MODELING AND SIMULATION OF TURNING PROCESS

AND
TOOL RADIUS EFFECT IN MICRO-TURNING
USING FEM SOFTWARE

A THESIS
submitted by

SUGAN DURAI MURUGAN V

ME09B056
for the award of the degree
of

BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

INDIAN INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY MADRAS.
MAY 2013.

THESIS CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that the thesis titled MODELING AND SIMULATION OF TURNING
PROCESS

AND

TOOL

RADIUS

EFFECT

IN

MICRO-TURNING

USING

FEM

SOFTWARE-DEFORM 3D submitted by Sugan Durai Murugan V (ME09B056), to the Indian

Institute of Technology Madras, Chennai for the award of the degree of Bachelor of Technology, is
a bona fide record of the research work done by him under our supervision. The contents of this
thesis, in full or in parts, have not been submitted to any other Institute or University for the award of
any degree or diploma.

Dr. G.L Samuel

Dr. T. Sundararajan

Project Guide

Head

Dept. 20
of thMechanical
Date:
May 2013 Engineering

Dept. of Mechanical Engineering

IIT-Madras, Chennai -600036

IIT-Madras, Chennai 600036

Place : Chennai
Date : 18.05.2013

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I wish to thank and express my deepest gratitude to Dr.G.L Samuel who offered guidance and
support for my project during the whole semester.
I would also like to show my gratitude to all the faculty members of Mechanical engineering
department who were supportive and encouraging throughout the undergraduate course period.

ABSTRACT

Understanding of the basics of metal cutting processes through the experimental studies has many
limitations. Researchers find this investigation through experiments a very time consuming and
expensive work. Using the capabilities of Finite Element Analysis, metal cutting modeling and
simulation provides an alternative and easier way for better understanding of machining process
under different cutting conditions with less number of experiments. Finite element modeling makes it
possible to deal with complicated conditions in metal cutting and to model several factors that are
present during the chip formation including friction at the chip tool interface, while minimizing
machining time and tooling cost.
Turning is one of the widely used metal cutting manufacturing technique in the industry world
and there are lots of studies going on to investigate this complex process. Several models have been
presented in the past with different assumptions. Certain validated models have been used to
simulate turning process conditions. In this paper, application of Finite Element Method is used in
simulating the effect of cutting tool geometry and cutting speed on effective stress, cutting force and
temperature changes.
Miniaturization of parts is becoming an upcoming trend in manufacturing. Investigation in micromachining has been a challenging task for researchers, since at micro level the validity of certain
assumptions made for conventional machining processes goes wrong. In this study, the tool radius
effect in micro turning process has been discussed and results show that the ratio of depth of cut and
tool radius pledge a important factor in nature of cutting.
DEFORM 3D is the simulation tool used in this study. DEFORM 3D is a robust simulation tool
that uses the FEM to model turning process in three dimensions. Autodesk INVENTOR is the
modeling tool used to model work piece and tool geometry. AISI 1045 and AISI 4340 stainless steels
have been used as work piece in this study.

ii

TABLE OF CONTENTS

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

ABSTRACT

ii

LIST OF TABLES

LIST OF FIGURES

vi

ABBREVIATIONS

vii

1.

2.

3.

INTRODUCTION
1.1. Metal Cutting process

1.2. Orthogonal Metal Cutting

1.3. Finite Element Method

1.4. Turning Process

1.5. Micro Turning process

1.6. DEFORM 3D

TURNING PROCESS MECHANICS

2.1. Cutting force model

2.2. Shear angle model

2.3. Cutting tool geometry

FINITE ELEMENT MODELING IN DEFORM 3D

11

3.1. About DEFORM 3D

11

3.2. Material Constitutive Laws

11

3.3. Boundary Conditions

16

3.4. Meshing and Simulation Controls

18

iii

4.

5.

6.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

21

4.1. Deformation zone

21

4.2. Effect of Cutting speed on Effective Stress

22

4.3. Effect of Cutting speed on Temperature

24

4.4. Effect of Cutting speed on Cutting force

25

4.5. Effect of Change in rake angle

26

4.6. Discussions and Conclusion

27

TOOL RADIUS EFFECT IN MICRO-TURNING

29

5.1. Art of Micro-turning

29

5.2. Tool radius effect

31

5.3. Simulation using DEFORM 2D

31

5.4. Conclusion

35

REFERENCES

36

iv

LIST OF TABLES
Table 4.1: Cutting speed vs. Average effective stress

23

Table 4.2: Cutting speed vs. Average temperature

24

Table 4.3: Rake angle vs. Maximum temperature vs. Average cutting force

27

LIST OF FIGURES

1.1.

Orthogonal cutting

1.2.

Basics of turning

2.1.

Merchants orthogonal cutting model

2.2.

Thin shear zone model

2.3.

Thick shear zone model

2.4.

Variables used in shear angle relationships

2.5.

Basic tool angles of a single point cutting tool

2.6.a) 3D cutting tool model

10

2.6.b) 2D cutting tool model

10

3.1.

Stress strain curve vs. temperature

11

3.2.

Stress strain curve vs. strain rate

11

3.3.

Deformation zones in orthogonal cutting

14

3.4.

Frictional stress distribution on the rake face of the tool

17

3.5.a) Mesh of tool and work piece

19

3.5.b) Mesh showing formation of chip

19

4.1.

Primary and Secondary deformation zones

21

4.2.

Effective stress vs. Time

22

4.3.

Average effective stress vs. Cutting speed

23

4.4.

Temperature vs. Time

24

4.5.

Average Temperature vs. Cutting speed

25

4.6.

Cutting force vs. Time

25

4.7.a) Cutting tool with rake angle (+50)

26

4.7.b) Cutting tool with rake angle (00)

26

4.7.c) Cutting tool with rake angle (-5 )

26

4.8.

