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'REPUBLIC OF KENYA

MINISTRY OF TRANSPORT AND COMMUNICATION ROADS. DEPARTMENT



. .~,'; .;

ROADDESIGN:MANUAl

PART III·'

MATERIALS AND PAVEMEN~ DESIGN FOR NEW ROADS .

CHIEF ENGINEER (ROADS&: AERODROMES} MINISTRY OF TRANSPORT AND

COMMUNICATIONS . .

P.O, BOX. 52692 NAIROBI

----~.--. --~----------------_.~~------~---

. PERMANENrSeCRETARYI ENGINEER-IN-CHIEF

P.O. BOX 52692NA\ROS\

AUGUST 1987

REPUBLIC OF KENYA

MINISTRY OF TRANSPORT AND COMMUN)CATION ROADS DEPARTMENT·

ROAD DESIGN MANUAL

PART III

MATERIALS AND PAVEMENT DESIGN FOR NEW ROADS

CHIEF ENG~NEER

(ROADS & AERODROMES) MINISTRY OF TRANSPORT AND COMMUNICATIONS

P,O. BOX 52692 NAIROBI

PERMANENT SECRETARY / ENGINEER·IN·CHIEF

P.O. BOX 52692 NAlROBI

AUGUST 1987

ROAD DESIGN MANUAL

PART 111 : MATERIALS AND PAVEMENT DESIGN FOR NEW ROAD.S

Page (L)

Section

Ll 1.2 1.3

2. 2.

2.3

2.4

2.5

3.1 3.2

4.1

4.2

CONTENTS

,

! I

,

i

;

1

i

CHAPTER 1 : GE~"ERAL

Tnrrnnnction

Units of Measurement Definitions and Abbreviations 1. 3.1 Pavement

1.3.2 General Materials 1.3.3 Bituminous Materials 1.3.4 Traffic

1..3.5 Abb~evi~tion5

1.1. 1.3 1.5 1.5 106 1.7 1.10 L.U

CHAPTER 2 ~ TRAFFIC

General

Axle Load Distributiorr

2.2.1 Present Kenya Legislatioh 2.2.2 Axle Load Distribution Equivalence Factors

2.3.1 Axle Load Equivalence Factor

2.3.2 Vehicle Equivalence Factor Evaluation of Traffic for DeSign Purposes 2.4.1 Estimating the Initial Daily Number

of Commercial Vchiolco

2.4.2 Estiw~ting the Initial Daily Number of Standard AxleS'

2.4.3 Estimating the Cumulative Number of

Standard Axles Traffic Classification

2.5.1 Use of Cumulative Number of Standard AXles 2.5.2 TLa££l~ Cla~ses

2.1 2.2 2.2 2.2 2.4 2.4 2 .. 4 2.6

2.6

2.6

2.7 2.9 2.9 2.9

CHAPTER 3 ; THE NATURAL ENVIRONMENT

Climate

Natural Materials and Soils

3.1 3.2

CHAPTER 4 : EARTHWORKS

Cuttings

4.1.1 General

4.1.2 Type of Material to be Excavated 4.1.3 Water Table and Springs

4 •. 1.4 Determination of the Angle of Slope Embank,'1!ents

4.2.1 General

4.2.2 Pounda.tion Conditiuns dud SeLLlellle!lC 4.2.3 Fill Material

4.2.4 Stability of Slopes

4.2.5 Placinq and Compaction of Fills

4.1 4.1 4.1 4.1 4.2 4.4 4.4 4.4 4.5 4.6 4.6

PART 111

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ROAD DESIGN MANUAL

MATERIALS AND PAVEMENT DESIGN FOR NEW ROADS

Page (H)

CONTENTS

Section

C~2TER ~ : DRAINAGE AND EROSION CONTROL

5.1

DrainAgl"! ()f SnrfaC9 Water 5" l.l General

5.1.2 Side Ditches

5.1.3 Cut-off Ditches 5.1.4 Discharge Channels

5.1.5 Collection of Water on Embankments 5.1.6 Embankment Toe Ditches

DLaillctge or GLOUIIU Water

5.2.1 General

5.2.2 Drainage Remedies Erosion Cant_raj

5.3.1 General

5.3.2 Protection of Slopes

5.3.3 Protection of Ditches and Channels

5.1 5.1 5.1 5.1 S.l 5.1 5.2 5.3 5.3 5.3 5.6 5.6 5.6 5.7

5.2

5.3

CHAPTER 6 : SUBGRADE

6.1 Classification of Kenyan Soils 6,1.1 General

6.1.2 Classes of Subgrade Bearing Strength 6.1.3 Classification of the Most Common Kenyan

Subgrade Materials

6.2 Determining the Subgrade Strength

f"2.1 Recommended Subgradc eBB. Toot Procedure 6.2.2 Subgrade Compaction

6.2.3 Estimating Sliligrade Moisture Content 6.2.4 Determininq SubqradeDesiC(n strength

6.3 Subgrade Requirements for Pavement Design 6.3.1 Materials Suitable for Pavement Support 6 <, 3 • 2 Improved Sub grade

6.3.3 Influence of Improved SUbgrade on Subgrade Bearing Strength

6.3.4 Lbne Treated Subgrade

6.1
6.1
6.1
6.2
6.4
6.4
6.4
6.5
6.6
6.7
6.7
6.7
..
6.7
6.9 CHAPTER 7 : PAVEMENT !YiATERIALS

7.l 7.2

Ceneral Subbase 7.2.1 7.2.2 7.2.3 7.2.4 7.2.5

11aterials

7.1 7.2 7.2 7.2 7.2 7.3 7.4 7.5 7.5 7.5 7.6

Materials

Natural Gravels

Clayey. and Silty Sands Cement and Lime Improved Graded Crushed Stone Soft Stone

7.3

Base Materials

7.3.1 Natural Gravels

7.3.2 Cement and Lime Improved Materials 7.3.3 Cement Stabiliocd Matcrialo

--------------------------------------'-~----------------~--~-------------,

ROAD DESIGN MANUAL

PART 111: MATERIALS AND PAVEMENT DESIGN FOR NEW ROADS

Section

7.3.4. 7.3.5 7.3.6 7.3.7 7.3.8 7.3.9

7.4

CONTENTS

Graded Crushed Stone Sand Bitumen Mixes Dense Bitumen Macadam Dense Emulsion Macadam Lean Concrete

Other Base Materials

7.4.2
7.4.3
7.4.4
7.4.5
Chart
CharL
Chart
Chart
Chart
Chart
Char't
Chart
chart
Chart
Chart
Chart
Chart
1 Chart
Chart
Chart
Chart
Table
Table
Chart
Chart
Chart Surfacings

7.4.l Prime Coat fu~d Tack Coat Surface Dressing

Functions and Performance of Bituminous Premix Types of Bituminous Premix

Choice of Surfacing

SBl - Natural Materials for Subbase

SB2 - C"'JllellL ctIlU Lime ImpLoved MCl't-erj_a~s Ior Subbase SB3 - Graded Crushed Stone for Subbase

Bl - Natural Gr'avels for Base

B2 - Cemerrt. and Lime Proved Materials for Base B3 - Cement Stabilised Materials for Base

B4 - Graded Crushed Stone for Base

B5a - Sand Bi turnen 11ixes for: Base

B5b - Sand rlitumen Mixes Lor riase

B6 -, Dense Bitumen Macadam for Base B7 - Lean Concrete for Base

Sla - &lrfa~e DrPRging

Slb - Surface Dressing Design SIc - Surface Dressing Design Sld - Surface DreSSing Design Sle - Surface Dressing Design S2a - Asphalt Concrete

S2a -- Grading 'Requirements for _)\sphalt Concrete S2b - Grading Requircmcntp for Apphalt concrete S2c - Gap graded Asphalt

S2d - Sand Asphalt

S< - EmulSion Slurry Seal

8.1

CHAPTER 8 : THE STRUCTURAL DESIGN t~THOD

Design Principles

8.1.1 Thicknesses and Materials Characteristics

8.1. 2 8.1".3 8.1.4

Design Period Stage Construction Safety Factor

3.2

8.1.5 Minimizing Base and Surfacing Thicknesses

Practical and ExperiInental Considerations

[) .2.1 Use of FlexibLe Pavements

8.2.2 8.2.3

Influence of Subgrade

The Behaviour of Pavement J'.1aterials

Cal_C'1.11ation of Str~sg. Strain, Defl_ecti_on and Layer Thickness

8.3.1 Calculation of stress, Strain and Deflection

8.3.2 Determination of Layer rrhickness

Page (iii)

7.7 7.8 7.9 7.9 7.10 7.10 7.11 7.11 7.12 7.14 7.15 7.19 7.20 7.21 7.22 7.23 7.24 7.25 ,7.26

7.27 7.28 7.29 7.30 7.31 7.32 7.33 7.34 7.35 7.36 7.37 7.38 1.39 7.40 7.41

8.1 8.1 8.1 8.1 8.,2 8.2 8.3 8.3 8.3 8.4

8.10 8.10 8.10

MANUAL

ROAD DESIGN

?age (Lv)

PAnT 111' MAT[RlALS AND PAVEMENT DESIGN FOR NEW ROADS

CONTENTS

Section

8.4

9.1

9.2 9.3

10.1

10.2

lO.3

Construction Principles

8.4.1 Minimum Layer Thickness

8.4.2 Minimum Signif:Lcant Thicken Increments

8.4 .. 3 Compliance with Specification

CHAPTER 9 : THE STANDARD PAVEMENT STRUCTURES

The _Standard Pavement Structures

901.1 Type of Pavement

9.1.2, The Standard Pavement Structures

9.1.3 Use of Other Types of Pavement

Me'thod of Use

Examples 9.3.1 9.3.2

of Pavement Design Example 1

Example 2

8.12 8.12 8.12 8.12

9.1 9.1 9.2 9.2 9.3 9.4 9.4 9.5 9.9 '1.11 9.13 9.15 g.l7 9.19 9.21 9.23 9.25 9.27 9.29 9.31 9.33 9.35 9_i7

10.1 10.1 1.0.1- 10.2 10.3 10.4 10.4 10.4 10.5 lQ.6 10,6 10.6

Standard Pavement Stxuctu:r:e Type 1 t;1:andard Pavement Structure Type :2 Standard Pavement Structure Type 3 St.andard Pavement Struc ture Type 4 Stctndax'd PavQlu<;lni: Structux:@ 'I'yp'" 5 Standard Pavement, Structure Type 6 Standard Pavement Stl:.uctUJ":e '.rype 7 Standard Pavement S·tructure Type 8 Standard Pavement Str\).cture T:[pe 9 Si.:andard Pavement Strl1cture Type lO St,cllldard Pavement Sb::U'.;:ture Type 11 S Li':mdard Pavement StD;Lc'cure lype 12 St.andard Pavement; Strllcture 'l'ype 13 Stimdard Pavement Struei:ure 'I'ype 14 S'I-.FmdFn-a P-"veJTlent. Stn:lcb_lTe Type J.5

CROSS-SECTIONS

Shoulders 10.1.1 10.1.2

'1001.3 10.1.4 Pavement lO.2.1 10.2.2 10.2.3

Functions of Shoulders

Di.ffcrcnt TypCD of ShoulderD und M.a.tcri.a_l.~ Shoulder Requirements for Each Class of Traffic Protection of Shoulder Surface

Drainage

Drainage of the Road Surface and. Shoulders Internal Drainage of Previous Pavement Layers Cross-falls

pavem~lt cross-sect~ons 10.3.1 Edge Restra:Lnt

10.3.2 Recommended Cross-sections

ROAD DESIGN MANUAL

PART 111 ; MATERIALS AND PAVEMENT DESiGN FOR NEW ROADS

Page (v)

Section

11.1

l1.2

12.1 12.2

12.3

1:2. <1

12,5

13.1

13.2

CONTENTS

CHAPTER 11 : ROADS ON EXPANSIVE CL.. ... YS

Problems associated with Expansive Clays 11.1.1 General

1'1..1.2 Volume Changes due to Moisture Variati.ons 11.1.3 Bearing capacity

11.1.4 Susceptibility to Erosion

Recommended Design and Construction Procedures ll.2.1 General

1l.1 1l.1 11.1 1l.1 lLl lL2 11.2 11.2 11.2 11.2

1L2.2 11. 2. 3 11.2.4 11.2.5

RQalignment

Excavation and Replacement Treatment with LLme

Minimising Moisture Changes and Consequent Movements

Type of Pavement Recommended over Expansive Clays

Slopes in E}{panoivc Clayco Culverts and Drainage Pipes

11.5 11.6 11.6

11.3

11.2.6

11.2.7 11. 2.8

CIIAPTER 12 : LOH GT~.NDAB.D - BIT"\.)t.lGN SUtli"ACED nOADS

General

Low Standard Suriacings

12.2.1 Single Surface Dressing 12.2.2 Sfu,d Seal

12.2.3 GraVel Seal

12.2.4 Emuls10n Slurry seal

12.2.5 Road Oiling and Mixed-in-Place Surface

Treatment

Low Standard Bi'iS~S 12.3.1 Thicknesses 12.3.2 Natural Gravels

12.3.3 Cement or 'Lime- Treated Soils Low Standard Subbases

12.4.1 Thicknesses

12.4.2 Natural Materials

12.4.3 Cement or Lime Treated Soils Dry Compaction

12.1
12.2
12.2
l2.2
12.3
12.4
12.5
12.6
12.6
12.6
12.7
12.8
12.8
12.8
12.8
12.9
!
13.1
13.1
13.2
13.3
13.3
13.2-
13.3
13.4
13.4
13.4
13.5 CHAPTER 13 : GR~VEL ROADS

Materials for: Gravel Wearing Course 13.1.1 Material Requirements 13.1.2 Traffic Limitations

13.1. 3 Design 1J.2.1 13.2.2 13.2.3, 13.2.4 13.2.5

Construction Procedures

of Gravel Roads De::sign Method

Minirnt.11U Thickness Required Gravel Loss

Total Thickness Required Shoulders w~d Cross-Section

Chart GWC - Gravel Wearing Course

ROAD DESIGN

MANUAL

PART 111; MATERIALS AND PAVEMENT DESIGN FOR NEW ROADS

Page (vi) CONTENTS

Section Page

l4.l 14.2

14.3

14.4

14.5

15.1. 15.2 15.3 15.4 IS.S 15.6

CHAPTER 14 : MATERIALS SAMPLING AND TESTING PROGRAMMES

Gell"'L"al Feasibility Study

Table 14.2.1 - Minimum Mass of Sample Required preliminary Design

14.3 .1 Ali gn:lne nt Soils

14.3.2 Existing Gravel Wearing Course 14.3.3 Soil and Gravel Borrow Pits 14.3.4 Stone Quarries

Final Design

14.4.1 Earthworks and Subgrade

l4.1.2 Existing Gravel Wearing Course 14.4.3 Soil and Gravel Borrow Pits 14.4.4 stone Quarries

Mass of Sample Reqnired

14.1 14.2 14.2 14.3 14.3 14.4 14.4 14.6 14.8 14.8 14.10 1.4 .10 14.13 14.15

CHAPTER 15 : STANDARD METHODS OF TESTING

Soils and Gravels

stone, Aggregates, Sands and Fillers Cement and Lime

Cpmpn-r or Lime Tre21.t"ed Materials Bi t.umi.nous Binders

Bituminous Mixes

lS.l 15.5 15.7 15.S 15.11 15.13

ROAD DESIGN MANUAL MATERIALS AND PAVEMENT DESIGN FOR

NEW ROADS

PART 111

::;"- ' ",'

Page 1.1,'

CHAPTER 1 : GENERAL

] -]

INTRODUCTION

The Road Design Manual sets forth the policy and standards to be adopted for the design of roads in Kenya. The manual is divided into four parts:

Part I : Geometric Design of Rural Roads
Part II : Geometric Design of Urban Roads*
Part III : It.aterials and Pavema~t Design for
New Roads**
Part IV : Bridge Design*' (inc 1 uding other
major structures)
Part V : Pavement Rehabilitation and OveJ:lay
Design'" Until recently ,the structural design of new bitumen surfaced roads in Kenya was based on a combination of Road Notes 29 and 31, published by the British Transport and Road Research Laboratory. These notes were not specifically designed to cater for the current needs of Kenya.

PW:'ing the per,iou 1977 t.o 1980 dJ1 exuens Lve re5eaJ;Cn programme has been carried out into the performance and characteristics of Kenyan materials and pavements. The results of this programme can be found in the Materials Branch Reports listed in

Appendix A.

It is now possible to publish a pavement design manua~ with particular rererence to the conditions and materials in Kenya. This manual adopts an integrated app~oach in that full details of possible materials for the pavement layers are given as well as the- det.P.i 1s as to how th{>,s~ may be c=bined, and in what thicknesses to form a satisfactory pavement for a given traffiC volume. The pavement designs az e given in the form of catalogues.

The contents of this Manual are partly quidelines and recommendations to be considered, and partly standaJ:ds which as a general rule should be adhered to. In some instances special conditions may demand modifications to these standards. SUch instances will usually be brought to the attention of the dEsigner by the Chief Engineer (Roads and Aerodromes), HoWever, it is also the responsibility of the deSigner to put forward any proposals for modifications to the standards which he considers will result in a better and more economical design.

The design engineer should also realise that the adoption of the guidelines and standards given in this Manual does not automatically ensure a serViceable and economic road design. This can only be achieved through a careful consideration ~~d balancing of the various controls, criteria and elements involved.

* Not yet available

.... Previously degi.gnQ.ted "Pavement I>esign"

PART 111

ROAD DEStGN MANUAL

MATERIALS AND PAVEMENT DESIGN FOR NEW ROADS

Page 1.2

CHAPTER 1 : GENE..~

The Road Desiyn ManUd.l form;:; a pcu:t of a set of manuals, some of which have a bearing on design. These are:

- Manual on Traffic Coritrol Devices

Part I : Road Markings***
Part II : Traffic Signs
Part III , Traffic Signal!;*
Part IV >. Other. Traffic Control and Road Safety
Devices"> - Manual on RoadaidG Developnent and Control*

- Highway Capacity Manual*

- Manual on the Fonn and Layout of Road Design Plans and

Reports *

* Not yet available ***Draft Only

PART 111

ROAD DESIGN MANUAL

MATERIALS AND PAVEMENT OES1GN FOR NEW ROADS

1.2

CHAPTER 1 : GENERAL

UNITS OF MEASUREMENT

Page 1.3

The standard units of measurement to be used are based on the International System (SI) units. However, the units applicable to road desLgn also Lncl~de some ~nits which are noL sL~i~tly part of SI.

