient

9.19.5

strain/C

Electricalproperties

E.conductororinsulator

Goodinsulator

Electricalresistivity

7.9x10177.9x1018

ohmcm

Dielectricconstant

77.6

Dielectricstrength

1214

106V/m

Ecoproperties:material

Globalproduction

84x106

m.ton/yr

Reserves

1x1012

m.ton

Embodiedenergy

1011

MJ/kg

CO2footprint

0.70.8

Kg/kg

Waterusage

1420.5

L/kg

Ecoindicator

75

millipoints/kg

Ecoproperties:processing

Glassmoldingenergy

8.29.2

MJ/kg

GlassmoldingCO2

0.660.73

kg/kg

Endoflife

Embodiedenergy
recycling

7.49.0

MJ/kg

CO2footprintrecycling

0.440.54

kg/kg

Recyclefractioninsupply

2226

Figure 3: Ashby Charts (top left) Strength vs Density (middle left) Strength vs Toughness (bottom left) Energy
Content vs Cost. Image source: University of Cambridge, Department of Engineering (right) Soda-lime glass
material profile. Table source: Materials and the Environment34

23

1.1.3. GLASSAPPLICATIONS&ADVANCES
1.1.3.1. ARCHITECTURALWINDOWS

Figure 4: (A-left) Front view of the Crystal Palace in London. Image source: Former Days (B-right) Rendition of a
glass factory forming cylindrical glass tubes for window applications. Image source: Diderot Encyclopedia, Glass

WindowshavebeenafundamentalarchitecturaldesignfeatureasearlyastheRomans,and
functiontoestablishrelationshipswiththebuildingsinteriorandexteriorvolumes,andlet
light,heatandairindoors.Itisinevitablethatglasshasbeenasoughtoutmaterialchoicefor
windowsgivenitsopticalpropertiesanddurability.Advancesinbuildingandmanufacturing
technologyenabledwindowstoevolvefromfenestrationsinarchitecturalenvelopestoentire
transparentbuildingskins.
OneofthemostnotablearchitecturalengineeringglassbuildingprecedentsistheCrystal
Palace(Figure4A),whichwasconstructedin1851inHydePark,London.Priortothisproject,
glass panes were manufactured through a technique of blowing large glass bubbles, then
rotatingthemtoformaflatpane(alsoknownasacrown)37.Thecrownswerethenannealed
andsubdividedintorectangularwindowpanes37.
TheCrystalPalaceusedanalternativetechniquetomakeits300,000glasspanesbigger,
whichinvolvedswingingalargeglassbubbleinsteadofspinningit,toformlongcylindrical
tubes(Figure4B)37.Thetubeswerethenshearedandunrolledflat,orcurvedtoformtheglass
enclosureforthePalace37.Thiswasanintensiveandlaboriousmanualprocess37.

24


Figure 5: A diagram showing each step in the Float Glass manufacturing process. Image source: NSG Group

Thedemandforwindowpanesincreasedthroughoutthelate19thcentury,whichleadto
thedevelopmentofmoreefficientwaystomanufactureflatsheetsofglass.Initialattemptsin
manufacturingflatglassincludeEmileFoucaultsverticalglassdrawtowerandthePilkington
Brothers(withFordMotors)horizontaldrawntwingrindingprocess37.Thesetechniquesleft
defectsontheglassandrequiredlargeamountsofenergytopolish37.
In1959PilkingtonBrotherscameupwithaprocessthatfundamentallytransformedthe
manufacturingoutputofglass:TheFloatGlassProcess37.Thisprocessflowsmoltenglassonto
aliquidtinbath(Figure5)37.Glassfloatsontopofthebathoftin,andeliminatestheneedfor
anyenergyintensivepolishingprocesses37.Thedrawnglasssheetpassesthroughanannealer
torelieveinternalstressesandisthencutdowntothedesiredpanelsizes37.
Thefloatglassprocessenabledglasstobecomeawidespreadmaterialwithautomotive
windshields and faade glazing systems as its primary applications. This manufacturing
processhasfundamentallytransformedarchitecturaldesignduringthe20thcenturywiththe
ubiquitousimplementationoftheunitizedglasscurtainwallsystemonhighrisetowersacross
theworld.

25

1.1.3.2. LENSES

Figure 6: (A-left) Galileo Galilei using his telescope to study the sky. Image source: Lab Spaces (B-right) Robert
Hooke discovering cells through his microscope. Image source: History of the Microscope

Glassabilitytomanipulatelightwavesaugmentedhumanscapacitytoseeanewrangeof
scales:fromdownintothepetridishtooutinthevastdepthsoftheuniverse.Inthebeginning
ofthe17thcenturylenseswereinvented,andGalileoGalileidevelopedatelescope,whichhe
usedtostudytheheavens(Figure6A)37.Seeingintothedepthsofspace,Galileodiscovered
thestarsandgeographicalinformationaboutthemoon37.
Inthelate17thcenturyAntonjVanLeeuwenhoekwasabletoseesporesbydevelopinga
microscopethathadasphericallens37.ThesetechnologiesledtoRobertHookescompound
microscope, which he used to discover cells (Figure 6B) 37. Hookes microscope had three
lenses:thefirstouterlenscollectedthelight,theinternaltwocreatedthemagnificationeffect
toseetheformedimage37
Thenewglassesinwhichhumanshadtoseetheworld,drovetechnologicaldevelopments
inthefieldofopticallenses,throughhumandesirestoseedeeper,fartherandclearer.Most
notable inventions were the following: Sir Isaac Newtons reflecting telescope which used
mirrorstoprovideopticalclarity,J.FranklinHydesprocesstocreatefusedsilicafromigniting
silicontetrachloridegas/siliconrichgas,appliedintheproductionofspaceshuttlewindows
andtelescopemirrors,AugustinFresnelsFresnellenstechnologythatreflectedandrefracted
lighttocreatecarandtrafficheadlights,tolighthouselenses,andglassfibersusedforoptical
communicationsystemsacrosstheworld37.

26

1.1.3.3. AUTOMATEDGLASSFORMING

Figure 7: (A-left) A concept drawing of the Owens Bottle Machine. Image source: University of Houston (B-right)
Thomas Edisons first light bulb. Image source: National Park Service

During the late 19th century, the industrial revolution brought automated processes into
manufacturingpipelinesthroughtheriseofmachines.Theglassindustrywasoneofthelast
domains to benefit from machineautomation due to the levels of difficulty associated with
handlingthematerial37.
MichaelJ.Owensreceivedthepatentin1904,fortheOwensBottleMachine(Figure7A),a
manufacturingtechnologythatcouldautomatebottlemaking,renderingconventionallabor
intensive techniques obsolete37. The American Society of Mechanical Engineers, proclaimed
thetechnologyas,Themostsignificantadvanceinglassproductioninover2,000years37.
OwensproceededtoformOwensIllinoisGlassCompany,whichwouldturnouttobeoneof
themostinfluentialshapersoftheglassindustryweknowtoday37.
Thomas Edison developed the light bulb in 1879 (Figure 7B), and realized he needed a
glassvesseltohousehisslowburningfilament37.Theconcurrentdevelopmentofautomated
bottle machinery enabled gob forming techniques to be translated to the highthroughput
manufacturing of glass light bulbs37. William Woods was the inventor who pioneered the
technologyin1922:TheRibbonMachine37.Themachinepouredglassintoamoldthatoutput
aribbonofglassblanks,whichwasthenmetwithblowingtipstoinflatethebulbs42.Tothis
date,themachineisoneofthefastestmanufacturingprocessesforsuchvessels37.
27

Whiletheintegrationofautomatedprocesseswithglassformingtechniqueshasenabled
moreefficientmaterialprocessingandhighermanufacturingspeeds,whatweareabletomake
withglassistightlycoupledwiththewaywemakeit.Therealityis,theformingtechniques
humansusehaventevolvedmuchsincetheancientEgyptianera:westillblow,moldandcast
glass.
However, the past few decades have seen a rise in complex fabricated products due to
innovationsinthefieldofAdditiveManufacturing.

