Faculty of Architecture

Prof. dr. ir. Philomena M. Bluyssen MBA

Understanding the
indoor environment
Inaugural speech May 22, 2013

Understanding the indoor environment

Inaugural speech
Spoken on May 22, 2013
at the occasion of her acceptance of the
position of full professor of Indoor Environment
At the Faculty of Architecture of the Delft University of Technology

by
Prof. dr. ir. Philomena M. Bluyssen MBA

Mijnheer de Rector Magnificus,

Leden van het College van Bestuur,
Collegae Hoogleraren en andere leden van de universitaire gemeenschap,
Zeer gewaardeerde toehoorders,
Dames en heren, jongens en meisjes, vrienden.
Sir rector,
Members of the Executive Board,
Fellow Professors and other members of the university community,
Honourable listeners,
Ladies and gentlemen, boys and girls, friends.

1. Introduction
While most people are aware of the importance of the outdoor environment,
especially in relation to climate change issues but also related more directly
to our health, the effects of indoor environment quality are not that common
knowledge. Who doesnt know by now that air pollution such as fine dust
and noise pollution from aeroplanes are important issues, or that too much
sunlight can be very unhealthy. Most of us dont realize that people in
the Western world in general spend 80-90% of their time indoors (e.g. at
home, at school and at the office). Exposure indoors is thus much longer
than outdoors. Nevertheless, the understanding of that indoor environment
has only just began.
How to achieve a healthy indoor environment has been an issue among architects,
engineers and scientists for centuries. However, it was not until the early decades
of the twentieth century that the first relations between parameters describing
heat, lighting and sound in buildings and human needs were established. For
most of the time, science has relied on the optimisation of single factors such
as thermal comfort or air quality. The realisation that the indoor environment is
more than the sum of its parts, and that its assessment has to start from human
beings rather than benchmarks, has only been gaining ground in recent years.

Figure 1 Starting from

human beings rather
than benchmarks
(Bluyssen, 2013:
Figure 1.2 S.Meertins).

2. Indoor environment
2.1 Indoor environment quality
The indoor environment can be described by environmental factors or
(external) stressors such as (Figure 2):
- Indoor air quality: odour, indoor air pollution, fresh air supply, etc.
- Thermal comfort: moisture, air velocity, temperature, etc.
- Acoustical quality: noise from outside, indoors, vibrations, etc.
- Visual or lighting quality: view, illuminance, luminance ratios, reflection, etc.
These various factors have slowly become incorporated within the building
process through environmental design. However, aesthetic quality and spatial
and ergonomical quality are also part of the indoor environment. In fact,
historically these parameters received the most attention when designing a
building. The chair Indoor environment merely focuses on the environmental
parameters, without downgrading the dimensions and aesthetics of shapes and
spaces. As Hawkes (2008) writes: The interaction of light and air and sound
with the form and materiality of architectural space is of the very essence of
the architectural imagination. And note the way in which Pallasmaa (2005)
describes the essence of Architecture comes even closer to what I want to tell
you Architecture is the art of reconciliation between ourselves and the world,
and this mediation takes place through the senses.

Lighting
quality

Air
quality

Acoustical
quality

Thermal
comfort

Figure 2 What is indoor environment quality? (Bluyssen, 2009: figure 3.1)

Although chemistry was only seen as a separate science during the 17th century,
from the Middle Ages until the beginning of the 19th century people began to
4

realize that air in a building should be good and if not, could result in diseases
or at least extreme discomfort (bad smells). The miasmatic theory of disease,
now taken over by the germ theory of disease (micro organisms are the cause
of many diseases), was used to explain the spread of disease such as cholera.
Miasma (Greek for pollution) was considered to be a poisonous smelly vapour
or mist that is filled with particles from decomposed matter (miasmata), which
can cause illnesses. Ventilation thus became an important part of the indoor
environment. Discussions on how much ventilation is sufficient to prevent the
spread of disease and to provide adequate comfort (no noxious odours) were
born and are still taking place.
Indoor air quality is determined by the pollution or pollutants occupants
are exposed to over time. The pollutants originate from outdoor air (the air
coming into the building), are caused by the building itself and the heating
and ventilation systems (when they are present) and pollutants are emitted by
the occupants and by activities they perform such as smoking, candle lighting
but also cooking, showering, cleaning and printing. These different sources
of pollution can create/produce different types of pollutants. Some gaseous
pollutants smell, others do not, such as for example Carbon monoxide. And
then there are several other pollutants in that indoor air, which influence the air
quality such as water and particles (biological - house dust mite and legionella
but also from materials such as asbestos fibres). While in the 90ties it was
acknowledged for the first time that people are not the only contributor to
indoor air pollution (Bluyssen et al. 1996) and thereby opening the discussion of
applying CO2 concentrations only as the indicators for indoor air quality, several
national and international projects have been undertaken. Two of the latest
European projects are OFFICAIR and SINPHONIE, focussed on the effects of
indoor air quality in office buildings and schools on office workers and children,
respectively (www.sinphonie.eu and www.officair-project.eu). These health
effects range from annoyance to irritating effects and allergic response, to
serious health threatening effects.
Another aspect of indoor environment quality is thermal comfort, the parameter
we are the most familiar with, including aspects such as feeling warm, cold,
draught etc During the late 19th century, thermal comfort was introduced as
an environmental factor that is part of overall indoor comfort. In addition to poor
air quality, poorly ventilated rooms can also result in unwanted thermal effects
(both through temperature and humidity). The thermo-physiological model,
developed in the 1970s by Prof. Fanger in Denmark, who tested his model
in climate chambers using several subjects, is still the basis for guidelines on
thermal comfort. Nevertheless, another model, based on field studies of people
5

