Thermal comfort and the Mahoney tables in Shanghai building bioclimatic design

Bo Xia

Thermal comfort and the Mahoney tables in Shanghai building

bioclimatic design
1

Bo Xia
College of Architecture, ChangAn University, China, kurtxia@gmail.com

Abstract
In order to research the Shanghai building bioclimatic design strategy, the paper studies the
Shanghai building with the method of Mahoney tables that are a set of reference tables used in
architecture as a guide to climate-appropriate design combined with Shanghai meteorological data,
and puts forward a series of building bioclimatic design strategies for Shanghai climate characteristics.
Finally, according to the climatic characteristics of Shanghai and the residents living characteristics,
the limitations of strategies proposed by the Mahoney tables were analyzed.

Keywords: Mahoney Tables; Shanghai; Bioclimatic Design

1. Introduction
The Department of Development and Tropical Studies of the Architectural Association in London
developed a methodology for building design in accordance to climate [1]. The proposed methodology
is based on three stages of design, the sketch design stage, the plan development stage and the element
design stage [2]. For the purpose of systematic analysis during the three stages, they introduced the
Mahoney Tables, which research on the thermal comfort using the standard effective temperature
(SET). The tables are used to analyze the climate characteristics, from which design indicators are
obtained. From these indicators a preliminary picture of the layout, orientation, shape and structure of
the climatic responsive design can be obtained.
Shanghai sits on the Yangtze River Delta on China's eastern coast. The municipality as a whole
consists of a peninsula between the Yangtze and Hangzhou Bay, mainland China's second-largest
island Chongming, and a number of smaller islands. It is bordered on the north and west by Jiangsu
Province, on the south by Zhejiang Province, and on the east by the East China Sea. The city proper is
bisected by the Huangpu River, a tributary of the Yangtze(shown in Fig.1). The vast majority of
Shanghai's 6,340.5 km2 land area is flat, apart from a few hills in the southwest corner, with an average
elevation of 4 m. The city has many rivers, canals, streams and lakes and is known for its rich water
resources as part of the Taihu drainage area.

Fig. 1 Geography of Shanghai

Advances in information Sciences and Service Sciences(AISS)

Volume5, Number9, May 2013
doi:10.4156/AISS.vol5.issue9.4

27

Thermal comfort and the Mahoney tables in Shanghai building bioclimatic design
Bo Xia

In order to research the relationship between the Shanghai climate and building energy efficiency
design and determine the most appropriate building energy efficiency design strategies in Shanghai, the
paper adopts the Mahoney tables to Shanghai analyzing the design strategies according to the Shanghai
meteorological data [3] [4].

2 Climatic data
2.1 Shanghai's Climate Overview
Shanghai has a humid subtropical climate and experiences four distinct seasons. Winters are chilly
and damp, and cold northwesterly winds from Siberia can cause nighttime temperatures to drop below
freezing, although most years there are only one or two days of snowfall. Summers are hot and humid,
with an average of 8.7 days exceeding 35 C annually; occasional downpours or freak thunderstorms
can be expected. The city is also susceptible to typhoons in summer and the beginning of autumn. The
city averages 4.2 C in the coldest month January and 27.9 C in the hottest month July, for an annual
mean of 16.1 C (shown in Fig.2). Shanghai experiences on average 1,878 hours of sunshine and 132
rain days per year. The seasonal distribution of rainfall is more uniform in Shanghai and it accounts for
about 40.1% in summer, 13.0% in winter, and about 70% of the rainfall is concentrated in the AprilSeptember. The rain intensity is more moderate rain and drizzle.

Fig.2 Shanghai Day dry bulb temperature statistics

2.2 Shanghai's Climate data

The Mahoney tables analyze the meteorological parameters including the monthly mean minimum
temperature, monthly mean maximum temperature, monthly mean range, relative humidity and
precipitation. Using the meteorological data provided by the Shanghai Municipal Meteorological
Observatory, the paper completed the analysis of the Shanghai outdoor climatic conditions described in
Table 1-2.
Table 1. Mean relative humidity and Humidity group
Mean relative humidity
Humidity group
Below 30%
30-50%
50-70%
Above 70%

1
2
3
4

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Thermal comfort and the Mahoney tables in Shanghai building bioclimatic design
Bo Xia

Monthly
mean
max. ()
Monthly
mean
min. ()
Monthly
mean
range
()
RH
HG
Rainfall
(mm)

Jan
.

Feb
.

Ma
r.

Table 2. Shanghai climatic data

Apr Ma Jun
Au
Sep
Jul.
.
y
.
g.
.

7.7

9.7

13.7

19.0

24.5

27.4

1.6

3.7

6.6

12

17.4

6.1

7.1

76
4

71
4

78
4

75

44

118

30.7

Oct
.