Multiples and sub-multiples of SI units are fo=ed either by the use of indices or prefixes •. Definitions of applicable prefixes are given in Table 1.2.1.

The basic units and the derived and supp~ementary un:its which will normally be required for road design are listed in Table 1. 2.2.

TABLE 1.2.1 : DEFINITIONS OF PREFIXES

PREFIX

FACTOR BY WHICH THE UNIT IS MULTIPLIED

mega kilo

hecto

deca

deci

milE

micro

SYMBOL

M k h

da

d

c

m

106
103
102
10
1.0-1
10-2
10-3
10-6
.. PART 111

ROAD DESIGN MANUAL

MATERIALS AND PAVEMENT DESIGN FOR NEW ROADS

CHAPTER 1 : GENERAL

TABLE 1. 2. 2. : BASIC UNITSl MULTIPLES AND SUB-MULTIPLES
~------~~
QUANTITY UNIT SYMBOL RECO~NDED MOLT IPLES
AND SUB-MULTIPLES
Length metre ill kIn, mID
Mass kilogram kg I M9, 9, mg
Time-, I second s day (d), hour (h) ,
minute (min)
Area square metre m2 km2, hectare
(lha=lO,OOom2) I mm2
Volume
(soUds) cubic metre m3 cm3, rom3
Volume
(liquid) litre 1 ml, 1 ml"'lO-3 litre
;:lcm3
I
Density kilogram per kg/m3 1 Mg/m3 = 1 kg/l
I cubic metre = 1 g/ml
Force newton N MN", leN
(IN= 1 kgm/s2, lkgf==9.81Nl
Pressure newton per N/m2 kN/m2, N/mm2
and Stress square metre
Velocity metre per mls km/h (lkm/h :0 1 mls
I --
(speed) second I 1 3.6 \
I 1
Angle degree 0 I minute (. ) , second (")
or I (3600 circle)
grade 9 (4009 circle)
Temperature degree DC
celsius PART 111

ROAD DESIGN MANUAL

MATERIALS AND PAVEMENT DESIGN FOR NEW ROADS

Page 1.5

CHAPTER 1 : GENERAL

1.3

DEFINITIONS AND ABBREVIATIONS

1. 3.1

Pavement

Figures 1.3.1 and 1.3.2 illustrate the terms used in describing the principal pavement and cross-section components.

Construction width (varies)

Road wid~h
Carriageway
i V Existing ground

_-

Q>
~
~ GI i ~ .......
to &I <Ii ... 4> I
4> Co C C :::l Q.
.c _E~ e ;::I ..c v 0
u '- .. .., '0;
0"'" !II GI QI .... -
;!:: "0 u '" "0 I -
c I "0
'0 .. ... OJ .... "'..>: 0
E Q. J:> ~ ;> ~ ~ 41 0.'" if I ~
~ .... 0 0 ... v
~ Cl e "0 o Cl
~ o E III s: ... ' '- s: -.D :::l::
til III Vl .,...., Vl l- I- til III til ..... 0"0
FIGURE 1. 3. 1 CROSS -SE C T ION TE RMINOLOGY SUriucing _ {

formation

FIGURE 1.3.2

PAVEMENT TERMINOLOGY

PART 111

ROAD DESiGN MANUAL

MATERIALS AND PAVEMENT DESIGN FOR NEW ROADS

C&;PTER 1 : GENERAL

Subgrade is all the material below the pavement and may include in-situ material, fill and improved subgrade. For design purposes the following suhgrade classes are recognized~

Subgrade Class CBR Range Median
81 2 - 5 3.5
,82 . - 5 - 10 7.5
..
S.3 7 - 13 10
84 10 - 18 14
55 15 - 30 22.5
86 >- 30 For assessinq any section of subgrade the average should be at least equal to the median for the category selected, and no CBR value should fall below the lowest valve in the range.

Improved Subgradeis a layer of selected fill mater:ial, the top of which is at formation level, placed where the natural in-situ or fill material is unsultable for the direct support of the pavemen-r:.

Formation 1.S the surface of the ground, in its final· shape, upon which the pavement structure, consisting of subbase, base and surfacing is constructed.

Surfacing is the uppermost pavement layer which provides the riding sUl':faoe for '''-Bhiol .. c , It will· normally conciE:t of one of the following: surface dressing, sand asphalt or asph~lt concrete.

General Materials

Borrow Area is a site from vhich natural material, other than solid stone, is removed ior construction of the works. (The term borr"ow pit. is. also u.sed~)

Quarry is an open surface working from which stone is removed by drilling and blasting, for construction of the works.

Improved Materials are naturally occurring;ravels and clayey sands which are deficient in des i r-ab'l.a properties and which may be "improved' by the addition of either lime or Portland cement. Engineering properties such as strength and plasticity are improved but the material still remains flexible. Improved materials may be suitable for either subbaSE or base (specitied in Charts SB2 and B2),

Cement - Stabilized Material is suitable for base and consists of a mixture or natural gravels or coarse clayey sand with approximately 5 - 8 per cent of ordinary Portland cement such that a rigid material is produced. Acceptance criteria includes nn,.,nnf";npfl com:[lresstv€' st-.,.."ngl-h, (Sppcif'l",fl in Chart- B~).

PART 111

ROAD DESIGN MANUAL

MATERIALS AND PAVEMENT DESIGN FOR NEW ROADS

CHAPTER 1 : GENERAL

Page 1. 7

Lean Concrete is a high quality, well graded gravel and Portland cement mixture, mixed in a stationary plant and laid by a paver. XL i:=; u:=;eu a:=; a high quality base. (Specified in Chart B7)

Rockfill is rock material of such particle size that the material can only be placed in layers of compacted thickness exceeding 300mm. Boulders with volumes greater than O.2m3 are not no~ally used.

Graded Crushed Stone is a base or subbase material, conion'\\ing to the grading, strength, shape and soundness criteria given in Charts SB3 or B4.

Crushing Ratio is a term applied to crushed stone which has been produced by crushing rounded alluvial material. Such a natural material must contain particles greater than the required product maximum. These oversize particles are normally removed and crushed. The crushing ratio is the weight of this oversized, crushed fraction divided by the total weight of alluvial material, expressed as a percentage. If for any reason the oversized, crushed fraction is not completely returned to the uncrushed material, the above percentage should be adjusted by multiplying by the percentage actually returned.

Gravel Wearing Course is top surfacing course made from gravel and applied to a road formation where no pa'J"ement or bituminous surfacing are to be placed. The term "gravel" includes one or a combination of the following materials: lateritic gravel, quartzitic gravel, calcareous gravel, some forms of partly decomposed rock. soft stone, coral rag, clayey sands and crushed rock. (Specified in Chart GWC)

1. 3.3

Biturttinol.lS Materials

Bituminous Binders are pe t.ro l eum derived adhesives used to stick chippings on to a road surface, in surface dressings or to bind t.og&ther a layer of surfacing Or base material. There are threE> principal types used in road work:

Straight-Run Bi_tumen is a bitumen whose viSCOSity or composition has not been adjusted by blending with solvents or any other substance.

Cut-Back Bitumen is a bitumen whose viSCOSity has been reduc~d by the addition of a volatile diluent.

Short Residue Bitu..men is _the primary product of the refinery before the air-blowing process, and is a biblli\en of variable viscosity whose penetration can be measured, approximating to a slow-curing cut-back.

Bitumen Emulsion is a binder in which petroleum bitumen, in finely-divided droplets, is dispersed in water by means of an emulsifying agent to form a stable mixture.

-

ROAD DESIGN MANUAL

PART 111 : MATERIALS AND PAVEMENT DESIGN fOR NEW ROADS

Page l.8

CHAPTER 1 : GENERAL-

Surface Dressing is a method of providing a running surface to a pavement and consists of applica-C;ions. of bituminous binder and single sized stone chippings. The usual form of this method on a new road is a double surface dressing with the second layer of ohips being half the nomin~l size of the first. Single and triple surface dressings are also used. (Specified in Charts Sla, b, c and d)

Emulsion Slurry Seal is a surfacing material, used by itself in one or two layers, or on top of a single surface dressing. It consists of fine aggregate, mineral filler and bitumen emulsion.

Fog Spray is a light application of bitumen emulsion or cut-back, on top of a surface dressing. Its purpose is to improve the waterproofness of the surfacing and to assist in holding the chippings.

Asphalt Concrete is a group of bitumen - bound materials used as pavement surfacings. They normally consist of a mixture of coarse aggregate, fine aggregate and filler bound with straight-run bitumen. The proportions and grading of the coarse i'lgg1"f"g",.t-_p m",y hi? varipn teo proonc<? diff'<?rpnt types of mix w.ith differing properties. (Specified in Charts S2a and S2b)

Sand Asphalt is a surfacing material consisting of a hot-mixed, hot-laid, plant mixture of natural sand and, in some cases, mineral filler and crushed fi·ne aggregate, bound with straight-run bitumen. It is not suitable for heavily trafficked roads. (Specified in Chart S2d)

Gap-Graded Asphalt is a hot laid, plant mixture of gap-graded aggregate, filler and straight-run bitumen, used for pavement surfacing. (Specified in Chart 82c)

Binder Course is the lower layer when two-course asphalt concrete is usetl as d. surfacillg. IL usually differs from the upper, wearing course, in having a slightly lower bitumen content, lower stability and greater voids.

Sand Bitumen is a base material consisting of a cold, mixed-in-place combination of sand (or clayey sana) and either bitumen emulsion or cut-back. This material is intended for use in areas with little or no gravel deposits. (specified in Charts B5a and B5b)

Den~e Bitlooen Macadam is a hot laid, plant mlxture of well qraded aggregate, filler and straight-run bitumen, used for base construction. The resulting mix must conform to stability and flow criteria, (Specified in Chart B6)

Dense Emulsion Macadam is a cold laid, plant mixture of well graded aggregate, filler and bitumen emulsion, used for base construotion. Thoa specificatiDTIS arp vf>ry s:im1lar to dAnse bitumen macadam. (Specified in Chart B6)

ROAD DESIGN MANUAL

PART 111 : MATERJAlS AND PAVEMENT DESIGN FOR NEW ROADS

Page 1.9

CHAPTER 1 ! GENERAL

Prime Coat is an application of low viscosity bituminous binder to Qn Qboorbcnt ourfQcc, UCUQlly the top of the baDc. Ito purposes are to waterproof the surface being sprayed and to help bind it to the overlaying bituminous course.

Tack Coat is a light application of bituminous binder to a bituminous or concrete surface to provide a bond between this surface and the overlaying biturninous course.

ROAD DESIGN MANUAL

_,_P_A_R_T_1_1_1r-_M_A_T..;;;E;.;.R,;,;;,I.;..A,;,;;,l;..;;S;.__A...;.;.;N;.;;D;;._P;...;~;..:;AV.:....::E.;:.:M.:.:E:.:N..::.T.:._,..::D::..:E:..:S::..:.:IG:.:N~.:..F..::O:..:R.:_.:.:::N~E:.!W..;......:.R~O~A:::!·.::::D:..!;S:'_-J

'age 1.10

CHAPTER 1 : GENERAL

.• 3 •. 4

Traffic

Privat~ Cars (Cars) arc all piissenger motor vehic;les lSeating not more than 9 persons, including the driver.

Light Goods Vehicles are all goods vehicles of not more than 15kN unladen weight.

Buses are all passenger motor vehicles seating more than 9 persoDs, including the driver.

Medium Goods Vehicles are all two-axle goods vehicles of more than 15 kN unladen weight.

Heavy Goods Vehicles are all goods vehicles having more than two axles.

Commercial. Vehicles includes buses and goods vehicles of more than 15 kN unladen weight.

Equivalent Standard Axle (E.S.A.) is a design concept to enable the damaging effect of a range and number of different axle loads, to be considered in the structural design of a pavement. The equivalent standard axle imposes a load of 80 kN (8,200 kgf').

Equivalence Factor of an axle (or vehicle) is the number of passage of an Equivalent Standard Axle which would cause the same damage to a road as one passage of the axle (or vehicle ) in question.

Design Period is the period during which the proposed pavement must carry the estimated cumulative number of equivalent standard axles without the need for major reconstruction work, except for re-sealing. At the end of this period the pavement should still be in a sufficiently good condition that strengthening will result in a further period of satisfactory traffic-carrying.

Traffic Classes

In this Manual the predicted cumulative numbers of equivalent standard axles are divided into the following classes:

Class

Cumulative number of standard axles (80 kN)

Tl 25 - 60 million
T2 10 - 25 million
T3 3 - 10 million
T4 I - 3 million
T5 0.25 - 1 million PART 111

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CHAPTER I : GENERAL

1. 3.5

Abbreviations

AASHTO American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials.

ACV Aggregate Crushing Value

ALD Avera.ge Least Dimension

BS British Standard

CBR California Bearing Ratio

CR Crushing Ratio

ESA Equi valent St.andard Axle

FI Flakiness Index

HF Hubbard - Field

LAA Los Angeles Abrasion

LL Liquid Limit

Me Moisture Content

MDD Maximum Dry Density

OMC Optimum l10isture Content

PL Plastic Limit

PI Plasticity Index

PM Plasticity Modulus (Product of PI and % passing 0.425 rom sieve).

SG Specific Gravity

SS Standard specification for Road construction

SSS Sodium Sulphate Soundness

TS Tensile Strength

UC Uniformity Coefficient

UCS Unconfined Compressive Strength

VII Vibrating Hmruncr

The material testing procedures to "'hich the above abbreviations relate are specified in Chapter 15.

PART 111

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CHAPTER 2: TRAFFlC

Page 2.9··

2.5

TRAFFIC CLASSIFICATION

Attempts were made to dpfini9 ax1e c]a~ses hased on numbers of commercial vehicles. They have been largely unsuccessful, because axle spectra vary considerably from one road to another. In particular, it has been found that the respective proportions of buses, medium goods and heavy goods vehicles on urban and suburban sections were completely different from those on rural roads.

2.5.1

Use of cumulative number of standard axles

A more rational approach is to base the traffic classification on the cumulative equivalent standard axle values. Even this method, based on the equation given in Section 2.4.3 has its

. drawbacks in that the initial axle load spectrum is assumed

to remain fixed. Where it is fairly certain that some future event will alter the distribution of axle loads, this should be taken iuto a.ccount.

This type of classification enables the effects of unexpected changes in traffic volumes or axle-load distributions on the pavement life to be evaluated.

2.5.2

Traffic Classes

Traffic flow and axle-load surveys have shown. that the following classes satisfactorily account for all ·traffic categories

likely to be carried by the bitumen reads of KQnya.

TABLE2.5~~ , TRAFf'IC CLASSES
Class Cumulativ€ number
of standard axles
Tl 25 million - 60 million
T2 10 million - 25 million
T3 3 million - 10 million
T4 1 million - 3 million
T5 0.25 million - 1 million ROAD DESIGN MANUAL

PART 111 MATERIALS AND PAVEMENT DEstGN FOR NEW ROADS

?age 2.10 CHAPTER 2 : TRAFFIC

The above traffic classes correspond to the following initial daily numbers of standard axles:

Class ESA/day in Year One
Tl 2,500 - 6,000
T2 l,OOO - 2t5QQ
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T3 300 - 1,000
T4 leo - 3eo
TS 25 - 100 taking into account a cons~ant growth rate of 7~5\ over a design period of 15 years.

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2.4.3

CHAPTER 2 : TMFFIC

TABLE 2.4.1 COMMERCIAL TRAFF'IC TO BE CONSIDERED m DESIGN

Number of Carriageway Traffic Commercial Traffic to be
Carriageways Width considered
1 ~ 7m - The total commercial
traffic in BOTH DIRECTIONS
1 :> 7m - The total commercial
traffic on the most
heavily trafficked lane
2 - > 2,000 The total commercial
CODlln.Veh traffic in ONE! DIRECT!ON,
per day
2 - > 2,OCO A special study of the
Comm. Veh distribution of traffic
will be necessary Notes

1. On single carriageway roads, offside wheel tracks of Gomme~cial vehicles tend to follow the central part of the road, more so as the carriageway becomes narrower and the traffic lighter. Where the carriageway width is not more than 7m, it is assumed that the c9ntral !=:Action of' the road is used by 70 to 80% of the commercial vehicles and the sum of the standard axles in both directions is used to allow for the overlap.

2. On dual carriageway roads, the slow-.traffic lanes will carry a large proportion (80 to 90%) of the commercial vehicles, as long as the flew in the direction oonsider~d doeo not exoeed 2,000 commercial vehicles per day.

Estimating the Cumulative Number of ' Standard Axles

To estimate the total number of standard axles to be catered for by 'the design, it is necessary to forecast the annual growth rate of the traffic and to decide what the design period should be as described below:

1. Forecasting the annual growth rate

This is often a difficult and uncertain exercise. Some guidance can be obtained by studying the annual trends in traZfic grow~~ indicated by censuses regularly carried out in the region concerned. The study of national and regional development plans and other economic docuIDents is also nl"c",gl".ary.

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CHAPTER 2 ~ TRF-..FFIC

When more precise information is not available, an indication of likely traffic growth will be given by. the national trends in the number of vehicles registered or by the consumption of motor fuel. Alternatively, the growth rate in traffic can be estimated from the growth rate of the Gross National (GNP)

or Domestic Product (GOP). It will probably be between 1 and 2 times, the GNP or GDP growth rate.

2 •. Choosing a design period

The concept of design. period should not be confused with pavement life.

At the end of the "design period" the pavement will only require to be ~trengthened in order to c~rry tr~ffic for a further period. At the end of the "design period" the pavement will not be completely worn out or have deteriorated to the point that reconstruction is needed.

During the design period of the pavement, only ordinary maintenance will be carried out, i.e. shoulders and drainage system maintenance, vegetation control, localized patching and periodic resealing.

The design aim is, therefore, to minimi~e the total

expenditure on the pavement, including the initial construction costs and subsequent maintenance or strengthening costs discounted to present day value. This raises the question of stage construction.

For the types of pavements proposed in this Manual, stage construct~on offers econom~c advantages and initial design periods should not exceed 15 years, even if much longer overall lives are anticipated. Stage construction provides

an opportunity to choose the structural characteristics of the second stage in the light of actual conditions, which may differ substantially from those originally foreseen.

The cumulative number of standard axles, T over the chosen design period N (in years) is then obtained by:

T = 365 t (l+i)N_l 1 .

~

Where;

tl is the average daily number of standard axles in the first year after opening;

i is the annual growth rate expressed as a dec~l fraction.

