THE PASSIVE VOICE

DEFINITION
First of all I'd like to make clear what we mean with
these two words: PASSIVE and VOICE. The former comes from
the latin verb Patior pateris pati passus sum, which means
"To suffer", '"To bear", "To undergo". And the latter,
VOICE, has derived from another latin verb: Voco, vocas,
vocare, vocavi, vocatum, and its meaning was "To call",
"To say", "To mention"; therefore, this topic deals with
the way in which we are addressing our message, it
comprises the way we are focusing it on the grounds of the
object affected by that action. We aren't talking about
who performs the action, but we'll assume the point of
view of the one -or the thing- on which the action will
influence.
GENERAL USE
The passive voice is widely used in English. Probably
quite 90% per cent of the passive sentences spoken or
written are of the type replacing the indefinite pronoun
or reflexives in other languages (French
"on", German
"man"
and
the
use
of
reflexive
verbs
in
Slavonic
languages). In Spanish we've got the impersonal "SE" in
"Se dice que, se piensa que" and "ES" in Valencian "Es diu
que, es pensa que...", which have no equivalent in
English. That's the raison d'tre why this voice is widely
used to cope with that problem.
We use the passive voice to focus on the person or thing
affected by an action. When we want to talk about the
person or thing that performs an action, we use the active
voice.
1. Mr Smith locks the gate at 6 o'clock every night.
The storm destroyed dozens of trees.
But when we want to focus on the person or thing that is
affected by an action, rather than the person or thing
that performs the action, we use the passive voice.
2. The gate is locked at 6 o'clock every night
Dozens of trees were destroyed
Only verbs that have an object can have a passive form.
With verbs that can have two objects, either object can be
the subject of the passive. Quirk calls them ditransitive
verbs.
TRANSITIVE AND INTRANSITIVE VERBS.
I) Intransitive verbs do not have an object.
II) transitive verbs have at least one object.
1

III) Some verbs can be used with or without an object,

depending on the situation or their meaning.
I) INTRANSITIVE VERBS: They often refer to:
- Existence: APPEAR, DIE, EXIST, HAPPEN, LIVE, OCCUR,
REMAIN, VANISH.
- The human body: ACHE,BLEED, BLUSH, FAINT, SHIVER, SMILE
- Human noises: COUGH, CRY, LAUGH, SCREAM, SIGH, SNORE,
SPEAK.
- Light, Smell, Vibration: GLOW, GLEAM, SHINE, SPARKLE,
STINK, VIBRATE.
- Position, Movement: ARRIVE, COME, DEPART, FALL, FLOW,
GO, JUMP, PAUSE, RUN, SIT, SLEEP, STAND, SWIM, WAIT, WALK,
WORK.
3. An awful thing has happened.
Note that intransitive verbs cannot be used in the
passive.
II) TRANSTIVE VERBS:
Many verbs normally have an object and they are called
transitive. They are connected with:
- Physical Objects: BUILD, BUY, CARRY, CATCH, COVER, CUT,
DAMAGE, DESTROY, FILL, HIT, OWN, REMOVE, RENT, SELL, USE,
WASTE, WEAR.
- Senses: FEEL, HEAR, SMELL, TASTE, TOUCH.
- Feelings: ADMIRE, DISLIKE, ENJOY, FEAR, FRIGHTEN, HATE,
LIKE, LOVE, NEED, PREFER, SURPRISE, TRUST, WANT.
Facts,
Ideas:ACCEPT,
BELIEVE,
CONSIDER,
CORRECT,
DISCUSS, EXPECT, EXPRESS, FORGET, INCLUDE, KNOW, MEAN,
REMEMBER, REPORT.
- People: ADDRESS, BLAME, COMFORT, CONTACT, CONVINCE,
DEFY, KILL, PERSUADE, PLEASE, TEASE, THANK, WARN.
4. Did you see the rainbow?
Don't blame me.
Note that transitive verbs can be used in passive.
5. They were blamed for everything.
(HAVE is a transitive verb, but cannot be used in the
passive. You can say I have a car, but not A car is had by
me.
* OMISSION: We can omit the object when it is known by the
people we are talking to, because is has already been
mentioned or it is obvious.
6. I don't own a car, I can't drive (a car).
You don't smoke, do you? (tobacco).
III) Many verbs (CALL, LOSE, MISS, PLAY, SHOW, FIT,
MANAGE, MOVE, RUN, SPREAD) have more than one meaning, and
2

