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Upon completion of this chapter, you should be able to:

Define what is metacognition
Trace the proponents of metacognition
Discuss the role of metacognition in learning
Metacognition and the classroom
Explain the relationship between metacognition and reading
List some approaches in metacognitive training

This chapter is devoted to discussion about metacogntion or simply put as thinking about
thinking. Metacognitive ability has been identified as a significant factor influencing
academic performance, especially in relation to reading. Learners with high metacognitive
ability are able to employ more effective metacognitive strategies than learners with weak
metacognitive ability. Metacomprehension is the process of extracting meaning from text
and involves two processes: awareness and action. Metacognition can be trained and
discusses are some techniques to enhance metacognitive ability. Also, metacognition can
be assessed and discussed are some methods.

7.1 WHAT IS METACOGNITION?

At first, the word metacogntion may sound something sophisticated or

complex or even intimidating. Actually, we all engage in metacognitive activities
everyday. Metacognition enables us to be successful learners, and has also been
associated with intelligence (Sternberg, 1986). It is often referred to simply as
thinking about thinking. Cognition refers to thinking while metacognition is the ability
to look at your thinking. It is like getting out of your head and looking at the way you
think (see Figure 7.1). Somewhat like an out of body experience. Metacognition is a
critical aspect of effective learning and refers to higher order thinking that a person
engages in and involves active control over the cognitive processes engaged in
learning.

Metacognitive
Knowledge
Thinking about Thinking

Metacognitive
Control

Figure 7.1 Metacognition

For example, you dislike a certain person and have been telling your friends
what a horrible person he is. One fine day you sit back and reflect on your thoughts.
You ask yourself why dislike that person. You realise that you formed an opinion of
that person based on what your friend told you. You start asking yourself whether
your friend was fair in his assessment of that person you dislike and whether he had a
motive for demeaning him. You are actually engaging in metacognition. You are
questioning the way you think! You are thinking about your thinking!
There is still much debate over exactly what is metacognition resulting in
several terms used to describe the same phenomena such as self-regulation, executive
control and metamemory. The term metacognition is most often associated with John
Flavell, (1976) who stated that

Metacognition refers to ones knowledge concerning ones own cognitive

processes or anything related to them. For example, I am engaging in
metacognition if I notice that I am having trouble learning A than B; if it
strikes me that I should double check C before accepting it as fact (p. 232).

7.2 METACOGNTIVE PROCESSES

Metacognition is described as consisting of two processes: metacognitive
knowledge (knowing about your thinking) and metacognitive experiences or
regulation (controlling your thinking) (see Figure 7.2). The key words are knowledge
and control. The learner who knows about his or her thinking processes is likely to be
able to control these processes.

Metacognitive Knowledge
Knowing about
your thinking

- knowledge of person variables

- knowledge of task variables
- knowledge of strategy variables

METACOGNITION

Metacognitive Control
Controlling your
thinking

- ability to do something or take

action when you do not know

Figure 7.2 Metacognitive Knowledge and Metacognitive Control

(source: J. Flavell, 1979. Metacognition and cognitive monitoring: A new
area of cognitive-developmental inquiry. American Psychologist.
34. 907.

WHAT IS METACOGNITIVE KNOWLEDGE?

Metacognitive knowledge is knowledge about person variables, task variables and
strategy variables.

Knowledge of person variables refers to knowledge about your learning

processes. For example, you know that studying in a quiet library will be more
productive than studying at home where there are many distractions.

Knowledge of task variables refers to knowledge about the nature of the task
as well as the type of processing demands required. For example, you know
that it will take you more time to read and comprehend a science text than it
would for you to read and comprehend a novel.

Knowledge about strategy variables refers to knowledge about the cognitive

and metacognitive strategies appropriate for the task. For example, studying
for an essay examination is different from studying for an examination with
multiple-choice questions.

WHAT IS METACOGNITIVE CONTROL?

