The Equator-SAR Mission

An Ideal S-band Interferometric Constellation for acquisition of DEM within the Equatorial
Region

Abdul Duane Lawal

Gianmarco Radice

Space Glasgow, Department of Aerospace Sciences,

University of Glasgow
Glasgow, UK
a.lawal.1@research.gla.ac.uk

Space Glasgow, Department of Aerospace Sciences

University of Glasgow, Singapore; Block T1A, Unit 24, 500
Dover Road, Singapore Polytechnic.
Singapore, Singapore
Gianmarco.Radice@gla.ac.uk

Abstract The Equatorial Region is characterized by dense

cloud cover and severe adverse weather conditions. Acquisition
of satellite imagery for various purposes and application areas
such as agricultural mapping, urban planning, border security,
disaster monitoring and mitigation and topographical mapping
could prove difficult under such atmospheric conditions when
utilizing an optical imaging sensor onboard a spaceborne
platform. It is trend for most Earth observation satellites to be
positioned in the near-Polar orbit owing the benefits of global
imaging. However, the potentials of utilizing an optical sensor for
acquisition of data for the benefit of equatorial nations are yet to
be fully realized. An existing limitation of an optical sensor for
Earth observation manifests itself in the inability to provide
satellite imagery in the absence of favorable lightning and
weather conditions. Furthermore, from an orbital geometry
perspective, the daily access time to groundstation is restricted to
an average of four passes. It becomes apparent that alternative
solutions necessary to circumvent the limitations of optical
remote sensing instruments for the benefit of the ER must be
explored. This paper discusses a constellation of S-band SAR
satellites in a near-equatorial orbit for the acquisition of regular
and timely satellite imagery at the service of equatorial nations. It
starts by identifying the economic state of sovereign countries
within and around the Equator. It then establishes a potential
relationship between the economic state of the identified
sovereign states and their levels space capabilities. A definition of
the latitude extent of the Equatorial Region is provided viz-a-viz
a reclassification by latitude, of sovereign states. A technical
description of the Equator-SAR spacecraft is provided. The
baseline orbital parameters for the constellation of Equator-SAR
mission are then discussed. The required baseline distance for
supporting interferometric operation is derived and used as the
driver for positioning the satellites within the formation. The
results of the analysis conducted for Equator SAR formation
flying configuration, using astrodynamics methods and
techniques for the determination of its relative stability is shown.
Index TermsComponent, formatting, style, styling, insert.

I. INTRODUCTION
This work specifically defines the equatorial region (ER) as
the latitude extent spanning 10 either side of the Equator. All

c
978-1-4673-7297-8/15/$31.00 2015
IEEE

sovereign nations with geographical borders within the ER are

considered as equatorial nations (EN). The ER is characterized
by dense cloud cover and severe adverse weather conditions
that make acquisition of satellite imagery for various purposes
and applications futile. This situation manifests itself when
passive remote sensing instruments such as camera payloads
are used for Earth Observation (EO) missions.
Within the ER, is a plethora of abundant resources such as
people, land, oil and other mineral resources that should ideally
propel this region to a level where it could be internationally
considered as the most developed region. However, it is the
opinion of the authors, that the inadequacy in underutilizing
modern technological trends is responsible for the current state
of affairs within the ER. One of such technological trends is the
use of space based technology for terrestrial development. This
reasoning has prompted an evaluation of the space capabilities
of EN. Furthermore, this work investigates the issues that may
be responsible for the level of capabilities for these nations by
identifying their economic state based on the classification of
three internationally recognized independent bodies.
Furthermore, this research cross-examines past, current and
future missions primarily designed to acquire data from the ER.
It then proposes the use of active remote sensing instrument
(radar), as a viable option for data acquisition from within the
ER. To this end, it discusses the viability and value of a near
equatorial (i.e. low inclination) low earth orbit (LEO) and the
trade-offs regarding its usefulness to the EN; and summarizes
the advantage of having a number of SAR platforms working
in tandem for acquisition of other data products not ordinarily
available through the use of a single SAR platform.
Also, it provides a technical description of the proposed
Equator-SAR satellite, with details of the orbital parameters
and preference of operating frequency. The details of the
baseline requirements for formation flying required for digital
elevation model generation are also established. The results are
then used for the relative formation structure, where the
relative orbit is numerically integrated to determine the nature
of the stability of these free flying (no-control) satellite. The
orbital dynamic of the relative orbit is required for defining a
control strategy for the next phase of the research.