28

1.2. ADDITIVEMANUFACTURING

Figure 8: ExOne/Shapeway sintered glass via binder jetting process. Image source: Desktop Engineering

AdditiveManufacturing(AM)hasundergonesignificantdevelopmentssinceitsconceptionas
documentedbyCharlesHullinhispatentof1984fortheconstructionofpartsusingaphoto
crosslinkablepolymer1.Numerousprocesseshavesincebeenintroduced,assummarizedby
the American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) which defined seven categories
according to which the wide range of processes can be classified2. Each of the various
approachesreliesondifferentphysicalcharacteristicsandphenomena,andisoftenassociated
withspecificmaterials.
Throughoutthehistoryofmanufacturing,thedesignprocesshasoftenbeenguidedbythe
constraintsofthefabricationmethod.Currentfreeformfabricationcapabilitiesenableamore
flexible design space: fewer design constraints provide entirely new opportunities for the
construction and assembly of objects at different length scales. Specifically, additional
29

complexityinproductscaleisnowpossiblewithoutnegativelyaffectingitsproductionrate,
cost, or quality. Furthermore, AM allows for simple, rapid, and economic design iteration,
capitalizingontheefficacyofnonlineardesignandoptimization.
Extruded material built in three dimensions has proved its commercial value with the
developmentofanentireconsumerlevelindustrybasedontheprinciplesofFusedDeposition
Modeling(FDM)3.However,FDMprinters,intheircurrentembodiment,areunabletohandle
high melting point materials, and require feeding the material in filament form, thereby
presentingsignificantlimitationsinsizeandscale1.
Two3Dprintingmethodsaretypicallyusedforhighermeltingpointmaterials,suchas
metals and ceramics. The first one consists of a sintering method where particles are fused
togetherbelowthemeltingpointtemperature.Partsaregenerallyprintedviabinderjettingon
apowderbed,whereabindingagenttemporarilyjoinsparticlesuntiltheyaresinteredthrough
bulkthermaltreatment4(Figure8).Thesecondmethodusesalaser(SelectiveLaserMelting,
SLM)oranotherthermalsourcetomeltmaterialparticlesthatareeitherinjectedorpresenton
thebuildingplatform5,6.
Glassbased materials hold the potential to provide particular value in the additive
manufacturingfieldduetotheirhardness,opticalqualities,affordabilityandavailability.To
date,binderjettingapproacheshavebeenappliedtoglassmaterialsinordertoovercometheir
highmeltingtemperaturesandhighviscosity4,7,8.Sinteredglassobjectsprintedinthismethod
arecommerciallyavailable,buttheyareextremelyfragileandappearopaqueduetothelight
scatteringfromglasspowderscausedbyincompletedensification(Figure8)9.
Robocastinghasalsobeeninvestigatedforthemanufacturingofglasscomponents,with
particularinterestinBioglassformulationsforbonetissueengineering.Inthisprocess,glass
particles are suspended in an aqueous solution or incorporated into a binder matrix. The
mixtureisthenextrudedthroughanozzletoformaporousgreenbody.Asthegreenbody
undergoessinteringhowever,itencountersthesamelimitationsofthebinderjettedglassparts
describedpreviously1012.
Moreover, even the most recent experiments with glass SLM have not been able to
overcome such issues: products remain opaque and show poor mechanical properties.
Furthermore,polishingrequiresextensiveeffort,accesstoallgeometryandoftenresultsinthe
samples breaking into smaller pieces. Even when successful, internal porosity leads to
significantlight scattering, thus limiting transparency when implementing this method13.A

30

manual wire feeding approach described in the same work yielded higher quality results;
however,lackofautomationlimitscontrolandprohibitspartproduction.
Theextrusionofmoltenglassremainedintraditionalglassmanufacturingpractices.Infact
itisstillappliedintheartisticmilieu:commercialkilnpackagessuchasBullseyeGlassCo.s
Vitrigraph, enable glass artisans to create glass canes or stringers through manual glass
extrusion,rangingindiameterfromfractionsofamillimetertoseveralmillimeters14.
Largescalemanufacturingprocesseshavealsobeendevelopedforglassextrusion;they
areparticularlysuitableforglasscharacterizedbyanarrowworkingrangeandaveryhigh
softening point; such as silica glass (softening point ~1600C) or with a strong tendency to
crystallizesuchasborosilicates.Theapplicationofpressuretoforceglassflowthroughadye
extendstheglassworkingrangetohigherviscosities,andenablestheproductionofrodsand
tubeswithcomplexsections15.
The following chapters will present the development of tools and processes, which
culminatedinthefirstofitskindfullyfunctionalmaterialextrusionsystemforopticallytransparent
glass,alongwithinitialexplorationsinglasssintering.Thisenablingtechnologyandrelated
platformiscomprisedofscalablemodularelementsabletooperateatthehightemperatures
required to process glass from the molten state to the final annealed product. Automated
extrusion of 10 mm diameter glass beads with a build rate of about 460 mm3/s enabled the
creation of 3D parts as described by Computer Aided Design (CAD) models with a build
volumeof250mmx250mmx300mm.
The additive manufacturing system and printed parts provide proofofconcept for
automated glass deposition and the ability to produce objects within an expansive design
space. This method enables production of parts that are highly repeatable, allow light
transmission, and resemble glass as conventionally produced. Printed components can be
modularandscalablefromartisticproductstoarchitecturalconstructions,asitcanbeseenby
theexamplesincludedherein.

31

Chapter2
METHODA:GLASSSINTERING
________________________________________________________________________________________________

TheLichtenbergandDirectSparkSinteringtechniquethatisdiscussedinMethodA:Sintering
GlasshasbeendevelopedbyStevenKeating,PhDCandidatefromtheMediatedMatterGroup.
AllworkpresentedinthefollowingchapterhasexploredtechniquesfromStevensresearch.

Contributors:StevenKeating,JohnKlein,BenjaminJennett,JamesWeaver,Prof.NeriOxman

32


METHODA:GLASSSINTERING
________________________________________________________________________________________________

2.1. DIRECTSPARKSINTERING

Figure 9: Varying glass compositions collected to experiment with additive sintering processes: Soda-lime glass
#13-104 grits, recycled soda-lime glass, borosilicate, boromax frits, Moroccan sand, quikrete aggregate, black
sand, magnetite sand, lunar and martian regolith

Whilenumerousapproachesexisttoutilizeheattosolidifyglass,theresearchexploredthree
sintering techniques with potential for ease of automation and form generation. These
methodsinclude1)directsparksintering,2)anovelprocesstermedLichtenbergSintering(by
Steven Keating) that was inspired by the fractal geometry inherent to the technique and 3)
Selective Laser Sintering. A range of glass samples were collected to explore the sintering
processesrangingfromsodaashglass,glassboromaxfrit,glassbeadsfinecoarseandvarying
compositionsofrawsand(Figure9).

33


Figure 10: (A-top right) Test bed high voltage setup (B-top left) Modified makerbot replicator 2 for sintering (Cbottom) Single axis drive rail setup to sinter mechanical testing samples

Through initial experiments, the direct spark electrosintering fabrication approach has
demonstratedacapacitytosinterthegranularmaterials(3588micronsodaashglasspowder)
rapidlyusinghighvoltagesandpowerinexcessof1kW.Thetestbedhighvoltagesetupis
comprised of a 220V 60A variable autotransformer and a 14,400V line transformer (Figure
10A). There are two different methods to form members using electrosintering: the one
electrodedrag(1ED)andthetwoelectrodedrag(2ED)techniques.The1EDand2EDsetups
weretestedonamodifiedmakerbotreplicator2(Figure10B)andonasingleaxisraildriven
withalowvoltagelinearactuator(Figure10C).

34


Figure 11: (A-left) Electrosintering experiments using direct spark sintering allows for designed structural
members to be formed additively with controlled geometries (B-top right) Path bridging effect (C-bottom right)
Member resolution and material build up

The 1ED leaves the first electrode static while dragging the second electrode through the
granularmixture.Thismaintainsalivecurrentrunningthroughthedragpathandcontinually
increasesthethicknessofthememberduetothedissipationofheat.Largememberelements
havebeenproducedwitharoddiameterofaround0.75(Figure11A).The2EDmethodpulls
thetwoelectrodesthroughthegranularmixturetogether,whichsintersthematerialbetween
thetwoelectrodesinamorecontrolledmanner.(Figure11B)showsapathbridgingeffectthat
occurswhentheprintpathoverlapsonitself,causingtheelectricitytofindtheminimalpath
ofleastresistance.Thistechniqueledtothedesignofoverlappingprintpathsthatcreated
lattice like structures from the bridging effect. (Figure 11C) shows the resolution of a
connectiondetailfromasinteredcomponent,andtheheatbuildup,whichoccursfromacute
pathangles.

35

2.2. LICHTENBERGSINTERING

Figure 12: (A-bottom) Lichtenberg sintering electrode setup (B-top) Sintered glass Lichtenberg structure (Image
credits: Steven Keating)

36

The Lichtenberg Sintering technique is a process that sinters glass along fractal paths, and
generates a diffusionlimited aggregation type of structure. Similar to the Lichtenberg
structures (fulgurites) formed through natural lightning strikes on silicabased soils, the
process develops optimal fractal geometries through the fabrication process itself. Two
electrodes are placed separately inside a granular bath with a small amount of conductive
mediatofacilitateastartingcurrentflow(Figure12A).Intheseexperiments,glasspowderis
thegranularmediaandasmallamountofdispersedwaterprovidestheinitialconductivepath.
Asthecurrentflows,glassparticlesbecomeheatedalongmaincurrentpathsandthestructure
progressesduetoincreasedconductivityinheatedglass.Thewaterevaporatesfromtheheat
and the current flows through the heated glass, sintering the powder together in fractal
structuresoptimizedbythedielectricbreakdownprocessphysics.Thefabricationprocesstime
is controlled by the current flow and handheld samples in our setup were constructed in
seconds.