Metacognitive control refers to your ability to do
something or take remedial action when you do not
know. It also involves the ability to monitor your
progress of learning, correcting errors, analysing the
effectiveness of the learning strategies you have used
and changing learning strategies when necessary
(Ridley, Schutz, Glanz & Weinstein, 1992). You
ensure that the mental activities you used to achieve a
cognitive goal (e.g., understanding your science text)
has been met. You are regulating and overseeing your
learning which involves planning and monitoring the
cognitive activities used, as well as checking the
outcomes of those activities.
For example, after reading a paragraph in a
text about E-Commerce a learner may question
herself about the concepts discussed in the paragraph
(see Figure 6.3). Her cognitive goal is to understand
the text. Self-questioning is a common metacognitive
comprehension monitoring strategy. If she finds that
she cannot answer her own questions, or that she does
not understand the material discussed, she must then
determine what needs to be done to ensure that she
meets the cognitive goal of understanding the text.
She may decide to go back and re-read the paragraph
with the goal of being able to answer the questions
she had generated. If, after re-reading through the text
she can now answer the questions, she may determine
that she understands the material. Thus, the
metacognitive strategy of self-questioning is used to
ensure that the cognitive goal of comprehension is
met.

I do not understand
what is e-commerce?
Perhaps I should reread this section.

Figure 6.3
Learner is aware and doing
something to overcome her
lack of understanding of ecommerce

SELF-CHECK
a) Explain what is meant by metacognition.

b) What is the difference between metacognitive knowledge and

metacognitive control?

7.3 COGNITIVE AND METACOGNITIVE STRATEGIES

One major issue involves separating what is cognitive from what is
metacognitive. What is the difference between a cognitive and a metacognitive
strategy? For example, is the knowledge that you have difficulty understanding
principles from chemistry cognitive or metacognitive knowledge? Flavell (1979)
himself acknowledges that metacognitive knowledge may not be different from
cognitive knowledge. The distinction lies in how the information is used.
Recall that metacognition is referred to as "thinking about thinking" and
involves overseeing whether a cognitive goal has been met. This should be the
defining criterion for determining what is metacognitive. Cognitive strategies are used
to help an individual achieve a particular goal (e.g., understanding a passage from a
text) while metacognitive strategies are used to ensure that the goal has been reached
(e.g., quizzing oneself to evaluate one's understanding of that passage in the text).
Metacognitive experiences usually follow a cognitive activity. They often occur when
cognitions fail. The learner recognises that, he or she did not understand was just read.
When confronted with such a situation, metacognitive processes are activated as the
learner attempts to rectify the situation.
Metacognitive and cognitive strategies may overlap. For example, questioning
could be regarded as either a cognitive or a metacognitive strategy depending on what
the purpose for using such a strategy. If you using self-questioning while reading as a
means of obtaining knowledge it is a cognitive strategy. If you are using selfquestioning as a way of monitoring what you have read, it is a metacognitive strategy.
Cognitive and metacognitive strategies are closely intertwined and dependent upon
each other.
Some learners may know about their cognitive strengths or weaknesses and
the nature of the task without actively utilising this information to oversee learning or
regulate their learning. Until, they do something about it, they have not used their
metacognitive strategies. For example, a student may plan how to approach a
mathematics exam: "I know that I (person variable) have difficulty with word
problems (task variable), so I will answer the computational problems first and save
the word problems for last (strategy variable)." When implemented, the student
monitors to determine whether the strategy used led to the desired goal. If it did not,
than the student will take steps to find out what went wrong and attempt to remedy the
situation. This is a complete metacognitive activity. Knowledge is considered to be
metacognitive if it is actively used in a strategic manner to ensure that a goal is met.
ACTIVITY

Cognitive strategies are used to help an individual achieve a

particular goal while metacognitive strategies are used to
ensure that the goal has been reached.
a) Discuss.
b) Give specific examples.

7.4 CASE STUDY: METACOGNITIVE STRATEGIES FOR

SUCCESSFUL LEARNING

Imagine you are about to take a final examination. What are the metacognitive
strategies you may employ? See Figure 7.4 which describes some of the mental
strategies used by successful learner.