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Finally, the relative formation flying dynamics is compared

to existing formation flying structures.
II. EVALUATION OF THE SPACE CAPABILITIES OF EQUATORIAL
NATIONS

Following the definition of this work, there are 51 EN with

varying levels of space capabilities. A total of 11 equatorial
nations possess varying levels of space capabilities as
represented in Table I below. The establishment column
specifies the abbreviation/name of the governmental space
organisation, and its year of establishment. The column
headings 1, 2, 3 and 4 specify the level of space capability of
each governmental organisation in the order; astronaut,
owner/satellite operator, sounding rocket capabilities and
possessing recoverable biological sounding rockets
respectively [1].
Table I: Space capabilities of governmental organisations in equatorial
nations
Nation
Brazil

Establishment
AEB, 1994

Colombia

CONEA(91)

Costa Rica

ACAE, 2010

India

ISRO 1969

Indonesia

LAPAN, 1964

Malaysia

ANGKASA, 2002

Nigeria

NASRDA, 1998

Peru

CONIDA, 1974

Sri Lanka

SLSA, 2010(P)

Thailand

GISTDA, 2002

Venezuela

ABEA, 2008

Space Capability Level

Only India is capable of meeting all four categories of space

technology, while both Pakistan and Brazil meet three
different levels of space capability. The other 8 countries have
satellite operating capabilities in common with the exception
of Peru.
III. ECONOMIC CLASSIFICATION OF EQUATORIAL NATIONS
A source of statistical data used for classification of
economies is the yearly World Economic Outlook Report
published by International Monetary Fund (IMF). The
country classification divides the world into two main groups:
advanced economies and emerging markets; and developing
economies. Currently, data and projections for 189 economies
form the statistical basis of the 2014 World Economic Outlook
report published in April. The list classified 153 countries
developing nations [2]. Figure 1 shows the locations of IMF
classification of World economies.

Developing nations

Developing nations out of IMF scope

Recently classified as a developed nation

Figure 1: IMF classification of World economies [3]

The United Nations (UN) is a credible organisation that

ranks countries based on Human Development Index (HDI)
values [4]. The human development index trend between 1980
and 2013, published in the UN Development Report 2014,
listed 90 countries as having HDI of either medium or low
human development [4]. Figure 2 is a World map showing the
UN classification of economies according to HDI.

Very High

High

Medium

Low

No data

United Nations Human Development Index, 2014

Figure 2: UN classification of World economies [4]

Also, the World Bank conducts a routine classification of

countries. As part of the free data provided, an annual revised
classification of the worlds economies based on estimates of
gross national income (GNI) per capita of the previous year is
published on 1st of July. The revised GNI per capita estimates
serve as input to the Banks operational classification of
economies, which regulates their lending eligibility [5]. It
categories a developing nation, as any nation with a Gross
National Income (GNI) per capita estimate between lowincome and middle-income groups. World Bank member states
are included as also economies with a population over 30,000.
The July 2014 World Bank publication listed 214 global
economies [6]. From the list, using the World Bank criterion,
139 nations can be categorised as developing nations. Figure 3
shows the World map highlight the World Banks classification
outcome.
Although the various classification criteria used by each
organisation may differ, over 80% of the countries that
constitute each classified group remain the same. In view of
both the IMF and World bank classification methods,

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developing nations constitute over 79% and 72% of worldwide

nations respectively (assuming United Nations 193 states).

Developing nations
World Bank regional map of developing countries worldwide, 2014

Figure 3: World Bank classification of World economies [7]

Furthermore, there are a total of fifty (50) EN, forty-nine (49)

are categorised as developing nations. This invariably implies
99% of the Equatorial countries are developing nations. It is
based on this evidence that the EN must take responsibility for
the development of the region. A proven method to realizing
this task its the use of space technology. Nevertheless, this is
the researchers motivation behind the innovation of Equator
SAR mission by providing a framework for its
implementation.
IV. EARTH OBSERVATION MISSION FOR THE
EQUATORIAL REGION
The ER is host to several nations of important international
resources responsible for daily global activities. It is also
known as a region plagued by natural disasters that have been
responsible for numerous loss of lives and property. Sadly,
several efforts by specific equatorial nations to manage the
regional resources, and also mitigate natural disasters using
space technology, are yet to be complemented by other EN.
The typical Earth Observation (EO) mission often has the
satellite flying in a Sun-synchronous LEO orbit. The Sunsynchronous Orbit (SSO) provides several benefits such as:
global coverage, identical lightening geometry that; (a) aids in
power generation prediction, (b) identical image acquisition
geometry. However, for countries at higher latitudes, the SSO
satellites access to the groundstation is typical between 6 to 8
times daily. For equatorial nations, an SSO satellites daily
access time ranges between 4 and 6 times depending on
location of groundstation. To acquire more data from the ER,
the satellite must spend most of its time orbiting the ER, and to
downlink this data, the satellite must also have sufficient
number of groundstation passes to do so.
It is no surprise that the Malaysian government embarked
on the Razak-SAT mission, which is regarded as the first
remote sensing satellite to orbit the equator [8]. It was launched
into a near-equatorial LEO orbit (NeqO) on 14 July 2009.
However, the satellites engineering name was MACSAT
(Medium-sized Aperture Camera Satellite), and later renamed
Razak-Sat by the Prime Minister Tun Mahathir Mohammad on
7 August 2007 [9]. The Razak-Sat mission was an international
cooperative project between Astronautic Technology (M)