Temperature vs. Time for different rake angles

27

5.1.

Mesh of Work piece and tool geometry in 2D

32

5.2.

Initial mesh distortion for different tool radii

32

5.3.

Von-Mises Effective stress distribution for various tool radii

33

5.4.

Formation of negative rake angle at the rounded tool edge

34

5.5.

Thrust force vs. time for tools with different edge radius

34

5.6.

Cutting force vs. time for tools with different edge radius

34

vi

ABBREVIATIONS

FEM

Finite Element Model

FEA

Finite Element Analysis

ALE

Arbitrary Lagrangian Eulerian

vii

1.INTRODUCTION

1.1. METAL CUTTING PROCESS

Metal cutting operations still represent the largest class of manufacturing operations widely used
to remove unwanted material and achieve dimensional accuracy and desired surface finish of
engineering components. In metal cutting processes, the unwanted material is removed by the shear
cutting tool, which is significantly harder than the work piece.
The conditions in metal cutting are extreme than most of other deformation processes. The
distinguishing features of the metal cutting process are the following:
1) It is a plastic-flow process with exceptionally large strains. There is a high compressive stress
acting on the plastic zone and this prevents rupture from occurring until the strain is well above the
rupture value measured in tensile test
2) The deformation is localized to an extremely small plastic zone. Thus the strain rate is
unusually high.
Metal cutting involves shear deformation of work material by a rigid tool to form a chip. Lathe
machine is most generally used for these cutting operations. The cutting tool used could be either a
single point cutting tool or a multi point cutting tool. There are two basic types of metal cutting by a
single point cutting tool namely orthogonal and oblique metal cutting. If the cutting face of the tool is
at 90 to the direction of the tool travel then the cutting action is called as orthogonal cutting. If the
cutting face of the tool is inclined at less than 90 to the path of the tool then the cutting action is
called as oblique cutting. In this study, Orthogonal metal cutting is preferred over oblique cutting for
simplicity. Processes such as turning, milling, boring and drilling are among others the most
important process for discrete part manufacturing. Researchers have been studying these processes
for more than a century to gain better understanding and develop more advanced manufacturing
technology.

1.2. ORTHOGONAL METAL CUTTING

Orthogonal metal cutting is the simplest machining process and rarely used in industrial practice.
The plane-strain orthogonal metal cutting process, in which the direction of relative movement of
wedge-shaped cutting tool is perpendicular to its straight cutting edge as shown in Figure 1.1.

Figure 1.1: Orthogonal Cutting

The significance of orthogonal cutting is serving as an ideally simple cutting process model in
theoretical and experimental work, therefore it has been extensively studied for a reasonable good
modeling of the chip formation. In orthogonal cutting, effects of independent variables have been
eliminated as much as possible so that influences of basic parameter can be studied more accurately.
The assumptions Shaw et al [2] on which orthogonal cutting is based to achieve simplicity include as
follows,
1) The tool is perfectly sharp and there is no contact along the clearance face.
2) The shear surface is a plane extending upward from the cutting edge.
3) The cutting edge is a straight line extending perpendicular to the direction of the cutting
velocity and generates a plane-machined surface.
4) The chip does not flow to either side.
5) The depth of cut is constant.
6) The width of cut is constant.
7) The work piece moves relative to the tool with uniform velocity.
2

8) A continuous chip is produced with no build-up edge.

9) The shear and normal stresses along shear plane and tool are uniform.

1.3. FINITE ELEMENT METHOD

Finite Element Method (FEM) technique was first introduced in 1960s and has been widely used
to analyze in designing tools and forming processes. Based on the success of FEM simulations for
bulk forming processes, many researchers developed their own FEM codes to analyze metal cutting
processes. This advanced tool allows engineers to
1) Reduce the need for costly shop floor trials and redesign of tooling and processes
2) Improve tool and die design to reduce production and material costs
3) Shorten lead time in bringing a new product to market
Finite Element Method (FEM) based modeling and simulation of metal cutting process is
continuously attracting researchers for better understanding the chip formation mechanisms, heat
generation in cutting zones, tool-chip interfacial frictional characteristics and integrity on the
machined surfaces. Predictions of the physical parameters such as temperature and stress
distributions accurately play a vital role for predictive process engineering of machining processes.
Development of accurate and reliable continuum-based FEM models allow engineers to study the
stress and strain distributions, tool edge geometry, tool wear mechanisms and analyze the cutting
conditions.
Recently, the application of finite element method(FEM) in metal cutting process was a great help
for researchers in study of metal cutting and chip formation. Especially there are numerous studies
on finite element analysis of orthogonal metal cutting which provides information about plane strain
analysis where chip cut thickness is greater then critical uncut chip thickness.

1.4. TURNING PROCESS

Turning is the machining operation that produces cylindrical parts. In its basic form, it can be
defined as the machining of an external surface as with the work piece rotating, with a single-point
cutting tool, and with the cutting tool feeding parallel to the axis of the work piece and at a distance
that will remove the outer surface of the work. The three primary factors in any basic turning
operation are speed, feed, and depth of cut as shown in Figure 1.2.

Figure 1.2: Basics of Turning.

The cutting speed is the speed of the work as it rotates past the cutting tool. The feed rate is the
rate at which the tool advances into the work. The depth of cut is the amount of material removed as
the work revolved on its axis. Other factors include the type and geometry of the cutting tool, the
angle of the tool, and the overall material removal rate.

1.5. MICRO TURNING PROCESS

Micro turning is one type of micro machining process which uses a solid tool and its material
removal process is almost similar to conventional turning process. Micro turning is generally used to
define the practice of material removal for the production of parts having dimensions that lies
between 1 and 999

In recent years, researchers have explored a number of ways to improve the

micro turning process performance by analyzing the different factors that affect the quality
characteristics.

