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OSCILLATORS
Oscillator basics
Oscillator topologies
Phase noise issues
Oscillator implementations and design
1
Oscillator types:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Crystal oscillators
Active-RC and Gm-C oscillators
Ring oscillators
LC timed oscillators
Relaxation oscillators.
etc.
OSCILLATOR BASICS
Most RF oscillators can be viewed as + ve feedback system.
vi
+
+
A(s)
vo
(s)
A( s )
vi ( s )
1 A( s ) ( s )
The Barkhausen Criterion states that sustained oscillation can be achieved.
vo ( s ) =
if
and
A(so ) (so ) = 1
A(so ) (so ) = 0o
Resonator
Rp
The resonator (LC tank for example) has parasitic resistances (RP) which prevents the
resonator from oscillating because the stored energy will leak through the resistance. To
compensate for this loss a positive feedback negative parallel resistances (-Rp) will be
added to the resonator so that the energy loss in Rp is replenished by the negative
resistance. The negative resistances implementation is typically an active network.
1
2 LC
Ideal Oscillator:
iL
o =
iC
1
LC
Once the tank is excited (by a current pulse for example) a certain amount of energy
will be conserved. This energy will alternate between magnetic and electric forms.
In the time domain:
v=L
diL
dt
but i L = ic
and ic = C
dv
dt
d v2
v = LC 2
dt
d v2
or 2 + o2v = 0
dt
where o =
1
LC
v=0
o
2
dt
v(t ) = V1 e j
o t
+ V2 e j
o t
I c ( s ) = iL ( s )
I c = sC v( s )
sLo2iL (o)
V (s) = 2
s + o2
Both poles are at jo as expected !!
7
Real Oscillator:
C
L
RL
RC
o 1
o
Characteristic equation
s 2 LC RC + s(L + RL RC C )
+ RL
o
o 1
or
o2 =
s2 + s
1
4Q 2
L + RL RC C
RL
+
LCRC
LCRC
RL
LC RC
1
4Q 2
L + RL RC C
2 LCRC
8
G=
1
QL2 RL // Qc2 Rc
Slope = G
1
oCRC
v
igm + ir
steeper
slope = - a + G
flatter
v
q
d
d 2v
LC 2 + L Gv + igm + v = 0
dt
dt
v =0
= a
d 2v
+ L(G a ) + v = 0
LC
dt
In the frequency domain, the characteristic equation at the equilibrium point is given by:
LCs 2 + L(G a )s + 1 = 0
Solving for the poles of the system:
1 G a
G a
s1, 2 =
j
C
LC
C
2
2
= j
v(t ) = A et cos t
Oscillation
envelope
Oscillation
11
v(t ) = A et cos t
a G
where =
2C
From the above equ., the following observations can be made:
1
1. The oscillator frequency is determined by
LC
>o
2.
if
3.
if < o
(G < a )
(G > a )
growing oscillation.
Decaying oscillation
RHP
LHP
t
t
G<a
G>a
12
In practical oscillators, the slope of the negative resistance or nonlinear element (a) is made
greater than G (a 3G ) . This results in growing oscillations as long as the swing is limited
between points p and q.
If the oscillation swing grows beyond p or q, the
slope (a-G) or become negative and the poles
(a G )
In the 1920s , Van der Pol proposed to model the total I-V Chc (igm + ir ) vs v
is the simplest possible manner. He assumed a cubic approximation.
i (v ) = a1v + b1v3
i (v )
where
a1 = a G
b1 =
vx
vx
a G
vx2
Van der Pols analysis leads to the following time domain expression for the
Oscillation voltage.