TheLichtenbergfractalstructure(Figure12B)issimilarinmorphologytofractalsfoundin

naturalsystems,suchasriversdeltasandbiologicalveinnetworks.Theexplorationfromthis
workholdspotentialsforitsnaturalbranchingsystem.

Preliminarydesignattemptsweremadetocontroltheoverallgeometriesthroughdifferent

ceramicmoldsandvaryingcompositionsofglass.Thesmallsodalimeglassgritshadthemost
successfulresults,andglassfusiondetailscanbeseenintheSEMimages,whichrevealahigh
bondageoccurringatthecoreofeachfractalasaresultofahigherheatconcentration(Figure
13).

37


Figure 13: SEM of the Lichtenberg glass fusion details (Image credits: James C. Weaver)
38

2.3. LASERSINTERING

Figure 14: (A-top) Melted glass clustering into droplets (B-bottom) Bonding occurring in the Z axis and not the X
&Y

Inapreliminaryattempttoreducetheamountofenergyrequiredtomeltthe3588micron
sodaashglasspowder,aSelectiveLaserSintering(SLS)approachwaspursuedbymodifying
aUniversalPLS6.150D150wlasercutter.AMDFcontainerwasbuiltwithanattachedpowder
hoppertodepositalayerofglasspowderaftereachfusedlayerwascomplete.Theinitialtests
proved to be successfulin melting the glass powder; however, preventing the melted glass
from clustering into droplets was rather challenging (Figure 14A). The droplet formation
preventedlayerbondingintheX&Yaxisresultinginunsuccessfulparts.BondingintheZ
axisprovedtobesuccessfulandwasabyproductofthethicknessofthenewlydepositedglass

39

layers (Figure 14B). Additionally, the settings that were needed to melt the glass were not
sustainableforlongdurationrunsofthelasercutter,andfurtherattemptsshouldbeexplored
onahigherpowersetup.

Figure 15: An unsuccessful attempt to melt Deposited glass powder into 3D objects

AfterexperiencingdifficultieswiththeX&Ylayerbondage,adifferentapproachwastested
where the glass powder was locally deposited (Figure 15), then melted in order to achieve
betterfusion.Thepyramidbuildupoftheglasspowdermadeitevenmoredifficulttomelt
consistently,andthisapproachwasconsideredunsuccessful.
Whileallthesinteredglassapproachesprovedtobesuccessfulintheircapacitytosinter
glassparticles,theopticalqualitiesoftheglassweredistortedfromthelightscatteringofthe
<100micron sodaash glass beads, which did not encounter complete densification. This
directedtheresearchtopursueadifferentapproachtoachieveopticalclarityfromglass:Fused
DepositionModelling(FDM)startingfrommoltenglass.

40

Chapter3
METHODB:GLASSFDM
________________________________________________________________________________________________

TheresearchthatisdiscussedinMethodB:GlassFDMwasdevelopedaspartofcollaboration
betweentheMITMediaLabsMediatedMatterGroupandtheMITDepartmentofMaterial
ScienceandEngineeringsGlassLaboratory.Thischapterisadaptedfromajournalarticle;
Glass3DPrinting,whichwillbesubmittedtothe3DPrintingandAdditiveManufacturingJournal.

Authors: John Klein, Michael Stern, Giorgia Franchin, Markus Kayser, Chikara Inamura,
ShreyaDave,JamesC.Weaver,PeterHouk,PaoloColombo,MariaYangandNeriOxman

41


METHODB:GLASSFDM
________________________________________________________________________________________________

3.1. SYSTEMDESIGNANDCONSTRUCTION
3.1.1. SYSTEMIMPLEMENTATION

Figure 16: Evolution of the printing process from its early stages (A)
Printing in ambient air with no nozzle (B), printing in ambient air with a
nozzle (C) the current setup with an annealing chamber

42

The apparatus design and construction was guided by a series of successive tests with
increasingcomplexityandcontrol.Theyservedasdemonstrationofoperationoftheprinter
andarebrieflypresentedbelowtoillustratetheevolution(Table2).

Table1.Glass3DPrinterevolutionsteps.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7

Gravityfeedproofofconcept
Kilnautocoiling,fixedZ
Kilnautocoiling,movingZ
KilnmanualXYcontrol
Kilnautomaticcontrol
Nozzle
Annealingchamber

Initialtestswereconductedusingapreviouslyheatedceramiccrucible;moltenglasswas

added and a slow flow was observed through the hole at the base. The tests proved that
gravitydriven feed was feasible, but suggested that heating of the feed material would be
critical.Thesecondstepinvolvedtheadditionofakilnsurroundingthecrucibleduringthe
process; glass flow of continually heated feed material was demonstrated. Flow was
continuous and the glass was allowed to coil autonomously, forming tapered cylindrical
shapes.

Computer control of the Zaxis was then implemented which enabled the system to

maintainconstantdepositionheightandtoproducecoiledcylinderswithconstantdiameters.
Tocreatethefirstdesignedshape,bumpersweremountedontheframeandthecruciblekiln
wasmanuallymoved,successfullyproducingasquarecrosssectionobject.Digitalcontrolon
the X and Y axes was then added, and more complex shapes were successfully fabricated.
Implementation of software and motion control also provided the chance to set a constant
travelspeed.Arectangularprismbeingprintedwiththissetupispresentedin(Figure16A).

Despite the motion system reaching satisfactory mechanical control and precision, the

printedpartsshowedinconsistentfilamentdiameter,pooradhesionbetweenlayersandrapid
accumulationofdefects.Theseproblemsderivedfromacommoncause:thefactthatglasswas
drippedfromanoffsetheight.Anindependentlyheatedceramicnozzletobeattachedtothe
cruciblewasthereforedesignedandproduced;withthenozzletipwasbelowthecarriagelevel
itwaspossibletoprintwithnooffsetheight.Withthisupgrade,controlofthelayerheightwas
43

achievedandtheabovementionedissueswereovercome.Acylinderbeingprintedafterthe
additionofthenozzleisshownin(Figure16B).

Glassobjectsneedtobecooleddowntoroomtemperatureinaslowandcontrolledway

throughtheglasstransitiontemperaturerange,theannealingprocess,toreleasepermanent
stresses associated with thermal gradients that otherwise would lead to the spontaneous
breakageuponcooling.The3Dprintedpartswerekeptabovetheannealingtemperature(Ta)
withthehelpofpropanetorches(visibleinFigure16AB)andwereannealedrightafterthe
printing completion; the torching process was not automated and difficult to control, and
thereforeoftentheobjectscracked.Finally,theintroductionofaheatedbuildchamberenabled
insitutemperaturecontrol.(Figure16C)showsthesamebuildasin(Figure16B),thistime
being printed directly into the heated build chamber providing consistent annealing
temperatureandeliminatingtheneedfortorches.Thefinalsetupresultedinafullyautomated
processandthecapabilitytoproducelargerandstrongerparts.

44

3.1.2. HARDWARE
3.1.2.1. HEATINGELEMENTS
The primarycomponents of the system were the Kiln Cartridge(which contains a Crucible
KilnandNozzleKiln)andthePrintAnnealer(heatedbuildchamber).Aschematicofthewhole
assemblyisshownin(Figure17A).

Figure 17. Rendered cross-section of the system showing (A) the printer during fabrication, (B) the Kiln Cartridge
C) the Crucible Kiln and (D) the Nozzle Kiln. Detail elements are as follows: (1) the crucible, (2) heating elements,
(3) the nozzle and (4) the thermocouple, (5) removable feed access lid (6) stepper motors (7) printer frame (8) Print
Annealer (9) ceramic print plate (10) z-drive train (11) ceramic viewing window (12) insulating skirt

InsidetheKilnCartridge(Figure17B),theCrucibleKiln(Figure17C)wasan1800Whigh

temperaturefurnacethatwasusedtomeltandmaintainmoltenglassatatemperatureof1040
1165C.ThekilnwasmadeofaluminasilicafiberboardanditwasheatedthroughaFeCrAl
coiledwire.TemperaturewasmonitoredviaaTypeKthermocouple.

TheNozzleKiln(Figure17D)wasmountedtothebottomplateoftheCrucibleKilnand

provided300Wofheattotheprinternozzle.ThekilnwasconstructedsimilarlytotheCrucible
Kiln(Figure18A).TemperaturewasmonitoredviaaTypeSthermocoupleforfasterresponse
times.Eachcomponentofthesystemwasamodularunit,toallowquickdevelopment.All
heatingelementsandthermocouplesexitedouttoasingleareaintheKilnCartridge,reducing
limitationsontheprintermovements.