But unlike conventional macro machining process, micro turning process displays a different
set of characteristics due to its significant size reduction. Size effect comes into play in such
cases. Size effect is defined as the effect due to the small ratio of depth of cut to tool radius. The
main differences that arise apart from size effect from macro machining are tool deflection, nonhomogeneity, different crystallographic orientation, critical minimum chip thickness. Tool radius
plays a major role with respect to depth of cut in micro turning characteristics. This study
demonstrates using Finite Element Method, the effect of tool radius in micro turning process.

1.6. DEFORM 3D, 2D

DEFORM is a Finite Element Method (FEM) based process simulation system designed to
analyze various forming processes used by metal forming applications. It is available in both
Lagrangian (Transient) and arbitrary Lagrangian and the Eulerian (ALE Steady-State) modeling.
Additional, the software is currently capability of Steady-State function and it is required of running
a transient simulation previous to steady state cutting simulation.
Unlike general purpose FEM codes, DEFORM is tailored for deformation modeling. A user
friendly graphical user interface provides easy data preparation and analysis so engineers can focus
on forming. A key component of this is a fully automatic, optimized remeshing system made
especially for large deformation problems.
The DEFORM system consists of three major components:
1) A pre-processor for creating, assembling, or modifying the data required to analyze the
simulation, and for generating the required database file.
2) A simulation engine for performing the numerical calculations required to analyze the
process, and writing the results to the database file. The simulation engine reads the
database file, performs the actual solution calculation, and appends the appropriate
solution data to the database file.
3) A post-processor for reading the database file from the simulation engine and displaying
the results graphically and for extracting numerical data.
Using this FEM software; the goal is to build a computational working model that will closely
predict deformation, stress, plastic strain distribution, and instantaneous strain rate in work piece and
load on the tool under parameter variations including the cutting depth, cutting angle, cutting speed
of the turning process.
5

2. TURNING PROCESS MECHANICS

2.1. CUTTING FORCE MODEL
Since 1930, many researchers have tried to understand the turning process under plasticity theory.
Their main goal was to know about the cutting force, stresses and temperatures involved in the
process. Various methods were proposed based on fundamentals of mechanical cutting process, in
those simplified analytical approaches of orthogonal cutting were first considered by Merchant [9],
who introduced the concept of shear plane angle.
Merchants analysis is based on the two-dimensional process geometry as shown in Figure 2.1.
An orthogonal cutting is defined by cutting velocity V, uncut chip thickness t u, chip thickness tc,
shear angle , rake angle , and width of cut w. The width of cut w is measured parallel to the
cutting edge and normal to the cutting velocity.

Figure 2.1: Merchants Orthogonal Cutting model

The work piece material moves at the cutting velocity while cutting tool remains still. A chip is
thus formed and is assumed to behave as a rigid body held in equilibrium by the action of forces
6

transmitted across the chip-tool interface and across the shear plane. The resultant force Fr is
transmitted across the chip-tool interface. No force acts on the tool edge or flank. Fr can be further
resolved into components on shear plane, rake face, on cutting direction depending upon research
interest. Components on shear plane are Fs in the plane and Ns normal to shear plane. Cutting force
Fp is in the cutting direction and a trust force Fq normal to the work piece surface. On the rake face,
the friction force is in the direction of chip flow and the normal force Nc is normal to the rake face.
The relationships between those components and resultant force can be defined by the following
equations (1), (2), (3),
[
[

]
]

+[

+[
(

]
]

(1)

(2)
(3)

The concept of orthogonal cutting and all of the simplifying assumptions helped to build the
fundamental cutting force analysis and left space for improvement in succeeding studies. Most force
models incorporated in Finite Element Analysis follow this shear plane theory.

2.2. SHEAR ANGLE MODEL

In the last thirty years many papers on the basic mechanics of turning process have been written.
Several models have tried describe the process with nature of deformation zone formed at the shear
plane. There is a conflicting evidence about the nature of the deformation zone in metal cutting. This
has led to two basic approaches in the analysis. Many workers, such as Merchant[9], Kobayashi and
Thomsen[20], have favored the thin-zone shear model, as shown in Figure 2.2. Others such as
Palmer and Oxley[8], and Okushima and Hitomi[9], have suggested the thick-zone shear model as
shown in Figure 2.3

Figure 2.2: Thin zone shear model

Figure 2.3: Thick zone shear model

Available experimental evidence indicates that the thick-zone model may describe the cutting
process at very low speeds, but at higher speeds most evidence indicates that a thin-zone model is
approached. Thus, for our model the thin-zone model is used, which is likely the most realistic for
practical cutting conditions.
In case of the thin zone shear model, shear angle can be defined. Shear angle is actually a measure
of the plastic deformation in cutting and is an essential quantity for predicting the forces in cutting.
Shear angle depends on both rake angle and friction angle, as shown in Figure 2.4.

Figure 2.4: Variables used in shear angle relationships.

Merchants relationship [7] suggests that material will choose to shear at angle that minimizes the
required energy. The relationship is given in equation (4),
(

(4)

2.2.1. Chip formation

When the metal cutting is in progress, the chip presses heavily on the top face of the tool and
continuous shearing takes place across the shear plane, resulting in chip formation. Chip formation is
a plastic-flow process due to shear. Merchants cutting model claimed that the chip is formed by
simple shear on a plane running from the tool tip to a point on the free surface work piece. No plastic
flow takes place on either side of this shear plane.

2.3. CUTTING TOOL

The geometry of a cutting tool is defined by certain basic tool angles, faces and edges. The cutting
tool angles are described by means of taking appropriate projections of the cutting tool surfaces. A
system of tool angles is shown in Figure 2.5

Figure 2.5: Basic tool angles of a Single point cutting tool.