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SDN. BHD (ATSB) of Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia, and Satrec

Initiative Co. Ltd (SI) of Daejeon, Korea. MACSAT was a 200
kg mini-satellite designed to provide 2.5 m ground sampling
distance (GSD) resolution imagery of the NeqO. It was
operated from an altitude of 685 km with an inclination
between 7 and 9. It had a swath width of 20 km and an FOV of
1.6 [10] [11]. Although, operations of the mission ended on 21
July 2014, it achieved its mission objectives of demonstrating
the capability of developing an indigenous spacecraft design
and manufacturing competency, towards participating in all
aspects of acquiring high-resolution observation and processing
of data in the NeqO for a number of applications in developing
countries, and to develop technology for future missions [9].
Similarly, in 2007 the Indonesian government, through its
National Institute of Aeronautics and Space (LAPAN) publicly
advocated for the development of an equatorial observation
satellite system [11]. In 2010, LAPAN also proposed a satellite
formation technology consisting of twin satellites for spacebased safety applications in the disaster mitigation and relief
effort [13]. Subsequently, LAPAN proceeded on the LAPANA2 micro-satellite mission, as a successor to the LAPANTUBSAT (LAPAN-A1) mission, which was Indonesias first
indigenous satellite design and manufacture [14] [15] [16]. The
mission consists of a set twin satellites (LAPAN-A2 and
LAPAN-ORARI), designed for providing space-based safety
application in the disaster mitigation and relief efforts. More
specifically, the mission goals include [13] [17] [18] [19]:
x Provision of an EO video surveillance capability
based on LAPAN-TUBSAT experience with a
swath width of 3.5 km and GSD of 5m
x Use of amateur radio; Automatic Packet Reporting
System (APRS) and voice repeater functions for
disaster mitigation communications
x Implementation of Automatic Identification
System (AIS) payload for provision of maritime
monitoring in the equatorial region
The twin satellites will be launched into a NeqO, at an altitude
of 650 km, and inclination of 8. The low inclination permits a
ground station access on every orbit pass [13].
However, the limitations of a satellite carrying an optical
payload for data acquisition still play an important role on the
efficiency and usefulness of the system. For the EN that has
successfully launched satellites into the ER, this is a positive
step in technology demonstration and is by no means an easy
feat. However, the satellite is guaranteed an increased
groundstation access time for each orbit (typically 14 daily
orbits), nonetheless, the ER is noted for its dense atmospheric
conditions and heavy rainfall. The implication of using an
optical satellite payload is the limited image acquisition time
due to lighting and weather conditions. Hence the need to
explore other options that can be used to mitigate the effects of
adverse weather conditions and lighting on remote sensing
missions.
Other useful emerging low inclination missions planned for
the near future includes the Constellation Observing System for
Meteorology, Ionosphere and Climate (COSMIC-2) mission,
design for collecting atmospheric data for weather prediction