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CHAPTER 2 : TRAFFIC

TABLE 2.3.1 : AVERAGE VEHICLE EQUIVALENCE FACTORS
Road Buses Medium Hea\'Y G. .Oil
Goods (Non-Oil) T,:m};.I::'.r.::;
Mombasa - Nairobi 1 3 10 25
Nairobi - Mombasa 1 2 10. 1
Nairobi - Uganda '1 1 10 25
Uganda - Nairobi 1 1 10 10
Hairobi - Sagana (A2) 1 1 10 <1
Mau Summit - Kisumu 1 1 7 25 ,
Kisumu - Mau sununmit 1 1 3 25
other Bitumen Roads
(Both Lanes) 1 1 4 4 At Feasibility Study stage it is difficult to cater for equivalence factors for roads carrying overloaded axles. However it is sUggested that the above table will be sufficient for an approximate estimate to be made, before an axle load survey is carried out.

For secondary road projects the above table may be used in the ",h"f>1"lC"" nf nther inform.=l.-ti .. on.

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CHAPTER 2 : TRAFFIC

2,4

EVALUATION OF TR~FIC FOR DESIGN PURPOSES

2,4.1

Estimating the Initial Daily Number of Commercial Vehicles

It is necessarYr as a first step, to estima~p The average daily number of each type o~ commercial vehicle that will use the roadr in both directions, during the first year.

The loads imposed by private cars and light goods vehicles do not contribut_e significantly to the structural damage caused to pavements_by traffic. Therefore, for structural design purposes, cars and light gooil~ "ehicles can be ignored.

Routine traffic counts are carried out annually by the Hinistry of Transport and Communications at a number of census points. They distinguish between cars, light goods, buses, medium goods and heavy goods vehicles. Where such results are available, the initial daily traffic can be estimated by extrapolation.

TNhere traffic census data is not available or is insufficient, specific traffic counts are required at key points and axle load surveys to ascertain the initial traffic intensi t_y ilnd possible seasonal variations.

It is essential that these traffic counts differentiate between buses, mediQ~ goods and heavy goods vehicles. In addition, on trunk roads, the counting should indicate whether or not a heavy goods vehicle is an oil tanker! and the number of axles,

A sample of the total traffic must also be weighed as indicated in Sections 2.3,1 and 2,3.2 a.bcve r to determine the average vehicle equivalence factors.

Estimating the Initial Daily NLlI1lber of Standard Axles

'Phis operation a.o concerned 'Ni-th flnding the average daily traffic expressed in terms of equivalent standard axles, which will be using the road in the first year after opening. It will be obtained by multiplying the above averagf:, ililily numbers of each-type of commercial vehicle by the appropriate equivalence factor and then by summing up the numbers of standard axles of all the vehicle typesJ in accordance with Table 2.4.1.

When the designer is attempting to cater for a road carrying axle loads in excess of 130 kN he should consult Materials Branch before attempting too c a Lcnl Flh:. "'qui valence factors for the overloaded axles.

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CHAPTER 2 . TRAFFIC

(iii) Nairobi - Mombasa road

On average, 25-50% of the axles are overloaded in the Mombasa-Nairobi direction, between 3% and 14% exceed l30kN e.n d. axle load5 greater than 200};:N w~re measured.

In the other direction, 5% to 22% of the axles are over loaded and less than 5% exceed 130 kN.

Axle-weighing carried out after the opening of the oil pipeline and of the weighhridge station at Mariakani ",huwr:d thd L Llie pr:rc;r:ll td';;le of oi 1 tanke:cs decJ.;edsed [:cont 16% to about 8%, but that the axle-load distribution of all types of commercial vehicles remained practically the same.

(iv) Nairobi - Uganda road

on average, nearly 15'15 to 45% of "C.he axles were overloaded in the Nairobi-Uganda direction 1-5% exceed 130 kN and axles greater than 200k~ were measured.

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In the other direction, around 5-15% of the axles were overloaded, but axle loads above 130 kN do not exceed 5% and probably average 2.5% to 3%.

(v) Other trunk roads

rrhe rn?TCen-taCJ9 of "r_')VG-Y'1nAi1eit rrx.l F>_C: '\JNf"i e~ ArollnCi 10* t_n 25%.

(vi) Other roads

Overloaded axles do not represent mOre than 10% of the total and there were practically no axle loads in excess of 130 kN_

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C"~PTER 2 TRAFFIC

2.3

EQUIVALENCE FACTORS

Axle Load Equivalence Factor

The following relationship has been adopted to convert all single axle loads to equivalent standard axles:

EF

Ls 4.5 80

where: EF .. isthe. equivalence f ac t.o r : of the single ·axle· conSidered, and

Ls is the load in kN on the single axle considered.

This relationship was derived by Liddle*, taking a regional factor of 1~0 and a terminal serviceability index of 2.0.

However Liddles formula does not hold for axle weights in excess of 130 kN. Empirical studies show that an equation is similar in form but with a variable power (higher than 4.5) depending on pavement structure and axle load may hold.

All axles including tandem and triple ones should be weighed separately and the loads converted to eqivalent standard axles using the above equation. The reasons are that there is some uncertainty concerning the tandem axle equation itself and that, in Kenya, tandem axles appear to be improperly loaded (one axle ia generQlly much heQvier ~h~n the o~hcr) Qnd 00 would not fulfill the equation requirements.

The equivalence factors depend to some extent on the strength of the pavement. Nevertheless, it can be considered that the above equation satisfactorily accounts for the damaging power of traffic up to axle weights of 130 kN.

Vehicle Equivalence Factor

For each trunk road project or for any project where heavy axles are likely to be encountered the commercial vehicle equivalence factors should be evaluated through specific axle load surveys using portable weighbridges. At the preliminary design stage the designer is required to make two tenative PaVement Designs.

(a) Assuming that the traffic carried by the road in future will bD wi~htn the legal ~xlA ln~~ lim1tR of thA Traffic Act.

(b)

Considering the axle loads measured at the time of the survey, and where these exceed 130 kN, in conjunction with Materials Branch attempt to design for the damaging power of such axles. (Not by using Liddles formula as it stands).

*

Paper presented by W.J. Liddle at Conference on Structural DeSign of Asphalt Pavements, University of Michigan, 1962.

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CHAPTER 2 : TRAFFIC

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2.1

GENERAL

A major factor in pavement design is the cumulative number of equivalent standard axles in the design period. In order to deLe;t;Iuine t.his V(j,~UE <'l numLer uf 0pEJ;·(j,tl_on~ .must be cdI.'ried out.

The axle load distribution of the traffic which will use the road must be assessed.

These axle loads must be converted to an equivale.nt.~uwber of standard 80 kN axles.

The initial daily number of standard axles must be calculated.

An annual growth rate and a design period must be selected.

The cumulative number of equivalent standard axles can thus be calculated and the traffic class determined.

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CHAPTER 2 : TRAFFIC

AXLE LOAD DISTRIBUTION

Present Kenya Legislation

The legal limits in force in Kenya ;;,.re currently the following with the Traffic Act figures shown in brackets:-

MaximQ~ Gross Vehicle Weights

Vehicle with 2 axles : 160 kN (16,000 Kg)

Vehicle with 3 axles: 220 kN (RIGID) (22000 Kg), 260kN (SEMITRAILER) (26,000 Kg)

Vehicle with 4 axles: 340 kN (34,000 Kg) Vehicle with 5 axles : 400 kN (40,000 Kg) Vehicle with 6 axles : 460 kN (46,000 Kg)

M~ximum Axle Loads

Front steering axle (2 wheels) ; 80 kN (8,000 Kg)
Single axle (4 wheels) : 100 kN (lOTOOO Kg)
Tandem axle : 160 kN (16,000 Kg)
Triple axle : 240 kN (24,000 Kg) Axle Load Distribution

The axle load distribution ot' commercial veh1.cJ.es has been studied during the period 1976 to 1980, by means of mobile weighbridges The results have been presented in Materials Branch RE'ports No. 289, 315, 321, 333 and 4<15_ Private carS al"\G light goods vehicles have not been taken into account, since their dru-naging. power is almost negligible. All axles including tandem and triple ones were weighed separately and regarded as two or three single axles as appropriate.

The main results of these vehicles weight measurements are oummari~cd ~n hppcnc~R B~

It appears that the axle load distributions on a few trunk roads and, especially, on the Trans-African Highway are quite different from those on the other bitumen roads in the country.

The following findings were made:

(i) On the Trans-African Highway there is a marked difference in axle load distribution between the two directions. This is mainly due to the oil tankers, which are overloaded l.n the direction towards Uganda and empty on the return journey~

on the other r-oads , any aucn di~!'erence was less pronounced due to th~ smaller percentage of oil tankers in the traffic flow,

(ii) On trunk roads, in particular the Trans-African Highway, a large proportion of the axles are overloaded. Elsewhere overloading is very limited.

ROAD DESIGN MANUAL :1
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PART 111 MATERIALS AND PAVEMENT DESIGN FOR NEW ROADS
CHAPTER 3 : THE NATURAL ENVIRONMENT Page 3.1
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3.1 CLIMATE
:
Climate has a considerable influence on road performance and
should therefore be taken into account by the design engineer.
Kenya has a very wide variety of climates, comprising: , !

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Afro-alpine climate Equatorial climate Wet-tropical climate Semi-arid climate Arid cllmate

Very arid climate

Moreover, the pattern of the r.limatic zones is ra~heY complex, since the Kenyan climates. are largely governed by altitude.

This diversity is illustrated by the Mean Annual Rainfall map and by the Air Temperature Charts given in Appendix C, Figures Cl and C2.

The design o£ d:rainage and anti.-~rosion systems largely depends on the expected climatic conditions. The choice of roadmaking materials will also be influenced by climate. In this respect, the fallowing principles should be followed by the design engineer:

(i) In wet areas (mean annual rainfall greater than 500~~), the u,;)e o£ pla5tic l?","vement. maLerials ohuuld be dS llmi\_<:;u as economically feasible. Bituminous surfacings should be as impervious as possible.

Shoulders should be impermeable or properly sealed.· Great attention should always be paid to both internal and external drainage.

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(iil In dry a~eas (mean annual rainfall less than 500 rom), higher plasticities can be accepted for pavement materials and open-tp.xtnrf"CI hAS'" mAtf"rjAls C,'ln he used.

Difficulties may occur with cement-treated materials, because of the rapid evaporation of water hindering the hydration of cement and the tendency of the ,treated material to crack extensively as a result of shrinkage and volurr£tric changes caused by the daily temperature variations. Drainage and protection against erosion should not be neglected as short but h c a x ..... y ",torms arc likely to occur Even in ·the driest areas.

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CHAPTER 3

THE NATURAL ENVIRONMENT

3.2

NATURAL M.ll,TERIALS AND SOILS

In order to minimize construction costs, natural materials should be used as much as possible. Every endeavour should be made to

u e e the chea.p local maLe,t'icd::; before considering the ampor cat tcn of material from some distance. It is therefore of prime importance t9 make a complete inventory of all available roadmaking materials, such as' stone, gravel, sani! anil clFlY"Y <;Flnd at the investigation stag,e.

Kenya has abundant reSOUrces of hard stone. Detailed information regarding the various types of stone available and their roadmaking characteristics can be found in Materials Branch Report No. 336.

Many different sorts of gravels exist in Kenya: lateritic gravels, quartzitic gravels, calcareous gravels, some forms of weathered rock, soft stone, coral rag, etc. Various types of sand and silty or clayey sands are also found. Detailed information concerning these materials and their engineering properties can be found in Materials Branch Reports No. 343 and 344.

The characteristics of the natural soils are discussed in Chapter 6, Subgrade, of this Manual.

It will be useful for the deSign engineer to consult all relevant documents, such as materials reports, geological and pedological maps and reports. The geologica1 map of Kenya is given as an indication, in hpp<;:;nd..Lx C, F.Lgure C3.

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CHAPTER 4 : EARTHWORKS

4.1

CUTTINGS

4.1.1

General

~~erever a cutting is required, consideration needs to be given to the following factors that will affect its design and cost:

- Type of =ter·i.c..l to be exca.va.ted

- Volume and position of the different materials

- Level and flow of water table and springs

- Stabili tv of slopes

- Drainage and protection against erosion

Any cutting to a depth of more than 5 m requires a specific study, including boreholes or test-pits .down to formation level.

4.1. 2

Type of Material to be Excavated

The type of material to be excavated governs the construction methods, the use to which the material can be put, its suitability as subgrade material and the slopes that can be safely adopted.

From both economical and technical points of view, it is eSQpnt-jA.l -rI' (1<'>t-e:rrrd.np, wit-h .:reRi"onabl,;> accuracy, thA :re~f>e("-r.~ .. "A volumes of rock, rippable and normal material occurring in each deep cut. Dynamic penetration and seismic tests may usefully supplement boreholes for this purpose.

Tropical weathering generally results in the occurrence of two types of materials: residual (or eluvial) soils and weathered rock. The depth and degree of weathering are often variable and the properties of the residual materials may be quite different even within the same hori~on OVer a short distance. In addition, the pattern of the residual materials is often compliCated by the processes of leaching of silica and accumulation of iron and aluminium sesquioxides, known as laterization.

At the design stage, it is sometimes not easy to accurately differentiate rock from rippable material or rippable from normal material. In particular, the occurrence of residual boulders and especially their volumes are, in some cases, difficult to ascertain.

The depth of bedrock is c.:le",xly llDJ?ortant not only because of i-ts effect on the cost of the cuttings, but also because the presence of rock can pz ovd.de a layer on which a perched 'fiater table can exist. Depending on the type of rock and its structure, springs may also be a problem.

4.1. 3.

Water Table and Springs

A water table may be permanent, seasonal or perched. In any case, its presence and its characteristics (level, flow of water,

etc.) must be determined, as they may affect the method of

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?age 4.2.

EARTHWORKS

CHAPTER 4

excavation and the stability of the cut slopes and as they govern the drainage system required.

Similarly, the likelihood of springs occurring within the cut ohould be aoscssed.

Determination of the Angle of Slope

The design of the slope angle of a cu.t is a comprcnnise between the following requirements:

(i) stability

(ii) Erosion Control

(iii) Appearance and Visibility (iv) Need of Fill Materia·l

(v) Minimum Cost

(i) Stability

The analytical determination of the factor of safety against sliding or rotation of a proposed cut cross-oection is a complex matter. It requires a knowledge of the material strength parameters, the slope geometry, the location of any water table and the presence of any external loading on the slope. In most cases slope angles are determined not analytically, but either by experience or "rule of thumb". The slope angles given below are those that have generally been found to be satisf'actory where there is no water beeping uu·L u.c the cut face. and no external loads and are expressed as Vertical: Horizontal:-

- Cohesionless sands I Silty sands - Silts I - Eluvial soils (red

friable clays) 1. 5

1

- weathered rock 2

- Sound rock 5

2
1
I if d 4 ill
I if d 4 ill
i. to 4 l
1 to lO ~ 1 where d is depth of cut

Notes

1, .. The relic structure of the parent rock may dominate t.he :::;L",billty in eluvictl soils.

2. Safe slopes in schistose or stratified rock chiefly depend on the orientation of the foliation or strata. Similarly in rocks with a strong pattern of jointing, the orientation and spacing of the discontinuities may well control the safe slope angle.

CHAPTER 4 : EARTHWOR...,,(S

Page 4.3

Where cuttings are more than 8 m deep or the material and water-table situation are believed to be problematical, an analytical appraisal may be considered. 'rhis may well LnvoI ve

a detailed site investigations and associated laboratory testing.

(ii) Erosion control

This is sometimes a difficult requirement to reconcile with stability.

For instance, in cohesive materials, the erosion is less exLemslv<:: i"or veLY ::;teep :::;lope::; t.han for· slopes at about 1:1 and it is therefore desirable to keep the slopes as steep as possible, unless the slope is protected.

In the red friable clays, which are very common in Kenya, a cut slope of 1:1 would be extensively eroded where its height exceeds 4-5 m. In such a case, two solutions are pOSSible:

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EITHER: Cut slope at Iv:lh throughout and plant it with suitable grass, prGferably at the boginning of the first rainy period.

OR : Cut the slope at 1.5v:lh and provide 2 m wide berms

at a vertical spacings of 4- m ,

Berms shall always be sloped downwards out of the cut face at about 5~, to prevent wuter ponding.

Generally, guidance on satisfactory slope angles from the points of view of both stabili~y and erosion resistance can be obtained from a survey of other cuttings and natural steep slopes in the vicinity.

(ii:U Other Z'd.CLOl);;

Partly for aesthetic and safety reasons a low angle slope is normally considered more desirable thana near vertical one, even if other factors will allow this latter course. The need for, or the surplus of, fill material will also have an influence on slope angles.

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In deep cuttings, where the pavement is laid shortly after completion of the cutting, consideration should be given 1::_0 h~a.ve~

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4.2

4.2.2

CRAPTER 4

EARTHWORKS

EMBANKMENTS

General

Wherever a.n embdnKmt;;nlc i.::; Ley_ul..<.-eQ, <,;ullt5l.QeLdtl.on needs to be given to the followi·ng factors that will effect i.ts design and cost:

..,. Foundation conditions

- Acceptable fill material

- Stability of slopes

- Settlement

- Method and rate of construction

The foundation conditions beneath embankments require special attention to avoid shear failures and excessive settlements. Wherever an embankment is to be built on a wet,· compressible soil such as mud, soft clay, etc., detailed investigations are necessary to determine the most suitable construction method, the rate of oonstructlon and any cp0cial prccautlons required.

It is essential to use methods of construction which ensure either the removal of the soft material or its substantial consolidation before the pavement is con~leted. The following methods can be used:-

(i.) EXCd.VdtiuIl dW} d.Lspldc;eml"nt involving:

Total excavation of the compressible soil, and Displacement of very watery material by coarse rockfill:

(ii) Consolidation involving:

l:'re-loading with higher embankment,or Installation of vertical sand drains. Combination of pre-loading and sand drains.

Tim"" 1 Ap,,::'" b.=·twpen pla,-,ing fi 11 .=mn compl.;.t"ing p?lvpmenr. (Normally 90 per cent consolidation before placing

pavement layers is considered adequate)._

If the consolidation solution is chosen the rate of dissipation of construction pore pressures in the soft, saturated foundation material must be investigated and a suitable construction rate fixed. This is most important, ecpecially if a high pro-loading embankment is proposed, in order to obviate a deep seated shear failure during construction. Even if the proposed embankment is only a few metres high a full geotechnical investigation is necessary to determine the magnitUde and rate of settlement, and the likely pore pressures to be developed during construction. Where the estimate of this last parameter is not very reliable (aa is usually t},e case) peizometers can be installed in the foundation material. This will allow faster safe rates of constructiol} if the forecasts have been pessimistic and will prevent stability failure if they have been optimistic.