The components of the cutting tool are defined as follows:
1) Rake face is the surface over which the chip, formed in the cutting process, slides.
2) Flank face is the surface over which the surface, produces on the work piece, passes.
3) Cutting edge is a theoretical line of intersection of the rake and the flank surfaces.
4) Cutting wedge is the tool body enclosed between the rake and the flank faces.
5) Shank is the part of the tool by which it is held.

Rake angle:
Rake angle is the angle between the top face of the tool and the normal to the work surface at the
cutting edge. In general, the larger the rake angle, the smaller the cutting force on the tool. The
reason is that the shear plane decreases as rake angle increases for a given depth of cut. A large rake
angle will improve cutting action, but eventually lead to early tool failure, since the tool wedge
angle is relatively weak. A compromise must therefore be made between adequate strength and good
cutting action.
Clearance Angle:
Clearance angle is the angle between the front face of the tool and a tangent to the work surface
originating at the cutting edge. All cutting tools must have clearance to allow cutting to take place.
Excessive clearance angle will not improve cutting efficiency and it will merely weaken the tool.
2.3.1. Modeling in Autodesk Inventor
AUTODESK Inventor is a solid modeling tool, it unites the 3D parametric features with 2D
tools, but also addresses every design through manufacturing process. The model of a 3D single
point cutting tool is quite simple as shown in Figure 2.6.a). The cutting tool is modeled in 2D will
have only two angles, rake angle and clearance angle. The 2D section of the cutting tool is drawn in
sketcher and the part is extruded in 3D to obtain the cutting tool model as shown in Figure 2.6.b).
The part is then exported as STL files into DEFORM 3D .

Figure 2.6.a) 3D cutting tool model.

Figure 2.6.b) 2D cutting tool model.

10

3. FINITE ELEMENT MODELING IN DEFORM 3D

3.1. ABOUT DEFORM 3D

This project is being done to study the turning process using computational Finite Element
Method in DEFORM software. This software is used to simulate the turning process from the initial
transient state to steady state of cutting forces. Simulating deformation by those cutting forces in a
three-dimensional environment makes it possible to study the process and make more accurate
predictions that are well represented by orthogonal cutting.
To build a continuum based FEM model for turning, the essential and desired attributes of the
model are
1) The work material model should satisfactorily represent elastic-plastic and thermomechanical behavior of the work material deformations.
2) FEM model requires a chip separation criteria for physical process simulation of chip
formation around the tool cutting edge during machining.
3)

Interfacial friction characteristics on the tool-chip and tool-work contacts to account for

additional heat generation and stress developments due friction.

Thus the simulation model in DEFORM is build with

thermal and mechanical properties,

boundary conditions, contact conditions between tool and the work piece. The cutting process model
is simulated as a dynamic event causes large deformations in a few numbers of increments resulting
in massive mesh distortion and an adaptive remeshing technique with intensity for maintaining a
successful mesh throughout the turning process.

3.2. CONSTITUTIVE MATERIAL LAWS

In DEFORM , a thermo-mechanically coupled Lagrangian incremental simulation is done with
elastic-plastic material work piece and a rigid material tool. AISI 1045 is used as the work piece
material in this study, because it has been the focus of many recent modeling and as well as
machinability. Tungsten Carbide with no coating is being used as tool material.

3.2.1. Stress strain curve vs. Temperature:

With all other factors equal, increasing the temperature decreases the stress required for an
increment of deformation. In other words when temperature increases, the stress-strain curve flattens
along the Y-axis and the material gets yielded easily as shown in Figure 3.1.

Figure 3.1: Stress strain curve vs. Temperature

3.2.2. Stress strain curve vs. Strain rate:
With all other factors equal, increasing the rate of deformation increases the stress required for an
increment of deformation. The material gets stiffer as the strain rate increases, therefore at higher
strain rate the elastic part becomes more elastic and plastic part becomes more plastic in nature as
shown in Figure 3.2.

Figure 3.2: Stress strain curve vs. Strain rate

3.2.3. Flow Stress Curves:
In DEFORM , the concept of flow stress is used. The flow stress models are used extensively in
the simulations of deformation processes occurring at high strains, strain rates and temperature. The
idea of flow stress is important in the case of incremental plasticity. As a material is deformed
plastically, the amount of stress required to incur an incremental amount of deformation is given by
12

the flow stress curve. Actually the flow stress curve is an extended and focused region of plasticity in
the true stress-strain curve.
Flow stress is strongly dependent on several state variables, among these are accumulated strain,
instantaneous strain rate and temperature[18]. As seen in the Figure 3.1 and 3.2 the flow stress
curves can vary strongly with these state variables. Therefore for determining the material behavior
accurately, the flow stress data is important.
Numerous empirical and semi-empirical flow stress models are used in the computational
plasticity. The models that are currently in use are
1)

The Johnson-Cook model

2)

The Steinberg-Cochran-Guinan-Lund model

3)

The Zerilli-Armstrong model

4)

The Mechanical threshold model

5)

The Preston-Tonks-Wallace model

3.2.4. The Johnson-Cook model:

The Johnson-Cook model [17] is purely empirical and widely used to represent the strength
behavior of the materials, typically metals , subjected to large strains, high strain rates and high
temperature. This model exhibits an unrealistically small strain-rate dependence at high
temperatures. Johnson-cook model gives the following equation (5) for the flow stress
(

Where

][

) ][

) ]

(5)

is the equivalent plastic strain, is the plastic strain-rate, and A, B, C, n, and m are

material constants. The strain-rate and temperature are normalized for simplicity in representing the
model. The normalized strain-rate and temperature in equation (5) are defined as

(
(

)
)

Where is the effective plastic strain-rate of the quasi-static test.

and

(6)
is a reference temperature,

is a reference melt temperature.