2015 IEEE 5th Asia-Pacific Conference on Synthetic Aperture Radar(APSAR)

and for ionospheric, climate and gravity research. The mission

shall consist of twelve (12) satellites, however only six (6) will
be positioned in low inclined orbits 24. The mission is an
international collaboration between Taiwan (NSPO) and the
United States (NOAA). The launch of the first low inclined
satellites is scheduled for 2016 [20].
The SAR is a well-established method of obtaining Earth
data from spaceborne platforms. It also addresses the
limitations posed on optical systems. Several SAR missions fly
in the SSO orbit, for the earlier highlighted benefits. These
satellites are also owned by developed nations such as Italy,
German and USA. None of the listed EN with space
capabilities has been able to fly a SAR satellite, either as lone
entity, or in collaboration with another nation.
Recently, major SAR Technology Designers have taken
interest in the applications of SAR in low inclined orbits.
Surrey Satellite Limited (SSTL), a company that
revolutionized small satellite technology, with over 45
successful missions flying in SSO, are currently investing the
use of S-band SAR satellites for the equatorial region, which
they defined as 15 inclination at an optimum altitude of 580
km. To implement this technology, series of experiments have
been conducted from aircraft in conjunction with Astrium. It is
expected that the NovaSAR mission, is scheduled for launch in
2016 [21] [22]. It would demonstrate the viability of the
equatorial region, and subsequently attract more customers
within the ER.
The emergence of the Menasat Gulf Group PLC ushers a
new stakeholder in the field of SAR technology developers. A
number of satellite programs have been lined up and in
progress. The Menasat Gulf Group tends to provide SAR
technology for NeqO. A documentation of the preliminary
concept applied for monitoring Abu Dhabi, UAE, shows the
use of an X-band SAR satellite launched into an altitude of 536
km and inclination 37.6, for numerous applications areas. The
group has also agreed to embark upon a joint venture with the
Ghana Science and Space Technology institute. This will see
Ghana launch their first satellite called Ghanasat-1 in 2020
[24]. Furthermore, the Menasat Gulf Group, on 29 July 2015
announced another joint venture with the National Space
Research and Development Agency (NASRDA), Nigeria. The
$250 million program is for the design and build of Nigeria
SAR-1 that will be the first Nigerian SAR high-resolution earth
observation satellite [25]. While the initiatives of Gulf-SAR
and NovaSAR mission is a positive leap towards ensuring that
data within the ER is more and readily available, the cost
implications to DN are a limiting factor. This is because these
missions are being facilitated by developed nations, and then
they subsequently provide data to the developing nations at
huge cost. Moreover, several DN have acquired the
technological expertise to design and manufacture satellites,
hence, it would me more cost beneficial to design develop and
build indigenous SAR satellites, thereby reducing the overhead
cost of data acquisition.

Although the initiative to develop the Equator-SAR has

being in development for over four years [1] [26] [27] [28] [29]
[30] [31] [32] [33] and [34] the recent emergence of other
equatorial SAR missions such as Gulf-SAR and NovaSAR,
serve as validation of the potential usefulness of such a unique
mission. However, the researchers of this work tend to disagree
with the approach adopted for these missions. Some work done
by Wolfgang-Martin Boerner, succinctly captured the
researchers opinion and desired approach to a lasting solution
for earth observation of the equatorial region. Wolfgang-Martin
went beyond identifying issues plaguing the use of optical
sensors for remote sensing of the equatorial region, but also
provided a viable solution and approach [35]. Still, the
researchers of this work disagree with Wolfgang-Martins
approach, and do not consider it the most economically for the
DN within the ER. This is because the approach involves the
mobilization of the main SAR Development Centers
worldwide such as NASA/JPL, ESA/ESTEC, and
JAXA/EORC etc. It is on this note that this paper presents a
SAR satellite intended for design and build by the developing
nations within the ER for the developing nation within the ER.
V. COST IMPLICATION
The high cost of SAR payloads and the specific needs such
as high power demands and support for large heavy antenna
depicts the high cost demands of embarking on such a project.
However, the benefits of a SAR payload out-weigh its
setbacks, and the process usually involves the trade-off
between application, customer and performance to show how it
immensely supports human development. According to Baker
et al, the feasibility of adopting a SAR payload for small
satellites for $50M is justifiable from a bottom up system
engineering approach and top down from a business case
driven approach, including launch [36]. Table II provides and
insight on the cost of Earth observation SAR missions
conducted by different international aerospace industries.
Table II: Cost of past, present and future SAR Earth observation missions
Mission

Owner

Launch

Resolution
(m)
30

Radar-Sat1
ERS-2

Canada

1995

ESA

1995

SARLUPE
Tech-SAR

Germany
UK/Israel

200608
2008

TanDEMX

Germany

2010

1, 16

TerraSARX
NovaSAR
Ghana
SAT
Nigeria
SAR

Germany

2007

1, 16

UK
Ghana

2015
2020

Nigeria

2020

25x28,
10x9
<1

Footprint
(Km)
100 x
100
100; 45

Cost ($)
650M

Mass
(Kg)
2750

650M excl
launch
450M

2516

300

6 - 30
TBD

10x5,
100x100
15 - 750
TBD

200M excl
launch
175.5M
excl
launch
120M excl
launch
50M(GBP)
TBD

TBD

TBD

250M

1-8

5.5 x 5.5
Up to
100
30

770

1340

1230
500
TBD
TBD

Evidently, embarking on SAR missions a costly feat as

seen from Table II. As previously mentioned, both Ghana and
Nigeria have recently entered into an agreement with Menasat