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.4.2.2

(iii) Note that conventional oedometer consolidation tests with specimenc out from undicturbcd oamplcp ao disco in the horizontal plane, normally give accurate predictions of the amount of settlement that can be expected for a layer of soft saturated clay loaded by an embankment. However the time of settlement predicted by this method is usually much longer than in practice. This is because in most normally consolidated clays the drainage path in the horizcnLal direcLioll i" usually many Limes more. pe:nneal;>le than it_is in the vertical direction.

Oedometer tests with specimens cut from undisturbed samples in the vertical plane will give an accurate prediction of time of settlement under an embankment loading.

Fill Material

Fi]] mrlt-pridl will general1y he ohtain(?>o from cnt-t:ing!':. Tf the material obtained from this source is insufficient or unsuitable, extra material shall be obtained from. borrow areas.

The following materials are generally unsuitable for the construction of fi11s:-

- All rnateri.al oontaining mor" than 5% by weight of or.gani.o matter (such as topsoil, material f:X:'om swamps, mud, logs, stumps and perishable material).

- All material with a swell of more than 3% (such as black cotton soil).

All cldY of' pla.sticity index exceeding 50. {Howevel.~, some red friable clays having a plasticity index over 50 may successfully be used). It is known that eluvival soils (red friable clays), when compacted in embankments to a greater density than they are found in-situ, develop considerable shrinkage and suction forces associated with seasonal rainfall and dry periods, ·together with the root system of the grass planted on embankments.

These forces are large and can cause longitudinal cracks to repeatedly be formed through the surface of any pavement

. containing rigid or semi-rigid layers.

It is suggested that if no other earthwork materials are available then a fully flexible pavemerrc On these embankments will be most suitable. If for reasons. of traffic category a pavement incorporating rigid or semi-rigid layers is necessary ( asphalt, bituminous <nacadam < lean concrete, cor'.';;!rQ'ce cement or lime stabilized or improved gravels, it is suggested that the problem may be overcome by incorporating a "slippage" layer which will stop the cracks being transferred through the pavement.. A suitable "slippage" layer will comprise the placing of a layer ot polythene sheeting at the top of the subgrade earthworks, and laying a thin 'lower sub-base" of sGlnd or crushed. du.st, before the sup-base-

,

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- All material having a moisture content greater than 105 per cent or the Optimum Moisture Content (standard compaction).

However, where there is no alternative material, expansive clays, such as black cotton soil, may be used to form ohallow embankments or the cores of higher embankments. Special

pr-ecaut Lons, as descrioed in Chapter II, are then required.

Rockfill as defined in Section 1. 3.2 can be used provided. that boulders greater than 0.2 m3 in volume (600 rom size) are not used ahd that this material is not placed within 600 rom of formation level.

The best materials either from cuttings or from borrow areas, should be reserved for the upper layers of fiTl.

4.2.4

Stability of Slopes

The vast majority of embankments up to 8m in height and resting on non-saturated soils, have their slope angles determined by either experience or "rule of thumb".

The follOwing slopes, expressed as vertical : horizontal are recommended;-

- Cohesionless sands: 1:3 if h~l Itt
1:2 if h>l m
- Othsr mat.<lorials; 1.,3 if' h<l m
1:2 if 1< h < 3 m
1:1.5 if 3<h<10 m
where h is height of embankment Embankments higher than 10 Itt or those of lesser height but founded on soft, wet materials, . should be analysed individUally using the appropriate geotechnical methods·,

4.2.5

Placing and compaction of Fill

(i) Construction on near level ground

Generally, all soft and organic material shall be removed and hollows shall be filled, to obtain a uniform surface to receive the fill.

Any backfilling requireil t:() nh-t_.:lin -the nniform surface shall be compacted to a dry density of at least 95% MDD (Standard Compaction).

(ii) Construction on slopes

Where the slope of the existing ground is greater than 1 (vQrtica1.) to 3 (horizontal), horizontal benches in cteps not less than 3 m wide shall be cut into the existing ground. Immediately on completion of cutting the benches, the whole of the area to receive the fill shall be

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compacted to 95% MDD (Standard Compaction) down to a depth of 150 mru s ;rhe Lime beLw."en .l?£epcuin':l Lh", d.r",d. dud pldCJ.ll';;l the fill must be kept to a minimum.

(iii) Compaction of fill material

,

Materials other than rockfill shall normally be placed in layers of compacted thickness not exceeding 300 rom. Thicker layers may be>·permitted only where very heavy compaction equipment is available and after trial sections have proved that the required compaction may readily be obtained over their full depth.

The minimum layer thickness shall be twice the maximum particle size of the material.

Normally, the layers of fill material shall be compacted throughout to a dry density of at least 95% MDD (Standard Compaction), except for the upper 300 rom of the aubgrade which shall be compacted to a dry density of at least 100% MDD (Standard Compaction).

For very high fills, higher compaction may-be required to reduce settlement.

The mo1sture content o~ the ma~erial shall be adjusted so that the above minimum compaction figures are obtained. Moisture contents well below the Optimum Moisture Content (Standard Cnmpaction) may be accepted, provided that the compaction equipment and method are such that the required compaction is achieved. Especially in arid areasl dry compaction may offer substantial savings or may be the only practical solution.

Dry compaction by vibratory rollers operating at the proper frequency and amplitude seems to give fairly good results on some non-plastic materials. However, experience is still very limited and the development of dry compaction requires further experiments and research.

It is strongly recommended that the moisture content at the t.Lme of compaction does not exceed 105% of the Optimum Moisture Content (Standard Compaction). This applies particulary to silty and clayey materials, which are prone to shrinkage and loss of strength, resulting from excessive moisture contents.

Normal laboratory compaction tests cannot be accurately carried out on materials containing a high proportion {say more than 25'1;) of pe;rtl.cle;o g1.eat.er Lhan 40 rom :5ize. On such coarse material, the minimum dry density required and the suitable moisture content shal be determined from site co~action trials.

Where fairly homogeneous materials are used, the compaction requirements may consist of a method specification with the rollowing parameters being Iixed:-

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CHAPTER 4 : EARTHWORKS

the maximum thickness of compacted layer

the characteristics of the compacting equipment

the number of passes of each roller

the perrnissiblerange of moisture content, all as determined from full scale compaction trials

Where rockfill is used it should be placed· in the bottom of the embankment. The largest sizes of rOGk shall be placed in Le y e rs v£ maximum <..:om!,''''cL«d Lhic;};:n",,,,s,,,,:::> uf 1 rn. The interstices shall then be filled with smaller rocks, spalls and approved finer material. The whole layer shall be compacted until the interstices are completely filled or until the required settlement is obtained. Heavy vibratory rollers are generally the most suitable machines for compacting rockfill.

It is most important that the specified compaction is achieved over the full width of the embankment. Loose mat-A>") I'll 1 "fT_ (")n t-l,p __ <;1 np"'''' mfly flh",,,Yrh w,,-tPr anc'l Tn"'Y endanger the stability of the slopes.

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Page 5.1

CHAPTER 5 : DRAINAGE AND EROS ION CONTROL

5_l

DRAINAGE OF SURFACE WATER

5.1.1

General

This chapter deals with the drainage of surface and ground water,aud methods of protecting slopes and ditches from erosion. Cross drainage (culverts) is dealt with in Part IV of the Road Design Hanuo.l (B:::idge Design).

5.1. 2

Side Ditches

The design of these ditches is covered in Section 4.4 of Part I of the Road Design Manual (Geometric Design of Rural Roads)

where standard cross sections for different terrain and gradient/ capacity curves are given.

5.1. 3

Cut-off Ditches

It is usually desirable to construct a cut-off ditch at the top of cutting slopes to prevent water flowing down the face. The preferred type, consisting of a combined ditch and bank, is detai~ed in Section 4.4 of Part 1 of the Road Design Manual (Geometric Design of Rural Roads). The moderate slopes of 1 vertical ; 2 horizontal used in this detail have been chosen to

allow the inevitable movement of pedestrian!': and 1 i v,:>stncK with as little damage to the ditch as possible.

5.1-4

Discharge Channels

Depending on topographic conditions it is sometimes necessary

to collect water at the top of either a cutting or an embankment and ili.::;cnar<Jp it ilown the slope. For this purpose di.scharge channels shall be constructed and lined with masonry, concrete or metal. The usual dimensi.ons are 400 rom wide by 400 mm deep. If half-round channel elements are used the dismeter should normally be 500 rr~.

5.1.5

Collection of Water on Embankments

On embankments, where water is to be discharged down the side slopes in discharge channels, it is necessary to lead all water to the tops of these channels. This can be achieved by s.ome form of h,rbing o r a recessed Channel.

The kerbing can be formed from masonrYI precast concrete units or ~nsitu concrete. The channe~ can be formed from precast concrete .or metal channels, with an internal diameter in the range 300 to 400 mm,

For safety reasons these features should be placed outside the edge of the surfacing. w~ere a crash barrier is installed the kerbing .or channel should be installed immediately in front of t.h.e s uppo r t s , on t.rie traffic side.

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age 5.2 CHAPTER 5 : DRAINAGE AND EROSION CONTROL

.1.6 Embankment Toe Ditches

At the base of embankments, toe ditches may be necessary to remove water from the vicinity of the ~~kment or to prevent erosion. of the fill. They should be d2si.gnM en similar principles to side ditches as mentioned in Section 5.1.2 above.

I ROAD. DESIGN MANUAL

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_ - - _, I CllAPTER 5 = D~INl\GE ~ EROSION cCmaor. Page 5.3

5.2

DRAINAGE OF GROUND WATER

5.2.1

C-eneral

Ground water may be en~ountered in L~e following situations.

in cuttings, a water table with a level above or near formation, or spring's;

in low-lying or poorly drained flat areas, a water table near formation, likely to affect the subgrade by capillary rise.

5.2.2

Drainage Remedies

fa} Choice of proper altgIlIllent

The best expedi~~t for the prevention of drainage problems is carrying out a. proper survey of the areas concerned and choosing or modifying both vertical and horizontal alignments so that ~~e formation is as far away as practicable from water tables and springs.

In particular, in Low-lying or poorly drained areas, it is necessary that the road be raised by means of an embar~ent to avoid surface flooding.

(b)

Subsoil drains

1

1

I

I

,

LOHgit.udi.nal :=;ubsoil dr.ai"s can beUbeu to locc.l.1.y l.O'il'eI "'water table. These will normally consist of porous concrete, open jointed or perforated pipe laid in a trench with a surro~~d and backfill of free-draining material. e.g. graded crushed stone (maximum size: 60 rom), clean coarse gravel or sand. The pipe size will depend on the expected flow of water but will generally not be less than 100 Inn: l.nternal d:iame~er. The depth 0:[ the trench will. depend on the level of the water table and the permeabil~ty of the soil but normally it should be at least 1 metre deeper i"_han the format-ion 1 "'V"" 1 and 500 ll'J"n widE'.

In some cases where it is necessary to prevent surface water from entering subsoil drains, the upper 500 rom of the trench shall be backfilled With impermeable clayey materiaL

If thG surrounding ground i8 lik~ly to squeeze or wash into ~~e free-draining material, filter protection is required, This can be achieved by placing filter material as free-draining material in the trench.

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DRAINAGE ~~ EROSION CONTROL

CF.APTER 5

Filter materials shall comply with the following requircmcnto;

5.815< F 15 <5 .885

where:

-F 1 C" "is· the sieve si.ze (in tum) thrcughwhich .15% by. weiqht of the -'fi"lter m~teria:1. passes.

- S,~ is the sieve size (in mm) tr_rough which 15% by weight of the-'-;)natural soil. passes.

- S85 is the sieve size {in rom) through which 85% by weight o f the natural soil ~asses.

It .is important that the pipe be surrounded by appropriate filter material to prevent fines from clogging the openings.

A non-woven geo-fabric of an approved type may be placed around the draining material to prevent silt or fine particles from bein~ washed into it.

It may also be useful to place non-woven geo-fabric around the pipe. The effective pore size of the fabriC should comply with the above filter criteria.

Where the flow of water is small and where non-woven geo-fabric :LS placed around the draining mai:.eri.al, it may be unnecessary to place !l pipe.

~rnere pipe drains are used, inspection chambers with silt traps shall be constructed every 100 m along straight sections and at every Change in direction. These will enable the pipe to be rodded or flushed out.

{c} Blanket drains

Blanket drains are used to remove seepage water appearing in the base of cuttings or in the subgrade. The blanket shall consist of a filter layer in contact with the soil, and a coarser collector layer. Non-woven gee-fabric may also be used, to prevent fines from blocking the draining layer. Protection by filter layers or non-woven geo-fabric may be required on both sides of the blanket drain.

(0) Seepage Remedies

If during construction Q~anticipated local seepages or springs are encountered in cuttings they may be controlled by either a counterfort drain or sub-horizontal well. In its sL~plest form a counterfort drain consists of <In excavated "slot" or deep trench running into the C'.J.t slope, ',ihich is 'chen bnckfilled with free-draining mat.erial and in large cases a porous pipe.

I

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The filter criteria already stated will apply and some arrangement must be made to Lead away the intercepteQ. water. Gee-fabrics can also be used as already described.

Sub-horizontal well$ are f¢~ed by dri~ling into the out ~~ope at a slight upward angle to intercept water-bearing strata. The hole is then lined with a slotted or perforat~ pipe to keep it open and to carry the water out. Usual diameters range froll150 to 100 mm and lengths may reach 50 m ,

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age 5.6

CHAPTER 5 : DRAINAGE AND EROSION CONTROL

.3

EROSION CONTROL

.3.1

General

F.-ro~!.i_on probloems may occur on the s1.de slopes of embankments or cuttings,gravel shoulders or at any other point where surface· run-offis concentracted or a spring occurs. The obvious palliatives are therefore-well desigried surface and sutrsurface drainage features ~~d appropriate slope angles for the soils and rocks present. This last measure is problematic as there is no standard test to assess "erodibility". The best guidance would be obtained from observations of actual road sections, assuming these exist.

Various surface protection systems can be used in conj_unction with the above •

• 3.2 Protection of Slopes

(i) Topsoiling and Grassing

Spr:ig,:; of- indigenAOUl':, "runn",r" type, gras!!; may be plantEld on slopes by one or two methods:

(a) The slope shall be covered with a layer of fine topsoil free of stones greater than 50 nm , The minimum thickness should be 75 mID. The layer shall then be planted with grass.

(b) Sprigs of grass shall be planted at approximately 200 mID centres in pockets of topsoil, 75 rom deep.

Planting should be carried out at the beginning of a rainy season.

(ii) -Surface treatments'l1ith seeds and fertilizers

When difficulties are anticipated in establishing a healthy growth of grass on a sterile soil. a mixture of grass seeds and fertilizer may be applied. This can be done either as a wet or dry process. In the former process grass seed, fertilizer, mulch material and water are mixed to form a slurry which is then sprayea onto the ground. In the dry process grass seed and fertilizer are mixed and applied to the ground, followed by watering and possible application of mulching mat~rial.

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(i~i) Gravel or stone blanketin~

Erodible materials may be protected by placing coverings of gravel or stone blankets.

The blanketing material should have a max:illlum size of 40 mID and be placed in an even layer of at least 75 mm.

(Lv) Fascines

PlaCingfascines or branches over the most vulnerable areas, generally combined with some form of grass planting, will help stabilize ~~e slope until it is covered by grass or other vegetation.

(v) Serrated slopes

Serrated slopes aid in the establishment of vegetation. Serrations may be constructed in any material that is rippable or that will hold a vertical or subvertical

face for a few weeks, until vegetation becomes established.

(vi) Other protective works

More costly tYges of protQction, such as stong pitching (possibly grouted), gabions, masonry or placing of concrete may also be used, but, in general, they are economically justified only where the overall slope stability has to be improved.

5.3.3

Protection of Ditches and Channels

'(i) Critical length of unlined ditches

The critical lenqth of unlined ditches must be determined. with regard to erosion control.

The critical length is defined as the maximum length of unlined ditch, in which ~ater velocities do not give rise to erosion.

The maximum velocity of water can be calculated from the slope, shape and dimensions of the ditch, volume of water and from the roug~~ess coefficient of the material. Knowing the maximum permissible velocity for each type of material, the maxUnum length of ditch in this material call then be determined.

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>age 5.8 CHAPTER 5 : DRAINAGE AND EROSION CONTROL
The recommended maximum permissible velocities for
different types of material are as follows:
Material Max. permiss ib.:!- e
.velocity (milO}
Fine sand 0.3*
Silt - Coarse sand 0.4 - 0.6*
Silty clay - ~1ne gravel 0.5 - 0.8* Stiff clay Coarse gravel

Soft rock Conqlcmerate

Hard rock - Masonry - Concrete

0.9 - 1.3 1.2 1.7 l.8 - 2.5

3.0 +

* Where the materials are grass8d, th ... maximum permissible velocity is of the o~der of 1.5 mls if a good cover is provided and 1.1 m/s if a sparse cover is provided.

(ii) Methods of protection

Sections of ditch beyond the critical length.must be protected frOiIl erosion DY lining.

The following methods may be used:

Grassing Turfing

Stone pitching (possibly grouted) placing of masonry

Concreting

Reducing the gradient and constructing steps (the steps must be paved )

Placing velocity breakers

(iii) Sedimentation' control

If water velocities are too low sedimentation may occur.

Djtches and drains should ther@cfore be given sufficient gradient everywhere, in so far as topography and erosion control will permit.

Sedimentation velocities for a few types of material are approximately the following:

Silt

Fine sand Coarse sand Fine gravel Gravel

0.08 m/s 0.15 m/s 0.20 m/s 0.30 m/s 0.65 m/s

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Page 6.1

CHAPTER 6 : SUBGRADE

6.1

CLASSIFICATION OF KENYAN SOILS

6.1.1

General

For a rational approach to pavement design, the most important characteristic of the subgrade is its elastic modulus. However, the measurement of this modulus requires fairly complicated and time-consUIDtng tests.

However, it has been px-oved that there is good correlation between the California Bearing Ratio and the elastic modulus of Kenyan soils. Since the eBR test is a fairly easy and widely o.s ed test, ·it has been decided to retain it as the quantitative means of evaluat.ing the subgrade bearing strength.