Properties such as Youngs modulus and Poissons ratio are implicitly used in flow stress
equations, and these properties are temperature dependent. Thus temperature dependent property
data has to be given.
13

3.2.5. Oxleys Equation Cutting model:

Oxley and coworkers developed a model [4] to predict cutting forces, average temperatures and
stresses in primary and secondary deformation zones by using Johnson-Cooks Flow stress model
[17], thermal properties, tool geometry and cutting conditions.
A simplified illustration of the plastic deformation for the formation of a continuous chip when
machining a ductile material is given in Figure 3.3.

Figure 3.3 Deformation zones in Orthogonal cutting

. Where V is the cutting speed,
is the length of AB,

is the rake angle, VS is the shear velocity,

is the undeformed thickness,

is the shear angle,

is the chip thickness.

There are two deformation zones in this simplified model a primary zone and a secondary zone.
The primary plastic deformation takes place in a finitely sized shear zone. The work material begins
to deform when it enters the primary zone from lower boundary CD, and it continues to deform until
it reaches the upper boundary EF. Even after exiting from the primary deformation zone, some
material experiences further plastic deformation in the secondary deformation zone only on a smaller
scale. Assumption is being made that the primary deformation zone is a parallel-sided shear zone and
secondary deformation zone is triangular shape and the maximum thickness is proportional to the
chip thickness.

14

The average value for shear strain rate along AB is,

(7)

The velocity along the shear plane is,

(

(8)

The shear angle is expressed as,

[

(9)

The average shear strain in the primary deformation zone is given by

(

(10)

3.2.6. Thermal model

In a thermo-mechanically coupled model, a huge amount of heat energy will be generated due to
large deformations and temperature of the model will increase during the process. Heat is mainly
generated due to two reasons:
1) Due to the heavy plastic work done at the shear zone. It is assumed that, 90% of all plastic
work is converted into heat.
2) Due to friction at the interface of tool and chip. Most of this generated heat is given to chip
and tool.
The rate of specific volumetric flux due to plastic work is given by the following equation,
(11)
Where, f is the fraction of plastic work converted into heat, and

is the rate of plastic work.

Heat generated due to friction is given by the equation,

(12)
Where, Ffr is the friction force, Vr is the relative sliding velocity between tool and chip.

15

Due to the change in temperature, thermal material laws are needed to be defined to adapt the
elastic-plastic model to the new temperature conditions. The following processes are defined within
the thermal model.
1) Heat Transfer:
Heat generated due to plastic work will dissipate to other parts of the work piece via conduction
and then to environment by convection and radiation. Heat transfer coefficients for tool-work piece
interface are given to dissipate the heat generated. The heat transfer coefficients can be approximated
to be constant over a wide range of temperature since amount heat lost by this means is insignificant
compared to the amount of heat generated.
2) Thermal Expansion:
When temperature of a material changes, the material tends to expand or contract. Defined by a
thermal expansion coefficient to represent the change in material volume. The coefficient again
depends on existing temperature.
3) Heat Capacity:
The heat capacity for a given material is the measure of the change in internal energy per degree of
temperature change. It is also a temperature dependent property

3.3. BOUNDARY CONDITIONS

3.3.1 Friction between tool and work piece
A resistive force acts tangentially when two objects slip, is called friction force. At normal loads
and conditions the friction force is proportional to the normal force, the proportionality constant is
called coefficient of friction. But these laws of friction have been invalid for metal cutting conditions
where plastic deformation is occurring close to the sliding interface, i.e. under the condition of very
high normal load. In this situation the real area of contact approaches to the apparent area. Hence the
proportionality between the real area of contact and applied normal load is constant and equal to the
apparent area. Under these conditions the friction force is independent of normal load [19]. as shown
in Figure 3.4.

16

Figure 3.4: Frictional shear stress distribution on the rake face of the tool
The dependence of friction parameter on the cutting conditions can be explained by considering
the distribution of frictional shear stress on the rake face of the tool. Over the length h1, the normal
stress is very high and the metal adheres to the rake face, plastic flow occurs in the work material . In
this region the friction stress is independent of the normal load and generally equal to the shear yield
stress of the material. This region is called sticking region. On the length h2, smaller normal stresses
exist and the usual condition of sliding friction applies. This region is called sliding region.
Based on this, two types of friction models were developed called Coulomb type and Shear type.
Shih et al.[10] introduced a model that consists of the sticking region for which the frictional force is
Shear type, and the sliding region for which the friction force is Coulomb type.
The shear friction model is given by
(13)
Where m is the shear friction factor needs to be estimated and given as input,

is the

shear flow stress of the chip at the primary zone and is the frictional stress.
The coulomb friction model is given by
(14)
Where

is the coulomb friction factor needs to be estimated and given as input,

stress at the shear plane.

17

is the normal

3.3.2. Heat Transfer properties

The work piece and tool temperature and heat transfer coefficient at tool-work piece has to be
given. Both the tool and work piece is allowed to heat transfer with the environment.
3.3.4. Self Contact
The chip formed from the work piece will contact the work piece after a curl, therefore a
constraint is deployed to avoid contact between work piece and its chip.
3.3.3. Movement
In actual turning process, the work piece is rotated at a specific rpm, and the tool is moved along
the axis of the work piece at a constant feed rate. In Simulation, work piece is fixed and tool is
moved along the surface of the work piece. The tool is being driven at respective cutting velocity
along the surface of the work piece.