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VI. EQUATOR-SAR CHARACTERISTICS

This work identifies the Equator-SAR as a 300kg S-band
monostatic satellite, which will be launched into a near
equatorial orbit (NeqO) of 10 inclination at an altitude of 650
km. Though the overall mission involves the implementation of
interferometric operations using several SAR satellites in
formation flying satellites for DEM generation, this section
only discusses the characteristics of Equator-SAR. For the
purpose of this paper, it is assumed that all satellites within the
formation are identical in size, build and composition.
The S-band frequency was selected due to its higher
penetrating ability when compared to the more popular X-band
and C-band frequencies. However, the use of L-band would
have implied a large payload would be required, thereby
increasing the overall mass and cost of the mission. Other
trade-off analyses have been conducted to determine the size of
the SAR antenna, as well as its pulse repetition frequency [37].
Table III provides a summary of the Equator-SAR baseline
parameters.

VII. ORBIT PREDICTION

To validate the usefulness of the Equatorial orbit for the
proposed mission, there is need to understand the satellites
orbit dynamics for the proposed orbit. More importantly, the
effects of external forces must be considered when predicting
the orbit of the satellite at a future time. The section discusses
the orbit prediction method used. It also highlights the
integration techniques used to determine the satellites future
position under the influence of external perturbing forces and
the tools used to achieve this feat.
Cowells method of Special Perturbation is used to
determine the true satellite trajectory in the presence of
perturbing forces. This provides an insight to the evolution of
the satellite orbital dynamics and how it deviates from the ideal
two-body orbital motion. Furthermore, it also provides
valuable information that would assist in designing an
optimum control scheme if required, for ensuring the satellite
remains within its predetermined mission orbit over its
lifetime. The simplicity and ease of formulation of the
perturbing equations is the main advantage of the Cowells
method. However, the disadvantage of this method stems from
the fact that in the presence of a large attracting body, smaller
integration steps are required due to the accumulative error of
round-off [38]. This inevitably is computation-heavy, leading
to unavoidable time consumption. It has also been suggested
by Bate, et al [38], that Cowells method is not well suited for
lunar missions. The Cowells form of solving system
differential equations under the influence of external forces is
also known as the initial value problem (IVP).
Equator SAR for Perturbed and Unperturbed cases
7030
Perturbed case
Unpertubed case

7025

semi-major axis km

Group, for the development of SAR satellites. Based on the

aforementioned, several details regarding the technicalities of
the satellites are yet to-be-determined (TBD). However, a
method of making SAR missions relatively affordable for EN
is by cultivating the art of satellite design and manufacturing
process, and making it a culture. This allows for the use of
local and indigenous expertise as well as other resources and
materials. Furthermore, the provision of a consortium under
which the collaboration of the EN to provide accordable space
mission by shared cost approach will be the most economical
approach. This basically circumvents the need to pay huge sum
of money to international SAR Development centers when a
mission life ends. It also ensures the EN acquire, improve and
demonstrate the technology capacity building, which ultimately
allows them to become manufacturing economies as to the
current trend of being identified as consumption economies.
It is envisaged that the Equator SAR mission could reduce the
mission cost to about $50 million, in addition to the
accompanying benefits mentioned. The target market shall
include the EN, developing nations as well as developed
nations.

7020

7015

Table III. Equator-SAR payload baseline characteristics

S/No
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13

350

Parameter
Operating frequency
Antenna length (m)
Antenna width (m)
Orbit altitude (km)
Orbit type
Range resolution (m)
Azimuth resolution (m)
Pulse width (s)
Swath width (km)
PRF (Hz)
Inclination (deg)
Incidence angle (deg)
Bandwidth (MHz)

Value
S-band
4
2
650
Circular NeqO
5
2
33
100
3765
10
58
35

7010

7005

20

40

60

80
100
time days

120

140

160

180

Figure 4: Effects of perturbation on satellite semi major axis after 180 days

The integration scheme used for predicting the long term

satellite orbital dynamics is the Runge-Kutta Fehlberg scheme
of the seventh order, (RKF78). Although various similar orbit
dynamics works, utilize the Runge-Kutta of the fourth order
(RK4), or in-built software integration schemes such as the
Ordinary Differential Equations 4th Order (ODE45) and the
variable order Adams-Bashforth-Moulton PECE solver