are transitive in one meaning and intransitive in another

meaning. For example, the verb 'TO RUN' is intransitive
when you use it to mean 'move quickly' but transitive when
you use it to mean 'manage or operate'
7. The hare runs at enormous speed
She runs a hotel
* A few verbs: DANCE (a dance), LAUGH (a laugh), SIGH (a
sigh), DIE (a death), LIVE (a life), SMILE (a smile),
DREAM (a dream); are normally instransitive but can be
used with an object that is closely related to the verb
and adding more information about the object by using
adjectives in front of the noun.
8. I once dreamed a very nice dream
ERGATIVE VERBS
* Ergative verbs are both transitive and intransitive. The
object of the transitive verb is the subject of the
intransitive use.
* A few verbs are only ergative with particular nouns.
* A few of these verbs need an adverbial when they are
used without an object.
Some verbs can be used as transitive verbs to focus on the
person who performs an action, and as intransitive verbs
to focus on the thing affected by the action.
9. When I opened the door, there was Tom Hanks
Suddenly the door opened
Note that the object of the transitive verb, in this case
'the door', is the subject of the intransitive verb. Verbs
like these are called 'ergative' verbs.
* They often refer to:
-CHANGES: BEGIN, BREAK, CHANGE, CRACK, DRY, END, FINISH,
GROW, IMPROVE, INCREASE, SLOW, START, STOP, TEAR.
10. The driver stopped the car
A big car stopped.
-COOKING: BAKE, COOK, FRY,
SIMMER.
11. I've boiled an egg
The porridge is boiling

ROAST,

BOIL,

DEFROST,

MELT,

- POSITION OR MOVEMENT: BALANCE, MOVE, ROCK, STAND, CLOSE,

OPEN, SHAKE, TURN, DROP, REST.
12. An explosion shook the hotel
The whole room shook
- VEHICLES: BACK, DRIVE, REVERSE, SAIL, CRASH, FLY, RUN.
13. He had crashed the car twice
3

Her car crashed into a tree

* A few verbs can be used in both ways, but need an
adverbial when they are used without an object: CLEAN,
HANDLE, POLISH, STAIN, FREEZE, MARK, SELL, WASH.
14. He sells books
This book is selling well.
* FORM
The passive voice of an active verb is formed by putting
the verb TO BE into the same tense as the active verb and
adding the past participle of the active verb:
A. We keep the butter here
P. The butter is kept here
15. A. They broke the window
P. The window was broken
A. People have seen wolves in that forest
P. Wolves have been seen in that forest
In order to make the students learn the past participle of
irregular verbs, now we should give them a complete list
but I'd advise them to tick those appearing in the
textbook. So that they will have to learn
only a few
every term. They should also have to gather them according
to their 3 forms AAA (CUT,HIT,HURT,PUT), ABA (RUN) ,
ABB(TELL,
HAVE,LOSE),
ABC
(SPEAK,GIVE,FORGET),
adding
their phonetic transcription and their meaning.
The passive of CONTINUOUS TENSES sometimes seem to be
difficult because it requires the present continuous form
of TO BE, which is not otherwise much used.
A. Jobs are still being lost
16. A. They are repairing the bridge
P. The bridge is being repaired
Apart from the present and simple, other continuous tenses
are rarely used in the passive, so that sentences such as
They have been / had been / would be / will be repairing
the bridge are not normally put into passive.
* If we find an AUXILIARY+ INFINITIVE COMBINATION it is made
passive by using a passive infinitive, in other words,
after modals we use the base form 'BE' followed by the
past participle of the main verb..
17. A. You must shut these doors
P. These doors must be shut