3.4. MESHING AND SIMULATION

Meshing is forming a grid to the finite element model, consisting of nodes. Mesh generation is the
process of dividing the analysis model into a number of finite elements. This generated mesh is
programmed on how the model will respond to the machining conditions. These mesh elements act
like a spider web, from each node of a mesh element, it exchanges data to each of the adjacent nodes
by means of inbuilt shape functions.
Nodes are assigned at a certain density throughout the model. Generally, important regions have
higher nodal density for more accurate results. Eventually, as the no of nodes increases;

the

processing time for solving a problem also increases. Therefore, a compromise between accuracy of
the results and the available time for solving a FEM problem is usually made.
In DEFORM software; meshing can be either relative or absolute. In relative meshing, total no of
elements and size ratio has to be decided wherein absolute meshing, size ratio and minimum element
size or maximum element size is needed. Size ratio is the ratio of largest element size to smallest
element size. Weighting factors are also available on different parameters such as Surface curvature,
Temperature distribution, Strain distribution, and Strain rate distribution. A region with rapid change
in any of the weighting factors will receive more elements than a region with uniform distribution.
Mesh window allows to form secondary meshing details to a specific window chosen. Finally a solid
mesh must be made to represent the work piece and tool as Finite Element models as shown in
Figure 3.5.a) and b).
18

Figure 3.5.a) Mesh of tool and work piece

Figure 3.5.b) Mesh showing formation of chip

3.4.1. Simulation controls

The DEFORM system can solve time dependent non-linear problems by generating a series of
FEM solutions at discrete time increments. At each time increment, the key variables of each node in
the finite element mesh are determined based on boundary conditions, thermo mechanical properties
of the work piece materials and possible solutions at previous steps. Other state variables are derived
from these key values, and updated for each time increment.
To define a step, the following must be defined
1) Number of Simulation steps
2) Step increment to save
3) Solution step definition
3.4.2. Remeshing Criteria
Automatic remeshing is the most convenient way to handle the remeshing of objects undergoing
large plastic deformation. When the remeshing criteria has been fulfilled, the object will be
remeshed. Interference depth is referred for triggering remeshing, when the element edge of work
piece has been penetrated by the tool by the master object by a specified amount. This penetration
distance can be absolute or relative.
19

3.4.3. Iteration and Convergence Controls

The iteration controls specify the criteria that FEM solver uses to find a solution at each step of
the problem simulation. DEFORM software has Conjugate-gradient solver and Sparse solver for both
deformation and temperature variables. These iterative solvers improve the overall solving time with
minimum memory requirements, especially in case of large deformation problems like machining
process. There are two types of iteration methods incorporated in the software namely NewtonRaphson method and direct method. The Newton-Raphson method converges in fewer iterations, but
more likely to fail. The direct method is more likely to converge than Newton-Raphson but it
requires more iterations to converge. The convergence depends on the convergence error limit
provided.

20

4. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

All the results that have been obtained have certain parameters constant throughout the
simulation.
1) Depth of cut (d) 0.5 mm
2) Feed rate (f) 0.3 mm
3) Environment Temperature 20
4) Shear friction factor 0.6
5) Heat transfer coefficient at tool-work piece interface 0.2 N/s/mm/ .
4.1. DEFORMATION ZONE
The largest deformation occurs on the primary deformation zone, followed by the secondary
deformation zone. This result as shown in Figure 4.1, is agreeable with Shih [11], where the major
deformation during cutting process was concentrated in two regions, one near to the cutting tool
edge(yellow region) where primary deformation occurs, and other in the sticking region and sliding
region(green and cyan region) where secondary deformation occurs.

Figure 4.1: Primary and Secondary Deformation zones

4.2. EFFECT OF CUTTING SPEED ON EFFECTIVE STRESS

Cutting speed of the tool is an important parameter to study the turning process characteristics.
With all other parameters kept constant, cutting speed is varied to analyze the change in stress
distribution and temperature. When the cutting speed increases the generated temperature on chip
also increases, due to increase of required energy at high cutting speed. More heat will be generated
as cutting speed increases, consequently the maximum temperature on the tool and work piece
surface increase at higher cutting speed, as from the theory and findings from Serenity et al [7].
When the cutting speed increases the strain rate on the primary deformation zone also increases.
Increase in strain rate will increase the effective stress; on the other hand increase in temperature will
decrease the effective stress. In such cases, the temperature effect dominates the strain rate effect at
low cutting speeds. Therefore the effective stress should decrease as cutting speed increase.
Figure 4.2. shows maximum effective stress vs. time for different cutting speeds. The fluctuations
in the effective stress are due to mesh distortion and remeshing during the cutting process. As the
cutting speed increases from 100m/min to 150 m/min the effective stress level drops due to rise in
temperature, but when cutting speed reaches 250 m/min, the stresses increases due to a significant
change in strain rate.

Figure 4.2: Effective stress vs. Time

To find an average effective stress value over varying cutting speed, a constant stroke length is
taken as a reference. A stroke length of 0.35 mm is taken to average the stress values. The cutting
time to reach this stroke length is also noted. Figure 4.2 shows the average Effective stress values
over different cutting speed.
22

Average Effective Stress

Cutting time

(Mpa)

( e-5 sec)

100

1432.12

20.6

150

1346.57

13.7

250

1404.84

8.0

Cutting
Speed (m/min)

Table 4.1

Figure 4.3: Average effective stress vs. Cutting Speed

23

4.3. EFFECT OF CUTTING SPEED ON TEMPERATURE

Figure 4.4. Showing Maximum temperature vs. time for different cutting speeds. As the cutting
speed increases, the temperature rises rapidly in the initial conditions, and keeps increasing gradually
and stabilizes in a small temperature region when steady state is reached. Therefore, coolant flow
rate must also be increased to maintain the temperature constant.