2015 IEEE 5th Asia-Pacific Conference on Synthetic Aperture Radar(APSAR)

(ODE113); the RKF78 is a preferable choice for the researcher

due to its adaptive nature. It adapts the number and position of
the grid points during the course of iteration in an attempt to
keep the local error within a specified bound.
The simulation of Equator-SAR orbital dynamics was
implemented in Matlab. The orbit propagation was conducted
for Equator-SAR in the absence of perturbing forces, and under
the idea influence of perturbing forces such as J2 harmonics
(up-to order for 4 for both zonal and tesseral forces),
atmospheric drag, solar radiation pressure (SRP) and third
body attraction (lunisolar). Figure 4 shows the effects of drag
and other perturbing forces, on its semi-major axis after 180
days. From Figure 4, it can be seen that Equator-SARs semimajor axis is reduced by 22.5 km after 6 months when
compared to the unperturbed case which maintains its semimajor axis throughout the same propagation period.

signals and is often referred to as the master, while the second

antenna just receives, and is often referred to as the slave.

VIII. FORMATION DESIGN DRIVER

The scattering mechanism in the resolution cell and the

distance from the antenna influence the phase of the pixel value
in the complex SAR image. In cases where the scattering
mechanism in both images is similar, then the phase difference
between both complex SAR images is proportional to the
difference in the slant range difference from both antennas
[48].
Within the context of SAR literature, coherence describes
the similarity in scattering mechanism in two images as
indicated by the correlation coefficient of the image. A low
coherence between two images as a result of dissimilarity
between the scattering mechanisms, results in phase noise. The
loss of coherence can be attributed to dissimilar look angles
from each antenna to the target scene, changes in surface
between acquisition (repeat pass interferometry) and also from
receiver noise [48].
The phase difference between two complex SAR images
can be used to measure the slant range difference between J
and J+J, by multiplying one image by the complex conjugate
of the other image. The resulting interferograms whose phase is
proportional to the range difference to the scene is the
outcome. The full or absolute phase of the complex-valued
interferograms is proportional to the slant range difference
between both SAR antenna positions to target scene.
Nonetheless, the measured phase values of the resulting
interferograms can only take up values between 0 and 2.
Generally, this implies that the phase is wrapped; implying
for the resolution of the slant range difference required for
topography computation to be accomplished, the 2 ambiguity
inherent in the phase measurement can only be determined by
using a certain phase-unwrapping technique [48].

The task of designing a spaceborne interferometry involves

the use of satellites for DEM generation. The baseline
separation distance between the SAR satellites, is a primary
mission formation driver, since it dictates the limitations of the
DEM products that can be acquired. It also helps define the
relative position of the satellites to one another.
In order to determine the acrosstrack separation component,
this research derives its credibility from previous works of
various authors [39] [40] [42] [43] [44] [45] [46] and [47]. This
is achieved by using established techniques and methods in a
slightly different manner.
Across-track Interferometry (XTI), also known as the range
direction is defined as the dimension of an image perpendicular
to the line-of-sight (LOS) of the radar. The XTI is basically the
acquisition of two SAR images from a single pass by two SAR
antennas separated by some distance perpendicular to the flight
direction [40]. It is primarily suited for topographical
information, by utilizing a difference in the cross-track
position, or look angle between two SAR carrying platforms.
The XTI enables the reconstruction of the Earth topography by
utilizing different SAR look angles to compare the same target
scene [41].
There are several airborne single-pass interferometric
systems that are been used for single-pass across-track
interferometry missions, demonstrating significant relevance in
both the commercial and scientific application area [42]. For a
single pass interferometry system, non-stationary topographic
features can also be studied using the XTI [43]. The work
documented by Keydel et al [44], discusses the STRM mission
for topographic mapping of the complete Earth surface using
single-pass XTI.
The geometry of the XTI illustrated in Figure 5, shows the
positions of the two SAR antennas mounted on the platforms
perpendicular to the flight direction and parallel to each other.
Where P1 at a height h about the Earth surface, and the distance
between P1and the target scene on the ground being the slant
range J, while the distance between the position of P 2 and the
same target scene being J+J. For a single pass interferometry
operation, one SAR antenna transmits and receives the radar

Figure 5: derivation of critical baseline using acrosstrack separation

component

A. Spatial Decorrelation of SAR Signals

The spatial decorrelation of the radar signal return echoes
can be attributed to the effects of varying incidence angles
between both antennas of satellites performing interferometric
operations, having a non-zero across-track baseline. For a
monochromatic transmitted SAR signal aimed at an ocean
target, the received signal by both antennas will decorrelate
when the in-phase number of the lines from the target surface
(i.e. the number of Bragg waves) within one range resolution