A. You ought to open the windows

P. The windows ought to be opened
When we are talking about the past, we use a modal with
'HAVE BEEN' followed by the past participle.
18. He may have been given the car
* The PASSIVE GERUND is being+past participle
19. A. I remember my father taking me to the zoo
P. I remember being taken to the zoo by my father
* Students may like to see a table of active tenses and
their passive equivalents:
Active
Passive
Simple Present
Keeps
is kept
Pres. Cont
Is keeping
is being kept
Simple Past
Kept
was kept
Past continuous
Was keeping
was being kept
Present perfect
Has kept
has been kept
Past perfect
Had kept
had been kept
Future
Will keep
will be kept
Conditional
Would keep
would be kept
Perfect Cond.
Would have kept
would have been
kept
Present Infinitive
To keep
To be kept
Perfect Infinitive
To have kept
To have been
kept
Present Participle/Ger.Keeping
being kept
Perfect Participle
Having kept
having been kept
* USE
The p.v. is used in English when it is more convenient or
interesting to stress the thing done than the doer of it,
or when the doer is unknown or it does not matter: My
watch
was
stolen
(It
is
much
more
usual
than
Thieves/Someone stole my watch)
Your application was rejected
We use the passive voice when we have an unknown or vague
active voice subject, and it remains unexpressed in the
passive voice.
Someone has stolen my books
we prefer My books have been stolen.
Note that in theory a sentence containing a direct and an
indirect object, such as Someone gave her a bulldog could
have two passive forms (usually the indirect object refers
to a person, and this often comes first):
She was given a bulldog
A bulldog was given to
her
The first of these sentences is much the more usual; the
indirect object becomes the subject of the passive verb.
Though the second one is also possible.
He gave his wife a camera

* PREPOSITIONS with Passive Verbs

* In a passive sentence the agent, or doer of the action,
is very often not mentioned. When the agent is mentioned
it is preceded by BY:
20. A. Picasso painted this picture
P. This picture was painted by Picasso
A Who wrote it?
P Who was it written by?
Note, however, that the passive form of such sentences as:
21. 21. A. Smoke filled the romm
P. The room was filled with smoke
A. Paint covered the lock
P. The lock was covered with paint
We are here dealing with materials used, not with agents,
therefore we can say that we use WITH to talk about
something that is used to perform the action.
22. He was killed with a knife
* When a VERB+P REPOSITION+O BJECT COMBINATION is put into the
passive, the preposition will remain immediately after the
verb.
23. A. We must write to him
P. He must be written to
Similarly with VERB+PREPOSITION OR ADVERB COMBINATIONS:
24. A. They threw away the old newspapers
P. The old newspapers were thrown away.

INFINITIVE CONSTRUCTIONS AFTER PASSIVE VERBS

* After ACKNOWLEDGE, AGREE, ARRANGE, ASSUME, BELIEVE,
CLAIM, CONSIDER, DECIDE, ESTIMATE, EXPECT, FEEL, FIND,
KNOW, PRESUME, REPORT, SAY, SUPPOSE, THINK, UNDERSTAND,
etc. Sentences of the type
People say/think/consider, know..
that he is... have two
possible passive forms:
It is thought/believed/considered/known etc. that he is..
He is thought/believed/considered/known etc. to be....
The infinitive construction is the neater of the two. It
is chiefly used with TO BE though other infinitives can
sometimes be used:
He is thought to have some information which will be
useful to the police

We can hence use IT with a passive form of a reporting

verb and a 'THAT-clause' when we want to suggest that an
opinion or belief is shared by many people. This use is
particularly common in news, reports, for example in
newspapers, on the radio, or on television.
25. It was said that he could speak their language
Nowadays it is believed that the size is unimportant

The passive of reporting verbs can also be used without

impersonal 'it' to express general opinions.
26. The factories were said to be much worse
They are believed to be very dangerous
When the thought concerns a previous action we use the
perfect infinitive so that:
27. People know that he was a police spy
It is known that he was a police spy
He is known to have been a police spy
People believe that he was a police spy
Is is believed that he was a police spy
He is believed to have been a police spy
The reporting verbs -when we use our own words- that have
the hearer as object, such as TELL, can be used in the
passive.
28. She was told that there were no tickets
If they don't need the hearer as object, such as SAY, can
be used in the passive with impersonal IT as a subject,
but not: ANSWER, COMPLAIN, INSIST, PROMISED, REPLY or
WARN.
It was said that the money had been stolen
This construction can be used with the perfect infinitive
of any verb.
* After SUPPOSE.
SUPPOSE in the passive can be followed by the present
infinitive of any verb but this construction usually
conveys the idea of duty and is not therefore the normal
equivalent of SUPPOSE in the active:
You are supposed to know how to drive = You should know,
it is your duty to know how to drive.
Though He is supposed to be in Paris could mean either -He
ought to be there, or People suppose he is there.
SUPPOSE in the passive can similarly be followed by the
perfect infinitive of any verb. This construction may
convey an idea of duty but very often does not.
7