Figure 7.4 Using Metacognitive Strategies to Study for an Essay Exam

[source: Julie Halter. Metacognition University of California, San Diego.
http://coe.sdsu.edu/eet/articles/metacognition/start.htm]

METACOGNITIVE KNOWLEDGE:

You begin by asking yourself what is your goal: To get an A in next weeks
exam.
You identify what you already know about the first 6 chapters of the textbook
that is to be tested.
You do not understand completely Chapter 3. You need to get to the library or
access the internet.
You consider the task requirements: The exam will consist of 4 essay
questions and the time allotted is 2 hours.
You plan the study time required to revise the 6 chapters.
You plan to create graphic organisers for each of the chapters to show
relationships between concepts and principles.

METACOGNITIVE CONTROL

You monitor your own learning by self-questioning to determine whether you

understand the material.
If you do not understand and unable to recall some sections of the material,
you will re-read and perhaps redraw the graphic organisers to enhance
understanding.
You remind yourself and control your thoughts not to wander away from the
task at hand. Concentrate! Focus on the task!

Because metacognition plays a critical role in successful learning, it is important that

students are proficient in such strategies. As students become more skilled at using
metacognitive strategies, they gain confidence and become more independent
learners. Independence leads to ownership as students realise they can acquire
information to enhance their intellectual capabilities. The task of educators is to
acknowledge, cultivate, exploit and enhance the metacognitive capabilities of all
learners.
7.5 METACOGNITION IN THE CLASSROOM
Metcognitive ability plays an important role in differentiating successful students
from their less successful peers. Current research in metacognition, have highlighted
interesting differences between novice and expert learners.
For example, Expert Learners:
are purposeful and attention-directed
practice self-questioning when studying .
have a highly developed knowledge base which can be accessed more readily,
have superior general strategies for problem solving.
design new strategies for processing information when old strategies when old
strategies prove inadequate
are able to extract the main ideas more efficiently
use prediction and inferencing skills when studying

are selective when processing information

Metacognition and Learning

How is lack of metacognitive ability linked to learning? Metacognitive
knowledge of strategies and tasks, as well as self-knowledge, is linked to how
students will learn and perform in the classroom. Students who know about the
different kinds of strategies for learning, thinking, and problem solving will be more
likely to use them. On the other hand, if students do not know of a strategy, they will
not be able to use it. Sounds logical doesnt it! Generally, students who know their
own strengths and weaknesses can adjust their own cognition or thinking to be more
adaptive to diverse tasks and, thus, facilitate learning.

If a student realises that she does not know very much about a particular topic,
she might pay more attention to the topic while reading and use different
strategies to make sure she understands the topic being studied.

If a student is aware that she has difficulties on certain tests (e.g., mathematics
versus history tests), then she can prepare for an upcoming mathematics test in
an appropriate manner.

With regards to learning, metacognitive ability includes the ability to ask

and answer the following questions:

What do I know about this subject, topic, issue?

Do I know what do I need to know?
Do I know where I can go to get some information, knowledge?
How much time will I need to learn this?
What are some strategies and tactics that I can use to learn this?
Did I understand what I just heard, read or saw?
How will I know if I am learning at an appropriate rate?
How can I spot an error if I make one?
How should I revise my plan if it is not working to my
expectations/satisfaction?

[source:
Huitt, W. (1997). Metacognition. Educational Psychology Interactive.
Valdosta, GA: Valdosta State University. Retrieved [June,2008], from
http://chiron.valdosta.edu/whuitt/col/cogsys/metacogn.html.

Students who lack knowledge of their own strengths and weaknesses will be less
likely to adapt to different situations and regulate their own learning.

If a student reads a text and thinks he understands it, but in reality does not,
then he will be less likely to go back and re-read or review the text to make
sure it is understood.

If a student who believes he understands the material thoroughly will not study
for an upcoming test to the same extent as a student who knows he does not
understand the material.

If a student believes he understands the material when he does not will not do
well on the test of that material because he did not study as well as the student
who had an accurate perception of his lack of knowledge.

