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Francis Buttle, (1996),"SERVQUAL: review, critique, research agenda", European Journal of Marketing, Vol. 30 Iss 1 pp. 8 32
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European
Journal
of Marketing
30,1
Definition
Reliability
Assurance
Tangibles
Empathy
Responsiveness
SERVQUAL:
review, critique,
research agenda
9
Items in scale
4
5
4
5
4
Table I.
SERVQUAL dimensions
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10
(2) Operational:
Expectations: the term expectation is polysemic; consumers use
standards other than expectations to evaluate SQ; and SERVQUAL
fails to measure absolute SQ expectations.
Item composition: four or five items can not capture the variability
within each SQ dimension.
Moments of truth (MOT): customers assessments of SQ may vary
from MOT to MOT.
Polarity: the reversed polarity of items in the scale causes respondent
error.
Scale points: the seven-point Likert scale is flawed.
Two administrations: two administrations of the instrument causes
boredom and confusion.
Variance extracted: the over SERVQUAL score accounts for a
disappointing proportion of item variances.
Each of the criticisms will be examined below.
Theoretical
Paradigmatic objections. Two major criticisms have been raised. First,
SERVQUAL has been inappropriately based on an expectationsdisconfirmation model rather than an attitudinal model of SQ. Second, it does
not build on extant knowledge in economics, statistics and psychology.
SERVQUAL is based on the disconfirmation model widely adopted in the
customer satisfaction literature. In this literature, customer satisfaction (CSat)
is operationalized in terms of the relationship between expectations (E) and
outcomes (O). If O matches E, customer satisfaction is predicted. If O exceeds E,
then customer delight may be produced. If E exceeds O, then customer
dissatisfaction is indicated.
According to Cronin and Taylor (1992; 1994) SERVQUAL is paradigmatically
flawed because of its ill-judged adoption of this disconfirmation model.
Perceived quality, they claim, is best conceptualized as an attitude. They
criticize Parasuraman et al. for their hesitancy to define perceived SQ in
attitudinal terms, even though Parasuraman et al. (1988) had earlier claimed
that SQ was similar in many ways to an attitude. Cronin and Taylor observe:
Researchers have attempted to differentiate service quality from consumer satisfaction, even
while using the disconfirmation format to measure perceptions of service quality this
approach is not consistent with the differentiation expressed between these constructs in the
satisfaction and attitude literatures.
Iacobucci et al.s (1994) review of the debate surrounding the conceptual and
operational differences between SQ and CSat concludes that the constructs
have not been consistently defined and differentiated from each other in the
literature. She suggests that the two constructs may be connected in a number
of ways. First, they may be both different operationalizations of the same
construct, evaluation. Second, they may be orthogonally related, i.e. they may
SERVQUAL:
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research agenda
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12
Also, in the context of CSat, Oliver (1980) has pondered whether it might be
preferable to consider the P E scores as raw differences or as ratios. No work
has been reported using a ratio approach to measure SQ.
Iacobucci et al. (1994) take a different tack on the incorporation of Emeasures. They suggest that expectations might not exist or be formed clearly
enough to serve as a standard for evaluation of a service experience.
Expectations may be formed simultaneously with service consumption.
Kahneman and Miller (1986) have also proposed that consumers may form
experience-based norms after service experiences, rather than expectations
before.
A further issue raised by Babakus and Inhofe (1991) is that expectations may
attract a social desirability response bias. Respondents may feel motivated to
adhere to an I-have-high-expectations social norm. Indeed, Parasuraman et al.
report that in their testing of the 1988 version the majority of expectations
scores were above six on the seven-point scale. The overall mean expectation
was 6.22 (Parasuraman et al., 1991b).
Teas (1993a; 1993b; 1994) has pondered the meaning of identified gaps. For
example, there are six ways of producing P E gaps of 1 (P = 1, E = 2; P = 2,
E = 3; P = 3, E = 4; P = 4, E = 5; P = 5, E = 6; P = 6, E = 7). Do these tied gaps
mean equal perceived SQ? He also notes that SERVQUAL research thus far has
not established that all service providers within a consideration or choice set,
e.g. all car-hire firms do, in fact, share the same expectations ratings across all
items and dimensions.
SERVQUAL:
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research agenda
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14
In their 1988 paper, Parasuraman et al. also claimed that the final 22-item scale
and its five dimensions have sound and stable psychometric properties. In the
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research agenda
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In their revised version, Parasuraman et al. (1991b) suggest two reasons for
these anomalies. First, they may be the product of differences in data collection
and analysis procedures. A more plausible explanation is that differences
among empirically derived factors across replications may be primarily due to
across-dimension similarities and/or within dimension differences in customers
evaluations of a specific company involved in each setting.
Spreng and Singh (1993) have commented on the lack of discrimination
between several of the dimensions. In their research, the correlation between
Assurance and Responsiveness constructs was 0.97, indicating that they were
not separable constructs. They also found a high correlation between the
combined Assurance-Responsiveness construct and the Empathy construct
(0.87). Parasuraman et al. (1991b) had earlier found that Assurance and
Responsiveness items loaded on a single factor, and in their 1988 work had
found average intercorrelations among the five dimensions of 0.23 to 0.35.
In testing their revised version (Parasuraman et al., 1991b), Parasuraman and
colleagues found that the four items under Tangibles broke into two distinct
dimensions, one pertaining to equipment and physical facilities, the other to
employees and communication materials. They also found that Responsiveness
and Assurance dimensions showed considerable overlap, and loaded on the
same factor. They suggested that this was a product of imposing a five-factor
constraint on the analyses. Indeed, the additional degrees of freedom allowed
by a subsequent six-factor solution generated distinct Assurance and
Responsiveness factors.