You are supposed to have finished = You should have

finished
But He is supposed to have escaped disguised as a woman =
People suppose that he escaped disguised as a woman.
* Note that an infinitive placed after a passive verb is
normally a full infinitive, I mean, an infinitive with TO,
mainly after SEE, HEAR, MAKE..
A. We saw them go out
P. They were seen to go out
LET, however, is used without TO
A. They let us go
P. We were let go
* The continuous infinitive can be used after the passive
of THINK, KNOW, BELIEVE, UNDERSTAND, REPORT, SAY, SUPPOSE.
He is thought / known / believed / said / supposed to be
living abroad.
People think/know/believe/say/suppose that he is living
abroad.
You are supposed to be working = You should be working.
It is also possible the perfect form of the continuous
infinitive:
He is believed to have been waiting for a message.= People
believe that he was waiting for a message
You are supposed to have been working = You should have
been working.
* In informal English, 'GET' is sometimes used instead of
'BE' to form the passive.
29. Our cars get cleaned every week
He got killed in a plane crash
CAUSATIVE HAVE/GET
This is quite a peculiar construction: HAVE/GET + DIRECT
OBJECT + PAST PARTICIPLE. With it we can express that an
action is performed not by the subject himself, but by
someone else on his/her behalf.
30. We got this room decorated last year.
Did you get your suit cleaned?
I know how the window got broken

BECOME = Gradual

achievment.

8. GENERAL AND PERSONAL CONSIDERATION ON THE PASSIVE VOICE

COMPLEX STRUCTURES
* Structures with introductory IT:
Is it thought that the Minister will resign
* With THERE IS
There are thought to be fewer than 20 people still living
in the village.
There were said to be ghosts in the house, but I never
heard anything.
* FULL INFINITIVE
I was made to tell them everything
I was asked to help
She is thought to have left home
9. DIDACTIC APPROACH
A. LIST OF IRREGULAR VERBS.
B. TABLE OF ACTIVE VERBS AND PASSIVE EQUIVALENTS.
C. CHART WITH PRACTICAL SAMPLES.

OBJECTIVES:
- Understanding the passive voice.
- Separation facts from opinions.
- Understand texts of different passive
organization.
- Understand texts from different media.
- Summerise ideas.

structures

and

EXERCISE 1
1. READ THE TEXT AND THEN DO THE REST OF THE EXERCISE.
A driver has been sent to jail for 90 days for driving
with excess alcohol.
Graham Smith, 29, of North Street, Barton, was stopped by
police officers near his home last November and was found
to have drunk almost twice the legal limit for drivers,
Didcot magistrates heard on Thursday.
Twelve months earlier Smith had been disqualified for
driving for three years for drink-driving.
He was disqualified for twelve months in 1986 for a
similar offence.
Mr Peter Jones, defending, said Smith had used the car to
visit a sick friend.
He said Smith was depressed after the visit, and went to a
pub and drank five or six pints before driving home.
He was caught by police during a routine speed check in
Wantage Road, Barton.
2. UNDERLINE THE PASSIVE VERBS IN THE TEXT.
3. QUESTION: WOULD IT BE EASY TO REWRITE THE TEXT WITH
ACTIVE VERBS (....sent a disqualified driver to jail;
police officer stopped Graham Smith)?
ANSWER: It would be difficult to rewrite the text
sensibly with active verbs.
4. THINK ABOUT THE
ARE BEST?

FOLLOWING SENTENCES. WHICH TWO RULES

1. We use passives when we are interested in WHAT HAPPENS,

not WHO IT HAPPENS TO.
2. Passives are common when we are thinking about what IS
DONE to the person or thing that we are interested in, not
about what he/she/it DOES. ******
3. Passives can help us to go on talking about the SAME
THING, in cases where an active verb would need an
UNWANTED NEW SUBJECT. ******
4. Passives are best in a FORMAL STYLE: Newspapers,
scientific descriptions, etc. Actives are more informal:
letters to friends, conversations, etc.

10

EXERCISE 2
CHOOSE THE BEST
CONTINUOUS TEXT.
1.