Figure 4.4: Temperature vs. Time

To find an average temperature values over varying cutting speed a small time interval of 2.0e-4
sec to 3.5e-4 sec is taken so that the initial gradient in the transient state will not be accounted for
calculations. Stroke length covered in each cutting speed is also noted. Figure 4.5 showing average
temperature vs. cutting speed.
Cutting

Average Temperature
( )

Speed (m/min)

Stroke Length (mm)

100

734.36

0.277

150

750.25

0.376

250

771.50

0.605

Table 4.2

24

Figure 4.5: Average Temperature vs. Cutting Speed

4.5 EFFECT OF CUTTING SPEED VS CUTTING FORCE

Figure 4.6. showing Force in cutting direction vs. time for different cutting speeds.

.Figure 4.6: Cutting force vs. Time

25

4.6. EFFECT OF CHANGE IN RAKE ANGLE

To understand the effect of rake angle on machining characteristics, three tools with different rake
angles have been modeled and simulated on similar turning conditions. Figure 4.7 shows the tool
geometry with three different rake angles.

Figure 4.7.a) Cutting tool with Rake angle (+50)

Figure 4.7.b) Cutting tool with Rake angle (-50)

Figure 4.7.c) Cutting tool with Rake angle (00)

According to Gunay et al [6] when rake angle decreases to negative values, high cutting
forces act on the material and therefore high heat will be generated. Figure 4.7. shows temperature
vs. cutting time for different rake angles. Table shows maximum cutting force along the cutting
direction and maximum temperature reached for different rake angles. The results are agreeable with
findings from Gunay et al [6].

26

Rake angle( ), Clearance

angle( )

Maximum Temperature

Maximum Cutting force

(0C)

(kN)

50 , 70

585

0.925

00, 70

514

1.178

-50, 70

724

1.462

Table 4.3:

Figure 4.8. Temperature vs. Time for different rake angles.

4.5. DISCUSSION
In this study, using Explicit arbitary Lagrangian Eulerian method a FEM simulation model for
turning process of AISI 1045 steel using Tungten Carbide cutting tool. Johnson-cooks flow stress
model and Oxleys equation is being used as constitutive material laws to model the metal cutting
process. The simulation of the chip formation, temperature distributions and stress distributions in
chip and on the machined surface are succesfully achieved. This study establishes a framework to
further study the turning process conditions and optimization of cutting parameters.
From the results obtained from Simulation, the following can be concluded:
1) As cutting speed increases, the effective stress on the chip formed decreases momentarily and
then increases, indicating i.e a cutting speed for which the effective stress attains a minimum value.
27

2) The temperature of the chip formed in turning of AISI 1045 increases with increase in cutting
speed. Therefore higher the cutting speed, larger the coolant flow to maintain the temperature
constant.
3) Machining with negative rake angle results in higher cutting force and temperature than
positive rake angle. Negative rake angle causes more friction due to which heat generated increases
and in turn temperature increases.

28

5. TOOL RADIUS EFFECT IN MICRO-TURNING PROCESS

5.1. ART OF MICRO TURNING
Unlike conventional macro-machining processes, micro-machining displays different
characteristics due to its significant size reduction. Therefore size effect is defined as the effect due
to the small ratio of the depth of cut to the tool edge radius[22]. Often, the edge radius of the tools is
relatively larger than the chip thickness to prevent plastic deformations or breakage of the microtools. In contrast to the conventional sharp-edge cutting model, chip shear in micro-machining
occurs along the rounded tool edge. As a result, cutting has a large negative rake angle, which affects
the magnitude of the ploughing and shearing forces. Therefore, a relatively large volume of material
has to become fully plastic for a relatively small amount of material to be removed, resulting in a
significant increase in specific energy.
Further, when the chip thickness is below a critical chip thickness, chips may bot be
generated during the cutting process. But the work piece will elastically deform. This is due to
critical minimum chip thickness hm. When the uncut chip thickness, h, is less than a critical
minimum chip thickness, hm, elastic deformation occurs and the cutter does not remove any work
piece material. As the uncut chip thickness approaches the minimum chip thickness, chips are
formed by shearing of the work piece, with some elastic deformation still occurring. As a result, the
removed depth of the work piece is less than the desired depth. However, when the uncut chip
thickness increases beyond the minimum chip thickness, the elastic deformation phenomena
decreases significantly and the entire depth of cut is removed as a chip, the relationship between the
tool radius and minimum chip thickness depends on the cutting edge radius and the material of the
work piece.
As the depth of cut is sometimes less than the grain size of the work piece material. The
assumption of homogeneity in work piece material properties is no longer valid. Because micro-grain
structure size is often of the same order of magnitude as the cutter radius of curvature, the grain
structures will affect the overall cutting properties. This is a distinct difference between micro and
macro mechanical machining. The changing crystallography during the cutting process also causes
vibration. This vibration is difficult to eliminate by changing the machine tool design or process
conditions, because it originates from the work piece.
The major drawback of micro turning process is that the machining force which influences
machining accuracy and also limit the machinable size[23]. The thrust force tends to deflect the work
29

