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Introduction
The ability of organisms to reproduce best distinguishes
living things from nonliving matter
The continuity of life is based on the reproduction of cells,
or cell division
In unicellular organisms, division of one cell reproduces the
entire organism
Multicellular organisms depend on cell division for:
Unit 3
The Cell
Chapter 12
The Cell Cycle
100 m
200 m
20 m
Reproduction
Tissue renewal
An amoeba, a
single celled
eukaryote is
dividing into two
cells.
A sand dollar
embryo shortly
after the fertilized
egg divided,
forming two cells.
Dividing bone
marrow cells will
give rise to new
blood cells.
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Aster
Centrosome
Sister
chromatids
Microtubules
Chromosomes
Metaphase
plate
Kinetochores
Centrosome
1 m
Overlapping
nonkinetochore
microtubules
Kinetochore
microtubules
Stages of Mitosis
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Prophase
Nucleolus begins to
disappear.
The mitotic spindle
starts to form.
Chromatin begins to
condense.
Metaphase
The spindle is complete
and the chromosomes
are attached to
microtubules at their
kinetochores.
All chromosomes are
lined up along the
metaphase plate.
Telophase
Daughter nuclei form.
Cytokinesis has
started.
The cell plate which
will divide the
cytoplasm in two
grows towards the
perimeter of the
parent cell.
Prometaphase
Discrete chromosomes
are now visible, each
consists of two
aligned, identical sister
chromatids.
Nuclear envelope will
soon fragment.
Anaphase
The sister chromatids
of each chromosome
separate.
The daughter
chromosomes move to
the ends of the cell as
their kinetochore
microtubules shorten.
Binary Fission
Prokaryotes (bacteria and archaea) reproduce by a
type of cell division called binary fission
In binary fission, the chromosome replicates
(beginning at the origin of replication), and the two
daughter chromosomes actively move apart
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Origin of
replication
E. coli cell
Two copies
of origin
Cell wall
Origin of
replication
Plasma
membrane
E. coli cell
Bacterial
chromosome
Two copies
of origin
Origin
Fig. 12-11-3
Origin of
replication
E. coli cell
Two copies
of origin
Origin
Cell wall
Plasma
membrane
Chromosome
replication begins
Origin of
replication
E. coli cell
Bacterial
chromosome
Two copies
of origin
Origin
Cell wall
Plasma
membrane
Bacterial
chromosome
Origin
Cell wall
Plasma
membrane
Bacterial
chromosome
Origin
The replication
finishes. The plasma
membrane growing
inward and a new cell
wall is deposited.
Antibiotics inhibit
specific enzymes in
bacteria. For
example, Penicillin
blocks the active site
of an enzyme that
many bacteria use to
make their cell walls.
Bacterial
chromosome
(a) Bacteria
Chromosomes
Microtubules
Intact nuclear
envelope
(b) Dinoflagellates
Kinetochore
microtubule
Intact nuclear
envelope
(c) Diatoms and yeasts
Kinetochore
microtubule
Fragments of
nuclear envelope
(d) Most eukaryotes
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Bacterial
chromosome
(a) Bacteria
Microtubules
from a spindle
within the
nucleus.
Microtubules
separate the
chromosomes
and the nucleus
splits into two
daughter cells
Kinetochore
microtubule
Intact nuclear
envelope
Microtubules
Pass through the nuclear envelope,
reinforce the spatial orientation of the
nucleus.
Intact nuclear
envelope
Fragments of
nuclear envelope
(b) Dinoflagellates
(Unicellular protists)
Evidence for
Cytoplasmic Signals
The cell cycle
appears to be driven
by specific chemical
signals present in the
cytoplasm
Some evidence for
this hypothesis
comes from
experiments in which
cultured mammalian
cells at different
phases of the cell
cycle were fused to
form a single cell
with two nuclei
G1 checkpoint
Control
system
G1
M checkpoint
G2 checkpoint
G2
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If the cell does not receive a go-ahead signal, the cell will exit the cycle,
switching to a nondividing state called the G0 phase.
Most cells in the human body are in the G0 phase. Mature nerve cells and muscle cells
never divide. Other cells (liver cells) can be called back from the G0 phase by external
clues (growth factors) during an injury.
G0
G1 checkpoint
G1
Protein kinases (enzymes that can add a phosphate group to activate other proteins) drive the
cell cycle.
Cyclin is degraded
during anaphase.
G2 check point
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External Signals
Some external signals are growth factors, proteins released
by certain cells that stimulate other cells to divide. There are
more than 50 growth factors
Most animal cells also exhibit anchorage dependence, in
which they must be attached to a substratum in order to
divide
Another example of external signals is density-dependent
inhibition, in which crowded cells stop dividing