C10l.5::;eb u[ Sul;':JLd.de BeetL.ing Strength

A survey of "Kenyan subgrade soils, described in Materials Branch Report No. 345, has s novn that they can be groUDed into the following G bearing strength classes;-

TABLE 6.1.1 : SUBGRADE BEARING S'I'RENG'.rH CLASSES

Soil Class CBR Range r·1edian
51 2 - 5 3.5
82 5 - 10 7.5
S3 ) - 13 10
84 10 - 18 14
85 15 - 30 22.5
86 30 The above eBR ranges correspond to the results actually obtained on materials of the same type along sections of road considered homogGneouG. They reflsct both the variations of the characteristics of the soil which inevitably occur, even at small intervals, and the normal scatter of test results.

The follo'.>ling points should be noted:-

(i) No allowance for CBR's below 2 has been made, because it ~s. technically and economically, out of the question Lo lay a pavement on soils of such poor bearing capacity. Such weak soils are saturated expansive clays, saturated fine silts or compressible (smam-py) soils, ·e.g, mud, soft clay, etc. They should be dealt with as described in Section 4.2.2. Moreover, the measurement of the bearing strength of such soft, soils is most uncertain and CBR' s below 2 are of little significance.

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(ii) The use of Class 81 soils (CBR 2-5) as direct support for the pavement should be avoided as much as possible. Wherever practicable, such poor quality soils should be excavated and replaced, or covered with -an improved subgrade.

(iii) The CBR range of Class 85 is fairly wide. This is because Cl",s_o:!=l5 1_g pith",,-- ']r""""lly mat""rial or un soaked soil, the eER's of which always show considerable scatter.

Furthermore, the difference in the pavement thickness required is comparatively small when the subgrade bearing strength varies from the Lowe r to the upper limit of this class.

(iv) Class 86 covers all subgrade materials having a eBR over 30 and which comply with the plasticity requirements for natural materials for subbase (See Chart SBl,> In such cases, no subbase is required. No class of higher bearing capacity has been considered as such subgradematerials are extremely rare and as a roadbase is always necessary to pLQvide a._ 11.Unlo,=,IdI1eO-U~ o.11U UIllfuLHl lctyeL.

(v) It will be noted that the subgrade categories overlap. For anyone section of a road the average (CBR should be higher or equal to the mean of the subgrade clas.s selected for design, and no individual result shall be below the lowest valve of the range for that subgrade class. Where the subgrade CBR values are very variable the designer should balance the cost of hav.ing very short sections of di:Eferent subgrade categories against a conservative design taking i'lccnl1nt of the worst conditions G!ncountered over longer sections •

6.1.3

.. ,'> Classification of the Most Common Kenyan Subgrade Naterials

The following materials cover almost all the subgrade materials encountered in Kenya, and they may be classified on the basis of beLlring strength, as shown in Table G.l.2 overleaf,>

________ =--=w~_===~ _= ~,

ROAD DESIGN MANUAL

TABLE 6.L2

CLASSIFICATION OF KENYA SUBGRADE MATERIALS

Bearing strength Class
Type of material After 4 days At O.M.C.
soak (Standard)
!~ Black cotton soils S1 85
~
il Micaceous silts (decomp.rock) 81 83
\1
II Other eluvial silts (decomp.rock) 82 84
q
1\ Red friable clays 83 85
I
Sandy clays on volcanics 83 or S4 85
Ash and pumice sOils* 83 or 84 85
Silty 1.0 a:>n s on gneiss and granite 84 85
Calcareous sandy soils s4 ss
Sandy clays on basement j 84 55
Clayey sands on basement I 84 or S5 85 or 86
Dune sands I S4 84 or 85
Coastal sands 84 S5
Weathered lava 54 or 85 85 o:c 86
Quartzitic gra'Yels I S4 - 8:6 S5 or 86
Soft (w~a{:horcd} tuffs 84 - $6 oS or 06
Calcar<3ous gravels S4 - S6 S5 or S6
Lateritic gravels I s5 or 86 86
Coral gravels 85 or 56 So * Some o'_[ t~he as'b and pumi.ce so1~s have a very low maxtmum dry denslty and a lower Young's Modulus than might be e':{pected from the-measured CBn values. Such soils (standard Compaction MDD less than 1,4 Mg/m3j cranno+ be classifiAd for pavAm"mt'. de1':ign purposes on the basis of CBR only.

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Page 6.4

CHAPTER 6 : SUBGRADE

6.2

DETERMINING THE SUBGRADE STRENGTH

6.2.1

Recommended Subgrade CBR Test Procedure

The actual strength of the subgrade·and, in particular, its actual CBR, depend on the type of mat.ar La L, its density and its moisture content.

For each type of material, it is therefore necessary to determine the relative compaction that should be obtained in-situ and the maximum moisture content likely to occur in the subgrade.

In order to obtain a complete knowledge of the relationship between density, moisture content and CBR, a "6 point" CBR test shuuld pe cdL'.L'ied uut ua a Lep.Leseut..at.i ve sample of each type of subgrade material encountered. The tests are conducted in the following way:

The material shall be compacted at 3 different levels of compaction. The samples shall be moulded at the moisture content which is expected at the time of in-situ co~paction (in general, at the Optimum Moisture Content). At each level of compaction, one CBR shall be measured immediately on onQ soak~d sPQcDnen- The tim@ of soaking will depend on the anticipated subgrade conditions. The amount of water absorbed during soaking and the eventual swell shall also be measured.

The above method enables an estimate to be made of the subgrade

,CB~ at different densities and thus helps in deciding the ,relative COlilpdction l:'equired. It also indicates ,the 1.oso of strength which soaking may cause. A fu.ll partic~e size analysis should also be done on each representative sample.

Subgrade compaction

The compaction requirements are generally as follows:-

The upper 300 :mm of the subgrade shall be compacted to a dry density of at least 100% MDD (St~ndard Compaction) in cuttings where there is no improved subgrade and on all fills.

In cuttings where an improved subgrade is to be placed, the upper 150 nun of the subgrade, prior to placing the improved subg:r:ade layer(s), shall be compacted to at least 100% MDD (Standard Compaction) and. the low<ilr l50mm to at lea~t 95% MDD (Standard Compaction).

All improved subgrade shall be compacted to a dry density of at least 100% MDD (Standard Compactioh) •

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The maximum compacted thickness which shall be paid, processed and compacted at one time is.generally 300 rom.

The moisture content shall be adjusted in order that the required relative compaction is obtained, but the mo.i~ture content at the time o£ compaotion shall not exceed 105% of the Optimum MOisture Content (Standard Compaction) •

If it proves feasible, dry compaction may be accepted, especially in dry azeas (see Section 4.2.5 (iii»).

In sume GclSeS, it is advanti:i.geou1ci t.O ubt.ain z e La t.Lv e c;urnpcU" . .:Lions higher than the above figures; since compaction not only improves the subgrade bearing strength, but also reduces permeability. This applies, in particular, to clayey sands. silty sands and granular ma-terials, the coarse particles of. which are hard enough not to crumble under heavy compaction.

Estimating the subgrade Moisture Content

The actual moistuxe content of the subgrade soil under the road pavement wi.ll dep.end on many factors, principally:

- local climate

- depth of the water table

- type of soil

- topography and the drainage

"~ permeabilIty of the pavement materials - pe~neaPility o£the shoulders

The study of Kenyan subgrade moisture conditions, as described in Materials Branch Report No. 345, has revealed the general relationships between mean annual rainfall, soil type, drainage conditions and subgrade rnoisture content which are given in Table 6.2.1 overleaf.

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6.2.4

TABLE 6.2.1 ! SUBGRADE MOISTURE CONTENTS

Subgrade Moisture Content

Mean Annual Rainfall (rom)

Water Table

Soil Type

Drainage

Impermeable Average slightly
pavement, less than OMC
reasonable" I "." Maximum 3%
"" surf"ace 1 un:tts aoove OMC
Predominantly drainage
Non-existent
~500 or deep clays or
silts Permeable Average, often
pavement, exceeds OMC.
poor Maximum
" surface equivalent to I
drainage saturation.
I
< 500 Non-existant Sands to Average well
. " or deep sandy-clays below Ol-l: •
Maximum equal
to OMC. Uotea 1. OMC is me.,_sured with Stan&xd COJIlpdctive Effort.

2. Permeable pavements include pavements constructed with open-textured materials and, mostly, uet.eL"iorctteu. pavements exhibiting surfacing and/or base cracks.

Determining the Subgrade Design strength

Unless a more accurate estimation of the ultimate subgrade moisture content can be made and back""d b~{ factual data, t"h", subgrad", "strength shall be determined as follows;

(L) In az'eas where the mean annual rainfall exceeds 500 mID, the determination of the subgrade strength shall be based on CBR's measured after 4 days soak.

(ii) In dry i:lreaGf where the mean annual rain£o..ll "is .leas than

500 rom, the subgrade strength may be evaluated in terms of CER's measured at Optimum·Moisture Content (Standard Compaction). However, a design based on such unsoaked CBR's will be permitted only where it has been established that no prolonged soaking may occur, For this purpose, consideration shall be given to factors such as permeability of the natural ground d.ud t.opoyri:!.phy (in otl.er words, to the ability of

. water to drain rapidly under all circumstances).

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6.3

6.3.1

6.3.2

6.3.3

CHAPTER 6 : SUBGRADE

SUBGRADE REQUIREMENTS FOR PAVEMENT DESIGN

Materials Suitable for Pavement support

Materials forming the direct support of the pavement shall normally comply with the following requirements:

- CBR at 10Q% MDD (Standard Compaction) and 4 days soak: more than 5

- SWell at 100% MDD (Standard Compaction) and 4 days soak: less than 2%

- Organic matter (percentage by weight) : less than 3%

This means that no pavement should be placed directly on

Class Sl soil and that an improved subgrade is required on such so~l.

Im~oved Sub grade

Placing an improved subgrade not only increases the bearing strength of the direct support of the pavement, but also

- protects the uppe.Ii la.yt:lLl:$ (,If ed.J:.tliwoLk:::; dYdinst adverse

weather conditions (protection against soaking and shrinkage), - facilitates the movement of construction traffic,

- permits proper compaction of the pavem~-t layers,

- reduces the variation in the subgrade bearing strength/ and

- prevents pollution of open-textured subbases by plastic fines

from the natural subgrade.

It may prove technically and economically advantageous to lay an improved subgrade not only on Sl, but also on S2 and 83 Class £Oi18_ The decision will generally depend on the respective costs of subbase and improved subgrade materials.

An improved subgrade would generally not be economically ju~tified on Class 84 soils,

An improved subgrade placed on .soi1s of any particular class must obviously be made of a material of a higher class (up to Class S5, since Class 56 is subbase quality).

Influence of Im;l?roved S~rade on SubjilTade Bearing strength

Where a sufficient thickness of improved subgrade is placed, the overall subgrade bearing strength is increased to that of a higher class ~nd the subbase thickness may be reduoed accordingly.

Table 6.3.1 shows the minimum thickness of each class of improved subgrade required on eacn class of natural soil to obtain a higher class of subgrade bearing strength. These minimum thicknesses have been calculated taking into account the l:;espective elast~c moduli of each class of soil.

..~

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CHAPTER 6 : SUBGRADE

.TABLE 6. 3. 1 = MrN~MUM THICKNESS OF IMPROVED SOBGRAPE RE~tnum

Improved subgrade New Clo.ss
strength Class Material Minimum of subgrade
of native
subgrade soils Strength thickness bearing
Ciass required (mm) strenqth
"
S2 400 82
...
53 350 82
425 83
51* - ._- .- _. -_
275 82
54 325 83
450 84
83 300 s3
S2 84 200 S3
\ 350 84
I
I S4 300 54
,
83 150 84
S5
350 85 * Many Class Sl soils will be expansive clays. The requirements recommended in Chapter 11 should also be t.aken into account when dealing with Class 51 soLLs , There may also be problems in achieving high degrees of compaction in Class 84 or 85 material overlying

a Class 81 soil.

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Treatment of the subgrade soils with lime may be considered in th~ following cases:

(i) Where the natural soils are excessively clayey and no better material is economically available, their treatment with hydrated l~e may be the cheapest SOlut~on.

(ii) Where the natural soils are excessively wet and cannot be dried out because of adverse weather conditions, their treatment with quicklime may allow construction to proceed and provide a markedly stronger subgrade.

speciricat10ns ror lime treatment are given in pection 7.1. The treated soils will be classified in accordance with their CBR range, as in Section 6.1.2 and the final bearing strength class of the pavement support will be determined as indicated in Section 6.3.3.

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7. )

GRNERAT,

The choice of the pavement materials and, hence, of the_pavement structure, will largely depend on the types and the respective costs of the natural materials locally available. As stressed in Section 3.2., a thorough assessment of the local resources in road-making materials is essential to enable the design engineer to oclcct ~~e moot econom~ca2 pavement.

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SURRA!,;R MATRRTALS

7.2.1

Natural Gravels

Many different types of natural gravel occur J.n Kenya, namely lateritic gravels, quartzitic gravels, calcareous gravels, some forms of weathered rock, soft stone, coral rag and conglomerate.

Natural gravels for subbase shall have a CBR of at least 30%, at 95% MDD (Modified AASHTO) and after 4 days soak.

In addition, L~e gravel shall comply with the requirements shown in Chart SB1.

The following points should be noted;

(i) The maximum Plasticity Index allow8d depends on the climate and on the type of roadbase to be placed. Plasticity Indices of up to 25 may be tolerated in dry areas i.e. mean annual rainfall less than 500 mID. On the other hand, the Plasticity Index should not exceed 15 in wet areas under open~textured (permeable) bases, because of the risks of soaklng and pll..TJ1ping of plastic fines up into the bas ...

(ii) Care is needed in using gravels derived from weathered

. igneous rock, as L~ese materials are extremely heterogeneous and coarse fragments that appear to be sound may contain minerals that are already decomposed. In particular, weat..1tered basic rocks like basalt, phonolite and dolerite e.re of vel...1 pOQr quaLLty a.nd their use should be "'":5 liilJiL",d as possible. Weat..1tered micaceous rocks, such as micaschists and some types of gneiss" are likely to give rise to

similar difficulties.

7.2.2

Clayey and Silty Sands

various types of Clayey and/or Silty sands are to be found in

Kenya. Thes'e are suitable as subbase materials if their CBR, at

95% t1DD (Modified Compaction) and after 4 days soak, is at least equal to 30% and if they comply with the other requirements given on Chart SBl. Attention is drawn particularly to the plasticity limitations.

Cement and Lime Improved Materials

Natural gravels, sands and clayey sands, which do not meet the subbase requirements given on Chart SB1, may be improved by treatment with cement or lime.

I'

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Non-plastic ;mn low 1'1 ;!!:;1-:i c1 t-y m",l-erials can reddily be l-re.o!i,e-<'l with cement, but do not lend themselves to lime treatment whilst plastic materials can be successfully treated with lime. Treatment, with lime appears to be' advantageous when the percentage of fines (material passing 0.425 mID size) and the Plasticity Index exceed 15% and 10% respectively.

The materials suitable for treatment, the cement or lime and the treated material shall comply with the requirements given on Chart SB2.

Curing shall be carried out by covering the surface with either approved plastic sheeting,rnoist soil, straw and/or keeping the surface damp by frequent applications of alight spray of water.

7.2.4

Graded Crushed Stone

Stone is abundant in many parts,Q,f the country, and graded crushed stone may be used as subbase material, particularly where no suitable natural gravel can be economically found.

Tha mater~a~ requirements, truff~c i£mitat£ona and con5truction procedures are summarized in Chart SB3.

The following points should be noted:

(1) Crusher-run should' be used as much as possible, for obva.ous economic reasons. The grading envelopes given cover the cru5her-runs usually obtained. For some .sufte:r.' stones a grading at the design stage which is coarser than the envelope may be acceptable.

(ii) Fairly coarse crusher-Lun (0/60 mm) wbich is economical may be used for medium and light traffic.

(ii~) The gn,uliuy LU <..:ouslder "is that after compaction, since rolling may cause further crushing and produce additional, fines in the case of. soft stone (LAA over 40).

(iy) Three classes of stone have been defined on the basis of hardness and crushing ratio. Classes A and B ,stone must be at least semi-crushed, whereas rounded aggregate (a~Luvial deposits) may be accepted ~or Class C. Ciass A stone is required for Traffic Class TI, Class B for T2 - T3 and Class C for T4 -TS.

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r, 2.5

(v) The general requirement is that the fines shall be non-plastic. However, under light traffic and in dry areas, limited plasticity may be tolerated (Plasticity Index not more.than 6-8), provided that the stabili.ty and the permabi.li~y of the mert.e rLa L r~rn",ln auo;;!qud.te.

(vi) To avoid segregation, graded crushed stone should always be kept moist during handling I transporting and laying and should not be stockpiled~ in heaps higher than 5 m.

(vii) All of the following cornpaction.requirernents shall be complied with:-

(a) Reference to the Maximum Dry Density (Vibrating Hammer method) t

- Average dry density: Min. 98%, MDD (V.H.)

- No result below 96% MDD (V.H.)

(b) Reference to the Specific Gravity of the stone {Oven dry value}:

- Average dry de~ity! Min. 82% $.G.

- No result below ~O% S.G.

(e) No visible movement u.nder a s'teel wheeled roller applying at least 5000 Kg/metre width of roll.

{v~ii) Gpecial care mU3t be taken to ensure that the layer edge3 are properly compacted.

Soft stoI'~e

Where soft stone is to be used for the subbase layer, its contribution to the pavement strength will-depend on its

quality. A poor quality soft stone is to be assessed and used in accordance with the requirements for a natural gravel. A good quality soft stone meeting the requirements given below may, howeveri be used in the thicknesses given for improved subbase layers:-

(a) L.A.A. less than 70%'

(b ) P.I. on fines .f r om L.A.A. test : Non-plastic

(cl P.I. of material passing 0.425 rom sieve from the 'as dug' material : Max 15% and plasti9ity modulus less than 250.

(d) C.B.R. at 95% MDD (ModifiJ;>d AASHTO) aft~r 4 days soaking' Min. 60%.

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Fage7.S

! 7.3

7.3.1

t

l

1

1

I

I 1

]

~

7.3.2

BASE MATERIALS

Natural Gravels

Na.Lurc11 yrd,vels i:or ba.ae :shall hd..ve a. CBR of at :Lea.st 60, at 95't MOD (Modified MSHTO) and after .4 days soak. The other material requirements are detailed in Chart Bl.

Natural gravels meeting these requirements are very scarce in Kenya. Most of the lateritiC gravels are not suitable for zoadbaae , due to their poor nodule hardness (incomplete laterizati.on) and high plasticit.y. Weathered rocks a,re even poorer. Only a few quartz gravels and coral gravefs have been found to be adequate.