GlasswascontainedinarefractorycrucibleplacedinsidetheCrucibleKiln;theNozzle

Kilnprovidedcontrolovertheflowofglass.Thecrucibleincludedabottomholewherethe
45

nozzlewasinserted;theassemblywasthensealedwitharefractorymortar.Thenozzlewas
machinedfrombulkhightemperaturealuminabisqueceramicrods(Figure18B).Thesmall
dimensionsofthenozzleallowedittoprotrudebelowthecarriageintotheannealingchamber
andenabledthedirectdepositionofglasswithaprecisecontrolonlayerheight.

TheglasswasprinteddirectlyintothePrintAnnealer,whichmaintainedatemperature

above the glass transition temperature 480515C (Figure 19). The Print Annealer remained
stationary while the Zplatform moved inside it. The Zplatform was fabricated out of a
ceramic kiln shelf that enabled good initial bonding at high temperature and release at
annealingtemperature.TheXYcontrolwasachievedbydrivingtheprinthead.The3300W
PrintAnnealerhadtwoaluminasilicafiberboarddoorstoprovideaccesstothenozzleandfor
removing the printed part, and a transparent ceramic (Neoceram) window that enabled
monitoringoftheprintjob.TheannealingchamberwasbasedontheGlazeTechkiln(Skutt
Kilns,Portland,OR,USA).

Thesealingoftheannealingchamberwasachievedthroughtheadditionoftwolightand

thinaluminasilicafiberboardskirtsassuringthattheannealingchamberwasalwaysclosed
on the top. One skirt was mounted on top of the annealing chamber, and the other to the
movingcarriagebelowthefeedkiln.

46


Figure 18: (A-bottom) The Crucible Kiln and Nozzle Kiln fabricated from alumina-silica fiber board (B-middle)
Nozzles machined out of high temperature alumina bisque ceramic rods (C-top) Nozzle Kilns clam-shell fabrication
strategy

47

Figure 19: Depositing molten glass into the Print Annealer. The Print Annealer remained stationary while the Zplatform moved inside it. The Z-platform was fabricated out of a ceramic kiln shelf that enabled good initial bonding
at high temperature and release at annealing temperature. The Nozzle Kiln and Nozzle can be seen in the top of
both images

48


3.1.2.2. FRAMEANDCARRIAGE

Figure 20: The assembled printer frame & carriage built in the Center for Bits and Atoms

The printer was constructed of 80/20 aluminum stock and square steel tube (Figure 20).
Aluminumwasusedforcomponentsnotexposedtohighheat,whiletheheaviersteelwas
reservedforcentralcomponentsthatmaybecomehotfromtheCrucibleKiln,PrintAnnealer,

49

orradiatingmoltenglass.TheCrucibleKilncarriageconsistedofsteelsupportsmountedon
bearingsthattravelledonthestructuralsteeltracks.Theentiresystemwasmobile,mounted
onpneumaticcasterstoenabletransportationwithoutdamagingthefragileceramickilns.

3.1.2.3. MOTORSANDBEARINGBLOCKS

Figure 21: Stepper motor connected to ACME lead screws with flex. helical coupling

XYZmotionwasprovidedbythreeindependentsteppermotorsleadscrewgantrysystems
and drivers that were electronically controlled by an Arduino and a RAMPS 1.4 Arduino
shield.Themotorshadaratedholdingtorqueof280Ncm;thehightorquewasrequireddue
totheinertiaoftheKilnCartridgeandcarriageassembly.

50

The motors were connected to ACME lead screws with flexible helical couplings to

accommodatemisalignments(Figure21).Themotorswereisolatedfromaxialandradialloads
bybearingblocks.TheZmotorwasmountedatthebaseoftheframerequiringonlyonehole
at the base of the Print Annealer to accommodate the build platform support rod. Limit
switches were mounted at the zeros of the X, Y and Z axes both to provide homing
informationtothecontrolsoftwareandtoprotectthesystemfrommechanicalcrashes.These
preventedthemotorfromdrivingwhenactivatedandwereconnecteddirectlytotheRAMPS
board. The limit switch cables were bundled separately from the motor cables to prevent
interference.

3.1.2.4. SAFETYMEASURE
Anemergencystopbutton(Figure22),mountedtotheframeforeasyaccess,iswiredtocut
powertothedriversandmotors.LimitswitchesaremountedatthezerosoftheX,YandZ
axes both to provide homing information to the control software and to protect the system
from mechanical crashes. These prevent the motor from driving when activated and are
connecteddirectlytotheArduinoShield.Thelimitswitchcablesarebundledseparatelyfrom
themotorcablestopreventinterference.

Figure 22: Emergency stop button

51

3.1.3. SOFTWARE
3.1.3.1. CADMODEL

Figure 23: (Top) 3D design space (Bottom) 3D nurbs surface contained within the glass printer build envelope
(250mm x 250mm x 300mm)

52

The 3D object was defined in Rhinoceros 5.0 environment. The model had to fit within the
buildchamber,i.e.250mmx250mmx300mm(Figure23).Theinputsurfacewasdescribedas
anonuniformrationalbasisspline(nurbs)geometry.

3.1.3.2. SLICINGANDGENERATINGGCODE

Figure 24: G3P custom GCODE Generator. User inputs surface to create GCODE

53


ThesurfacewasslicedusingacustomC#scriptinGrasshopperBuild0.9.76.0(Figure24).The
slicing script drew a helix around the CAD model structure, enabling continuous flow and
accommodatingforthespecificfilamentdiameterofextrudedglass.Thistoolpathwasthen
represented in Cartesian coordinates in the form of Gcode. The layer height, curve
discretization, and feed rate, could be modified in realtime, while the tool path could be
monitoredinthepreviewpane.Userscouldalsodefinespecificvelocitiesforeachpoint.The
algorithmdevelopedforthewrappingtoolpathstartedfromtheinputsurface,intersectedit
basedonthelayerheight,discretizedeachintersectioncurvebasedontheinputresolution,
and then incrementally remapped the discretized points with increasing Z values. The
remapped points were then connected with a polyline to create the continuous wrapping
toolpathforanygivencomplexgeometry.

3.1.3.3. MOTIONCONTROL
Gcode files were imported into the open source printing software RepetierHost V1.0.6.
Repetierfirmware,adaptedfortheacceleration,velocities,andsizeofthebuildplatform,was
usedtodirecttheprinter.

54

3.2. SYSTEMOPERATIONCHARACTERIZATION
3.2.1. MATERIALCHARACTERIZATION
Commercial sodalime glass nuggets (System 96 Studio NuggetsTM, Spectrum Glass
Company,Inc.,Woodinville,WA,USA)wereusedinthisstudy.

Glassdensityandthermalexpansioncoefficients(CTE)atlow(T210C)andhigh(T=

1000C) temperature were estimated based on the glass composition. Fluegel models16,17
wereapplied.Dataareprovidedin(Table3).

Table2.System96StudioNuggetsdensityandCTEestimationsatdifferenttemperatures
Density&CTE
T0(C)
20
0(g/cm3)
2.53
T1(C)
210
CTE1(x106K1)
9.8
T2(C)
1000
2(g/cm3)
2.34
6
1
CTE2(x10 K )
32

Glass dynamic viscosity strongly depends on temperature; its dependence can be

modeledusingthesocalledVogelFulcherTammann(VFT)equation:1820
log

(1)

where[Pas]isthedynamicviscosityoftheglass,T[C]isitstemperature,andA,BandT0
areexperimentalvaluesdependingontheglasscomposition.

ViscosityvaluesweremeasuredatdifferenttemperaturesatCorningInc.(Corning,NY,

USA)withproprietaryequipment.ExperimentaldatawerefittedusingtheVFTequationto
estimateA,BandT0,leadingtotheresultsshownin(Figure25).TheVTFequationenables
predictionofglassviscosityateachtemperature,thusallowingflowestimationandprocess
tailoring.

55

Figure 25. Experimental viscosity data and resulting VTF equation (Source: Corning Inc.)

3.2.2. PROCESSCHARACTERIZATION
3.2.2.1. TEMPERATUREDISTRIBUTION
Based on glass viscosity data, the operating temperature was set at approximately 1000C,
correspondingtotheglassworkingpoint(~103Pas).ThenozzletemperaturewassetatT=
1010Ctoaccountfortheheatlossinthetipexposedtotheannealingkilnenvironment.The
crucibletemperaturewassetatT=1040Ctoovercometheheatlossduetofrequentrefilling.
TheannealingchamberwassetatT=480C,slightlybelowtheglassannealingtemperature
(~515C);sincetheglassheatradiationcontributedtoincreasetheenvironmenttemperature.