ACTIVITY

Lack of Metacognitive Ability among

University Students
You would expect university students to have well
established metacognitive ability. In their study among
university students, Hofer, Yu, & Pintrich (1998) and
McKeachie, & Lin (1987), were surprised at the number
of students who come to college having very little metacognitive knowledge;
knowledge about different strategies, different cognitive tasks, and,
particularly, accurate knowledge about themselves.
Given the fact that students who go on to college are more likely to
be better students in general suggests that there is a need to explicitly
teach metacognitive knowledge in primary and secondary school.
a) Do you agree with the above finding about university or
secondary

school students?
b) Were you an efficient learner while you were in university or secondary

school? Do you wish you were a more efficient learner?

7.6 METACOGNITION AND READING COMPREHENSION

Metacognition is an integral part of

effective reading. As you are reading this
chapter, you may be thinking to yourself
why metacognition is important to
learning. When you first encountered the
word metacognition it may have crossed
your mind whether metacognition will be
a difficult concept to understand. The fact
that you are thinking about the concept and how you can use it to increase student
learning is metacognitive thinking. The fact that you were asking yourself these
types of questions is indicative that you are thinking about your own thinking.
How is metacognition related to reading? In their famous study, Pressley and
Afflerbach (1995), found that expert readers and highly skilled readers use specific
metacognitive strategies before, during and after reading to aid their comprehension

and understanding of the texts read. The behaviours that good readers use help them
to construct meaning while reading, make evaluations of text and make connections
with prior knowledge and experiences. Metacognitive strategies increase a readers
ability to construct meaning and to evaluate the text he or she is reading. The
following is a list of metacognitive skills exhibited by a skilful reader:

Automaticity performing a task without thinking or little attention. For

example, students are able to decode text without hesitation when they
encounter unknown words.
Conscious Constructive Responses conscious processes are carried out to
help increase comprehension. For example, good reading behaviours are
exhibited consciously when used to extract meaning before, during and after
reading.
Comprehension Monitoring - adjusting ones reading processes to extract
meaning from text. For example faced with an unknown word, rather than
skipping the word and continuing reading, the reader will stop and try to
discover the meaning of the unknown word.
Self-Regulation setting realistic goals, employing strategies to achieve the
goals, monitoring whether the goals have been attained, and evaluating ones
thinking. For example, before reading a story, the reader will ask the question;
What is the purpose of reading this story?
Think-Aloud thought processes are verbalised. For example, when reading
a text, the reader may stop and say aloud, This is connected to or say
to himself or herself This reminds me of .
My kids can't read their textbooks! But, every teacher is a
teacher of reading! Both of those positions are the result of
the dominant role the textbook plays in the secondary
schools. Many teachers place the responsibility for learning
on the textbook or on the students' inability to learn from
the textbook. Thelen.1985. p. v.

The above statement may be prevalent in secondary schools or even

institution of higher education and yet little has been done to address the
problem. The poor comprehension of prose material refers to those found in the
content areas such as in science and the social sciences. With each subject there are
specific textbooks together with perhaps workbooks, worksheets and reference
materials from which learners are expected to extract information. Many teachers
assume that their students can comprehend what they read based upon their
ability to communicate and sound out words. Furthermore, some teachers are of the
opinion that reading skills should have been acquired in the primary school and that
secondary school is for the mastery of content. Few would deny that `content is
king' but the zeal with which teachers try to `get through the curriculum' often
results in weak learners (or weak readers) being left on their own to resolve their
learning problems.
Success in the content areas or the school subject areas is very much
dependent on the efficiency and effectiveness of learners' in comprehending their

textbooks and related prose materials. The dominance of the textbook is most evident
in Malaysian secondary schools and the printed page continues to be the major source
of information for students whether they are in the form of books, journals,
magazines, pamphlets, or presented on a computer screen. Reading comprehension or
understanding written content is the crux of the reading act. Students cannot learn
unless they can comprehend reading material, and they cannot remember what they
read unless they understand it. The poor reader may be summarised as one who is:

Less able to take charge of his or her own cognitive processes while reading.
They are not as flexible as good readers in adapting their processing to the
demands of the task and to capitalise on the structure or contextual
constraints inherent in texts.
Less efficient in monitoring their understanding of the material read or are
deficient in metacognitive skills.