in daily life, slowly begins to win ground (de Dear and Brager, 2002): people
undertake action to improve their thermal comfort when they are uncomfortable
and therefore indoor comfort temperature ranges might be different for different
outdoor temperatures but also for different forms of control present (such as
opening windows, adjusting thermostates etc.). In other words the context and
preferences of the occupant are important to consider. And then even more
recently it was suggested that thermal neutral conditions do not have to be
necessarily healthy (Marken Lichtenbelt et al. 2009).
The positive health effects of (sun) light were already acknowledged by the
Egyptians, Romans and the ancient Greeks, who worshipped the sun gods.
Much later, at the beginning of the 1900s, sanatoria were built for light therapy
for people suffering from, among other ailments, skin diseases. During the
late 1980s, light therapy, with artificial light, began to be used to cure winter
depressions. Artificial lighting has been an applied science since around the
1890s, when the development of the first electrical lamps made the extension
of the working day into the dark hours possible.
Light plays a major role in Architecture. Vision is the primary sense through
which we experience architecture and light is the medium that reveals space,
form, texture and colour to the eyes. The parameter visual or lighting quality
comprises of aspects such as illuminance, luminance ratios and colours and
aspects you would rather prevent such as reflection on a floor or other surface.
But visual comfort is more than providing enough light to perform a task, view
is also an important aspect to consider. Another important issue with lighting
quality, is the use of natural versus artificial lighting, especially in relation to
energy use.
Lighting conditions that cause visual discomfort can lead to eyestrain and
headaches. While current guidelines are focused on providing sufficient task
lighting, research on biological lighting demands has revealed that the dosing
of natural light is important for health purposes. The amount of light that enters
the eye affects our bio-rhythm: Under influence of light, the hypothalamus
signals to the pineal body to produce melatonin, a hormone that makes us want
to sleep (Figure 3). If exposed to light during night, the production of the antioxidant melatonin is immediately stopped, alertness and core body temperature
is increased and sleep is distorted (Hinson, Raven and Chew, 2010).
With regard to sound, the ancient Greeks and Romans realized that good
auditory conditions for an audience listening to speech or music, whether
indoors or outdoors, are important. They placed audiences on steep hillsides to
6

Visual
cortex

Figure 3

Re/na

Pathway of light signal to pineal

body: The signal from the retina as
a result of light, is relayed through
the hypothalamus down the spinal

Pinealbody

column, returning via the superior

Hypothalamus

cervical ganglion to supply the pineal

gland (Bluyssen, 2013: figure 3.5).

reduce distance and to concentrate sound. However, not all noise was welcome
though: like bad air, it can be something that we would rather do without.
Noise or unwanted auditory experience became an important aspect of practical
acoustics in the 1970s. It was considered a form of environmental pollution
and noise control developed into a major branch of acoustical engineering.
Acoustical quality is influenced by noise from outside, indoors, vibrations, etc.
Noise protection, noise insulation from noise outdoors but also indoors are very
important issues, especially because we know how important a good night sleep
is for our health. Noise has been associated with direct and indirect stress
reactions. Annoyance is an important aspect in this mechanism (see Figure 4).
Noiseexposure(soundlevel)
High

Moderate

Directpathway

Hearingloss

Indirectpathway

Disturbanceof
ac;vi;es,sleep,
communica;on
Cogni;veand
emo;onalresponse
HPAaxis

Figure 4
Annoyance

Noise effects reaction schema

(Bluyssen, 2013: figure 3.3).

It seems that noise effects do not only occur at high sound levels, but also
at relatively low environmental sound levels, when certain activities such as
concentration, relaxation or sleep are disturbed. In office buildings major indoor
sources of noise are HVAC (Heating, Ventilating and Air conditioning) systems
and people (colleagues). Control over noise in an office environment has been
significantly (negatively) related with discomfort (Bluyssen et al., 2011). In
homes, major sources are noise from neighbours and noise from outside such
as noise from traffic.
7

2.2 Indoor environment and control

Over the years, control of indoor environmental factors has merely focused
on the prevention or curing of different related observed physical effects
in a mostly isolated way: thus trying to find solutions for thermal comfort,
lighting quality, sound quality and air quality separately. Table 1 shows an
overview of the indoor environmental parameters per indoor environmental
factor with which some form of control can be performed. Additionally, the
control measures are presented.
Table 1 Indoor environmental factors, parameters and control (Bluyssen, 2009).
Thermal
comfort

Lighting quality Acoustical

quality

Air quality

Parameters

Temperature
(air and radiant)
Relative Humidity
Air velocity
Turbulence
intensity
Activity and
clothing

Luminance and
illuminance
Reflectance(s)
Colour
temperature and
colour index
View and daylight
Frequencies

Sound level(s)
Frequencies
Duration
Absorption
characteristics
Sound insulation
Reverberation
time

Pollution
sources and air
concentrations
Types of
pollutants
(allergic,
irritational,
carcinogenic,
etc.)
Ventilation rate
and efficiency

Control

Heating,
cooling and
air-conditioning
systems
Design of
building (e.g.
insulation,
faade)

Luminance
distribution
Integration
artificial and
natural lighting
Daylight entrance

Acoustical control
Passive noise
control
Active noise
control

Source control
Ventilation
systems
Maintenance
Air cleaning
Activity control

The best way to control exposure to pollutants (air quality) is to perform source
control (i.e. to minimize the emission of either primary or secondary pollutants
to the air which we are exposed to). Besides source control there are three other
ways to control the exposure, directly or indirectly: ventilation, air cleaning and
activity control (e.g. designating smoking areas in a non-smoking building).
Thermal comfort can be controlled by the design of the building (e.g. insulation,
type of materials, etc.). However, in general so-called heating, cooling and
air-conditioning systems are applied in divers combinations. Heating can be
provided through convection, conduction, radiation and air systems. Regulation
of relative humidity can be provided through (de)humidification systems via an
air conditioning system or locally. In addition, one can adjust ones clothing and
type of activities.
8

Comfortable light doesnt cause blinding (through lighting systems or direct

sun light), or flickering or stroboscopic effects and glare (e.g. from computer
screen), and produces good colour impressions, with no reflection and an equal
distribution of light. Positioning and intensity of lighting systems, surface area
treatment (e.g. mat surface area and colours), solar screens and solar reflecting
glazing are means to achieve this. Comfortable light also signifies controllability
and healthy light (day-night rhythm). The latter can be provided by offering the
right variation on light intensity and colour temperature on the right time. With
automatic or manual dimming or intensifying of light, an appropriate integration
of artificial light and daylight can be achieved.
Control strategies can be performed to prevent noise from entering a space or
approaching a person, or to make the space perform better acoustically. With
respect to the latter besides the reverberation time and the speech-background
noise ratio, speech audibility is influenced by the speaker, the communication
channel and the listener. Speech intelligibility can therefore be augmented by
improving the speech-background noise ratio, by shortening the reverberation
time, and by improving the clarity and loudness of speech. By introducing
absorbing material and/or decreasing the volume, the reverberation time can
me shortened. Introduction of absorption material also decreases the sound
pressure level and suppresses echoing. Prevention or reduction of noise entering
a space can be established by preventing/closing of sound leaks, prevention or
reduction of contact sound transmission, and/or applying active (noise) control.