The temperature distribution in the system was simulated using Solidworks Flow

Simulation Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) software. Glass and refractories thermal
propertiesweresetasstandardfloatsodalimeglassand96%aluminarespectively.Results
areshownin(Figure26A).

56

Figure 26. Temperature distribution as observed in the printing platform: (A) Solidworks simulation of the
crucible and nozzle assembly (with diameters and lengths of different sections highlighted) and (B) thermal
image of an object being printed (Image credit: Forrest Whitcher)

BasedontheCFDmodel,thetemperatureofthenozzlesouterfacewasexpectedtodrop

down to an average 980C; the glass average temperature at the nozzle exit was 990C.

Infraredimages(Figure26B)wereacquiredfromtheheatedchamberwindowduringa

printing process using a FLIR T335 equipped with a T197000 high temperature option and
wereanalyzedusingFLIRToolssoftware(FLIRSystems,Inc.,Cambridge,MA,USA).Atthe
nozzleexit,glasstemperaturewasobservedtobe920C,inagreementwiththesimulations.
Temperature decreased drastically as new layers were deposited, creating a temperature
gradientof~350Cbetweenthemostrecentfivelayers.Thisledtoaviscosityincreaseoffive
ordersofmagnitude.Thisrapidincreaseinviscositywascrucialtothestabilityoftheobject
duringprinting.

Note that the object always remained in the 500570C temperature range, which

correspondstotheannealingtemperatureoftheglassinuse;therefore,nocrackswereformed
duringprinting.

57

3.2.2.2. PHYSICSOFGLASSFLOW

Figure 27: Molten glass flowing through the heated nozzle (Image credit: Steven Keating)

The precise speed at which glass flowed through the nozzle (Figure 27) was an important
determiningfactorforfeedratecalibrationhelpingtoavoidundesiredaccumulationorlackof
materialontheprintedobject.

Glassflowthroughthenozzlecanbemodeledaslaminarflowofaviscousfluidthrough

atube21.Whetherafluidundercertainconditionswillflowinaturbulentorlaminarmotionis
a function of its density [kg/m3] and dynamic viscosity [Pas] combined with its mean
velocity v [m/s] and the channel diameter d [m]; Reynolds number Re is a dimensionless
parameterwhichcombinesthesefactorsandisusedtohelppredictsimilarflowpatternsin
differentfluidflowsituations.FlowisassumedlaminarifitsRefallsbelowathresholdvalue
of204022.

58

Inthiscase:

~2.1 10

(2)

The assumption of laminar flow was therefore largely justified; moreover, Re << 1 also

indicatesthatviscousforceswerepredominantoverinertialones(Stokesflow)21.
Theflowresistanceofatubeisdefinedfromthefollowingrelationship:

(3)

whereQ[m3/s]isthevolumeflowratethroughthetube,P[Pa]isthepressuredropatthe
topofthenozzleandR[Pa/(m3/s)]istheresistancetoflow.
Pisgivenbytheglassweight;foracylindricalcrucible:
(4)

Qcanalsobeexpressedby:
2

(5)

whereA[m2]isthenozzleopeningsurfacearea,vm[m/s]ismaximumflowvelocity(atthe
centerofthetube)andistwotimestheeffectivevelocity,L[m]isthenozzlelengthandr[m]
isitsradius.TheequationisknownastheHagenPoiseuillelaw21.
Rcanthereforebecalculatedfrom:
8

Therearetwofactorsthatdeterminetheresistancetoflowwithinthenozzle:geometry

(primarilythenozzlesradius)andglassviscosity.

59

(6)

3.2.2.3. FLOWESTIMATION

Figure 28: Molten glass exiting out of the nozzle at T ~990C (Image credit: Steven Keating)

Based on previous equations, glass volumetric flow was estimated for typical processing
parameters.Glasstemperatureatthenozzleexit(Figure28)wasconsideredtobeT~990C,
correspondingtoadynamicviscosity~640Pas.

Thepressuredropwasafunctionofthemoltenglasslevelinsidethecrucible,sincethe

processwasgravitydriven.Thecruciblenozzleassemblyisoutlinedin(Figure17A).Designed
lengthsanddiametersofcrucible(1)andnozzlesegments(2&3),alongwithcorrespondent
flowresistances,aresummarizedin(Table4).

Table3.Flowresistanceinthecrucibleandnozzleassembly.

1
2
3
Total

L(mm)
100
73.5
3
176.5

D(mm)
120
23.5
10

60

R[Pa/(m3/s)]
8.23105
4.11108
5.12108
9.24108

R[%]
0.1%
44.5%
55.4%

Basedontheknowledgethatthefinalsmallestdiameterdrivestheoverallflowresistance,

thelengthofthefinalsegmentwasminimized.(Table4)showsthatmorethan50%oftheflow
resistance(R)wasgivenbythefinalsegmentoftheassembly.

Forthiscalculation,itwasassumedthatatthestartofanewprintjobthecruciblewas

filleduptoaheightofL=80mm,resultinginapressuredropofP~3.6kPa.Volumeflow
rateatthenozzleexitwastherefore

460

withaconsequentlinearflowrateof ~

5.7mm/s.

Astheglasslevelinthecrucibledecreased,Qand decreasedlinearly;consistencyduring

printingwasachievedbyfrequentrefillingofthecrucible.Theextendednozzleenableddirect
deposition of material referenced from the machines Zheight, rather than previous layer
height,thusanyvariationinflowratewouldaffectthewallwidthratherthanthepathheight.

Weestimatedtheflowratesinsteadofsimulatingbecausemodellingthesystemworking

regime is an incredibly difficult task. First, it involves setting up a robust CFD and
thermodynamicenginesforthesimulationenvironment.Second,glassischallengingtomodel
duetotheinherentmaterialproperties(ittransitionsfromaliquidtosolidlikestatethrough
theprocess)andwouldrequireaviscofluidsimulation.Duringtheprintingprocess,theglass
passesthroughthreeheatedenvironmentsandisalteredbyeach.Asthemoltenglasspasses
through the nozzle orifice it is exposed to a ~500 C temperature drop. This change of
temperatureincreasestheviscosityallowingtheglassfilamenttomaintainitsshape.Radiant
andconvectionheataccumulatesinthelowerprintchamberandaroundtheprintedobject.
Additionally, heat is transferred through conduction of the previous print layer. This heat
buildupcausestheprintlayerstoslightlyreducetheirheightintheZaxis.Thiswouldneed
to be accounted for in order to create an accurate model. Furthermore, it is difficult to get
accurate temperature viscosity curves (the key data for establishing a model) for any glass
composition,andweunfortunatelydidnotreceiveourstilltheendofthefirstphaseofthe
project.

3.3. FABRICATIONOF3DPRINTEDGLASSPARTS
3.3.1. METHOD
TwomethodsforfillingtheCrucibleKilnwereemployed.Inthefirstmethod,glassnuggets
wereheatedinthecrucibleto1165Cover4hours;glasswasthenfinedfor2hourstoeliminate
bubbles.Duringthisphase,thenozzlewaskeptatalowertemperature(T~800C)toprevent
61

glassflow.Inthesecondmethod,moltenglasswascollectedfromafurnaceandaddeddirectly
tothecrucible.

After fining, the crucible and nozzle temperatures were set to 1040C and 1010C

respectively. The Print Annealer was also set to 480C. Glass flow typically initiated
spontaneouslyduetogravity;however,flowcouldbeterminatedattheendofeachprintby
coolingthenozzletipwithcompressedairandreinitiatedatthebeginningofthefollowing
printbyheatingthenozzletipwithapropanetorch.

Once the printing process was complete, the crucible and nozzle were drained by

increasing their temperature up to 1165C. The Print Annealer then executed the annealing
cycleassummarizedin(Table5).

Table4.Annealingcycle.
Coolingrate(C/h)

25
50
50
120

T(C)
480
400
150
80
20

Dwelltime(h)
1

For increased part production other annealing kilns were used; objects were removed

throughthefrontdoorandplacedinanexternalannealingkilnkeptat480Cuntiltheendof
themultipleprintingsession.Theywerethenannealedfollowingthesamecycle.

Mostobjectswerepostprocessedinordertobeproperlydisplayed:sharpedgeswhere

theprintwasterminatedweregroundandbottomswerepolishedtoeliminatetheroughness
causedbythecontactwiththebuildplatformduringprinting.

62

3.3.2. PARAMETERSCALIBRATIONANDDESIGNSPACE

Brick says: I like an arch.