Hence, when a teacher assigns reading in a history, geography, science or

economics class, he or she "cannot expect all students to read more carefully',
`figure things out for themselves,' `look it up', or `ask someone for help' when so
often the student is unaware that something has `gone wrong' in the first place"
(Langer, 1982, p.45). Brown (1980) identified reading strategies as instances
of metacomprehension described as "any deliberate planful control of activities that
give birth to comprehension" (p.456). Metacomprehension involves at least two
separate components; that is awareness and action (see Figure 6.5).
AWARENESS
Purpose
What one knows
What one does not know
What facilitates learning
METACOMPREHENSION

Figure 7.5: Components of

Metacomprehension

ACTION
Checking
Planning
Evaluating
Revising
Remediating

[Source: Brown, L (1982). Learning how to learn from reading. In J. Langer and
M. Smith-Burke (Eds.), Reader Meets Author/Bridging the Gap: A
sycholinguistic and Sciolinguistic Perspective. Newark, Del.: International Reading
Association]

Awareness of one's own cognitive behaviour during reading includes;

awareness of purpose of the reading assignment,

awareness of what one knows about the reading task,
awareness of what needs to be known,
awareness of the strategies and skills which facilitate
or impede learning from text.

Action is the ability to use self-regulatory mechanisms or cognitive monitoring to

ensure the successful completion of the task such as:

checking the outcome of any attempt to solve the problem,

planning one's next move,
evaluating the effectiveness of any attempted action,
testing and revising one's strategies for learning, and remediating
any difficulties encountered by
using compensatory strategies

The successful reader is one who is able to monitor his or her understanding of
what is being read and this metacognitive skill is apparently not developed in
all students. Linked to reading, metacognition involves `knowing what you know',
`knowing what you need to know' and `knowing the utility of active intervention'
(Sanacore, 1984). In other words, to be an efficient and effective reader, the person
should be able to monitor his or her degree of understanding, be aware of the
knowledge possessed, be conscious of the task demanded and know the
strategies that facilitates comprehension. However, Brown (1987) points out that
though,
.... it is tempting to conclude that ineffective monitoring of one's
cognitive processes during reading is the cause of poor
comprehension, we caution against such precipitous conclusion. The
majority of studies have shown that ineffective monitoring is associated
with poor comprehension, but not that it is the cause. It may be that poor
comprehension reduces the ability to monitor one's ongoing activities; or
perhaps a third factor such as impoverished background knowledge,
responsible for both problems (p.44).

ACTIVITY

a) Briefly describe the components of metacomprehension

b) Do you agree that the inability of students to effectively
read material is attributed to weak comprehension?
c) How would your relate poor academic performance to
weak metacomprehension ability?

7.7 METACOGNITIVE TRAINING

Can students be taught to enhance their metacognitive abilities? Research
suggests that teaching students how to be more aware of their learning processes
enhances their effectiveness as learners. Increasingly, research seems to indicate that
there is a need to teach for metacognitive knowledge explicitly. Teachers may do this
in some lessons, but in many cases the instruction is more implicit. It may be
inaccurate to assume that all students will be able to acquire metacognitive knowledge
on their own. Of course, some students do acquire metacognitive knowledge through
experience and with age, but many more students fail to do so.
According to Flavell (1979), increasing the quantity and quality of
childrens metacognitive knowledge and monitoring skills through
systematic training may be feasible as well as desirable ( p. 906).

However, there is debate as to how metacognitive strategies should be taught. Some

researchers have argued that it should be taught as separate courses or separate units.
Others have suggested that metacognitive knowledge be embedded within the usual
content in different subject areas.

General strategies for thinking and problem solving can be taught in English,
mathematics, science, geography, history, economics, art, music, and even
physical education courses.
Science teachers can teach general scientific methods and procedures, but
learning will likely be more effective when it is tied to specific science
content, not taught in the abstract.
Reading and writing lessons could focus on different general strategies for
reading comprehension or writing.