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351

cell differs by more than 1 [40]. The use of some simplified

assumptions by Zebker & Villasenor [1992] was used to derive
the relationship for the spatial correlation (s) of the returned
signal echoes:
s= 1- (2cosi |i|gr)/

i - local incidence angle of one of the SAR antennas

i - the difference in local incidence angles between both SAR
antennas
gr - the radar ground range resolution
- radar wavelength
H - SAR antenna altitude
The across track separation component perpendicular to the
direction of incidence is used to derive the baseline (BL) from
BL = H|i|/cos

The maximum useful baseline is obviously constrained by

baseline decorrelation, which is characterized by a distance
called the critical baseline (BCL), for which two SAR images
become completely decorrelated [46]. This inherently implies
that it is impossible to obtain interferometric images when the
baseline (BL) is equal to or greater than the critical baseline BCL
(BL BCL). The first critical baseline is obtained when the
spatial correlation is zero (s=0), resulting to [40]:
BCL= H/(2grcos^2i

=2/ r

Substituting equation 5 into 6 gives:

/h = (2BL) / ( rs sin (i))

Equation 7 describes the sensitivity of the radar

interferometer to small height difference. This equation dictates
that sensitivity is increased when the perpendicular baseline,
BL is increased. This leads to determining the useful baseline
which is constrained by: baseline decorrelation, and
characterized by a distance called the absolute critical baseline
BC for which two SAR images become completely
decorrelated [46]. Assuming a flat surface, it can be determined
using [47]:

BC = R tan(i) / gr

where gr is the ground range resolution given by

c / (2BWs sin(i)

BWs, is the system bandwidth, and c is the velocity of light.

Romeiser [40], suggested that the across-track baseline of an Xband operation frequency should not exceed approximately
300m to 1000m (incidence angle dependent), and for L-band
operating frequency should not exceed 3 km to 10 km if no
loss of compensation for coherence loss can be applied.

The theoretical impossibility of interferometric operations

when BL BCL is only valid for a monochromatic SAR
transmitted SAR image. For a non-monochromatic transmitted
SAR signal with a finite bandwidth, most spatial decorrelation
can be compensated during the data processing stage [45].
The absolute critical baseline (Bc) that represents the upper
limit of the across-track baseline can be given from the
expression [45]
Bc= (BWsRtani)/c

BWs - system frequency bandwidth in range

R - range, representing the distance between the antenna and
target scene
c - speed of light
The conditions for determining the upper limit of the
across-track baseline dictates that there is no spectral overlap
between the signals received by both antennas any longer [45].
However, Krieger and Moreira [46] derived a similar
relationship for the absolute critical baseline (Bc), where a
height difference h is being measure (example, distance
between peak and trough of a mountain), where a short
baseline (BL) between two SAR antennas exists (see Figure 5).
For a large slant range (R), when compared to both h and BL;
the range difference r will be proportional to the height
difference h express as
r =BL / (Rsin(i) h)

Where BL, is the perpendicular line of sight distance

between both SAR antennas, and i is the local incidence
angle. The phase difference can be derived from:

352

Figure 6: Showing 1% of acrosstrack critical baseline vs incidence angle

The formation seeks to implement a suitable baseline ratio that

prevents decorrelation and supports interferometric operations
throughout the mission lifetime.
Figure 7 shows that for an S-band SAR satellite with a nominal
incidence angle of 58, the value of a percent of the critical
baseline is 356 m separation between the satellites at the
equator. This accounts for the height ambiguity which occurs
for 264 m measurement. The operational conditions for this
configuration necessitates that both SAR antennas must be
flown in an almost identical parallel orbit to make
simultaneous imaging possible. However, both antennas but
experience the nodal crossing at the same time, with the
computed earth centered angle representing difference

2015 IEEE 5th Asia-Pacific Conference on Synthetic Aperture Radar(APSAR)

The simulation result presented by Figure 8, show the

satellites in the ECI frame. The members of the SAR formation
experience identical forces, and hereby maintain a relatively
identical motion in orbit.

radial km

between both ascending nodes (s). This is also constrained

by a null difference in true anomaly as illustrated on
Figure 7.
For 3 satellites flying in formation, the third satellite is
separated by 712 m. This distance is derived from 2% of the
critical baseline for identical parameters used. The height
ambiguity occurs at 243 m, and both secondary satellites are
located relatively behind the primary satellite. In order to gain
insight on the orbital dynamics of the satellite formation, their
relative motion with respect to primary satellite must be
determined.

