Documentos de Académico
Documentos de Profesional
Documentos de Cultura
Minor Premise
: Muhammad is a Muslim
Conclusion
Conclusion-indicators are words which imply that what about to follow is a conclusion.
Therefore, so, ergo (Latin), thus, hence, accordingly, consequently, in consequence, it implies
that, shows that, it proves that, as a result, it means, it follows that, we may infer that, for this
reason, we may conclude, and others are examples of conclusion-indicator.
Premise-indicators on the other hand tell us that what about to follow is a premise. Since,
because, as, inasmuch, but, however, follows from, as shown by, as indicated by, and others
are examples of premise-indicators.
Symbols in Syllogism
Terms
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Symbols
Quality
Symbols
Quantity
Symbols
Major Term
Affirmative
Universal
Minor Term
Negative
Particular
Middle Term
A : Mu + Pp
I : Sp + Mp
I : Mp + Sp
E : Pu + Mu
I : Mp + Sp
I : Sp + Pp
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INFORMAL FALLACIES
Formal fallacies are errors of reasoning by virtue of their forms. Informal fallacies are errors
encountered in ordinary discourse and, sometimes described as fallacies of language. Fallacies
may be created unintentionally, or they may be created intentionally in order to deceive other
people. Sometimes the term fallacy is used even more broadly to indicate any false belief or
cause of a false belief.
Fallacies of Ambiguity (Unclear Meaning)
1. Fallacy of equivocation. Equivocation is the illegitimate switching of the meaning of a term
during the reasoning. This is also called fallacy of four terms.
Example:
2. Fallacy of accent. The accent fallacy is a fallacy of ambiguity due to the different ways a
word is emphasized or accented.
Example:
4. Fallacy of composition. The composition fallacy occurs when someone mistakenly assumes
that a characteristic of some or all the individuals in a group is also a characteristic of the
group itself, the group composed of those members.
Example:
5. Fallacy of division. Merely because a group as a whole has a characteristic, it often doesnt
follow that individuals in the group have that characteristic. If you suppose that it does
follow, when it doesnt, you commit the fallacy of division.
Example:
The jigsaw puzzle when assembled is circular in shape. Therefore, each piece
is circular in shape.
You have to be good to us, or else you will fail the students evaluation.
3. Argumentum ad populum (appeal to the people). If you suggest too strongly that
someones claim or argument is correct simply because its what most everyone believes,
then youve committed the fallacy of appeal to the people. Similarly, if you suggest too
strongly that someones claim or argument is mistaken simply because its not what most
everyone believes, then youve also committed the fallacy. Agreement with popular
opinion is not necessarily a reliable sign of truth, and deviation from popular opinion is not
necessarily a reliable sign of error, but if you assume it is and do so with enthusiasm, then
youre guilty of committing this fallacy.
Example:
year.
You should tune in to ABS-CBN, because its the most watched station this
4. Argumentum ad hominem (argument against the person). You commit this fallacy if you
make an irrelevant attack on the arguer and suggest that this attack undermines the
argument itself.
Example:
He should not be entrusted with the position, because hes from a family of
drug addicts.
Fallacies of Presumption (Premise Assumed)
1. Fallacy of Accident. This fallacy presumes that a general rule can apply to all situations
without due regard to their accidental features.
Example:
The law states that you should not travel than 50 kph, thus, even if your
father is dying, you should not travel faster than 50 kph.
2. Fallacy of petitio percipii. This means begging the question. A form of circular reasoning
in which a conclusion is derived from premises that presuppose the conclusion.
Example:
Expert says that Joseph Estrada is the best president of the country,
Those experts are those who maintain that Joseph Estrada is the best
president.
3. Fallacy of complex question. You commit this fallacy when you frame a question so that
some controversial presupposition is made by the wording of the question.
Example:
Nobody has ever proved that God exists, therefore, God does not exist,
Dowden, Bradley. 2010. Fallacies. Available at http://www.iep.utm.edu/fallacy. Accessed last July 4, 2010
Gripaldo, Rolando M. 2008. Logic and Logical Theory. Included in The Philosophical Landscape 5th Edition. Quezon City : C&E
Publishing.
Hurley, Patrick J. 2000. A Concise Introduction to Logic. Belmont, CA : Wadsw
orth / Thompson Learning.
Timbreza, Florentino T. 1992. Logic Made Simple. Quezon City : Phoenix Publishing House Inc.
Umali, Pepe SM. 2007. Logic: Art of Living with Reason. Intramuros Manila : Mindshapers Co. Inc.
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