-Louis Kahn

The printing process was tailored according to the temperature and resultant viscosity and
flowrate.Twodifferentsetsofparameterswereused:

Tnozzle=1010C,layerheight=4.5mm,feedrate=4.5mm/s

Tnozzle=1010C,layerheight=4.5mm,feedrate=6.1mm/s

Thefirstsetofparameterswasassociatedwithafeedratethatwas20%slowerthanthe

estimatedflowrate.Thisresultedinlayerswithamuchlargerwidthcomparedtothenozzle
diameter;theaveragelayerwidthoftheprintedpartswasw1=19.53.5mm.Atopviewofa
printed object is shown in (Figure 29A). [Note: direct measurement of layer width was
challenging;therefore,widthwascalculatedbasedontheobjectsmass,layerheight,feedrate
andprintingtime].

Printingwiththislargelayerwidthrequiredaconsiderableamountofglassandtherefore

limited the design space. The second set of parameters was calibrated to achieve a smaller
width,similartothenozzlesorifice.

Different feed rates were tested in the range 5.8 6.3mm/s, while keeping the other

parameters constant, an optimum feed rate = 6.1mm/s (~7% higher than the flow rate) was
determined.Drivingtheextruderataslightlygreaterratethanthenaturalflowhelpedachieve
amorehomogeneousfilament,sincethepullingpreventedthebuildupofanyexcessglassat
the nozzle. In order to achieve effective adhesion of the first printed layer to the building
platform,itsfeedratewassloweddownby25%,eliminatingthepullingforceandgivingthe
glasstimetosettleonthebuildplatform.Thesecondsetofparametersresultedinanaverage
widthoft2=9.50.5mm,roughlyhalfofwhatwasproducedwiththefirstset.Thisapproach
enabledtheproductionoflargerandtallerobjectswiththesameamountofglass;thepressure
headvariationwasmoregradualandeasiertocontrolbyfrequentrefilling.(Figure29B)shows
atopviewofanobjectprintedwiththenewsetofparameters;(Figure29A)and(Figure29B)
highlightthedifferencebetweenlayerwidths.

Improvedcontrolachievedwiththenewsetofparametersallowedfortheexplorationof

variousotherpossibledesigns.Intheoptimalprintingconditions(cleannozzle,propersetof
parameters)partswithdraftanglesupto40andturningradiidownto14mmwereprinted.

63

Figure 29. Objects printed using the platform. (A) Parameters set (PS) 1, layer width; (B-F) PS 2, exploration of
design space: (B) large radii, no drafting, focus on layer width; (C) smaller radii, higher drafting; (D) same as (C)
but with changes in concavity/convexity in plane; (E) changes in concavity/convexity out of plane; (F) smallest radii
and highest draft angles (Image credits: Chikara Inamura)

64

Table5.Printedobjectsparametersandfeatures.

NozzleT(C)

A
1010

1010 1010

1010 1010

F
1010

Feedrate(mm/s)

4.5

5.8

6.1

6.1

6.1

6.3

Printingtime(min)

22

39

34

39

37

44

Layerheight(mm)

4.5

4.5

4.5

4.5

4.5

4.5

Layerwidth(mm)

23.4

9.7

9.4

12.8

9.3

8.9

Min.radius(mm)

16

30

22

28

21

Max.draftangle()

20

28

29

28

32

The exploratory designs shown in (Figure 29BF) (characteristics listed in (Table 6))

representincreasinglevelsofcomplexityandfocusondifferentdesignobjectives.Theobject
in(Figure29B),forexample,wasnotchallengingintermsofminimumradiusordraftangle,
but investigated the possibility to fabricate thin channels and cavities by decreasing the
distancebetweenwalls.(Figure29C)showsamorecomplexobject,withaminimumradiusof
22mmandadraftangleof28,whichwassuccessfullyproduced.

Workinginasafedesignspacedidnotalwaysproducedefectfreeobjects.Radiianddraft

angleswerenottheonlyconstraintsthataffectedthequalityoftheprint.Objectin(Figure29D)
hadaminimumradiusof28mmandadraftangleof29;nevertheless,defectswereobserved
initsbottomlayers.Itwasdeterminedthatchangesofconvexitywithinthesamelayeroften
resultedindeviationfromtheCADshape.Thiseffectwascausedbyaccumulationofglasson
thenozzletipandoutoflinepullforcecausedbysurfacetensionbetweentheglassonthe
nozzlefaceandthejustdepositedglass.

Thisphenomenoncouldbeavoidedbycreatinggeometrieswherethechangeinconvexity

occursnotwithinasinglelayerbutinsteadovertheheightofthepart:asuccessfulexampleis
shownin(Figure29E)incomparisontothatof(Figure29D).

The last object (Figure 29F) was the most ambitious, printed with a minimum radius

smaller than the nozzle diameter and abrupt changes in curvature. Deviations from the
designedpathfollowedaregularandrepeatablepatterninthesymmetricbranchesofthepart.

65

3.3.3. FALLINGFLUIDDEPOSITION

Figure 30. Falling Fluid Deposition: (A) deposition process (Image credit: Steven Keating), (B) detail of the printed
object and (C) detail of the microCT scan (Image credit: James C. Weaver)

Moltenglassdepositionfromanoffsetmayformaplethoraofpatternswhentherelativespeed
ofnozzleandsubstrateislowerthantheimpingingspeedofthefallingglass;thosepatterns
includemeanders,Wpatterns,alternatingloopsandtranslatedcoiling.Thisphenomenonisof
particular interest given the opportunity to fabricate multiscale objects where the features
generated by coiling are at a much smaller scale than the motion of the printer. Viscous
threadinghasbeenthesubjectofseveralstudiesinvolvingafluidfallingonamovingbeltand
isoftenreferredtoastheFluidMechanicalSewingMachine2325.Brun,P.T.etal.26recently
developedamodeltorationalizetherichvarietyofperiodicpatternsgeneratedintermsoftwo
parameters:thedimensionlessheightoffallHandthedimensionlessvelocityortravelspeed
V, which take into account the balance between gravitational stretching and viscous
dissipation.Forathread,inthiscaseglass,ofkinematicviscosity [m2/s]fallingfromanozzle
ofdimensionalheightHontoabelthorizontallymovingatspeedV,itis:

(7)
(8)

Basedonthisbehavior,acylinderwiththefollowingsetofparameterswasprinted:

Tnozzle=1070C,layerheight=4.5mm,feedrateV=6.1mm/s,offsetheightH=100mm,

H=1.02andV=0.003.

66

Thisresultedintheformationofatranslatedcoilingpatternthatfollowedthecircularpath

toformacomplexcylinder.Detailsofthedepositionprocessandoftheobjectcanbeseenin
(Figure30AB).

The object was imaged by means of micro Computer Tomography (microCT) with an

XRA002XTekMicroCT(XtekInc.,Cincinnati,OH,USA)systeminordertobettervisualize
the generated patterns. The 3D reconstructions were performed using CTPro (Nikon
MetrologyInc.,Brighton,MI,USA);surfacerenderingsweregeneratedusingVGStudioMax
(VolumeGraphicsGmbH,Heidelberg,Germany).

From the 3D reconstruction shown in (Figure 30C), the generated loops seemed to be

consistentintheirradiiandspacing.

3.3.4. COLOREDGLASSPRINTING
Coloredglasshasbeeninvestigatedsincetheveryearlystagesofmaterialexploration.Oneof
the goals was to control the optical and aesthetic properties of the printed glass structures
through the integration of color. Preliminary tests demonstrated the effective printing with
multipleglasscolorsinthesameobject.

Two variations of glassfrits were used: Reichenbach R19 GoldTopaz, F0frit size (less

than1mm),andR11HeliotropeinF2sizefrit(24mm)(FarbglashtteReichenbachGmbH,
Reichenbach,DE).

Thefritswereaddedinsequencetothecrucible,whichwaspartiallyfilledwithmolten

glass.Duetotherelativelylowmeltingpointandmass,thefritsmeltedwithinminutes.(Figure
31)showsadetailoftheresultingobject.Bothasuddenchangeandagradedconversionfrom
onecolortotheotherwerepossiblewithinthesameprintedobject.Theprintingprocesswas
notnoticeablyaffectedbyadditionofthecoloredfrits.

67

Figure 31. Detail of a colored printed object; both a sudden change in color (top ring) and a
graded conversion (bottom) are visible (Image credits: Chikara Inamura)

68

3.4. CHARACTERIZATIONOF3DPRINTEDGLASSPARTS

Figure 32. Characterization of the printed parts. (A) Samples production from a
printed prism; (B) SEM image of type a sample; (C) SEM image of the interface
between two layers on a type a sample (Image credit: James C. Weaver)

Rectangular prisms were 3D printed and then cut down with a diamond saw to provide
samplesforopticalandmechanicalcharacterization.Thecutsurfaceswerediamondground
andpolishedwithceriumoxide.
69

Anumberofrectangularprismswereprintedatroomtemperature(T0)andthenannealed;

otherswereprintedintothePrintAnnealer(Ta).