1
2
(t t o )
1 + e LC cos t +
LC
L
where = a1
C
is introduced to provide the proper phase in relation to the constant to
4 a1
v(t ) =
3 b1
14
vmax =
4 a1
= 1.15 vx
3 b1
15
ii
v = (i f + ii )Z = (ii + Gmv )Z
if+ii
v
L
-Gm+-
i f = Gmv
v (1 Gm Z ) = ii Z
v = ii
Z
1 Gm Z
when Z =
1
G + sC +
1
sL
sc
G
s 2 + s + o2
C
sc
sL
=
v = ii 2
i
i 2
s + s (G Gm ) / c + o2
s LC + sL(G Gm ) + 1
The characteristic :
=
s 2 LC + L(G Gm )s + 1 = 0
g mv
Gm
-
1
gm
gmv
negative resistance
Negative Resistance Realization:
v
i = g m (v )
Gm =
= gm
, <1
v(1 )
1
17
Tvpairs=3
Periodic:FALSE
Delay:0
V2
G0
1
LC
VO
C15
C:1e-12
R22
R=10000
oL12
I:1e-9
ggain=-100.0u
gm =
1
R
v
gnd
18
19
20
21
22
VCC
LC
Tank
v
Z2
Impedance
Transformer
Z1
n :1
COLPITTS OSC.
VCC
Z 2 = n 2 Z1
C1
C2
Z 2 = (1 + C1 C2 )2 Z1
HARTLEY OSC.
VCC
L1
L2
Z 2 = (1 + L2 L1 )2 Z L
23
Note that a resonance, the phase shift of the loop is supposed to be zero (according to
The Barkhausan Criterion). That is why the output signal is fed back to the emitter. The
Zero-phase condition may be satisfied if the output signal is inverted and then fed back to
the base as shown below:
VCC
LC
Load
v
Q2
inverter
Q1
Q2
v
Q1
24
It is interesting to note that the cross-coupled pair (BJT an MOS) presents a negative
resistance to the tank. That is why it can be classified as a negative resistance oscillator.
Since it is a fully differential circuit we may model the cross-coupled pair as follows:
a
v
g mv
v
g mv
R=
v ( v )
2
=
g mv
gm
25
1 BJT Realization:
VCC
L
Cvp
Cvp
C
VBB
The capacitor divider is used to reduce the voltage swing at the base compared to
that at the collector to avoid saturating the BJTs.
vbase = vcollector
Cvp
C + C
C > Cvp
3 CMOS Realization:
p2
P1
v1
v2
N1
N2
Io
27
In this case the current of the tail current sources is fully switched from one side of the
pair to the other at a frequency = 1 Assuming that the BJT or MOS switches
o
LC
are fast enough, the current waveform in each branch is a square wave with 50% duty
cycle. Assuming that the tail current is Io , the current wave form in one side of the
pair has the following shape.
Io
0
2T
3T
i( f ) = I o 1 + sin ot +
sin 3ot + L
2
3
NOTE: If the current wave form deviate from a square wave which is typically the
4
case the factor will change to some other number depending on the
on the current waveform shape!!
28
o =
2C
2C
v1
v1
2C
L2
QL =
o L
RL
v1 (t ) = = I o sin ot Z
o
2
v12 p = v1 p v2 p = I o R
v2
Io
QL2 RL 2 = R 2
Io
1
LC
= o
R
I R
sin ot = o sin ot
2
R
R
R = Q 2L L // QC2 C
2
2
2
Io
29
o =
1
= 12.56 GHz
LC
QL = 50
QL2 = 628.3
QC = 25
QCL = 314.2
R
= 209C
2
30
31
Now consider the CMOS oscillator with a similar tank as that used for the NMOS
Oscillator (pp 24).
In one half cycle, the devices P1 and N2 are on while N1 and P2 are off, so the
oscillator can be modeled as follows:
L
Io
v1
v1
Io
R
Io
On the second half cycle, the current through R is still Io but flows in the opposite
direction. So the current waveform (assuming that the PMOS and NMOS devices
switch enough) looks as follows:
+Io
-Io
32
This is different from the wave form previously shown, because it is bipolar. The
Fourier expansion for the CMOS oscillator is:
4
4
4
i (t ) = I o sin ot +
sin 3ot +
sin 5ot L
3
5
v12 p =
4Io
R sin ot
Io R
Note that swing of the CMOS oscillator is double that of the NMOS (or PMOS)
oscillator as seen before.