3. Indoor environment and health

There are many indoor stressors (e.g. thermal factors, lighting aspects,
moisture, mould, noise and vibration, radiation, smell, chemical
compounds, particulates) that can cause their effects additively or through
complex interactions (synergistic or antagonistic). It has been shown that
exposure to these stressors can cause both short-term and long-term
effects (Bluyssen, 2013).
Indoor air pollutants can:
- Be odorous and lead to annoyance or pleasure.
- Stimulate the trigeminal nerve endings in nose and eyes, causing irritation.
- Disrupt endocrine function.
- Cause oxidative stress, inflammatory and allergic responses.
- Induce cell alterations and even cell death.

Thermal stress occurs when one is not able to regulate its thermal balance
or when one believes or perceives it isnt possible. The psychological effect
of expectations and the perceived individual level of control seems important.
However, recent studies indicate that increased exposure to thermal neutral
conditions might be related to increased adiposity. Additionally, it has been
shown that the thermal environment can affect sleep, specifically the REM
(Rapid eye movement) sleep.
Radiation (light) wrongly used or exposed can be looked upon from several
angles:
- Visual discomfort, which can lead to eyestrain.
- Improper lighting, that can cause disturbance of the circadian rhythm.
- Damage of eye and skin through both photochemical and thermal mechanisms.
- 
Different colours can directly affect an individuals impression of the
environmental parameters thermal comfort, sound and light.
Noise is typically defined as an unwanted sound or combinations of sounds
that may adversely affect people. The mechanisms of physiological damage
from noise is not completely understood, but several mechanisms have been
demonstrated:
- 
Traffic noise exposure has been associated with changes in stress
hormone levels, with cardio-vascular changes, and has been related to the
parasympathetic and sympathetic balance.
- Road traffic noise has been identified as a major cause of sleep disturbance.
- Oxidative stress in chronic noise exposure leading to noise induced hearing loss.
- Acoustic trauma causing mechanical disruption of the cochlea, which may
result in permanent hearing loss.
Previous studies have shown that the relationships between indoor building
conditions and wellbeing (health and comfort) of occupants are complex. In
office buildings, a whole range of effects have been associated with these
stressors such as Sick Building Syndrome (SBS), building related illnesses and
productivity loss. People in the Western world in general spend 80-90% of their
time indoors. And the increased asthma prevalence in most countries in the
past decades, it has become the first chronic disease in childhood, seems to put
a finger to the indoor environment of schools and homes. More recent studies
have indicated that indoor building conditions may be associated with mental
health effects (Houtman et al., 2008), illnesses that take longer to manifest (e.g.
cardiovascular disease and lung cancer) (Lewtas, 2007), a variety of asthmarelated health outcomes (Fisk et al. 2007) or obesity (Bonnefoy et al. 2004).

10

4. Gaps
Why do we have still do not have this under control? Even after more
than 100 years of R&D. To my opinion there are at least two major gaps
contributing to an explanation for this situation.
4.1 Standards and end-users wishes and needs
On the one hand: A gap or lack of knowledge shown by the discrepancy
between standard and end-users wishes and needs! Even though standards
are met, complaints and symptoms occur. Why and how do people respond,
and which indicators can be used is thus an important question to answer.
Human exposure to environmental factors (such as indoor air compounds)
occurs mainly through the senses. Receptors in our nervous system receive
sensory information as sensations via the eyes, ears, nose and skin, enhanced
by bodily processes such as inhalation, ingestion and skin contacts. Most of us
are familiar with several reactions of the human body to certain stimuli such as
sweating when warm, closing/narrowing your eyes with a sharp light, covering
your ears with loud noise and temporarily stop breathing with a bad smell,
allergic reactions to pollen or even certain inflammation and infection defence
mechanisms of the immune system upon an injury of the epithelium (the skin
of an organ).
In addition to the stimuli that can be processed by our sensory system, the
environment affects us in other ways, which are not always recognisable to us
and which we are not (immediate) conscious of. The latter stimuli can cause
changes in our physiological and psychological state. These changes can be
harmful to our physical state of wellbeing on the long term even though the
exposed levels are well below current set threshold levels. External stress
factors seem to be able to result in both mental and physical effects.
As was shown many control strategies for these parameters have been
implemented in order to minimise or prevent possible diseases and disorders
of the human body and its components. Only in the last decades of the 20th
century an attempt was made through epidemiological studies to approach the
indoor environment in a holistic way. The scientific approach towards evaluating
and creating a healthy and comfortable indoor environment developed from a
component-related to a bottom-up holistic approach that tried simply to add the
different components. Performance concepts and indicators emerged, including
not only environmental parameters but also possible associated variables such
as characteristics of buildings. New methods of investigating IEQ from different
perspectives were introduced. Nevertheless, control strategies were still focused
11

on a component basis. Even though these control strategies are currently being
applied, complaints and symptoms related to the indoor environment still occur.