Sampleswerecutindifferentorientations:someofthebars(ainFigure32A)werecutwith

thelongeraxisalongZdirectionandothers(b)withthelongeraxisalongtheX(orY)direction.
Thesamplesheightcorrespondedtothelayerwidth.Arepresentationofthesamplesandtheir
specificationsareshownin(Figure32A)andTable7,respectively.

Table6.Samplesspecifications.

a.T0

b.T0

a.Ta

b.Ta

T(C)

25

482

layerheight(mm)

5.5

4.5

10.80.8

9.81.0

width(mm)
length(mm)

56.11.8 78.01.2 56.11.8 78.01.2

base(mm)

17.70.6 18.40.4 17.70.6 18.40.4

3.4.1. SCANNINGELECTRONMICROSCOPY(SEM)
SamplesweresputtercoatedwithgoldandimagedwithaTescanVegaSEM(TescanOrsay
Holding,a.s.,BrnoKohoutovice,CzechRepublic)andaFESEMZeissUltra55(CarlZeiss,Inc.,
Thornwood,NY,USA).Imagesofana.Tasampleareshownin(Figure32BC).

The images demonstrate that the objects section was highly homogeneous with strong

adhesion between the layers. (Figure 32C) shows an enlargement of the contact surface
betweentwolayers,withasmooth,bluntinterfacewherenosignofthedifferentlayerswas
visible.
3.4.2. RESIDUALSTRESSESPOLARISCOPY
The samples were observed under a Model 243 6 Polariscope with Tint Plate (PTC
Instruments,LosAngeles,CA,USA)todetermineresidualstresspatternsdevelopedduring
glasscooling.

Polariscopyisawellknowntechniqueinglassindustryasittakesadvantageofstress

inducedbirefringenceinglasstodetectthepresenceofresidualstressesmainlyduetocooling
gradients27,28.Aspolarizedlighttravelsthroughglass,itundergoesadelayproportionaltothe
amountofstress.Therefore,colorfringesvisiblethroughtheanalyzermimicthestresspattern.
Colorandlineintensityarenotabsolute,butdependontheorientationofthesampleandthe
70

polarized filters. The results were obtained through qualitative reading of the color fringes
withnoquantitativeevaluationofstressintensities.

BothsamplesprintedatT0andTashowednegligiblestressconcentrationalongthelayers,

indicatingthattheannealingtreatmentwassuccessful.Lookingatthecrosssections,though,
a difference between the two kinds of samples was detected. Printing at room temperature
generatedradialstresseswithinlayersthathadnotbeenrelievedbythesubsequentannealing
treatment.InthesamplefabricatedwiththePrintAnnealer,ontheotherhand,suchstresses
werenotpresentandthestressdistributionwasmorehomogeneous.

71

3.4.3. PRELIMINARYMECHANICALTESTING

Figure 33: (A) 3 points bending test on a a.Ta sample (Image

credit: Kyle Hounsell); (B) samples a.T0 (left) and a.Ta
(right) after fracture.

Residual stress patterns suggested that samples printed into the heated chamber possessed
bettermechanicalpropertiescomparedtotheonesprintedatroomtemperature.Theflexural
behavioroftheglassbarswasinvestigatedusinganInstron8841andanInstron5500R(Illinois
Tool Works Inc., Glenview, IL, USA) equipped with a 3 points bending fixture. Tests were
performedatacrossheadspeedof0.05to0.12mm/min.Acompliantlayer(ScotchPermanent
OutdoorMountingTape,3M,SaintPaul,MN,USA)wasusedbetweenthebottomfixturesand
thesamplesurfacesinsomeorientations.Resultsarereporteddescriptivelyduetothelimited
numberofsamplesexamined.

72

(Figure 33A) shows a sample loaded along the layers; this is usually the most critical

loadingconfigurationfora3Dprintedobject,becausedelaminationcanoccurduetoapoor
adhesion between layers2931. The tests conducted on a.T0 samples seemed to validate this
hypothesis:thefractureoccurredattheinterfacebetweentwolayers((Figure33B),left)and
thesamplespossessedaflexuralstrengthfwhichwasonlyonefifthoftheoneoftheannealed
samples a.Ta. This was most likely due to lower bonding strength caused by the large
temperaturedifferencebetweenthedepositedglassandthepreviouslayerandtothepresence
of residual stresses between layers, as highlighted in Residual Stresses Polariscopy. The
absence of high residual stresses in a.Ta samples resulted in fracture lines that propagated
through a whole glass layer without following a precise trajectory ((Figure 33B), right), a
furtherindicationthatnosignificantresidualstresseswerepresentinthesample.

Additionally, in the annealed samples flexural strength measured in the a and b type

orientationsdifferedbyapproximately40%.Thislevelofanisotropyisinlinewithwhathas
beenobservedinplasticprintedpartsinotherstudies32.

3.4.4. OPTICALPROPERTIES
Oneofthemaingoalsofthisworkwastocombineadditivemanufacturingprocesseswiththe
productionofglasscomponentspossessingdesirableopticalproperties.

Morphological and mechanical characterizations determined an overall high degree of

homogeneityandgoodadhesionbetweenlayers,enablinglighttransmissionwithverylittle
distortion.The70mmtallcylindershownin(Figure34A)waspolishedwithceriumoxidein
bothtopandbottomlayers;ahighdegreeoftransparencycouldbeobserved.

Iflayersurfacetexturewasretained,itenabledlightrefractionandscatteringaswellas

the production of highly complex caustic patterns. Images shown in (Figure 34B) were
obtainedbylightingtheobjectsalongtheircentralaxisusingaLED.Theopticalpropertiesare
shownformaselectionofobjectsin(Figure35Figure40).

The observed behavior offered new perspectives onlight controland additional optical

propertiesfortheprintedobjects.WorkbyKiseretal.hasshownthatprecomputedshapescan
be generatedwith caustics by modeling light transmission to control the patternsand form
desiredshapesprovidingfuturedirectionsforthisworktoexplore33.

73

Figure 34. Optical properties and caustic patterns of printed parts. (A) Top view of a 70mm
tall cylinder showing a high level of transparency; (B) caustic patterns created by
illumination from a suspended overhead LED (Image credit: Andy Ryan)

74

Figure 35: Caustic patterns created by illumination from a suspended overhead LED (Image credit: Andy Ryan)

75

Figure 36: Caustic patterns created by illumination from a suspended overhead LED (Image credit: Andy Ryan)

76

Figure 37: Caustic patterns created by illumination from a suspended overhead LED (Image credit: Andy Ryan)

77

Figure 38: Caustic patterns created by illumination from a suspended overhead LED (Image credit: Andy Ryan)

78

Figure 39: Caustic patterns created by illumination from a suspended overhead LED (Image credit: Andy Ryan)

79

Figure 40: Caustic patterns created by illumination from a suspended overhead LED (Image credit: Andy Ryan)

80

3.5. LIMITATIONSANDFUTUREWORK
Thefocusofthepresentworkwastodemonstratethefunctionalityofamoltenglassmaterial
extrusion system; initial work focused primarily on the printer construction and process
calibrationtothisend.Therearemanydifferentdirectionsforfutureworkthatarisebasedon
thisfirstglass3Dprinter.

Onlypreliminarytestingwasconductedontheprintedglassobjects.Morecomprehensive

morphological,mechanicalandopticalcharacterizationsofprintedcomponentsareunderway
and future work will validate the qualitative observations through more accurate and
extensivetesting.

Theprinterherepresentedisstillindevelopmentandthereareanumberofimprovements

thatarecurrentlybeingcarriedout.Forinstance,extrudedglassstuckpreferentiallyonglass
covering the nozzle tip instead of on the colder previous layer; such phenomenon was
responsibleforthedeviationfromdesiredshapesandunevenglassdistribution.Futurework
ontheprinterwillfocusonsolvingthisissue.Numerouspotentialsolutionswillbetestedby
creatingnewnozzlegeometry,material,coating,facecoolingortheadditionofsacrificialfoil.
Softwareenvironmentimprovementswillbeexploredtomergethelargenumberofseparate
piecesofsoftwareneededtorunthesystem.Thiswillenabletheoperatortohavefullcontrol
ofprintingprocessinrealtime,includingdirectcontroloverthekilnstemperaturesandpath
modificationandtravelspeed,fromthesameinterface.

Gravityasafeedmechanismrequiredfrequentrefillingofthecrucible,neededtokeepthe

glass level almost constant. This procedure affected the quality of the print from nearly
imperceptibletothoseobservablewiththenakedeye.Havingacontinuousflowofmaterialin
thefeedingchamberwouldallowtherealizationofmorehomogeneousparts.