SENTENCE

FROM

EACH

PAIR

TO

BUILD

UP

HOW BOOKS ARE MADE (X)

HOW PEOPLE MAKE BOOKS

2. First of all, the printers print big sheets of paper.

First of all, big sheets of paper are printed. (X)
3. Each sheet contains the text of a number of pages (e.g.
32). (X)
The text of a number of pages (e.g. 32) is contained
in each sheet.
4. People fold and cut the sheets to produce sections of
the book.
The sheets are folded and cut to produce sections of
the book. (X)
5. These sections are called signatures. (X)
We call these sections signatures.
6. The printers put all the signatures together in the
correct order.
All the signatures are put together in the correct
order. (X)
7. Then they are bound together and their edges are
trimmed. (X)
Then they bind the signatures together and trim the
edges.
8. Finally, the cover -which has been printed separatelyis attached. (X)
Finally, the attach the cover -which they have printed
separately.
9. Now the publisher can publish the book.
Now the book can be published.
(X)

11

EXERCISE 3
Cross-curricular topic: SELF-ESTEEM AND RESPECTING PEOPLE
Grammar Aspect: Infinitives and -ING forms. Make some
sentences beginning I (don't) like .... ing or I (don't)
want to... using verb forms from the box
ADMIRE
IGNORE
INVITE OUT
AT
LOVE
TALK ABOUT

CRITICISE
LAUGH AT
NEED
TALK TO

FORGET
LIKE

GIVE PRESENTS
LISTEN TO

LOOK

SHOUT AT
TAKE SERIOUSLY
UNDERVALUE

Project: SOCIAL BEHAVIOUR AND ATTITUDES OF RESPECT

Further Practice: Change these sentences as in
example. Then think about why this makes them better.

the

That she had not written to her parents for over 2

years surprised me.
I was surprised that she had not written to her parents
for over 2 years.
1. That nobody
shocked us.

was

prepared

to

take

him

to

hospital

2. That Mary wanted to tell everybody what to do annoyed

me.
3. That George rang me up at 3 o'clock in the morning to
tell me he was in love again didn't please me.
4. The fact that he looked completely different from the
last time I had met him confused me. (I was confused
by...)

12

EXERCISE 4
CONTEXT: Culinary richness in England.
A RECIPE:
COOKIES, DUMPLINGS, PLUMCAKE, PORRIGE, A BIRTHDAY CAKE,
APPLEPIE, PANCAKES, PLUM PUDDING, SPONGE CAKE, BREAD AND
BUTTER PUDDING, CHOCOLATE PUDDING, RICE PUDDING.
Read the text and making the appropriate changes into
passive, report the procedure of the recipe to a partner.

POTATO PANCAKE:
I NGREDIENTS:
One pound of boiled potatoes
Two tomatoes
Butter
Tablespoon flour
Seasoning
Parsley
One small finely chopped onion
P ROCEDURE:
Mash the potatoes in butter. Don't use any milk. Season.
Add the chopped onion, chopped potato, flour, and a
handful of chopped parsley. Mix well. Lightly oil a flat
baking dish and put in the potatoes. Shape into a fairly
thick circular cake. Brush lightly with melted butter and
bake in a hot oven until brown on the top.
FINAL OBJECTIVE: A PARTY

13

BIBLIOGRAPHY
- "A PRACTICAL ENGLISH GRAMMAR"
Martinet. Oxford Univ. Press.
- "A UNIVERSITY GRAMMAR
Sidney Greenbaum. Longman.

OF

A.J.

ENGLISH"

Thomson

and

Randolph

A.V.

Quirk

&

- "COLLINS COBUILD STUDENT'S GRAMMAR" Dave Willis, Harper

Collins Publishers.
- "HOW ENGLISH WORKS". A Grammar Practice Book". Michael
Swan & Catherine Walter. Oxford University Press.
- "LIVING ENGLISH STRUCTURE. Practice
Students". W. Stannard Allen. Longman.

Book

for

Foreign

- "CONTEMPORARY ENGLISH IN THE ELEMENTARY SCHOOL". Iris M.

Tiedt & Sidney Tiedt. Prentice-Hall.
- "A BASIC
English.

ENGLISH

GRAMMAR"

Eastwood

&

Mackin.