The health and comfort indicators we are today familiar with can be divided in
three groups of indicators:
- 
The occupant or end-user: such as sick leave, productivity, number of
symptoms or complaints, health adjusted life indicators or specific building
related illnesses.
- The dose or environmental parameter: concentrations of certain pollutants,
indicators such as ventilation rate or CO2 concentration, temperature and
n though these control
strategies
are currently being applied, complaints and symptoms related to
lighting
intensity.
ndoor environment still occur.
- The building and its components: certain characteristics of a building and its
components,
possibility
growth
of buildings
health and comfort
indicators wesuch
are as
today
familiar for
withmould
can be
dividedorineven
threelabelling
groups of
or its components.
cators:

The occupant or end-user: such as sick leave, productivity, number of symptoms or complaints,
health adjusted life
or specific
building related
illnesses.one (dose or environment parameter
Ofindicators
these groups
of indicators,
the second
The dose or environmental parameter: concentrations of certain pollutants, indicators such as
indicators)temperature
is used and
most
frequently
lighting
intensity.in guidelines and standards as
ventilation rate orrelated
CO2 concentration,
as in the certain
commercial
building
used at
national
level
The building andwell
its components:
characteristics
of a assessment
building and itstools
components,
such
as
possibility for mould
or even
labelling
buildings
or on
its components.
and growth
in some
cases
moreof and
more
international level, such as BREEAM

(BRE Environmental Assessment Method) in the UK (www.breeam.org), LEED

hese groups of indicators, the second one (dose or environment parameter related indicators) is
Energy
andasEnvironmental
Design) in building
the USAassessment
(www.usgbc.org),
most frequently(Leadership
in guidelinesinand
standards
well as in the commercial
System forlevel,
Builtsuch
Environment
used at nationalCASBEE
level and (Comprehensive
in some cases more Assessment
and more on international
as BREEAMEfficiency)
E Environmentalin Assessment
Method) in the
UKGreen
(www.breeam.org),
LEED
(Leadership in
Japan (www.ibec.or.jp)
and
Globes in Canada
(www.greenglobes.com).
gy and Environmental Design) in the USA (www.usgbc.org), CASBEE (Comprehensive
ssment System for Built Environment Efficiency) in Japan (www.ibec.or.jp) and Green Globes in
But the dose-response mechanisms are not straightforward. Ventilation rate is
ada (www.greenglobes.com).

a good example of this. For most of the 20th century, appropriate ventilation
the dose-responsewas
mechanisms
are not
Ventilation
rate is a acceptable
good exampleindoor
of this. air quality.
considered
to straightforward.
be the only means
to create
century, appropriate ventilation
was considered
to bewere
the only
means to
create related to
most of the 20th Recommendations
for good indoor
air quality
therefore
always
ptable indoor air quality. Recommendations for good indoor air quality were therefore always
rate.
Based
either
CO2 for
as bioeffluents
an indicatororfor
or on certain
as an
indicator
on bioeffluents
certain emissions
ed to ventilation ventilation
rate. Based on
either
CO2 on
of building
materials,
rates discussed
have been
uilding materials,emissions
minimum ventilation
rates
have beenminimum
discussed ventilation
and are still being
for discussed
ost two hundred years
now still
(Figure
5). discussed for almost two hundred years now (Figure 5).
and are
being

ventilation rate (l/s per person)

20
17,5
15
12,5
10
7,5

Figure 5 The recommended

5
2,5
0
1825

minimum ventilation rate

1850

1875

1900

1925 1950
year

1975

2000

2025

over the years (Bluyssen,

2009: figure 5.2).

gure 5 The recommended minimum ventilation rate over the years (Bluyssen, 2009: figure 5.2).
12
ng into the literature of several fields of research it is clear that the relations between the stressors,
mechanisms that take place in the human body causing the diseases and disorders, are very

Diving into the literature of several fields of research it is clear that the relations
between the stressors, the mechanisms that take place in the human body
causing the diseases and disorders, are very complex. Response mechanisms of
the human systems are being studied extensively. Roughly those mechanisms
can be divided into two categories: mechanisms originating with the endocrine
system (anti-stress mechanism, disturbance of sleep-awake rhythm and
endocrine disruption) and mechanisms originating with the immune system
(oxidative stress, inflammation and cell death and changes), afterwards
affecting other bodily systems.
For all of the bodily processes to function properly, integration and regulation
is required, which is established through information transfer of our endocrine
system (hormones), electrical signalling in our nervous system and transport
processes between and in cells or over larger distances via blood and urine. Via
hormones, the processes to regulate for example the sleep-awake rhythm and
reproduction are controlled. The nervous system assures that the body activities
and reaction to stimuli are regulated properly via perception and behavioural
processes. To protect the human body from the external environment, we are
equipped with layered protection mechanisms. The central nervous system
(CNS) is responsible for the integration of it all.
While psycho-social stressors are mainly involved in the anti-stress mechanism
and to some extent in the disruption of sleep-awake rhythm, the physical
stressors have in general more relations. It seems that those stress mechanisms
are triggered by more than one parameter or even factor (Figure 6).
Stressors

Noise
Indoor air
quality

Stress mechanisms

Diseases &
Disorders

Anti-stress

Depression

Circadian rhythm

Obesity

Endocrine disruption

Diabetes

Lighting
quality

Oxidative stress

Thermal
comfort

Inflammation,
irritation
Cell changes/death

Chronic respiratory
diseases
Cardiovascular
diseases
Cancers

Figure 6 Possible associations between stressors, mechanisms

and diseases & disorders (Bluyssen, 2013: figure 1.3).

13

Besides the mechanisms and interactions at human level, interactions at

parameter, building and environmental level are far from clear as well. These
interactions as well as the risk factors responsible for a certain health effect
are important to consider in order to get the complete picture. Basically, the
following interactions determine how well you feel, how healthy you are and
how comfortable you are at a certain moment in time, and determine your
interaction with your environment over time (Figure 7):
- Interactions at human level: Receiving information (sensations) can
be looked upon from the physiology of the human body and/or from the
psychological point of view. Interactions occur on both levels. Interactions
between people should not be forgotten; those interactions can also have a
significant effect on the physical and psychological state of a human being in
the indoor environment.
- Interactions at indoor environmental parameter level: Important
interactions are for example chemical reactions between pollutants in the air
and microbiological growth at indoor surfaces. Important interactions with
the outdoor environment are for example noise from outdoors, fine dust and
biological lighting.
- Interactions at building level: Interactions between elements of the building
and between the building and the environment, such as interaction of the
building with the ground it is build on (the foundation), interaction of outdoor
environment with building (protection and transmission characteristics of
the facade) and interaction of building with indoor environment (such as
maintenance and emission of the indoor surfaces and the lighting, heating,
cooling and ventilation systems that are integrated in the faade or not).
Human being

Physical and
physiology

Mental and
psychological

Parameters
indoors
Indoor
chemistry
microbiological growth

(fine) dust

Building and
elements

External
environment

Integrated
systems

Ageing
population
Multifunctional society

Smart
Control

Climate
change and
related issues

Conscious
and
unconscious

Noise and
vibrations

Flexible
bearing
construction

Metaphysics

Health and
Comfort

Healthy
lighting

Indoor
surfaces

Risk
assessment

Figure 7 Interactions at different levels (Bluyssen, 2009: figure 9.1).