33
In the oscillators cases we considered so far we have assumed that the swing is
small enough so that the swing is determined by the current and the tank parallel
resistance. If this is the case, we consider the oscillator to be current limited. If
The swing grows too much, the swing will be limited by the supply voltage and in
the oscillator is known to be voltage limited.
2.
In current limited cases, the swing increases by increasing the current (tail current)
or by using high Q tank (which increases the resistance.).
3.
The switching speed of the core devices will determine the current waveform shape
which in turn determines magnitude of I at o (fundamental component).
34
The frequency tuning is done by changing the LC tank capacitance value. This is more
practical than varying the inductance. Different types of variations have been used to
obtain a voltage controlled capacitance. Among them are pm junction varactors and
MOS varactors and MOS varactors.
In a pn junction varactor the oscillator output node is connected to either the p or n side
and the controlling voltage is applied to the opposite terminal
Vosc.
or
VC
VC
Vosc.
35
n+
Conventional
MOS
p-well
(VC)
Vosc
VW
p+
p-well
MOS Cap
For high
frequency
VW
36
O
Cox
S
Qs
V Qm & Qs
C = COX
Qm
Cox Cdep
V Qdep
Qm
C ox + Cdep
Cdep =
Qdep
dQdep
dV
Cox
Cdep
37
VGW > VT
At low frequency:
Since the frequency is low, the minority
charges have time to be pulled from the
bulk to the surface to make up the inv.
layer and the depletion layer does not
change any more so
dQ
C = inv = Cox
dV
Qm
V Qinv Qdep = 0
Qdep
Qinv
At high frequency:
There is no time to attract minority changes
to the surface. So the change comes form
the dep layer
C=
CoxCdep
Cox + Cdep
38
f osc = f o + KVCOVC
Control
Free running
frequency
VCO gain
(Hz/V)
fosc
fo
VC
39
Qn
Ideal Oscillator
Real Oscillator
The phase noise is measured by dividing the power in 1Hz bandwidth at an offset f
by the power of the carrier (fc).
40
Interfer
Interfer
IF
RF
Signal
Overlap of the
interference with
the wanted signal
after down conversion
LO
c
LO
~ Oscillator
41
If the phase noise of the LO at the transmitters side is large, the skirt
of the RF transmitted signal overlaps nearby wanted signals and hence
reduces the SNR.
Wanted
signal
TX
RX
TX
TX
42
Pint
S( f )
Interference
with skirt
due to phase
noise
Wanted
signal
f1
f2
BWch
n =
Pint
Pint
BWch Pint BWch P sig Pint
43
LEESONS MODEL
Based on a linear time in variant approach for timed LC tank oscillators, one can
derive an expression for the phase noise.
In(w)
Effective noise source
(white noise)
GL
-Gactive
o
It can be shown that impedance seen by the effective noise source at o + o
(where << o is given by:
Z (o + o ) = j
1 o
GL 2QL
The phase noise (for the case of white noise) can, hence be given by:
L( BW ) = 10 log
2
vnoise
2
vsig
1
Z (o + BW )2 in2
= 10 log 2
1 2
Vsig
2
1 2
in 1
o
2
= 10 log
1 GL2 2QL
Vsig
2
in2 can be written as 4 F KT GL this expression for the effective noise curent density is
not physical. (Just a model!) F is difficult to derive and is just a fitting parameter!
2
2 FKT
L( ) = 10 log
Psig 2QL
1
= ioVsig GL
2
The rms power dissipated in GL.
Ps =
45
Even though the LTI model is not accurate, it yields important facts for oscillator design:
1. L( )
1
QL2
increase QL
2. L( )
1
Ps
3. L( )
Leesons model is not accurate and fails top account for the large signal
Behavior of the oscillator. Yet it gives insight for oscillator design.
46