Oxford

- "GRAMMAR PRACTICE FOR INTERMEDIATE STUDENTS" E. Walker &

S. Elsworth. Longman.
- "OXFORD PLACEMENT TESTS". Dave Allan. Oxford U. P.
TEXTBOOKS:
- "ACTION 1 & 2. SECUNDARIA. LEARNING FILE". Cathy Myers &
Gema Morales. Heinemann.
- "SHOUT 1 & 2". John Gray & Rob Nolasco. Oxford U. P.
- "GO FOR IT 3 & 4". Barry Tomalin & Jos M. Vez. Everest
English.
- "OPEN ROADS 1 & 2". Ann Ward at alt. Oxford U. P.
- "PRE-SELECT". Michael Dean et alt. Oxford U. P.
- "ROLLING ALONG 1 & 2". Rosa M. Prieto & Ana M. Martnez.
Edelvives and Folens Publishers.
- "SELECT". Exam Preparation for Selectivitat and PAAU.
David Bolton & Lester Tattersall. Oxford U. P.
- "SOLUTIONS FOR BACHILLERATO 1 & 2".
- "YOUR CHOICE 1 &
Taylor. Richmond Pub.

2".

Michael

14

Downnie

&

Stephanie

- "TEAMWORK 3". David Spencer & David Vaughan. Heinemann.

"THE PASSIVE VOICE"

1. Etymological approach.
2. General Use. 1 2
3. Intransitive Verbs: Existence

3
Human Body
Human Noises
Light Smell Vibration
Position Movement

4. Transitive Verbs:

Physical O.
Senses 4
Feelings
Facts, ideas
People 5
Have
Omission Object 6

5. Ergative Verbs: 7 9 Changes 10

OBj+Adj. 8

6. FORM

7. USE

Cooking 11
Position Movement 12
Vehicles 13
adverbials 14

- Simple 15
- Continuous 16
- Aux+Infinitive 17 Perf. 18
- Gerund 12 Pas.
- List
Comment
Double object
Prepositions 20..24
Inf./ Impersonal const. Institu./ Report. V.
Suppose
GET. Causative use.

8. General Considerations on Practical Use. Samples.

9. Didactic approach
10. BIBLIOGRAPHY

Jos Luis Villanueva H.

15

SAMPLES
1. Mr Smith locks the gate at 6 o'clock every night.
The storm destroyed dozens of trees.
2. The gate is locked at 6 o'clock every night
Dozens of trees were destroyed
3. An awful thing has happened.
4. Did you see the rainbow?
Don't blame me.
5. They were blamed for everything.
6. I don't own a car, I can't drive (a car).
You don't smoke, do you? (tobacco).
7. The hare runs at enormous speed
She runs a hotel
8. I once dreamed a very nice dream
9. When I opened the door, there was Tom Hanks
Suddenly the door opened
10. The driver stopped the car
A big car stopped.
11. I've boiled an egg
The porridge is boiling
12. An explosion shook the hotel
The whole room shook
13. He had crashed the car twice
Her car crashed into a tree
14. He sells books
This book is selling well.
15.A. They broke the window
A. People have seen wolves in that forest
16.A. They are repairing the bridge
17.A. You must shut these doors
A. You ought to open the windows
18.He may have been given the car
19.A. I remember my father taking me to the zoo
P. I remember being taken to the zoo by my father
20.A. Picasso painted this picture
A Who wrote it?
21.A. Smoke filled the romm
A. Paint covered the lock
22.He was killed with a knife
23.A. We must write to him
24.A. They threw away the old newspapers
25.It was said that he could speak their language
Nowadays it is believed that the size is unimportant
26.The factories were said to be much worse
They are believed to be very dangerous
27.People know that he was a police spy/It is known/He is.
28. She was told that there were no tickets
29.Our cars get cleaned ever week
16

He got killed in a plane crash

30.We got this room decorated last year.
Did you get your suit cleaned?

* How English Works, pages 178 ...

"Do it Yourself" (Learning to Learn) Selecting rules.
Page 179. BUILDING UP A CONTINUOUS TEXT.

OTHER CONSTRUCTIONS
* If he is to be believed... = If we believe him...
----------------------------------------------------By rule of thumb
De modo emprico
By the skin of my teeth = POR LOS PELOS
To comply /kom'plai/ with obeder una norma, cumplir
I'd like to win my spurs

Me gustara ganarme los galones

17

THE PASSIVE VOICE

JOSE LUIS VILLANUEVA HERNANDEZ

18