14

4.2 Building process

On the other hand: A discrepancy is seen between what end-users want/
need and what they get, points not only to a lack of knowledge but also
to an inefficient or wrong use of existing knowledge. The question How
can existing knowledge be applied efficiently during the whole life cycle
of a building? seems therefore just as important to get more insight in
this complexity. Besides the discrepancy between standards and end-users
wishes and needs, there also seems to be a discrepancy between what endusers want and what they get. This is often blamed to be related to the complex
communication (Figure 8) and the fragmented structure of the building sector
(Figure 9), leading to lack of coherency, lack of life cycle orientation and slow
take-up of innovation.
Maintenance

Investment

Space

As the investor
visualised it

How the Maintainer

would like to have it

Miscom-

Occupation

Regulation

munication in

Construction

the building
process?

As the regulator has

visualised it

Figure 8

How the occupant

would like to have it

(Bluyssen,
2009:
figure 8.1).

As the contractor has made it

Raw material
industry
National
Authorities

Processing
industry
Local
Authorities
Building components
industry

Advisors (systems,
structure, etc..)

Trade

Sub-contractors
Project
dependent

Traditional
building sector

Building
contractors

Project
independent

Figure 9

Architect

stakeholders
and relations
(Bluysen,

Owner/client

2009:
End-user

figure 8.4).

15

Answers should be found in the way communication takes place in the building
process, lead by the different stakes of the stakeholders involved. The dynamic
process of designing, constructing and managing the indoor environment,
involves many stakeholders, such as the investor, owner, the end-user, the
contractor, sub-contractors, local authorities and pressure groups, but also the
persons that maintain the indoor environment. If those stakeholders do not
understand each other, problems can occur. But answers can also be found in
the fragmented structure of the buildings sector, leading to lack of coherency
and slow take-up of innovation. In other words, the general awareness of what
indoor environmental quality is, how you can improve it and who should or can
undertake actions, is poor. That this is a fact was confirmed in the European
project named Healthy Air. In HealthyAir, 105 parties comprising of producers
of construction products, architects and designers and housing corporations in
six countries and in EU were interviewed. They were asked among others about
their knowledge on indoor air quality and what they do to realise good indoor
air quality. Most of the interviewees did not consider IAQ to be a priority, and
did not know how to improve it or who should undertake this. They didnt see
it as their responsibility. From the research performed was shown that this was
related to the fact that they were not aware of the importance. It was concluded
that most of the interviewed persons did not even know the meaning of air
quality i.e. what specific aspects one would share under the general term air
quality (Bluyssen et al. 2010).

4.3 Drivers
In addition to the gaps presented we can also see that the drivers for health
and comfort in the indoor environment are different from 100 years ago,
leading to an increase in complexity. We see (Figure 10):
- Climate change resulting in serious energy-efficient measures for the built
environment that can certainly have an effect on health and comfort of the
indoor environment.
- Change from family-oriented to multifunctional and divers society.
- Individualization/Ageing population leading to other/new needs and demands.
- New products and materials leading new emissions and other behavior.
Keeping to our old ways of assessing things, will therefore certainly not be
enough. We need to adapt our current assessment and designing methods as
well. Well-being (health and comfort) is an important aspect determining the
quality of life of an occupant. In late 1980s and during the 1990s, the WHO
concept of health, became significant for identifying the concept of a healthy
building in terms of building performances (i.e., indoor air quality, thermal
16

comfort, lighting quality and acoustics). A healthy building is free of hazardous

material (e.g., lead and asbestos) and capable of fostering health and comfort of
the occupants during its entire life cycle, supporting social needs and enhancing
productivity. Human health and comfort needs are recognized as priorities. In
addition a healthy building should be ready for the future, adaptable to new
drivers such as climate change, the change towards a multifunctional and
diverse society, the increasing individualisation and the observed change in the
type of end-users wishes and demands.

Construc5onindustry

Indoor
environment

Society

Ageing&Individualisa:on

Regulators

Endusers

Newproductsandmaterials

Climatechange:energyecientbuildings

Figure 10 Drivers are different

from 100 years ago (Bluyssen,

Mul:func:onalanddiverssociety

2013: figure 8.3).

5. Needs and opportunities

5.1 A different view
To cope with these gaps and changes we need a different view on IEQ.
The current view only considers single-dose relationships. Our current
standards are focussed mainly on single-dose responses. With the
exception of health-threatening stimuli, the complexity and number of
indoor environmental parameters as well as lack of knowledge make a
performance assessment using only threshold levels for single parameters
difficult and even meaningless.
Most standards are based on averaged data and do not take into account the
fact that buildings, individuals and their activities may differ widely and change
continuously; not every person receives, perceives and responds in the same
way. This is due to physical, physiological and psychological differences but also
to differences in personal experience, context and situation. Considering both
the numerous indoor stimuli and the lack of a solid scientific basis, it appears
implausible to make the final and complex integrating step.
17

On top of that, in practice these regulations are very difficult to comply with
(measurement in homes cannot be performed on a regular base and the
concentration as well as the types of for example indoor pollutants may vary
widely as a function of both time and space). And it is seen that the indoor
environmental quality as experienced by the occupants is often not acceptable
and even unhealthy, even if standards and guidelines for those individual
environmental parameters are met.
For the assessment of health and comfort risks of people have when staying
indoors, it is clear that a different approach or procedure seems inescapable. A
different view on IEQ could help to better understand the indoor environment
and the effects on people. A view in which IEQ is approached in an integrative
multi-disciplinary way, taking account of possible problems, interactions, people
and effects, focusing on situations rather than single components (Figure 11).

Figure 11 A different view on indoor environment quality (Bluyssen, 2013: figure 7.1).