Teachers are encouraged to plan for teaching metacognitive knowledge in

their regular teaching and assess their use among students. For example, during any
lesson, the teacher identifies, labels and discuses a particular metacognitive strategy
when it comes up. This explicit labelling and discussion creates awareness of the
strategies and hopefully encourages them to recognise such strategies when they
appear in other situations. In addition, making the discussion of metacognitive
knowledge and strategies part of everyday discussion in the classroom fosters the
habit of students talking about their own cognition and learning. As they hear and see
how their classmates approach a task, they can compare their own strategies with their
classmates' and make judgments about the relative use of different strategies (see
Figure 7.6). This type of discussion helps makes cognition and learning more explicit
and rather than being something that happens mysteriously or that some students "get
it" and learn while others struggle and do not learn.
In addition to classroom discussion about metacognitive knowledge, another
important instructional strategy is the modelling of strategies, accompanied by an
explanation of them. For example, as the teacher is solving a problem for the class, he
might talk aloud about his own cognitive processes as he works through the problem.
This provides a model for students, showing them how they use strategies in solving

real problems. In addition, the teacher also might discuss why he is using this
particular strategy for this specific problem, thereby also engaging students in issues
concerning the conditional knowledge that governs when and why to use different
strategies. As experts in their field, teachers have all kinds of implicit knowledge
about strategies and when and why they are appropriate to use; however, students
often lack the means to gain access to this knowledge. If the knowledge is never
shared through discussion, modelling, or explicit instruction, it is difficult for students
to learn.

Figure 7.6 A Student Sharing His Metacognitive Thoughts with Others

SELF-CHECK
a) Do you agree metacognitive abilities can be enhanced.

b) Explain Figure 6.6 and show how it will help it improve

metacognitive ability of students.

7.8 ASSESSMENT OF METACOGNITIVE KNOWLEDGE

Assessment of metacognitive knowledge by teachers will be informal rather
than formal. For example, if teachers are teaching and discussing metacognitive
knowledge as part of their normal classroom teaching, they will need to talk to their
students about metacognitive knowledge and, perhaps more importantly, actually
listen to the students as they talk about their own cognition and learning. As a result
of these conversations, teachers will become aware of the general level of
metacognitive knowledge in their classrooms and will be able to judge the level and
depth of students' metacognitive knowledge.
In many respects, this is no different from what teachers do to assess the level
of content knowledge their students bring to their classrooms. They start a discussion,
ask some questions, listen to the answers, and talk with students. Based on interaction,
they can quickly estimate the depth of students' prior knowledge. This type of
informal assessment can be used to help students gain both content knowledge
(whether it be factual, conceptual, or procedural) and metacognitive knowledge.
From these informal "assessment conversations," teachers also may be able to
make inferences about the level of metacognitive knowledge of individual students.
Just as there is variance in the content knowledge that students bring to the classroom,
it is likely there will be a wide distribution of metacognitive knowledge in a class of
20-30 students. This information about individual students can be used to adapt
instruction to individual differences. Teachers can talk to students individually or in
small groups to estimate levels of metacognitive knowledge.
Another technique that can be used is self-assessment. Students are given the
opportunity to assess their own strengths and weaknesses. Pintrich & Schunk (2002)
suggest that this should be done privately. Students meet individually with their
teachers to discuss their perceptions of their own strengths and weaknesses, and
teachers can provide them with feedback about these perceptions.
Still another technique is to use portfolio assessment. It offers students the
opportunity to reflect on their work as represented in the portfolio and this also
provides self-assessment information to them.

SUMMARY

Metacognition refers to higher order thinking which involves active

control over the cognitive processes engaged in learning: Thinking about
Thinking.

Metacognitive knowledge is knowledge about person variables, task

variables and strategy variables.

Metacognitive control refers to your ability to do something or take

remedial action when you do not know.

Metacognitive knowledge of strategies and tasks, as well as selfknowledge, is linked to how students will learn and perform in the
classroom

Metcognitive ability plays an important role in differentiating successful

students from their less successful peers.

Metacomprehension involves at least two separate components; that is

awareness and action.

Research suggests that teaching students how to be more aware of their

learning processes enhances their effectiveness as learners.

Assessment of metacognitive knowledge by teachers will be informal

rather than formal.

KEY TERMS
Metacognition
Metacognitive knowledge
Metacognitive control
Metacognitive training
Modelling
Think aloud

Metacomprehension
Automaticity
Self-regulation
Conscious constructive responses

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