Nov
.

Dec
.

29.8

27.2

22.4

17.0

11.0

21.7

25.3

24.6

21.9

15.9

10.5

4.3

7.1

5.7

5.4

5.2

5.3

6.5

6.5

6.7

73
4

76
4

82
4

81
4

82
4

76
4

73
4

67
3

66
3

63

85

212

142

230

76

64

43

34

Tota
l

1186

* Highest monthly mean; Lowest monthly mean; AMR=Annual mean range=Highest - Lowest=16.9;
AMT=Annual mean temperature= (Highest + Lowest)/2=29.1; RH: relative humidity; HG: humidity
group

3 The Comfort limits

The Mahoney tables take into account the climatic adaptability of people in different climatic
zones in determining the thermal comfort limits, and divide the comfort zone into three temperature
ranges in accordance with the level of the annual mean temperature (AMT): 20, 15 ~ 20 and
<15. Furthermore the Mahoney tables take into account people difference dressing habits and
activities in the day and night, and limit difference thermal comfort range on the day and night the two
time periods, which is shown in Table 3.
Table3. Comfort limits
AMT over 20

AMT 15-20

AMT under 15

Day

Night

Day

Night

Day

Night

26-34

27-34

23-32

14-23

21-30

12-21

30-50%

25-31

17-24

22-30

14-22

20-27

12-20

50-70%

23-29

17-23

21-28

14-21

19-26

12-19

>70%

22-27

17-21

20-25

14-20

18-24

12-18

Average RH

HG

0-30%

RH: relative humidity; HG: humidity group; AMT: annual mean temperature.

4 The analysis of each month comfort limit

Similarly the monthly mean maxima and minima of the site in question are compared to the day
and night comfort limits for each individual month, according to the annual mean ranges given in Table
3 respectively (i.e., maxima with the day comfort limit and minima with the night comfort limits). The
classification is established as follows:
Above comfort limit H
Within comfort limit N
Below comfort limit C
The humidity and comfort classifications are compared for each month to establish humidity and
arid indicators.

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Thermal comfort and the Mahoney tables in Shanghai building bioclimatic design
Bo Xia

4.1 Humidity indicators

H1 Indicates that air movement is essential. It applies when high temperature (day thermal stress=H) is
combined with high humidity (HG=4) or when the high temperature (day thermal stress=H) is
combined with moderate humidity (HG=2 or 3) and a small diurnal range (10).
H2 Indicates that air movement is desirable. It applies when temperature within the comfort limit (day
thermal stress=N) are combined with high humidity (HG=4).
H3 indicates that precautions against rain penetration are needed. Problems may arise with even low
precipitation, but will be inevitable when rainfall exceeds 200mm per month.

4.2 Arid indicators

A1 Need for thermal storage. This applies when a large diurnal range (10 or more) coincides with
moderate or low humidity (HG=1,2or3).
A2 Indicates the desirability of outdoor sleeping space. It is needed when the night temperature is high
(night thermal stress=H) and the humidity is low (HG=1 or2). It may be needed also when nights
are comfortable outdoors but hot indoors as a result of heavy thermal storage (day=H, night=N,
HG=1or2) and when the diurnal range is above 10.
A3 Indicates winter or cold-season problem. These occur when day thermal stress=C.
The climatic data of Shanghai is tabulated in Mahoneys Tables4-5.

Jan.
Diurnal mean
range ()
HG
Monthly
mean
max.
()
Day comfort
Max. ()
Day comfort
min. ()
Monthly
mean
min.
()
Night comfort
Max. ()
Night comfort
min. ()
Thermal
stress: Day
Thermal
stress: Night

Table 4. Diagnosis of Shanghai climatic data

Mar Apr Ma
Aug
Feb.
Jun. Jul.
Sep.
.
.
y
.

Oct.

Nov
.

Dec.

6.1

7.1

7.1

5.7

5.4

5.2

5.3

6.5

6.5

6.7

7.7

9.7

13.7

19.0

24.5

27.4

30.7

29.8

27.2

22.4

17.0

11.0

25

25

25

25

25

25

25

25

25

25

28

28

20

20

20

20

20

20

20

20

20

20

21

21

1.6

3.7

6.6

12

17.4

21.7

25.3

24.6

21.9

15.9

10.5

4.3

20

20

20

20

20

20

20

20

20

20

21

21

14

14

14

14

14

14

14

14

14

14

14

14

HG: humidity group; H: above comfort limit; N: within comfort limit; C: below comfort limit.

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Thermal comfort and the Mahoney tables in Shanghai building bioclimatic design
Bo Xia

Jan
.

Feb
.

Ma
r.

Ap
r.

Table 5. Indicators
Ma Jun
Au
Jul.
y
.
g.

Sep
t.

Oct
.