How we evaluate and respond to our environment does not only depend on the
external stressors involved (physical and psycho-social), but also on personal
factors and processes that occur over time (memory and learning) influenced
by past events and episodes. They all determine the way external stressors are
handled at the moment or over time. Indoor environmental (external) stressors
that can cause comfort and health effects are represented by the environmental
factors and psycho-social factors, such as working and personal relationships,
as well as factors such as sex, whether we smoke, genetics, age, etc. It is clear
that all relevant stressors and factors of influence that may affect well-being can
be potentially important to consider when an attempt is made to pinpoint the
effects caused by different stressors (or combination of stressors). In Figure 12
a compilation of these stressors and factors is presented.
18

Confoundersandmodiers
Pastexposures&episodes
learningeects
Pastandfutureevents
behavioralcondi:oning

Environment
Physical
Characteris:csbuilding,
systemsandrooms
Characteris:csbuilt
environment
Processestomaintain
andoperate

Psychosocial
Characteris:csand
processesofthepsycho
socialworking
environment

Statesandtraits
OtherPersonalfactors
Otherfactors

Stressors
Physical
Ligh:ng
Thermalcomfort
Noise
Airquality
Ergonomics

Psychosocial
Discreteandchronic
events:
Atwork
Duringcommu:ng
AtHome

Figure 12 Stressors, factors, causes and effects

(Bluyssen, 2013: figure 4.1).

Eects
Physicalstate
(perceived)health
symptoms
(perceived)comfort
complaints
Behaviour

Psychologicalstate
Moodemo:onalstate
Traitspersonality

Physiologicalstate
Nervoussystem
Immunesystem
Endocrinesystem

5.2 Other assessment methods and indicators

As a consequence, besides a different view on IEQ, it is important to consider
other assessment methods and indicators. Other indicators that can be
related to health and comfort of occupants. Moreover, indicators that can
be used to turn negative effects around into a positive experience. If we are
serious about improving the indoor environmental quality, indoor stressors
are important as a means to prevent possible harm but opportunities to
contribute in a positive manner, should not be overlooked.
Methods applied in IEQ investigations vary from an epidemiological approach, in
which questionnaires and health/comfort data may be used either in combination
or not with biomarker sample collection (e.g. blood, urine), field studies in
which in general a smaller sample of persons is studied in combination with
environmental inventories, to laboratory studies in which persons or animals are
exposed to controlled environmental conditions. Health and comfort data are
then combined with information on characteristics of the indoor environment in
order to find relations. However, other risk factors that may cause psychological
or physiological stress (e.g. major life events), individual differences caused by
19

personal factors (e.g. states and traits), or history and context can all affect
the outcome that is being studied. These factors are taken into account only to
a limited extent in current methods commonly applied to identify relationships
between health and comfort of people and the physical environment.
It is clear that methods focused on the control of single environmental factors
with the so-called dose or environmental indicators are not enough. To recall:
we have three categories of indicators that can be used: the occupant or enduser, the dose or environmental parameter and the building and its components.
In the category building and it components certain measures or characteristics
of a building, so-called short cuts have been used. In a short-cut, the building
characteristics (such as having an HVAC system) or measures taken (such as
a maintenance or cleaning schedule) are directly related to comfort or health
responses of occupants. And in the category occupants, emphasis is being put
on indicators that can give us information on the effects of stress. Indicators
that can tell us something on changes in the bodily systems and experience
of people are being searched for. People have been directly asked how they
experience their environment (mood profiling), panels of trained persons have
been used to evaluate air quality (for example from a air filter), assessments
with fMRI (functional magnetic resonance imaging) scans to measure changes
in blood flow in the brain have been made, and even assessments at cell level
such as gene profiling are showing potential as an indicator to be used (Figure 13).
fMRI-scan: blood flow
(Tom Hartley))

Cell-level: gene expression

(Hans Bluyssen)

Questionnaire: mood
(P. Desmet)
Smelling a filter
(P.Bluyssen)

Figure 13 Potential methods for IEQ assessment (Bluyssen, 2013).

(Sources: Tom Hartley, Department of Psychology, The University of York; Hans A.R.
Bluyssen: www.lhmg.amu.edu.pl; P.Desmet, Faculty of Industrial Design, TU Delft)

20

5.3 A practical approach

It is also clear that we cannot wait until we fully understand all the interactions
or mechanisms taking place between the sources that produce/cause the
stimuli, among the stimuli, and between the stimuli and the exposed
persons. To be able to perform a situational analysis, not only the right
package of information is required but also the right model or algorithm.
A model that is suitable for determining patterns and interactions, and take
account of dynamic behaviour.
The built indoor environment is considered a system with sub-systems that
do matter, but the system will only function if all sub-systems (components)
are optimised along with the total system, whether this is related to health,
comfort or sustainability issues (see Figure 14). Systems thinking is contextual
(Capra, 1996). Translating this thinking to the built environment, this means
that situations or scenarios are important. People differ in their responses,
environments differ in their conditions. For different scenarios, different
interactions occur between different factors of importance. Patterns of factors
or indicators seem therefore important to identify, even though those patterns
are likely to change over time, creating new patterns. To be able to understand
the patterns of concern in the built environment, different scenarios thus need
to be studied. Other important aspects of patterns and their interactions, are
the feedback concept and the fact that the relationships in a network pattern
are in general nonlinear. A network pattern is capable of self-organization.

Figure 14 The Building as a system (Bluyssen, 2013: figure 9.1).