It may therefore be advantageous to mechanically stabilize unsuitable natural gravels, by mixing in sand to reduce the plastiCity or stone' {crushed or not) to provide hard coaLse particles. An addition of 30% of sand or stone is regarded, practically and economically, as a maximum.

In other caGes, it may be advantageous to obtain re~ative compaction higher tr.an the usual 95% MDD (Modified AASHTO}. Howeyer, the bearing strength will be significantly increased by higher compaction degrees only if the coarse particles are hard enough to resist heavy compaction without being crushed or pulverized. In practice; relative compactions up to 97% MDD {Modified AASHTO) may be considered.

Howeverr natural gravels are not suitable for Traffic Classes Tl and T2, even if they are mechanically stabilized or well compacted, for they are prone to attrition. and their characteristics are too variable.

Cement and Lime ImEroved Materials

It is common practice to treat with cement or lime natural materials which have been found to be unsuitable in their natural state. Cement and lime treated matprials al''''' thoroughly d~a1f' with in Materials Branch Report No, 343.

It is essential to distinguish between improved materials and stabilized materials.

Improvement consists of treating materials with lime or with a comparatively small amount of oem~nt; so that the engineering characteristics are improved (higher bearing strength, lower plasticity)/ but. the treated material remains flexible.

Stabilization consists of treating materials with a sufficient amow,t of cement, so that their cohesion is considerably increased and significant rigidity is obtained.

Chart B2 covers cement and lime improved materials for base.

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The materials will normally be mixed-in-place, as stationary plant mixing is extremely costlyo It has been assumed that the scatter of the stabilizer content may reach + 30% of the nominal

amount.

As improved materials are fairly flexible, the CBR criterion has been retained,

Cement and lime improved materials are not considered suitable ror heavy traffic (Classes Tl and T2) because of their generally poor resistance to attrition.

It is strongly advised that a mechanical spreader (e.g. spreader box) be used for spreading the cement or the lime, in order to obtain a fairly uniform distribution.

Attention is drawn to the following time limitations:-

(iJ Wl1ere cement is used, it i.s essential that compaction and finishing are completed not later than 2 hours after mixing and that the treated layer is protected against evaparat~on not later than 4 hours after compaction.

(ii) When lime is used, the times allowed are 4 hours after mixing and 8 hours after compaction respectively.

Protection and curing shall normally be achieved by the application of a bit~~inous seal coat or prime coat. In some o,,-oes, i'l prime coat mn.y be too thin to prevent dcsoicQtion; curing shall then be achievedJ before priming, by either of the methods given in Section 7.2.3.

No vehicle shall be allowed on a cement treated layer for the first 7 days after compaction.

Natural gravels and coarse (clayey) sands may be stabilized with cement if they cornDly with the requirements given in Chart B3.

As stabilized materials are rigid or semi-rigid, the CBR is meaningless. The most convenient strength criterion for such ~aterials is the Unconfined Compressive Strength (D.C.S.). A minimum U.C.S. of 1,800 kN/m2 is required, on the laboratory mix, compacted at 95% MDD (Modified AASHTO) after 7 days cure 1'1118 7 days soak.

Gement stabilized mate:::-lals aTe technically suitable for all traffic, but ·their use is normally not economically justified for . light traffic (Classes T4 and T5).

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It is recommended to use, as much as possible, the stationary plant mixing method, but it should be borne in mind that only low plasticity materials (Plasticity Modulus not exceeding 700) can be properly mixed in a stationery plant.

Mix-in-place can be used alternatively (and has to be used for materials with a Plasticity Modulus exceeding 700).. Powerful mixing equipment is then required, the most usual being heavy duty pulvimixers (more than 100 h.p.).

The scatter of the cement content should not exceed + 10% of the nominal .:l....'tIount when the materiaLs are mixed in stationary plant and 2:. 20% when the mix-in-place method is employed.

Compaction must be completed not later than 2 hours after mixing and protection' against evaporation must be placed not later than 4 hours after compaction.

Protection and curing shall be carried QuL as l.ndi<;a.ted l.H Sections 7.2.3 and 7.3.2.

Vehicles shall net be allowed on stabilized material for the first 7 days after compaction.

7.3.4

Graded Crushed Stone'

Graded crushed stone is one of the most widely used base materials in Kenya. The material requirements, traffic limitations and construction procedures are summarized in Chart B4.

The followiI:g points are stressed:-

(1) Three classes of stone have been defined, on the bas.i s of their hardness and crushing ratio. Class A stone must be entirely crushed, whe.rea ~ C1;] i":.S R anil C st'one may be semi-crushed.

(ii) Graded crushed stone is not considered suitable for Traffic Class Tl or for roads carrying overloaded axles because attrition is probable. Class A stone is required for T2, Class B for T3 and Class C for T4 and TS.

(iii) The grading generally required is 0/40 mrn. However, .for Traffic Class T2, it is necessary to use 0/30 rom graded crushed stone, in order to minimize segregation and provide sufficient stability_

I (iv) A minimum amount of fines of 4% is considered necessary to
ensure the stabiLi:.ty of the base_
(v) No pla.sticity is allowed in graded crushed stone for base. .'.

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7.3.5

(vi) To avoid segregation. graded crushed stone shonld rllwi'lYs be kept "let during handling, transporting and laying and should not be stockpiled in heaps higher than 5 m.

{vii} Both of the Iollowing compaction requirements shall be compiled with:

(a) R!'>fl"'renr.e to the Maximum Dry Density (Vibrating t1armRer) :

- Average dry density: Min. 98%.MDD (V.H.)

- No result below 96% MDD (V.H.)

(b) Reference to the Specific Gravity of the stone (oven-dry value).

- Average dry density: Min. 85% S.G.

- No result below 82% s.G.

(viii) Special care must be taken to ensure that the layer edges are always properly compacted, by providing an extra width or :specific .lateral abut-ment...

Sand Bitumen Mixes

In areas where neither natural gravels nor stone can be found, the treat~ent of sandy soils may be the only practical solution for base construction. In arid areas, Gement treatment has a number or disadvantages and bitumen stabilization may then be the most appropriate technique.

Two types of sand b:itnml"'n l1'd,,"e~ have b",,,,n idoantified,

(i) Bitumen stabilized silty and clayey sands

The material requirements, traffic limitations and construction procedures are summarized in Chart B5a.

Stable anionio emulsion A3 or fluid medium curing cut-backs (MC 250 - MC 800) may be used. The materials will be mixed-in-place.

Bitumen stabilized silty and clayey sands are suitable for medium and ligh traffic (Classes T3, T4 and T5) but not for heavy traffic (Classes Tl and T2).

(ii) Sand mixes

Chart B5b gives the material requirements, traffic limitations and construction procedures for sand mixes.

Hard bitUmen 40/50 or 60/70 may be suitable. Hot mixing ~nd het laying are then necessary.

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...

Anionic ernu Ls Lo n 1',.2 and 11.3 may o Le o be used wlth the advantage of cold mixing and cold laying.

Single sized sands, such as dune sands, present a very difficult problem because of their low internal friction angle and their high voids percentag,e. A possible solution is to stabilize them wit!"> cement together with bitUI'.:ten emul15iop. The aduit-ion of mineral. 'fillet or of angular crusher sand to the natural sand will generally be necessary to fill up the voids and to increase the internal friction anglel so that the specified stability is obtained.

Sand mixes are suitable for medium and ,light traff'ic. The })",hctvlUUL uf tl11s iue t.e rLa L u.IlUeL TLd££l", Cld::>;s T2 i;s ::>1.:111 uncertain.

Dense Bitumen Macadarn

Chart B6 gives the material requirements and construction procedures for dense bitlli~en macadam.

The following points should be noted:-

(i) Because of the rapid ageing of bitumen observed in Kenya, the use of 40/50 bitumen is not recommended for dense bitumen macadam.

(ii) Dense bi tu.-rnen macadam is adequate for all traffic but is economically justified only for heavy traffic (Classes Tl and T2).

Dense Emulsion Macadam

,',

Dense emulsion macadam is a cold mixed, cold laid plant mixture of w~ll graded aggregate.and bitumen emulsion and its principal use 0i11 be as a pavement overlay material.

The ~equirements for aggregate and filler are basically the same as for dense bitumen macadam (see Chart B6)~ The emulsion can be either slow setting anionic A3 or slow acting cationic K3. The amount of residual bitumen should normally be between 3 and 5% by weight of the dry aggregate.

Dense emu~cion mQcadam may be a cheap alternative to dense bitumen macadam. Although its strength is only slightly less than that of dense b.i t.umen macadam , no heating or drying of aggregate and no heating of the binder are required. MoreOVer, the mixture can be laid by grader. It is pointed out that dense emulsion maoadam should not be laid in layers of compacted thickness eXceeding 15 rrm to permit the evaporation of water.

7.3.7

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Full details of the mix design for dense emulsion macadam are given in Part V of the Road Design Manual.

Note: Dense emulsion macadams require heavy compaction to be continued at intervals until all movement ceases; this may not be achieved until a period of some days after laying.

7.'<.8

T,l?an Concrett$.

The material requirements and construction Il,;:r:oced).lres are

summarized in, Chart B7. 'e:

The following points should be noted:-

(i) Ordinary I>ortland cement is genernlly used. H:owever, because of the shrinkage problems and time limitations, it may be worthwhile developing the use of special slow-setting cements or the dse of retardents (coarsely-grounfi cements, or mixtures of cerl)ent. and i.ne r t; filler, etc.).

(11) The dlllQUllt uf" ceHl'='Jlt 1l0Lllld.lly L"Eo:qulLe(l 1;; uetween 3 clud 6'1;

(iii) Due to its rigidity, lean concrete must be' placed in thick layers (minimum 150 rom, generally 200 or 250 rom}.

(iv) Lean concrete is adequate for all traffic, but is economically justified only for heavy traffic (Classes Tl and'l':L).

(v) Mixing is to be carried out in a stationary plant and lean <,",OY\CY'",tp. i.';: +o hE> lair'l by mE?chanical pAver.

(vi) Compaction and finishing must be completed not later than 2 hours afte.r mixing and the finished layer must be protected against evaporation not later than 4 hours after compaction. Protection and curing shall be achieved by the application of a bituminous seal coat, preferably bitumen emulsion. No vehicles shall be permitted on lean concrete for the first 7 days.

7.3".9

Other Base Materials

Virtually all roadbases will be constructed with one of the above mentioned materials.

Nevertheless, 'chere may be a few specific cases where consideration can be given to other materials, such as

- Bitumen treated gravel

- Graded crushed stone treated in-situ with emulsion

- Mixture of graded crushed stone and gravel

(possibly treated with lime or cement).

Such exceptional materials are out of the scope of this Manual and require special s:tudies.

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Chart SIc

SURFACE DRESSING DESIGN

Chart Sic

APPLICATION RATES Chipping spread rate:

(1) Determine Average Least Dimension (A.L.D.) of chippings. (2) Read the spread rate from Graph 1 on Chart Sld.

(1) For multiple ,;:eAI,." repE!;;t (1) and (2) ul~ing "'-PI'roP1'?:l.ate line on Graj)h L

Binder spray rate:

(4) Determine total chipping spread rate for all seals.

(5) Use total from (4) to determin.e total residual bitumen spray rate from.

Graph 2 on Chart Sld.

(6) Determine multipliers from Chart SId and apply to total residual bitumen spray ratQ from (5).

(7) Convert total residual bitumen spray rate from (6) into a total spray rate for the type of binder to be used by dividing by factors appropriate for the binder.

(8) Split the total spray rate from (7) into the various seals such that no seal is sprayed with so much binder that there is excess run-off. The following approximate maximum spray rates may be used as a guide:

Type of surface

Me 3000 (11M2)

Kl-60 (11M2)

Smooth primed surface

1.2.

1.5

Rough su~faced d~essed road

1.7

By observing the above maxima it may not be possible to spray all the required ~inder without applying a final spray to the finished surface. w~en this is necessary the finished surface should either be left untraffj_cked for a few days or lightly sanded.

I l I

i

1

l

1

GUIDELINES FOR SELECTION OF SPREAD & SPRAY .RATES FOR: SURFACE DRESSING

1. The average Least Dimension of chippings is to be determined as outlined~in Chapter 15 of the Design Manual.

2. In Chart SIC it has been erroneously stated that MC 3000 always cont.ains 20% of cutter. This is not correct, MC3000 contains between 10% and 20% of cutter consisting of kerosine or diesel. ,The exact proportions used should be obtained from the manufacturer before calculating spray rates.

3, Surface temperatures of exis'c.ing surfaces may be measured ei_ther by a surface pyrometer, or bya mercury in glass thermometer, immersed in a small amount of oil that is put in a hollow out in the road surface, which has been left to attain the temperature of the surrounding surface.

4. On the use of mutipliers for calculating spray rates .• the multipliers for climate and traffic are straightforward and self explanatory_ However for surface texture and Chippings the following tables of guidelines may be helpful.

PART 111

ROAD DESIGN MANUAL

MATERIALS AND PAVEMENT DESIGN FOR NEW ROADS

Page 7.34

CHAPTER 7 : PAVEMENT MATERI}LS

Chart Slc (can't)

SURFACE DRESSING DESIGN

chart SlC (can't)

SURFACE TEXTURE

Primed Base.

All primed bases

CHl.Pf'INGS

",

i V. Lean Bituminous

Old (lean) Surface (lean) dressing

Lean Bituminous

Old bituminous

macadam, new surface dressing

Average Bituminous

Old Asphalt

Fresh bitu.TlJinous Htdci:Hldffi. Bleeding old surface dressing.

I V. Rich

1 Bi Luminous

Fresh asphalt

5.

(a)

Chippings which are dusty should not be used, without washing or blowing off the duat; ,

(b)

Round

River or marine gravel

Cubical

~~D greater than nominal size

Flakey

ALP less than a nominal sLzc but flQkiness within Specification.

Precoated As observed.

Wet chippings should not be used with cut-back or straight run bitumens without the addition of an adhesion agent,

{c) Chippings which are outside the Specification for Flakiness Index should not be used for first seals or re-seals under any circumstances. However, in exceptional circumstances flakier clripl'lilgs ma.y be a<.;cept.dl;Jle fur smaller ::>izeu ::;evond or thi-ul seals.

It is emphasised that the procedure outlined in this Manual is a guide for determining the rates to give initial instructions to a contractor on spray and spread rates only. Short trial sections which have been correctly laid to the (tested). instructed rates should be openea to traffic travelling at slow speeds and oD.served. If performance appears unsatisfactory then ~he Instructed rates should be modified. It is important to remember that whip-off is a far more s~rioug problem than bleeding.

6.

PART 111

ROAD __ DESIGN MANUAL

MATERIALS AND PAVEMENT DESIGN FOR NEW ROADS

CFAPTER 7

P;WEHENT tJ'ATERIALS

-Page 7.35

Chart Sld

SURFACE DRESSING DESIGN

Chart Sld

14

r

. f" ro"; - .,.; ~(

i

! ,

! I
I I I
I ; III -c ! :1-.11', H l- I l-Jr-: HH 41- 1+ ~i--
I r
I
BoT"
I
"-;VI fA I "HI Irj, ,

I -, \ _, I_ I L ~

-zb

I :25

'7, I

I \ 1 I

-.. ""

E 12

H H-H-+--t

o

0
-<;(
W S
ct
0..
til
7
I.')
Z
n, 6
Q_
:r: 5
u ","" 1-1 \-

---
N
E
--..
<>..)
W
f-
-r
""
__l >-
«
~ <{
0 0::
o.
til U1
1LI
0:: Z
W
...J 2
G: ::::>
l- f-
0
l- en AVERAGE LEAST DIMENSION (mm)

2·5

1 -5

I I

1 ! I

, I

i i

J /. ,_

l l

0-5

lb

I 15

TOTAL CHIPPING SPREAD RATE (O·OOlm3/m2

30

5

, '

MULTIPLIERS FOR TOTAL RESIDUAL BITUMEN SPRAY RATE

Traffic Multi - Climate Multi - Surface Te xture Multi - Chippir>gs Multi-
v . p . d. pli e r pl ie r p i ie r- pl i e r
0 - 10 Q 1.13 N. European 1.10 Primed base ,.00 Round/dusty 1- 05
100-500 1- 00 Tropical 1· Q 6 V. Iecn bitumin,",~ 0·95 C'u b l c c I ,·00
500 - 1000 O· 96 Temperate 1· 0 3 Lean bituminous 0·85 Flaky (F[< 35) O· 9 5
1000 - 2000 0·90 Semi Arid 1,00 Ave. bituminous O· SO Pr-e corrt e d 0-95
.. 2000 0·85 Arid 0·95 V, rich bituminous 0.75 ROAD DESIGN MANUAL

. PART 111 MATERIALS AND PAVEMENT DESlGN FOR NEW ROADS

Page 7.36

CHAPTER 7 : PAVEMENT MATERIALS

Chart Sl.e

SURFACE DRESSING DESIGN

Chart Sle

2
105
8
6
4
.....
()
u 2
- j
-
'l:
~ 2
u
z
-
.::
3
10 2 -

10

30 40 50 GO 70

ROAD SURFACE TEMPERATURE (Ge)

20

CHOICE OF BINDER FOR SURFACE ORE SSING

90

·
ROAD DESIGN MANUAL
PART 111 MATERIALS AND PAVEMENT DESIGN FOR NEW ROADS
Page 7.37 CHAPTER 7 : PAVEMENT~ATERIALS
Chart S?a ASPHALT CONCRETE Chart S2a
(Continuously Graded Asphalt)
MATERIAL REQUIPEMENTS
Coarse A.ggregate ,(::>2 nun) Mineral Filler
Aggregate Class a b c Cement, lime, limestone or other mineral
matter.
LAA Max·, 30 I 35 40 Shall be non-plastic
lp.CV Max. 25 I 28 30 Passing 0.425 W~
SSS Max. l2 ].2 l2 100%
PI Max. 20 25 25 Passing 0.075 mm Min. 75%
Sulk density in toluene 0.5 - 0.9 g/ml

Fine AggrE'gate (-<2 mrn) Usual Bi.turnen Content (%)
Sand Equivalent: Min. 40 Type Wearing Course Binder Course
S.S.S. Max. 12% Type I (0/6) 6.0 - 8.0
-
Type I (0/10 - 0/14) 5.5 - 7.0 5.0 - 6.5
! Mlx Grading : See Table S2b I Type I (0/20) - 4. 5 ~ 6.0
I Type II (0/10 - 0/14) 5.5 - 7.5 -
~.-------
Type of mix Type I Type II
Wearing Course Binder Course Wearing Course
Bitu,llen grade 60/70 - 80/100 60/70 - 80/100 80/100
Crushing RatiQ ("% ) 100 100 60
Marshall Stability (N) 9,000 7,000 4,000 - 7,000
FloN V<:tlue (mm) 2 - 4 2 - 4 2 - 5
Voids in total mix (%) 3 - 5 3 - 7 3 - 8