No
v.

Dec
.

Tot
al

Humid
H1
Air
movement
H2
Air
movement
H3
Rain
protection
Arid
A1
Thermal
storage
A2
Outdoor
sleeping
A3 Coldseason

4
X

5 Application of Mahoney tables in Shanghai

The Mahoney tables established a relationship between climate indicators and building design. The
relation between the climatic data of Shanghai and recommendations design strategies is tabulated in
Mahoneys Tables 6. And the recommendations of the climatic analysis for Shanghai building design
are summarized in Table7.

Indicator total from Table(5)

Humid
Arid
H1
4

H2
2

H3
2

A1
0

Table 6. Design recommendations

Recommendations
A2
0

A3
6
Layout

0-10
5-12
0-4

11,12
11,12
2-10
0,1

Walls
12

Light walls; short time lag

13

Heavy external and internal walls

2-12
0,1
0,1

11,12

0,1

Any other conditions

0-2
3-12

Building oriented on east to west axis to

reduce exposure to sun
Compact courtyard planning

0-5
6-12

1,2

2
Spacing
3
Open spacing for breeze penetration
4
As3, but protect from cold/hot wind
5
Compact planning
Air movement
Rooms single banked. Permanent
6
provision for air movement
Double banked rooms with temporary
7
provision for air movement[
8
No air movement required
Openings
Large openings, 40-80% of N and S
9
walls
10
Very small openings,10-20%
11
Medium openings,20-40%

3-12

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Thermal comfort and the Mahoney tables in Shanghai building bioclimatic design
Bo Xia

0-5
6-12
2-12
3-12

Roofs
14
Light insulated roofs
15
Heavy roofs; over 8 hours time lag
Outdoor sleeping
16
Space for outdoor sleeping required
Rain protection
17
Protection from heavy rain needed

( in the table is appropriate building design strategies for Shanghai)

Table 7. Recommendations for building design in Shanghai
Element
Layout
Spacing
Air movement
Openings
Walls and doors
Roofs

Recommendations
Building oriented on east to west axis to reduce
exposure to sun
Open spacing for breeze penetration, but protect
from cold/hot wind
Rooms single banked.
Permanent provision for air movement
Medium openings,20-40%
Light walls; short time lag
Light insulated roofs

6 Conclusions
1. Through the above analysis, it can be found that the Shanghai natural environment is not very
ideal. The Shanghai climatic (including day and night) within comfort limit is only about
16.7% (shown in Table 3), that is Shanghai throughout the year only 16.7% of the time when
building do not need energy to heating or cooling, and the natural environment can meet the
comfortable building internal environment. The other time of the Shanghai climatic is out of
comfort limit and can't meet the building interior environment comfortable requirement.
Building requires either mechanical air conditioning or other passive cooling or heating
strategy to meet the building interior environment comfortable. The ratio of above comfort
limit is 33.3%, and both day and night are above comfort limit from June to September; the
ratio of below comfort limit is 50% there are below comfort limit conditions from November
to April (shown in Fig.3).

Fig.3 The condition of Shanghai year-round comfort limit

2. Through the above analysis, the Shanghai climatic require building not only has a certain
passive cooling strategy [5], such as rooms single banked, light walls and so on; also require

32

Thermal comfort and the Mahoney tables in Shanghai building bioclimatic design
Bo Xia

passive heating strategy [6] [7], such as open spacing but protect from cold/hot wind design
strategy[8] indicated by Mahoney Tables (shown in table6).
3. However, the Mahoney tables have some limitations. The Mahoney tables is mainly aimed at
tropical climate, so the method used to evaluate the Shanghai climate can more truly reflect
the Shanghai summer environmental conditions. But Shanghai climate is hot in summer and
cold in winter [9], and Shanghai residents live for so long time in such climate that they not
only have a certain degree of adaptation and tolerance of summer heat [10], but also have a
greater tolerance in the winter cold environment than people living in the tropics. Therefore
there may be some errors for the evaluation of the Shanghai winter environment that the
actual below comfort limit situation should be less than 50% [11]. Shanghai residents have a
better tolerance to cold environment, but the essence of building is to offer people a
comfortable indoor environment, so it is also important to pay attention to the passive heating
strategy used in Shanghai building energy efficiency design [12].

7. Acknowledgments
This work was financially supported by the Special Fund for Basic Scientific Research of Central
Colleges, Changan University (CHD2012JC081) and the Natural Science Foundation of China
(51178050).

8. References
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[3] D.A.Mcintyre, Indoor Climate, Applied Science, USA, 1980
[4] T. A. Markus, Edwin N. Morris, Building, Climate and Energy, Pitman Publishing Ltd,USA,
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[5] Lv Aimin, Climate-Responsive Building, Tongji University Publications Limited, China, 2011.
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