More than 40% of our residential buildings have been constructed before
the 1960s, when energy building regulations were very limited. Due to their
age most of them require retrofitting or refurbishment. Retrofitting has been
identified as the most immediate and cost effective mechanism to reduce
21

energy consumption and carbon emissions in the building and construction

sector (E2APT, 2010). Moreover, to meet EU energy performance targets set by
the 2007 Energy Action Plan and the 20-20-20 targets adopted, it is necessary
to double or triple the current retrofitting rate of 1.2 to 1.4 % to reach the
short and long term goals of an energy reduction of 20% by 2020 and a CO2
emissions reduction of between 80-95% by 2050 (EU, 2010). So, we are in need
for a practical approach! We have no time to waste.
5.4 Different roles and processes
The challenge of today lies in the accomplishment of sustainable and low-energy
built environment and at the same time healthy, comfortable, accessible and
safe built environment. Health and sustainability are interrelated in many ways.
In the built environment a major reduction of the fossil fuel consumption should
be achieved in order to meet the Kyoto targets. The existing stock is however,
far from the currently discussed low-energy standards. Additional, the path
towards future low- energy use, or even energy autonomy or energy-positive
buildings is seriously hampered by the fear of introducing a negative impact on
human health. No consensus understanding of this relationship between energy
efficiency and IEQ exists.
This emerging fact, requires a multidisciplinary interactive top-down approach
to facilitate the (re)design, construction, maintenance and operation of an
indoor environment, in which the architect as well as the other stakeholders
fulfil a new or different role. There is a need for a set of optimised processes
that can be applied throughout the life cycle of the systems created by
humans through the involvement of all interested parties (stakeholders) with
the ultimate goal of achieving customer satisfaction. The different processes,
which need to be coordinated and communicated properly, can help to identify
goals and objectives, stakeholders and their values, risks and opportunities, and
possible solutions, methods and measures to be taken. An interactive top-down
approach allows for a holistic and integrative management during the entire
life-cycle of a building from initiation to breakdown. Holistic, in this perspective,
means focused on the requirements of the end-user, in such a way that all
aspects and interactions between end-user and environment and the other way
round, are taken into account.

22

6. Ambition
My ambition is to establish an integrated research & education programme on
Understanding and managing the indoor environment, in which is dealt with
all the needs presented, in due time. A programme for future architects that
can help them to fulfill the required multidisciplinary coordinating role in the
building industry on the one hand and the creation of truly sustainable buildings
during the whole life-cycle on the other. The development of an integrated
approach towards risk assessment of indoor environment quality, based on the
assumption that the indoor environment is more than the sum of its parts, and
that its assessment has to start from human beings rather than benchmarks
(of single-dose relationships), will form the basis to realize this ambition.
To accomplish the integrated research and educational programme, one of the
first steps to be taken will be the creation of a Senselab: a semi-lab environment
in which people, students, teachers, researchers, but also the general public,
will be able to experience different environmental conditions in order to better
understand the indoor environment.
6.1 Research
The answering of the following questions can contribute to this understanding
of the indoor environment:
1. Mechanisms - Human model: How and when do people respond to external stressors? To be more successful in determining the health and
comfort effects of certain indoor environmental aspects it seems essential to
understand the mechanisms behind how and why people respond to external
stressors.
2. Assessment - indicators: Which parameters or indicators and assessment
methods can be used to explain the effects or responses? The next step is
then to determine which parameters or indicators can be used to explain
these responses and how to assess those. When the picture is more clear,
procedures can be improved in such a way that the chances to successfully
assess the effects caused by different stressors (or combination of stressors)
increase.
3. Analysis - risk/opportunity model: Is it possible to define a risk/opportunity
model for health and comfort in the indoor environment? Depending on the
scenario and the profile of the occupant of concern, patterns and interactions
of cause-effect relationships need to be established, starting with the
indicators of both causes and effects and the assessment protocols. To be
able to perform such a situational analysis, the right model or algorithm is
required.

23

4. Practical approach - framework/verification matrix and a set of processes:

What do we need to make optimal choices, also in relation to other values
(e.g. sustainability, affordability), which can be implemented efficiently?
6.2 Education
Next to this understanding of the indoor environment, we also need to make
others understand that indoor environment and make certain, the knowledge
acquired is implemented in the right way. Two books have been written to
support this creation of awareness and will be made available for the educational
programme at bachelor and/or masters level:
- 
The Indoor Environment Handbook - How to make buildings healthy and
comfortable (Bluyssen, 2009).
- The Healthy Indoor Environment - How to assess occupants wellbeing in
building (forthcoming) (Bluyssen, 2013).
I strongly believe a multi-disciplinary approach is needed in the building industry
to create sustainable buildings. At national, European and world-wide level, it is
acknowledged that a healthy and comfortable indoor environment is important
for the quality of life, now and in the future. The architect will need to have
a more than ever coordinating role in this approach as the overall systems
engineer, with a basic multi-disciplinary knowledge and integrating capabilities.
This new role requires a multi-disciplinary educational program with strong
cooperation within and outside of the university.

24

References
Bluyssen, P.M., Oliveira Fernandes, E. de, Groes, L., Clausen, G.H., Fanger, P.O.,
Valbjrn, O., Bernhard, C.A., Roulet, C.A. (1996) European Audit project to
optimize indoor air quality and energy consumption in office buildings, Indoor
Air Journal 6: 221-38.
Bluyssen, P.M. (2009) The Indoor Environment Handbook: How to make
buildings healthy and comfortable, Earthscan, London, UK.
Bluyssen, P.M., Richemont, de S., Crump, D., Maupetit, F., Witterseh, T., Gajdos,
P. (2010) Actions to reduce the impact of construction products on indoor air:
outcomes of the European project HealthyAir, Indoor and Built Environment 19:
327-39.
Bluyssen, P.M., Aries, M., van Dommelen, P. (2011) Perceived comfort in office
buildings: the European HOPE project, Building and Environment 46: 280-8.
Bluyssen, P.M. (2013) The healthy indoor environment: How to assess
occuppants wellbeing in buildings, Taylor & Francis, forthcoming by Earthscan
from Routledge.
Bonnefoy, X.R., Annesi-Maesona, I., Aznar, L.M., Braubachi, M., Croxford,
B., Davidson, M., Ezratty, V., Fredouille, J., Ganzalez-Gross, M., van Kamp,
I., Maschke, C., Mesbah, M., Moisonnier, B., Monolbaev, K., Moore, R., Nicol,
S., Niemann, H., Nygren, C., Ormandy, D., Rbbel, N., and Rudnai, P. (2004)
Review of evidence on housing and health, Fourth Ministerial Conference on
Environment and Health, Budapest, Hungary, 23-25 June 2004.
Capra, F. (1996) The Web of Life: A new scientific understanding of living
systems, New York: Anchor books.
De Dear R. and Brager, G. (2002) Thermal comfort in naturally ventilated
buildings: revisions to ASHRAE standard 55, Energy and Buildings 34 (6).
E2APT (2010) The fundamental importance of building in Future EU Energy
Savings Policies, Energy Efficiency Action Plan Taskforce of the Construction
Sector (Assessed at October 29, 2012) http://euroace.org/LinkClick.aspx?filetic
ket=IYFmSEm7faM%3D&tabid=159
EU (2010) Towards a new energy strategy for Europe 2011-2010, Council document
http://ec.europa.eu/energy/strategies/consultations/doc/2010_07_02/
2010_07_02_energy_strategy.pdf. Assessed at October 29, 2012.
Fisk, W.J., Lei-Gomez Q., M.J. Mendell (2007) Meta-analysis of the associations
of respiratory health effects with dampness and mold in homes, Indoor Air,
17(40), 284-296.
Hawkes, D. (2008) The environmental imagination, technics and poetics of the
architectural environment, Routledge, Taylor & Francis group, UK.
Hinson, J., Raven, P., Chew, S. (2010) The endocrine system, second edition,
Systems of the body, Churchill livingstone Elsevier, printed in China.