TR'1.FF rc AND USE L1.M.i'I'A'l'J.O.NS
1
! 1 TLaffic class Tl T2 T3 T4 T5
I I Coarse ceggregate class rpql1ir~r1 i'l b b c c
I Asphalt Concrete Type I: Suitable for all traffic; thick layer or rigid support
Asphalt Concrete Type II: Suitable for T3 - T4 - T5, thin layer
..
CONSTRUCTION PROCEDURES
Minimum thickness of compacted layer: 25 rnm (0/10 and smaller) 50mm (0/20)
MIXING: in stationary plant, bitumen temperatures :. 130 - i sc=c (60/70)
120 - 140°C (80/100)
} LAYING: by paver - tUn. temperature 1300C (60/70) - l2soe (80/100)
COMPACTION: Min. mix density : 96% Laboratory design Marshall density
- Min .. te.mperaturG at end of compaction: SOoC {60/70} - 700e (80/100)
- Compaction equipment to suit layer thlckness but generally:
- Steel wheel rollers (5-7 kg/rum of roll width}
I - Pneumatic tyred rollers (Min. 2 tonnes per wheel) ROAD DESIGN MANUAL
PART 111 MATERIALS AND PAVEMENT DESIGN FOR NEW ROADS
CHAPTER 7 : PAVEMENT MATERIALS Page 7.38
TABLE s2b : GBADING FJ::QUIREMENTS FOR l'.SPHALT CQNCP-E'n;
0- l
Sieve TYPE 1 (HIGH STABILITY)
Size WEARING COURSE BINDER COURSE I
-"- .
(rom)' , 0/14 O/lO ,0\ q/6 0/20 l 0/14 -6(l0 I
" ,," "._ .. : I
28 c' 100
- 1 - I - -
t .. ~. ~h ," .,
20 100 - - 90 - 100 100 -
14 90 - 100 100 - 75 - 95 gO - 100 100
10 70 - 90 90 - 100 100 60 - 82 70 - 90 90 -l.00
6.3 55 - 75 60 - 82 90 - 100 47 - 68 52 - 75 60 -82
4 45 - 63 47 - 67 75 - 95 37 - 57 40 - 60 45 - 65
2 33 - 48 \ 33 - 50 50 - 70 25 - 43 30 - 45 30 - 47
I I I
°1 23 - 38 1 23 - 38 33 - 50 I 18 - 32 20 - 35 20 - 35
I i
0.425 14 - 25 14 - 25 20 - 33 \ 11- 22 I 12. - 24 12 ~ 24
I I \
0.300 12 - 22 12 22 I 28 j 20 20
- 16 - 9 - 1~ I 10 - 10-
~!
0.150 8 - 16 8 - 1.6 10 -- 20 5 - 12 6 - 14 6 - 14
I
0.075 S - 10 5 - 10 6 - 12 I 3 - 7 I 4 - 8 4 - 8
i
--- --~-
r------~- T \
I TYPE II (FLEXIBLE)
, I
1 Sieve I
I Size w"EARING COURSE i
1 I
(rom) 1 I 1
I .1 '" 0/14 0/10 . I
I c'
,: ;°'1
I 28~· - - I -
I I I
20 100 -
14 90 - 100 100
10 70 - 95 90 - 100
6.3 55 - 85 62 - 90
4 46 - 75 50 - 80
2 I 35 - 60 35 - 65
I
1 I 25 - .d.~ I 2S 50
I _::l I -
,
! 0.42S 1'4 - 32 14 - 33
I
0.300 i 11 - 27 11 27
.-
0,150 6 - 17 6 - 17
0.075 3 - 8 3 - 8 ROAD DESIGN MANUAL'
PART 111 MATERIALS AND PAVEMENT DESIGN fOR NEW ROADS
'.
Page 7.39 CHAPTER 7 : PAVEMENT MATERIALS
Chart S2c GAP GRADED ASPHALT chart S2c
MATERIAL REQUIREMENTS
The materials shall comply with the requirements for asphalt concrete in C~ass, C,
Chart S2a. Cap graded Q(Jphalt i.e a designed mixture of bitumen (60/70), fil1.er
and fine aggregate and coarse aggregate.
Course aggregate grading Fine aggregate + filler grading
Sieve(rnm) % by weight passing Sieve (rom) % by weight passing
20 100 1 lOq
14 38 - 100 0.425 70 - 97
10 0 - 69 0.300 49 - 93
2 0 - 2 0.150 16 '- 58
0.075 0 - 20
MIX COMPOSITION
~
Mix design requirements ; Min. I Max.
1
Maroc;h,,]1 s:telhj 1Hs un, N 3000 9000
Flow (F) I mm 2 6
Marshall Quotient (S/F) F kN/mm 2.0 -
Voids in mortar of mix (VIMO) , % 3 9
Filler/bitumen ratio 0.9 1.3
Mix design method; l
(1) Prepare mixture of fine aggregate and fillor to give 1,5 ratio by maGS of, f
filler to fine aggregate retained on 0.075 rom sieve. Determine the optimum
I bitumen content which gives maximum Marshall Quotient.
(2) By adding coarse aggregate and reducing bitumen content the Marshall
l Quotient may be increased to the specified value. 20% coarse a'ggregate will increase quotient by factor of app.rox , 1.5, 30% by L9, 40% by 2.4 and 55% by 3.0. For an in.cIedBe in coaIBe d9'3r,:}.':laLe iche revi;",ed 'bLtuIW,;!n content is given by:

Nominal bitUt"!!en content = Optimum bitumen content ClOO-S) + 2.3(5)

100 100

where S ~ % of coarse aggregate added.

(3) Prepare mixes in accordance with B.S.594 at nominal bitumen content from (2) to check specified requirements.

TRAFFIC LIMITATIONS

Suitable for '1'3 - T4 - '1'5. ][aybe suitable for heavier t:caffic but further research needed, (N.B~ Has been successfully used on a section of Nairobi Mombasa Road with '1'2 traffic}.

CONSTRUCTION PROCEDURES

As Chart S2a except suitable only for thickness range 25-50 rom.

Note~ Gap graded asphalt may be made successfully with softer aggregates complying with class C on Chart S2a. It is therefore particularly suitable '£,or use in parts of the country where strong aggregate is not available.

PART 111

ROAD DESIGN MANUAL

MATERIALS AND PAVEMENT DESIGN FOR NEW ROADS

CHAPTER 7 : PAVEME..l\l'T -MATERIALS

Page 7.40

Chart S2d

SANO ASPHALT

Chart S2d

MATERIAL REQUIREMENTS

Grading of aggregate + filler
Sieve (nun) % passing- by wt.
10 100 1
6.3 95- 100
2 70" - 100
1 47 - 95
0.425 20 - 75
0.300 15 - 60
0.150 8 - 30
0.075 4 - 12
Uniformity Coeff. : Min. S Aggregate

Sand Equivalen.t S.S.S.

Min. 40 Max. 12

Min"eral filler

~~--~~~--~~--~--------~~~~--~-Cement, lime, limestone or other mineral

matter : non plastic

Passing 0.425 mm Passing 0.075 rom

Bulk density in toluene

100% Min. 75%

0.5-0.9 g/ml

MIX PROPERTIES

Bitumen

, Type 60/70 or 80/100

I Usual content : 6 - 10%

M~r~hal1 stability, N Flow, UL'1l.

Voids in total mix, %

Min. - lVlax. l~in. - Max. Min. - Max.

3OU~ = r: j

5 - 10_

TRAFFIC LIMITATIONS

Only suitable for T3 - '1'4 - T5

CONSTRUCTION PROCEDURES

See Chart S2a except to be used only in tJ:!icknesses of 25 - 50 mm,

ROAD DESIGN MANUAL
PART 111 MATERtALS AND PAVEMENT DESIGN FOR NEW ROADS
Page 7.41 CHAPTER 7 : PAVEM~NT MATERIALS
Chart 83 EMULSION SLURRY SEAL Ch""rt S3
MATERIAL REQUIREl'II.ENTS I
I
1 Anionic emulsion A4 (slow setting rapid setting) I or Cationic emulsion 1
or K3 J
I
Aggregate Grading Aggregate
Sieve 1 % by weight passing I Shall be free of organic and other
Size I I \ I I deleterious matter
TYPE I TYPE II TYPE III Sand Equivalent: 40
Min.
(rom) \ (F.ine) (NoJ::rnal) I (Coar:se) Percentage of crusher dust!
I
\ I Slurry Class A Min. 50%
10 - I - I 100 \ Slurry Class B Min. 25% \
6.3 - I 100 I 80 - 9S
5 - 90 - 100 ! 70 - 90 I
2 roo i 60 87 40 65 Mineral Filler
I - -
i 1 60 - 85 40 - 67 25 - ';5 I
i 0,425 30 - 48 I 22 - 38 I 15 28 Ordinary Portland cement or
I -
0.300 25 42 18 30 I Hydrated lime or other non-
- - I 12 - 25
0.150 15 - 30 I 10 .. 20 7 - 18 plastic mineral matter 5 - 15

.5 - 15

I Usual

amount~

1% (by weight)

I

\

I

I ,

I

I

I

J I Mi' xt.ure . j_' 5

I 1 ......... Emulsion ~ usually

1 \ Water u,sually 10 -

I

l~~C-O~~-S-T-R-U-C-T-I-ON PROCEDD~ES

I

25% (by weight of dry aggregate} I 25% (by weight of dry aggregate) I

I

I Rate of application: 130 - 250 m2/m3 (4 - 8 litre/m2)

MIXING;

by concrete mixl2r o r , IY"r::--pfF:'t"2hlYF ~lllrry machine

LAYING: by slurry machine

CURING: no traffic until cured to a firm condition (ne pick-up by tyres) ROLLING: if required, by pneumatic tyred roller

NOTE:

The wet track abrasion test gives some guidance for iui tial emulsion cc n t.en+ I and application rate selection. However for all roads carrying substantial traffic it is conSidered necessary to observe the perfo=ance of trail sections under traffic before selecting a. job IT:.ix a.nd ~pplica.tion rCtte ".

~ -=~ <~=c ~

ROAD DES~GN MANUAL

MATERIALS AND PAVEMENT DESIGN FOR NEW ROADS

PART 111

Page 8.1

CHAPTER 8 ; THE STRUCTURAL DESIGN METHOD

8.1

DESIGN PRINCIPLES

Thicknesses and Materials Characteristics

No t'",vpmp.ni:'_ ':;i-rtl"t:nrf> "an bp. designed independently of the characteristics of the pavement materials. Indeed, every material has a different behaviour which is largely i11fluenced by the characteristics of the other pavement layers.

Design Period

As previously m,;,ntionQd, -I:h ... concQpt of design )?Qriod should .not b .. confused with that of pavement life.

Each of the pavement structures proposed has been_designed to carry a certain cumulative traffic. When the pavement has carried the expected traffic, it will need to be strengthened so that it can continue to carry traffic for a further period. The need for, and deaignof, atrengthening will be determined aa indicated in the

.Strengthening Manual. In this respect, it is necessary that paved roads be continuously surveyed, so that strengthening can be planned and constructed in time, that is to say before extensive deterioration has occurred.

It is assumed that, during the design period, only ordinary Uldintenan<..:e will be ,carried out; this will comprise shoulder and drainage system maintenance, erosion and vegetation control, localised patch.ing and periodic resealing. Thi s maintenance is, hO,\,iBver, essentia.l, and i-ts neglect will seriously affect the pavement performance.

8.L3

Stage Construction

The p'rob Lem, is whether it is best to initially design a strong pavement, wh ich will last throughout the design period without the ne8d for strG'ngthgning, or to d<asign a VlQakQr, and therefore more economic, pavement with the aim of strengthening it at some intermediate stage to enable it to last the remainder of the design per-iod.

Stage construction is no-t recommended for heavy traffic, e sp-eo La Ll.y overloaded axles (Classes Tl and T2), as the risks of premature deteri.oration arc unacceptable ror such important roads. Moreover, it is difficult and costly to handl,e traffic during strengthening operations.

Stage construction may be considered for medium and light traffic (Classes '1'3, T4 and T5). However I the pavements proposed for light traffic (Classes T4 and T5) are generally minimum or near-minimum pavements and it is therefore imprac {;;ic<>.ble to reduo;;:e them fUJ:;the:r.-.

Stage construction may be considered almost exclusively confined to pavements carrying medium traffic (Class T3), when "normal construction includes 50 rom of premix as surfacing (see Standard Pavement Structures).

-----------=--~-----------------=-=~~~=---------~~~~~----------------, ~~

ROAD DESIGN MANUAL l

__ P....;A_R~T_1_1;,.,;1'f""""".,;..M_A....;T_E;;;.R;..;.I.;.;.A.,;;.;l;...S;..,...".....;A..;..;N;,,;;;D_P_A_V_E_M_.'_E_N_T_D_E_S_'I_G_N_F=O_R_N_E_W-r-_R_O_A_D_S~_,"i

Page B.2

CHAPTER 8 : THE STRUCTURAL DESIGN ~m'I'HOD

If selected, stage const-ruC!t:ion >"(h0111 d th"",; o...-.n,gist of ~

1. Construction of the full road base thickness, and application of double surface dressing.

2. An overlay of 30 - 50 mm of premix after about; 5 years. Ii; is important that this overlay is allowed for in the oesign.

8.1.4

Safety Factor

It is apparent that the heavier t.he ·traffi.c, the more costly the pavement and hence the higher the safeg-uard against failure should be.

For exampl.e, under heavy trar:ric (Classes Tl. and T2.), it is um,ise to place sophisticated (and expensive) mat.ez i.e Ls , such as lean concrete or dense bitumen macadam, directly on heterogeneous and deformable natural materials.

8.1.5

Minimizing Base and SUrfacing Thicknesses

The thicknesses of road base and surfacing, "Ihich are made of the most expensive materials, should be kept constant and as low as possible, for each class of traffic.

~------------------~---- =~'----~----------------------------.

ROAD DESIGN MANUAL

MATERIALS AND PAVEMENT DESIGN FOR NEW ROADS

PART 111

Page S.3'

CHAPTER S ~ THE STRUCTURAL DESIGN METHOD

8.2

PRACTICAL AND EXPERIMENTAL CONSIDERATIONS

Use of Flexible Pavements

Flexible pavements are defined as pavements composed of a base made of fairly deformable material, such as natural gravel, graded crushed stone or cement or lime-improved material with a thin bituminous surfacing (surface dressing or not more than 50 nun of premix).

Experience has shown ·that. such flexible pavements are perfectly suitable for light and medium traffic {Classes T3t T4 and '1'5); i.e. up to 10 million stan<3.ard axles. provided that this does not include a substantial proportion of overloaded axles.

For heenry- t:t<tffi.G (Cla,sses T1. and T2), Lt. appe<;u.s neC1658dL'y to construct a semi·~rigid pavement with a base of bound material, such as dense bi tmnen macadam, lean concrete, cement stabilized gravel and/or a thick bituminol.1s sm::facing (high stability asphalt cO!l.crete).

Influence of Subg::.:~

Tt hal; bean co:nfirrll~ci that: the co:mpressi.vQ st.rain in the surface of tbe subgrade is the criterion that governs the tot.al cove r required. in the case of a flexible pavemenz , If the cou\pressi.ve strain is excessive, permanent deformation will occur in the subgrade and this will cause defo.:nnation at the pavement surface.

The r,elationshi.p bet ... een Llre ma.","imum peruti,ssible compr·cssi ,"no: strain and the cumulative number of st.andard axles is shown on Figure 8.2.1 (Page 8.7).

In the case of rigid and semi-rigid pavement$, the deciding criterion is generally not the compressive strain in tbe subgrade, but the horizontal tensile strain in the upper :laye:r:-s.

(ii) Temporary m~nimun1 bearing strength

It has been assumed that, in wet areas, the stibgrade may be soaked locally for very short periods.

It 1:181.6 been de·termined that, for ·the pavement structures proposed in this Manual, ONE application of the maximum. probable load will not cause any permanent deformation oven if the subgr.ade necomeB saturated. The ma~imum probable axle loads (at the probability of 95%.) taken into account are 130 rn for· Traffic Classes Tl and T2 andlDl) I<N for T3, T4 and T5.

(It may be noted that much higher actual axle loads have been measured on roads designed for these traffic classes)·~



Paqe8.4

CHAPTER B : THE STRUCTURAL DES IGN METHOD

This justifies the use of CBR'smeasured after 4 days soak. the more as the various clasSes of soil can be accurately differentiated. on the b,qJ.sis of their soaked CBR.

(i.ii) Subgrade modulus

The design system incorporates the dynamic elastic modulus of the subqrade as one of the principal dF>Sign parameters.

The modulus taken into account should correspond to·the moisture content which the subgrade soil is likely to have most of the time under the pavement, since ~~e effects of repeated loading are considered.

'l'he suhgrade moduli o£ the most oommon typcc of ooi10 at their equilibrium moisture contents have been determined

by direct measurements (plate bearing tests) and the values adopted are tabulated below:

Modulus
Soil Class
kg/cm2 kN/m2
51 150 15.103
82 500 so. 103
83 650 65.103
84 900 90.103
85 1,250 125.103
S6 2/500 250.103 B.2.3

~neBehav~oUr of Pavcmcnt Materials

(i) Unbound materials

The effective dynamic modulus of unbound base and subbase layers depends to some extent on their thickness and the modulus of their support. Nevertheless it can be assumed that, wiUli.n the \.iI.'lUd~ ranges 0:[ thl<::kIlI::!::>SI';!I'i~nd sulJgI:i:l.dl:' moduli, the variations in the pavement materials m04uli are limited. Therefore, an average modulus may be attributed to each type of material.

In addition, the resistance to attrition of each material has been evaluated and the consequent traffic limitations are given in the Pavement Materia~s Charts in Chapter 7.

{ii) Bound materialS

When bound materials are used, the deciding criterion is usually the horizontal tensile strain at the bottom of the base or premix surfacing. If this strain is excessive, the layer will crack ,

PART 111

MATEfUAlS AND PAVEMENT DESIGN

fOR

NEW ROADS

------~-------=-'ry-~--------------------=-----------

ROAD DESIGN MANUAL

Page 8.5

r

~

I I I

The fatigue characteristics af baund materials have been estimated on the basis of measured characteristics of the material and. from theoretical consi.derat.i.ona.