master
slave 1
slave 2

1000
0
-1000
6000
4000
2000

= Earth rotation rate

5000

0
-2000
-4000
-6000
acrosstrack km

SAR-2 Orbit

SAR-1 Orbit

0
-5000
alongtrack km

Figure 8: Relative motion formation of Equator SAR in ECI

RAAN

RAAN

Figures 9 and Figure 10, illustrate the binding motion between

the satellites due to the small orbital element differences. The
maximum radial, alongtrack and acrosstrack distances for
Slave 1 and Slave 2 are 0 m, 354 m and 356 m; and 0.01m,
700m and 712 m respectively. The results of the relative
motion and presented in the Master SAR Orbit Reference
Frame (ORF).

-4

x 10

Figure 7: Acrosstrack SAR interferometry configuration for equatorial orbit

mission

radial km

IX. RELATIVE MOTION

The primary satellite is designated MasterSAR, and the
secondary satellites are SlaveSAR-1 and SlaveSAR-2
respectively. All satellites are assumed to be of identical build
and characteristics and are capable of typical monostatic
operations. The relative motions of the satellites in formation
are done with respect to the trajectory of the MasterSAR orbit
frame. Cowells method of solving two body equations under
the influence of perturbations is used by providing the initial
values of each satellites Keplerian elements as listed on Table

Relative motion of Slave 1 from Master ORF

Relative motion of Slave 2 from Master ORF

-1

-2
1
0.5

1
0.5

0
0

-0.5
acrosstrack km

-0.5
-1

-1

alongtrack km

IV.

Each satellites structure is assumed to be built from

aluminum. The cross-sectional area, reflectivity and ballistic
coefficient vales are 8m2, 1.98 and 2.2 respectively. The results
of simulating the relative motion of both Slave satellites for 3
days with respect to the Master satellite are subsequently
presented.

Figure 9: Relative motion of Equator SAR formation in Master satellite ORF

The results show that the effect of J2 harmonics is

noticeable on the radial separation distance. However, the
difference is in the order of 10 cm throughout the mission orbit.
Pending the design of a control method, the formation is
largely stable for its intended application.

Table IV: Orbital parameters of Equator SAR formation flying satellites

Parameter
Semi-major axis (km)
Eccentricity
Inclination (deg)
RAAN (deg)
True Anomaly

MasterSAR
7028.14936
0
10
2.9e-3
0

SlaveSAR-1
7028.14936
0
10
1.45e-3
0

SlaveSAR-2
7028.14936
0
10
0
0

2015 IEEE 5th Asia-Pacific Conference on Synthetic Aperture Radar(APSAR)

353

Relative motion of Slave 1 from Master ORF

Relative motion of Slave 2 from Master ORF

0.8

[2]

0.6

acrosstrack km

0.4
0.2

[3]

0
-0.2

[4]
-0.4
-0.6
-0.8
-0.8

-0.6

-0.4

-0.2

0
0.2
alongtrack km

0.4

0.6

0.8

Figure 10: Relative motion of Equator SAR formation in XY plane

[5]

[6]

X. CONCLUSION
This research defines the equatorial region and the
countries within the defined boundaries. It identified the
various levels of space capabilities for the equatorial nations,
with a view of exploring the use of space science and
technology for addressing plaguing issue within the ER. It also
provided a summary of the economic classification EN using
report from three international organisations. However, the
limitations of using optical payloads for the ER was
highlighted, and also the emerging stakeholders initiating the
use of SAR technology for the ER.
This work provides the framework for implementing an
Earth observation mission using SAR for the ER. It discusses
the cost benefits of its implementation from a shard cost
approach between EN. Furthermore, it describes the Equator
SAR payload and orbit parameters. It also discusses the
formation flying mission for DEM generation, by highlight the
baseline separation component that supports interferometric
operations. Results of simulations using astrodynamics
methods and techniques were also provided. It finally
demonstrates the stability of the formation flying mission from
a technical perspective.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
My sincere gratitude goes to my mentor, Dr Gianmarco
Radice who facilitated the fruition of my ideas and
imaginations without necessarily restricting my thought
process. My appreciation goes to the Petroleum Trust
Development Fund (PTDF), for funding my research,
maintenance and travel requirements. The support of Gen. T.
Osazuwa played a key role in ensuring I continuously pursued
my ideas, and to him I am grateful. To all friends and wellwishers that accommodated the exigencies of my work; my
heart reaches out to you with nothing but thankfulness.
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