25

Houtman, I., Douwes, M., de Jong, T., et al. (2008) New forms of physical
and psychological health risks at work, European Parliament, Policy department Economic and scientific policy, IP/A/EMPF/ST/2007-19, PE 408.569,
Brussels, Belgium.
Lewtas, J. (2007) Air pollution combustion emissions: Characterization of
causative agents and mechanisms associated with cancer, reproductive,
and cardiovascular effects: The Sources and Potential Hazards of Mutagens
in Complex Environmental Matrices - Part II. Mutation Research/Reviews in
Mutation Research 636, 95-133.
Marken Lichtenbelt, van W.D., Vanhommerig, J.W., Smulders, N.M., Drossaerts,
B.S., Kemerink, G.J., Bouvy, N.D., Schrauwen, P., Teule, G.J.J. (2009) Coldactivated brown adipose tissue in healthy men, The New England Journal of
Medicine, 360: 1500-8.
Miedema, H.M.E., Vos H. (2003) Noise sensitivity and reactions to noise and
other environmental conditions, J. Acoust. Soc. Am. 113: 1492-1504.
Pallasmaa, J. (2005) The eyes of the skin, Academic editions, London, 1996.
Revised edition, Wiley Academy, Chichester, UK.

26

Personal note
A very long time ago, I was born and raised in Nijmegen with a father at
the physics department of the University of Nijmegen, and a mother as an
independent artist. Perhaps this combination of their mathematics and art
genes, made me choose Architecture and Building engineering in Eindhoven.
Who knows.
Although initially, my dream was to design and create modern buildings and
furniture ala Corbusier, inspired by lectures of Professor Vorenkamp on the
thermo-physiological models of big names such as Gagge, Fanger and Stolwijk,
I managed to get my further education with at least two of those big names:
Stolwijk during a working period at Yale University and Fanger at the Technical
University of Denmark, where I received my PhD on air quality evaluated by a
trained panel. Just before my time in Denmark came to an end, I was scouted
by TNO at an Indoor Air conference in Toronto, Canada, and a few months later
I started in Delft as a young researcher, which to my surprise is more than 22
years ago. At TNO, the management of multi-partner & multi-disciplinary EU
R&D projects became my speciality, set-off by the First EU funded project on
indoor air quality and energy consumption, in which a trained panel of people
to evaluate the indoor air quality was applied in 56 office buildings all over
Europe. This project was not only the first EU funded project in this area, but
it brought about a lot of interest. The Press got literally wild by the idea of
using a trained panel to evaluate indoor air quality. They came from all over the
place to interview and to even film. The wall street journal, het Parool, NRC,
Telegraaf, radio and television: Beyond 2000 from Australia, Astrid Joosten from
the Netherlands, The European Journal.you name it.
At TNO I got the opportunity to extend my knowledge in assessment of indoor
environment quality, not only indoor air quality but also other aspects of that
indoor environment, during more than twenty years in numerous EU projects.
I got experienced in knowledge management and road mapping, in the Center
of Building and Systems (a cooperation between the Technical university of
Eindhoven and TNO), but also at European Level, assisting with the creation
of the first contours of the European Construction Technology Platform and
later the E2B (Energy efficient building) platform. And I got the opportunity to
be part of knowledge transfer or rather valorization of the knowledge gained
in standardization work at European level for which I was hired by the former
named Ministry of Housing, Spatial planning and the Environment. Which was
not easy I can tell you. It is a profession in itself. What turned out to be much
less complex was the writing of the award winning book The Indoor environment

27

handbook: How to make buildings Healthy and comfortable. The book I had
wanted myself when I was studying Architecture and Building engineering.
At the end of 2011, by coincidence, I noticed an advertisement for a female
fellowship at the website of the TU Delft. I figured, if you dont try you will
never win, so I sat down and wrote my ideas down. Less than half a year later,
at May 15 to be exact, I was appointed! And from October 1, 2012 I started
as a young professor, which deep in my heart has been my dream since I was
very young.
I would like to thank the Delft Technology fellowship for Top female scientists
that they created the chair Indoor Environment. I feel very fortunate to got the
opportunity to be part of this initiative. And then of course I would like to thank
all my old colleagues from TNO, and new colleagues from The Delft University
of technology, but also all those other colleagues all around the world, who gave
me the inspiration and strength in the last two decades or so, to keep going
in the direction I have sketched in this booklet. Also thanks to my father and
mother who have always supported me no matter what, my brother Hans who
will soon also accept the same title in Poland, my family and friends. But it is
without doubt to say, that my husband and children suffered the most from this
time consuming hobby: doing research, writing books, etc. Because thats how
I see it most of the time. Without their support and endurance, it wouldnt have
been possible to even spend all those so-called free hours you need. Especially
my husband Darell Meertins should receive an award for his patience. A special
thanks also to my two sons, Anthony and Sebastian, who not only gave me the
opportunity but also gave me a couple of their artworks to use!
Thank you all.
I have spoken / Ik heb gezegd.

28

Faculty of Architecture
Julianalaan 134
2628 GA Delft
The Netherlands
Tel: +31 (0)15 27 89805
www.tudelft.nl