The permissible tensile strain has been plotted against traffic on Figures 8.2.2 (Page 8.8) and 8.2.3 (Page 8.9) for each type of bound mqte:i:ial considered.

This has permitted the determination of the minimum thickness required ror eaehtype of bound material under each traffic c Las s,

(iii) BituminOlls mi:><:es

Bituminous mixer aze visco-elastic materials and their dynamic moduli therefore depend on the rate of applicat.ion of the load and 01\ the temperature, the adopted values of which are as follows:-

(a) Loading time: 0.02 seconds

This loading time is representative of the range ot. loadi,ng times occurring in practice and equivalent to a vehicle speed of about 60 km/h.

(b) Weighted mean annual airctemperature using the She] De;:;;1.gn Method : ISoe.

'1'hi8 -temperature is that calculated for the Nairobi area.

In additi.onl for the purpose of structural design, bitruuinous surfacing is considered as a single layer, even if it is actually made up of several layers.

(iv) Pavement materials moduli.

The follm-Jing moduli have been attributed to the various pavement materials:-

Cal Subbase materials: .

~ Natural material - Cen,ent or lime lmproved material

- Graded crushed stone

2 x lOS kN/m2 (2,000 kg/cm2) 3 x l.OS kN/m2 (3,000 kg/cm2) 3 x 105 kN/m2 (3,000 kg/cm2)

(b\ Base ma-terials:

~ Natural gravel

~ cement or lime improved material "" Cement stabiliz;ed grav>?l

- Graded crushed stone

3 x 105 kN/m2 (3,000 kg/<::n/(2) 106 kN/m2 (lO.OOOkg/cm2)

PART 111 :

Page 8.6 !

Sand bitumen mix

- Densehitumen macadam

- Lean concrete

106 kN/m2 (10.000 kg/cm2)

5 x 106 kN/m2 (SO,OOO kg/cm2) 107 kN/m2 {lOO,OOO kg/cm2}

(c)

Surfacing materialst

Ashpalt Concrete

Type I (High StabU.:lty} 4::.1:106 k1>r/m2 {40. 000 kg/cm2}

- Asphalt Concrete Type II (Flexible), Sand Asphalt and Gap Graded Asphalt

I-l:. :i.es known that r:i.g:i.d and sem:L-r:ig:l.d pavement ~o.yer2:1 need adequate support. It is suggested from errpirical studies that, materials whose moduli are less than 10% of the succeeding rigid or semi rigid layer are unlikely to give that support. From consideration of the moduli tabulated earlier, suitable support layers are tahuL'ited below.

Rigid or Semi Rigid layer

Sui table Support I,ayers

Base quality lime or cement improved gravel

85 Subgrade

86 Subgrade Sub-base gravel

improved sub-base gravel

Cement Stabilized gravel

Base quality gr.aded cruShed stone Base quality iwproved gravel

D~nse Bituminous Macadam

Base gUClIJt:y tmpJ"o'rerl gr;,v",l

Base quality crushed stone (under bitumen rich Maca.dams of lower stability)

Lean Concrete

Base quality improved gravel

Aspha.1.t Type l

Dense Bit\;un.inous Maca.dam

Lean Concrete

cement stabilized gravel

Base quality graded crushed stone Base quaJ.ity improved gravel

Asphalt Type II

Sand Asphalt a Gap Graded Asphalt

Improved Gravel Chase aub+baae q\la~ity) Graded crushed st~,:n.c (" )

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B

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PART 111

ROAD DESIGN' MANUAL MATERIALS AND PAVEMENT DES'IGN

CHA.P'l'ER 8 : THE STRUCTURAL DESIGN METHOD

100
90
80
70
60
SO
40
30
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I
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.- 20
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til 5
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a:
w
a, 4

5 s 7 t 1 3 4 5 6 7' ~ 910 7 .

CUMULATIVE NUMBER OF eo k N STANDARD AXLE 5

FIGURE 8.2·1 PERMISSIBLE VERTICAL STRAIN IN THE SUB(;RADE

ROAD DESIGN MANUAL

PART .111 MATERIALS" AND PAVEMENT - DESIGN·· FOR NEW ROADS

Page 8 .8 CHAPTER 8. ; .THE STRUCTURAL DES IGN METHOD

10·0
9.'0
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CUMULATIVE NUMBER OF 80 lc:N STANDARD AXLES

2

FIGURE 8.2.2 PERMISSIBLE HORIZONTAL STRAIN IN B!TUMINOUS M!XES

3

ROAD DESIGN MANUAL

PART 1" MATERIALS AND PAVEMENT DESIGN FOR NEW ROADS

CHAPTER 8 : THE STRUCTURAL DESIGN METHOD

Page 8.9

1400

.;-1200 E

<,

z 1100 --{l\'.\",",;·'.H~ ::.c

\1')1000 VI

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CUMULATIVE NUMBER OF 80 kN STANDARD AXLES

2

4

FIGURE 8.1.3 PERMISSIBLE HORIZONTAL STRESS IN C£MENT TREAl'ED LAVERS

-------------------------------c,.-====-,,- ...li

~ PART 111 I Page 8.10

ROAD DESIGN MANUAL MATERIALS AND PAVEMENT DESIGN FOR

NEW ROADS

8.3

8.3.1

8.3.2

CHAPTER 8 : THE STRUCTURAL DESIGN METHOD

CALCULATION OF S'I'RESS f STRAIN f DEFLECTION AND LAYER THICKNESS

Calculation of Stress, Strain and Deflection

The pavement structure is considered as an elastic multi-layer system in which the materials are characterized by Young's modulus of elasticity and Poisson's ratio. The materials are assumed to be homogeneous and isotropic. Traffic is expressed in cumula.tive numbers or r epe t.Lc.Lous of e, standard load.

In the design procedure, the pavement is regarded as a threelayer system. if it comDrises a thin bituminous s~facing (surface dressing or thin premix) or a four-layer system, if it comprises a thick bituminous surfacing (more than 50 rom of premix) •

The lowest layer, taken as semi-infinite, represents the subgrade including improved subgrade, if any. The upper layers represent respectively the subbase, 'base and, if any. the thick bi.tumi.:ncu$ surfacing.

The calculation of stress, strain and deflection is based on the method of Jones*, with the following assumptions:

{a) The design load is assumed to be uniformly distributed over one ci.rcu~ar a~ea.

(b) The pavement materials have a Poisson's ratio equal to 0,25.

(c) All layers are considered to have complete friction between them.

The computer programme MILFEUIL of theC.E.B.T.P. has been used to calculate the horizontal tensile stress and strain at the bottom of each layer made cfbol1nd material, th~ vertical compressive stress and strain in the surface of each layer, including the sub grade , and the deflection at the surface of the pavement.

Design axle loads of both 130 and 80 kN have been considered.

Determination of Layer Thick~

In the case of flexible pavements, the total pavement thickness required has been determined bya comparison between the compressive strain applied to the subgrade and the maximum permissible strain which depends on the number of load applications.

In the Cdf;e of bound wdLeL'L<tls I the "thickness required 1:or each individual layer has been determined by a comparison between the tensile strain at the bottom of the layer and the maximum permissible strain, as deduced from the fatigue law of th", material.

* A.Jon,es; Tables of stresses in 3-1ayer elastic systems - Highway R9search Bulletin 342 (l962).

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In addition, it hag been checked that oompr~ssiVQ strain on the subgrade does not exceed the permissible value.

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8.4

CONSTRUCTION PRINCIPLES

8.4.1

Minimum Layer Thickness

For each material, there if:'! a minimum layer thickness below which proper laying and compaction are not possible~

For granular materials, if D is the maximum partiole size then the minimum. practical thickness is 2.S'D for surfacing and base and 2 D for subbase layers.

In addition, irrespectivo'of the material type, it is impracticable to lay subbase and bases to compacted thicknesses of less than

100 mm,

For the different types of material considered, the minimum practical thicknesses are as follows:

Layer

Material Type

Subbase

Natural gravel Clayey sand G.C.S. 0/40 G.C.S. 0/60

Base Natural gravel
Treated (clayey) sand
G.C.S. 0/30
G.C.S. 0/40
D.B.M. 0/30
D.B.M. 0/40 Minimum thickness (rom)

100 100 100 100

125 100 100 125 125' 150

Surfacing

Asphalt Concrete 0/20 Asphalt Concrete 0/10 S"na Asphalt,

50 25 - 30 25 - 30

8.4.2

Minimum_?ignificant Thickness Increments

Considering the usual level and thickness tolerances within which the different layers have to be constructed, it is clear that thickness variations of less than ?"i mm al'"e meaningless.

Consequently, the layer thicknesses of the structures proposed vary by minimum increments of 25 mm ,

8.4.3

Compliance With The Specifications

All thQ materials are assumed to oomply with the requirements given in Chapter 7 and all the layers to be constructed in accordance with current specifications.

ROAD DESIGN MANUAL

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PART 111

, ~' .; -.~, ':

CHAPTER 9:STANDARD PAVEMENT STRUCTURES f~ge 9.1

."- ~ "-

'rUE STANDARD PAVEMENT STRUCTURES

Type of Pavement

(i) The selection of the possible types of pavement ,has been '. based on the ,following principles:

- It is common sense not to place a base material on a more sophisticated subbase material.

- It is unsafe to place expensive bound base materials on natural materials, which are often deformable and heterogeneous, or on materials whose moduli are less than one tenth of the modulus of the base.

(ii) Under gradea. crushed stone, cement stabilized gravel ana. lean concrete, it may be technically and economically advantageous ,to use cement or lime improved material of base quality as subbase. Indeed, the additional cost is only that of a little more stabilizer ~nd substantial savings on the thicknesses of both base and subbase may be obtained.

(iii) Sand bitumen mix should be used oRly where no granular material can be found. It will therefore be laid only on a sandy subbase.

(iv) The use of a bituminous binder in the base and cement or ~ime in the subbase hd.s been avoided d.S much a.s poss.ible, as this complicates the supply problems and generally proves uneconomical.

(v) Under heavy traffic (Classes Tl and T2), natural gravels and cement (or lime) improved materials cannot be used as base materials as their strength and resistance to

d:Lt,ci t.Lon are1.nsuffic1ent.

The USe of graded crushed stone as base for traffi~ Class T3 including overloaded axles and class T2 is !':t.ill questionable, even under fairly thick surfacing. Its use for Class Tl traffic is normally exclUded due'to its excessive deformability, which results in oVerstressing of the surtac~ng, and to its insuffiCient resistance to attrition. However, these difficulties may be overcome by placing graded crushed stone on a subbase made of cement (or ~im~) improved m.at""rotal of baSQ qua~ity. (Modulus: at least 106 kN/m2). Indeed, such high quality subbase permits the through compaction of the base and significantly reduces the deflection and attrition.

Sand bitumen mixes are not suitable for traffic Class Tl. The suitability of hot-mixed sand~mix using straight run bitumen for traffic Class T2 has still to be ascertained.

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9.1.2

9.1.3

(vi) The material-s suitable for base under heavy trafi'i('! are thent

- Cement stabilized gravel (Moduius: 4 x 106 kN/m~)

- Dense bitumen macadam (Modulus: 5 x 106 kN/m2)

- Lean concrete {Modulus: 107 kN/m2}

The use of cement stabilized gravel is not justified under light traffic (Classes T4 and T5).

The use of expensive materials such as dense bitumen macadam or lean concr~te is economically unjustified under medium and light traffic (Classes T3, T4 and TS).

(vii) The use of an asphalt concrete as surfacing is necessary for heavy traffic (Classes Tl and T2) to adequately protect road bases against attrition and excessive stresses.

(viii) The above considerations have resulted in the selection of 14 different types of pavement structure, the list of which 1s given in ~able 9.1.1 (page 9.7), together with the traffic limitations.

The Standard Pavement Structures

For each of the 14 types of pavement considered, the thicknesses required have been calculated, for each class of soil and each class of traffic, by the structural method described I,n Chapter 8.

The design of each type of pavement is presented in one chart, which includes'

- the Standard Pavement Structure for each class of soil and each class of traffic

- some comments on the peculiarities, advantages and disadvantages of this type of pavement

- the possible alternatives (including stage construction)

~ the pavement materials required.

Use of other Types of Pavement

The 14 types of pavement shown in this Manual are considered to cover virtually all the bitumen road designs required in Kenya. Nevertheless, the construction of other types of pavement is not; precluded. Indeed, the use of other kinds of pavement materials may be warranted by local circumstances or economic considerations.

In such special cases, the design engineer should tollow the design and construction principles set out in this Manual and liase Closely with the Materials Branch of the Ministry of Transport. ana Commnn ieat.ions.

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Page 9.3

CHAPTER 9 ; STANDARD PAVEMENT STRUCTURES

9.2

METHOD OF USE

First step: Determining the subgrade strength class

The study of the alignment soils will enable homogeneous sections to be defined in terms of bearing strength.

For each homogeneous section, the strength class of subgrade shall be determined as indicated in Table 6.1.1 (Page 6.1).

If an improved subgrade is to be placed, the strength class of subgrade shall be determined as shown in Table 6.3.1 (Page 6.8).

Second step: Determining the traffic class

The study of the initial traffic flows and axle load distr:i.butions, t.he choice of the design period .And the estimation of the traffic growth rate will permit the calculation of the cumulative number of standard axles to be carried by the road, taking into account overloaded axles and the ·possiblefuture e·ffort of axle load legislation.

The traffic class shall then be determined as indicated in Table 2.~.L (page 2.9). For roads carrying overloaded axles, at this stage two traffic classes may be determined. One for all traffic within the legal limits, the other takingintv account the over load.;:,d ax:lr;;;s.

Third step: Inventory and study of the available road-making materials and· selecting the possible type(s) of pavement

The knowledge of the types and characteristics of the available pavement materials, as well as of the climate, will allow .selection of one or morecypes o£ pa.vement.

Fourth step: Economic and technical comparison of the possible Eavement structures. Final choice of one Standard Pavement Structure

The knowledge of the subgrade strength class arid of the traffic class will allow the selection or the appropriate standard Pavement Structure, for each pavement type.

The cost of each possible Standard Pavement Structure shall then be estimated. The specific technical advantages.and disadvantages of each type of pavement shall also be considered.

This economic and technical comparison will finally allow the design engineer to choose the most suitable Standard Pavement Structures for (a) legally loaded traffic, or (b) existing traffic for roads with overloaded axles.

Fifth step: Finalizing the pavement design and preparation of Special____§p_e~_ifications

For the final refinements to the pavement design, consideration shall be given t,o local conditions (e.g. climate, drainage,

pa v em"='[lt. m.ater: .Lals, ma.Lrrt.e.ne no e L-equirements, road safety,

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9 • 3 EXAMPLES OF P.AVl<:MF:N'r nES IGN

9.3.1 Example 1

Consider a pavement to be designed for the following conditions:. - Climate: Equatorial with two rainy seasons. The mean annual rainfall·is 1,500 mro.

- Subgrade~ Thesubgrade soil is a red coffee soil. Its CBR at 100% MDD (standard Compaction) and after 4 days soak varies between 7 and 12.

No soil of higher bearing strength can be found near the alignment and therefore no improved subgrade can be placed.

The subgrade· strength class is then S3 (see Table 6.1.1).

- Traffic: Traffic count and axle load surveys have shown that the initial daily number·of commercial vehicles and equivalence factors will be as follows:

Buses: 30

Medium Goods: 160 Heavy Goods: 15

Equivalence factor ! 1 Equivalence factor : 1 Equivalence factor : 4

The initial daily number of standard axles is then 250. The economic study of the project has led the design engineer to choose a design period of 15 years and to forecast a constant annual growth rate of 7.5%. The corresponding cumulatLve number of standard axles is 2.4 million.

Therefore, the traffic c~aoo ic T4 (aco TQble 2.5.1).

- Road-making materials

Field investigations and laboratory tests have shown that lateritic gravel occurs in sufficient quantity near the alignment which, because of its plasticity and insufficient strength/ must· 1:>e treated with 4", r;.;emt::nL 0.1: 2% lime to meet the requirements for base and subbase respectively. A stone source suitable for both graded crushed stone and surface dressing chippings exists close to the alignment.

Thus Pavement Types .. .3, '7 ·and 9 may be considered.

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page 9.:5

I

CHAPTER 9 : STANDARD PAVEMENT STRUCTURES

- Economic Comparison

Cost estimates show that Pavement Type 3 is the. .. most economic.

Thus the ~tandard. zavemerrc Structure chosen is as fOllows:

- Surfacing: double surface dressing (14 + 6 rom chippings - cationic emulsion).

- Base:

150 rom lateritic gravel improved with· 4% cement 175 rom lateritic gravel improved with 2% lime

- Subbase:

9.3.2

Example 2

Consider a pavement to be designed for the following conditions,

- Climate: Dry sub-humid with two rainy seasons. The mean annual rainfall is 700 mm,

- Subgrade: The alignment soils consist of black cotton soils (average thickness 1m) overlying decomposed phonolite. The CBR of the black cotton soils vary between 2 and 5 (Class Sl) and that of decomposed phonolite between lOand 20 (Class $4).

It is in all respects advantageous to place an improved subgrade. It will consist of 325 rom of decomposed phonolite. The final class of subgrade bearing strength will then be 83 (see Table 6.3.1).

- Traffic: Traffic count and axle load surveys have shown

that the initial daily number of commercial vehicles and equivalence factor.s will be as follows:

Buses: 180 Equivalence factor : 1
Medium Goods: 360 Equivalence factor 1 2
Heavy Goods: 320 Equivalence factor : 10
The initial daily number of standard axles is then 4,:100. Taking into aCCOl..Ult c. design per·iod of 15 years end a con~tant annual growth rate of 5% t the cumulative number of standard axles to be carried by the road is 32 million.

The traffic class is therefore TL (Table 2.5.1).

- Roadmaking materials

Field investigations and laboratory tests have shown that whilst no gravel suitable for base or subbase is available, stone suitable for asphalt concrete, dense bitumen macadam and lean concrete is abundant. This stone may also be used as graded crushed stone for Subbase.

Pavement Types 12 and 15 may be considered •.

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- Economic comparison

cost estimates show that Pavement Type 15 is marginally the cheaper of,the twO.

ThUs the Standard Pavement Str\lctUIe chosen is as follows:-

- Surfacing! 75·= Asphalt Concrete Type :r

-BaSe:

200m Lean Concrete

225 mmGraded Crushed Stone 0/40 IllI1l Class A on an improved sul:lgrade formed of 325 mm decomposed phonolite.

- Subbase:

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