Therelativelysmallpressuredropgeneratedbythegravityfedsystemwasalsoalimiting

factorintermsofprintingspeedandresolution,andalsopreventedscalingdownthenozzle
diameter.Futuredevelopmentwillthereforeinvolvetheadditionofanactivematerialfeed
system(intheformofaplungerorofcompressedair)inordertoincreasecontrolandenable
amorediversesetofpartstobefabricatedatafasterrateandwithfinerresolution.

The printer development was carried out using soda lime glass, chosen because of its

relativelylowworkingtemperatureandwideworkingrange.Ourmethodcouldbeappliedto
adiverserangeofmaterials,includingothersilicate,borateandphosphateglassesaswellas
81

glassceramic systems and potentially Lunar and Martian soil. In order to process these
materials, a future version of the printer would thus be able to heat glass to higher
temperatures.

TofullyachievethelevelofcomplexityofAMprocessesthissystemrequirestheabilityto

automatically start, stop and cut the glass filament. In the current setup, these tasks are
manually activated by the operator. Multiple different mechanisms to achieve this level of
controlarebeingexploredfromautomatingthecompressedairandtorchingthatcurrently
performed manually to adding shears or a high temperature valve. The addition of these
featureswouldexpandthedesignspaceenablingthecreationofdesignswithintricatecross
sectionsandinternalstructures.

Initialeffortsarebeingconductedtoseehowandwhythetechnologycouldbeutilizedto

manufactureanarchitecturalsystemfromprintedglasscomponents.Asastartingpoint,we
arebeginningtocomparethe3Dprintingapproachtoconventionalglasspressingmethods,
whichareusedtomanufactureglassbuildingcomponents.Thisisaverycomplexexerciseto
undertake,giventhatwehaveonlybuiltoneprototypeofthe3Dprintingsystem,andpress
manufacturing has evolved throughout the 20th century into a wellestablished industrial
process. The first step requires a framing of the problem, and in our case, we made three
assumptions:
1) Weassumethatbothprocessesrequirethesamecostandenergytopreparethemolten
glass for forming. This includes furnace and glass feeding setup, raw material
extraction and processing, batch transportation and delivery, a batch feeding
mechanism,andaglassfiningperiod.
2) Weassumethatasimplifiedpressmanufacturingplatformcouldbebuiltatthesame
machinescaleandcostsasour3Dprintingplatform
3) We assume that both processes require the same cost and energy to anneal the
producedcomponents.
The three assumptions enable us to now to isolate the process from the entire life cycle of
production. The preliminary study proceeds to compare the fabrication of a 2.26 kg glass
componentthroughour3Dprintingprocessandaconventionalglasspressingmethod.

Glassblocksmadebyapressmanufacturingapproachhaveadvantagesintermsofthe

amountoftimeittakestomakeacomponent(~1minute),whichresultsinhighthroughput
production.Thisapproach,however,islimitedinitsabilitytoproducecomplexcomponents

82

withinternalfeatures,andhasahighlyconstraineddesignspace.Pressmanufacturingresults
inthemassproductionofasingledesignduetothedependencyonamold,andoftenbuilds
bulkierobjects.

Thebiggestdisadvantageto3Dprintingaglasscomponentisthatitis~30xslowerthan

pressmanufacturing.Theadvantageswith3Dprintingareintheexpandeddesignspace,the
ability to achieve masscustomization,and the fact that design complexity can be achieved.
Glass can be distributed in a more sophisticated way throughout the cross section of each
component,andintricateinnerfeaturesarefeasible.3DPrintingenablesyoutocustomizeon
thefly,eliminatetheneedfortoolingandindustrialscalemolds.

Eachapproachhasitsownconstraints,andchoosingoneovertheotherisamatteroftrade

offs.Figure41Acomparesthefabricationenergy,timeandenergycostpercomponentbetween
thetwoprocesses.TwographsinFigure41Bcomparethedataandpreliminaryanalysisinan
EnergyvsTimeandCustomizationvsComplexitygraph.

This argument reveals that the invested energy in printing is lower, despite the slower

speed, and that the ability to create custom complex objects is much higher. As there is
numerousvariablesthatcouldinfluencethisresult,itdemonstratesthatthereisnotanorder
ofmagnitudedifferenceinenergyconsumptionofthetwoprocesses.

Evaluating the scope between the two processes is a rather difficult task, and these

preliminaryresultsareoneofmanyapproaches.Muchmoreworkneedstobeconductedto
provideconcreteanalysis.

83


Figure 41: (A-Top) A chart outlining preliminary attempts at quantifying the
energy required for the 3D printing and press fabrication approaches (B-Bottom)
Energy vs Time graph and Customization vs Complexity graph between the two
approaches
84


Figure 42: Conceptual design for a compressive shell structure with 500 3D printed custom glass
components

85


CONCLUSIONS
________________________________________________________________________________________________
Thethesisdocumentsthedevelopmentofthefirstmoltenglassmaterial3Dextrusionsystem
fortheproductionofopticallytransparentcomponents,andbuildsupon5,000yearsofglass
manufacturing traditions to offer a new fabrication approach. This system processes glass
from the molten state to annealed components of complex digitally designed forms. The
printingparametersandprocessareoptimized,enablinghighrepeatabilityandcontrol.

Process optimization involved the addition of a ceramic nozzle of controlled geometry,

modelingtheglassviscosity,controllingglasslevels,adjustingthetemperaturedistributionin
the different kilns, as well as varying more conventional printing parameters such as layer
heightandfeedrate.

The design space enabled by this system was mapped, including geometric constraints

suchasmaximumoverhangandminimumturningradius.Additionally,integrationofcolors
wasshowntobepossibleandthegenerationofcoilingpatternsasameanstoproduceobjects
ofmultipledifferentlengthscaleswasinvestigated.

Preliminaryprintedmaterialcharacterizationwasperformedintermsofmorphological,

mechanical and optical properties. Results indicated strong adhesion between layers and
substantialstrengthincreasewhentheprocesswasperformedinaheatedbuildchamberwith
roughly 60% of material strength across layers. From the optical point of view, high
transparencywasobservedandcomplexcausticpatternswerecreatedwithLEDlightsources
dependingonthesamplesgeometry.

We believe the additive approach and glass printing technology has the capacity to

democratizeglassfabricationthroughitscompactsystemdesignandabilitytocreatecustom
structureswithglass.Makingwithglassnolongerneedbelimitedtoglassartistsinrented
studiosandestablishedglassmanufacturers,butcouldbeshiftedintothehandsofthemasses.

Existing domains already affiliated with glass could have the opportunity to rapidly

prototype with the material, and explore new potentials for its appealing properties. Since
glass can beinfinitely recycled withoutlosingits material properties, glass bottlescould be
crushedlocallyinsteadofbeingsentbacktoarecyclingplant,andprocessedintoproducts.
Thereisanabundanceofsilicaontheplanet(theprimaryconstituentofglass)whichlends
itselftoexplorenewproductandmanufacturingprocesses43.
86

A few immediate applications could be explored by Industrial Designers, Artists,

Architects and Scientists. Industrial designers could create novel lighting by establishing
relationshipsbetweenprintedgeometriesandcomplexcausticpatterns.Artistscouldexplore
thecreationofnovelmulticoloredglassvesselswiththeplatformandeliminatetheexpensive
costsofglassstudiotime.Unitizedmassproducedglasspanelsandblocksareubiquitousin
Architecturethroughouttheworld.Theplatformcouldofferarchitectsanexpandeddesign
spacethroughcustomizationandcomplexityforwallorrooftilesystems.Scalingdownthe
filament resolution to a smaller size (which would take a large amount of research and
calibration)couldmakethetechnologyavaluablepieceoflaboratoryequipmentforScientists.
Labexperimentsarelimitedbytheequipmenttheyhave,andthetechnologycouldalleviate
this restriction. Microfluidic devices could also be explored assuming a feature size of 100
micronwasabletobeachieved.

Moving forward, the simultaneous development of the printer and the design of the

printedglassobjectswillyieldbothahigherperformancesystemandincreasinglycomplex
novelobjectsatfinerresolutions.Assuch,applicationsinart,architectureandproductdesign
willbefurtherexploredwhileimprovementssuchascontinuousfeeding,plunging,increased
buildsizeandstartandstopcontrolwillbeimplementedinparallel.

Thethesisoffersexcitingnewdirectionsforglassmanufacturingandleavesanenormous

amount of research to further be conducted. The Additive Manufacturing Enabling

Technology for Optically Transparent Glass discovered new capabilities of this very
challengingbutlimitlessmaterial,andissteppingstoneintherich,historicstoryofglass.

87

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AUTHORDISCOLOSURESTATEMENT
________________________________________________________________________________________________
Klein, J., et al., Methods and apparatus for additive manufacturing of glass, U.S. Patent
Application14697564,filedApril27,2015

89

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Find purpose, the means will follow.

-Mahatma Gandhi

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