piece. However, the work piece can vibrate in the tangential direction of the tool-work piece contact
region because the vibration along the normal direction is blocked by the cutting tool. As the
diameter of the work piece reduces the rigidity of the work piece decreases. Therefore, controlling
the reacting force during cutting is one of the important factors in improvement of machining
accuracy.
1. Surface roughness:
It is observed that the surface roughness in micro-turning decreases with feed, reaches a
minimum, and then increases with further reduction in feed and also the bigger the tool nose radius is
used, the surface roughness improves with higher depth of cut, high speed and high feed rate[24].
2. Cutting tools:
It is recommended to use smaller tools which have decreases thermal expansion relative to
their size, increased static stiffness from their short structure, increased dynamic stability from their
higher natural frequency, and potential for decreased cost due to smaller quantities of material.
Diamond tools are often used for ultra-precision machining, but have a limited ability to machine
ferrous materials. In all other cases Tungsten Carbide tools are used widely. Since cutting is mostly
restricted to nose portion of the tool, the cutting edge radius plays a significant role on tool
performance[24].
3. Cutting force:
Cutting force mainly depends on the work piece hardness. More the hardness more the
required cutting force. With the increase of feed rate and depth of cut, cutting force increases. Unlike
from macro turning, in micro turning much fluctuations happen in cutting forces. This periodicity in
fluctuations is due to the crystallographic orientations of material and frictional condition on grain
structure during cutting.
Cutting force also determines the tool deflection and bending stress that limits the feed rate.
Basically there are two components to cutting forces namely, shearing and plowing forces. Since the
chip thickness in micromachining applications can be comparable in size to the edge radius of the
tool, the conventional sharp-edged theorem cannot be applied in micromachining operations due to
their large negative rake angle. In addition, the elastic-plastic deformation of the work piece also
changes the cutting forces in micro-machining operations. Specifically the elastic recovery of the
work piece along the clearance face of the tool and the plowing effect by the tool edge radius forced
vibration of the tool contribute to the magnitude of the cutting force.

30

5.2. TOOL RADIUS EFFECT

Tool edge radius is an important paramter for surface quality in micro turning process [21].
Under certain machining practices, cutting tip of the tool is strengthened with an edge radius for
higher tool life. Production of tools with perfect sharpness is practically impossible due to
technological limitations. However, this tool geometry is usually neglected in the modeling of the
conventional macromachining process such as merchants shear plane model. Such assumption is
acceptable in the modeling of conventional machining as the undeformed chip thickness a is at
least larger than the tool edge radius r by three orders of magnitude. Therefore, it is not appropriate
for micro turning where a approaches r in microscale. In this regard, the differences between
conventional machining and micro machining are originated from the great size differences between
a and r.

5.3. SIMULATION USING DEFORM 2D

In this study, the analysis of micro-turning with FEM is performed under plane strain
condition using the explicity dynamic algorithm and the Arbitary Lagrangian Eulerian formulation as
the solution method similar to that macro turning process we have done already. The work piece
used here is AISI 4340 and tool is Tungsten Carbide.
All the results that have been obtained have certain parameters constant throughout the
simulation.
1) Depth of cut (d) 2
2) Cutting speed (v) 1666.67 mm/s
3) Environment Temperature 20
4) Shear friction factor 0.6
5) Heat transfer coefficient at tool-work piece interface 0.2 N/s/mm/ ..
The work piece is modeled as 50 x 10

rectangular block as shown in Figure 5.1, and tool with

rake angle 0 and clearance angle 5 . Tool radius varies from 1

radius effect.

31

to illustrate the tool edge

Figure 5.1: Mesh of Work piece and tool geometry in 2D.

1. CHIP FORMATION
Figure 5.2 shows the mesh distortion initially when tool starts to deform the work piece for different
tool radius. For radius r = 0,1

chip is formed directly on the rake face of the tool. As the radius

increases material begins to flow around the tool edge more gradually. At r =
the shape of the tool edge and begins to shear much later than for r =

a) R= 0

d) R= 3

c) R= 2

b) R= 1

f) R= 5

e) R= 4

Figure 5.2: Initial mesh distortion for different tool radii.

32

, material takes

2. VON MISES EFFECTIVE STRESS DISTRIBUTION

Plastic deformation behavior of the work at different tool radius is reflected from the Von Mises
flow stress as shown in figure 5.3. For radius r =1,2

plastic deformation is intense at the chip root

and extending towards the turning point of the chip free boundary, which is known as the primary
deformation zone in the conventional turning model. But as the radius increases the deformation
zone gets larger, and material in the vicinity of the rounded tool edge undergoes severe plastic
deformation. The increase in size and thickness of the plastic zone is due to the merger of the
primary and secondary deformation zone. Critically at r =5

, the deformation zone is highly

localized in front of the rounded tool edge which could lead to the changes in chip formation
behavior.

a) R= 0

b) R= 1

c) R= 2

d) R= 3

e) R= 4

f) R= 5

Figure 5.3: Von-Mises Effective stress distribution for various tool radii.

3. CUTTING FORCES
As the radius of the tool edge increases, the effective rake angle deviates from the tool rake angle
because the chip growth doesnt happen under rake face, it happens in front of the rounded tool edge
due to the changes in the chip formation. This leads to a effective negative rake angle

eff

in micro-

turning as shown in Figure 5.4 .Due to this increase in negative rake angle, the cutting forces
increases as the tool radius increases. Figures 5.5 and 5.6 showing cutting forces and thrust forces for
tool radii r =1,3,5
33

Figure 5.4: Formation of negative rake angle at the rounded tool edge.

Figure 5.5: Thrust force vs. time for tools with different edge radius.

Figure 5.6: Cutting force vs. time for tools with different edge radius.

34

4. CONCLUSION
As the tool edge radius r approaches the depth of cut a, the chip formation behavior and the
associated stress states are greatly affected by rounded tool edge. This study has shown that the
assumption of perfect tool sharpness is invalid in micromachining.
1) The ratio of undeformed chip thickness to tool edge radius is a deciding parameter in micro
machining in which chip formation, material deformation and stress distribution are greatly
influenced.
2) When tool radius becomes more than depth of cut primary and secondary deformation zone
merges together, and a single concentrated shear zone arises at the tool edge.
3) Beyond certain radius size for a given depth of cut, effective rake angle is no longer the tool
rake angle and it becomes negative influencing in cutting forces and surface roughness.

35

5. REFERENCES

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37