Parasuraman et al. (1991a) have now accepted that the five SERVQUAL
dimensions are interrelated as evidenced by the need for oblique rotations of
factor solutionsto obtain the most interpretable factor patterns. One fruitful
area for future research, they conclude, is to explore the nature and causes of
these interrelationships.
It therefore does appear that both contextual circumstances and analytical
processes have some bearing on the number of dimensions of SQ.
Contextual stabil ity. Carman (1990) tested the generic qualities of the
SERVQUAL instrument in three service settings a tyre retailer, a business
school placement centre and a dental school patient clinic. Following
Parasuraman et al.s suggestion, he modified and augmented the items in the
original ten-factor SERVQUAL scale to suit the three contexts. His factor
analysis identified between five and seven underlying dimensions.
According to Carman, customers are at least partly context-specific in the
dimensions they employ to evaluate SQ. In all three cases, Tangibles, Reliability
and Security were present[7]. Responsiveness, a major component in the
RATER scale, was relatively weak in the dental clinic context. Carman also
commented: Parasuraman, Zeithaml and Berry combined their original
Understanding and Access dimensions into Empathy our results did not find
this to be an appropriate combination. In particular he found that if a
dimension is very important to customers they are likely to be decomposed into
a number of sub-dimensions. This happened for the placement centre where
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research agenda
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Table II.
SERVQUAL alphas in
New Zealand and the
USA
USA
New Zealand
Tangibles
0.7049
0.6833
Reliability
0.8883
0.8514
Responsiveness
0.8378
0.8063
Assurance
0.8229
0.7217
Empathy
0.8099
0.7734
These results challenge Zeithamls (1988) claim that consumers form higher
level abstractions of SQ that are generalized across contexts.
Item loadings. In some studies (e.g. Carman, 1990), items have not loaded on
the factors to which they were expected to belong. Two items from the Empathy
battery of the Parasuraman et al. (1988) instrument loaded heavily on the
Tangibles factor in a study of dental clinic SQ. In the tyre retail study, a
Tangibles item loaded on to Security; in the placement centre a Reliability item
loaded on to Tangibles. An item concerning the ease of making appointments
loaded on to Reliability in the dental clinic context, but Security in the tyre store
context. He also found that only two-thirds of the items loaded in the same way
on the expectations battery as they did in the perceptions battery. Carman
supplies other examples of the same phenomena, and suggests that the
unexpected results indicate both a face validity and a construct validity
problem. In other words, he warns against importing SERVQUAL into service
setting contexts without modification and validity checks.
Among his specific recommendations is the following: We recommend that
items on Courtesy and Access be retained and that items on some dimensions
such as Responsiveness and Access be expanded where it is believed that these
dimensions are of particular importance. He also reports specific Courtesy and
Access items which performed well in terms of nomological and construct
validity.
Carman (1990) further suggested that the factors, Personal attention, Access
or Convenience should be retained and further contextualized research work be
done to identify their significance and meaning.
SERVQUAL:
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research agenda
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Factor
Item
Tangibles
Q1
Q2
Q3
Q4
Q5
Q6
Q7
Q8
Q9
Q10
Q11
Q12
Q13
Q14
Q15
Q16
Q17
Q18
Q19
Q20
Q21
Q22
20
Reliability
Responsiveness
Assurance
Empathy
Table III.
Reliability of
SERVQUAL
0.83
0.82
0.81
0.86
0.69
0.68
0.64
0.51
0.75
0.63
0.71
0.75
0.50
0.51
0.77
0.66
0.86
0.38
0.72
0.80
0.45
0.78
0.81
0.59
0.71
0.68
0.82
0.68
0.83
0.71
0.38
0.59
0.31
0.54
0.66
0.58
0.59
0.75
0.49
0.44
0.44
0.45
0.52
0.64
0.77
0.65
0.58
0.46
0.46
0.48
0.45
0.47
Put another way, SERVQUAL assumes that an E-score of six for Joes Greasy
Spoon Diner is equivalent to an E-score of six for Michel Rouxs Le Lapin
French restaurant. In absolute terms, clearly they are not. Grnroos (1993) refers
to a similar oddity, which he calls the bad-service paradox. A customer may
have low expectations based on previous experience with the service provider;
if those expectations are met there is no gap and SQ is deemed satisfactory.
Since Zeithaml et al. (1991) have themselves identified two comparison norms
for SQ assessment (desired service, the level of service a customer believes can
and should be delivered; adequate service, the level of service the customer
considers acceptable) it seems unlikely that the debate about the meaning of
expectations is over.
Item composition. Each factor in the 1988 and 1991 SERVQUAL scales is
composed of four or five items. It has become clear that this is often inadequate to
capture the variance within, or the context-specific meaning of, each dimension.
Carmans (1990) study of hospital services employed 40 items. Bouman and van
der Wiele (1992) used 48 items in their car service research, Saleh and Ryan (1992)
33 items in their hospitality industry research, Fort (1993) 31 items in his analysis
of software house service quality and Babakus and Mangold (1992) 15 items in
their hospital research. Parasuraman et al. (1991b) acknowledge that contextspecific items can be used to supplement SERVQUAL, but caution that the new
items should be similar in form to the existing SERVQUAL items.
Moments of truth. Many services are delivered over several moments of truth or
encounters between service staff and customer: hotel and hospital services for
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research agenda
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Bouman and van der Wiele (1992) also comment on the same problem. Babakus
and Boller (1992), and Babakus et al. (1993b) solved the problem by employing a
single seven-point scale to collect gap data. Recommended earlier by Carman
(1990), the scale ranges from 7 = greatly exceeds my expectations to 1 = greatly
falls short of my expectations.
Clow and Vorhies (1993) argue:
When expectations and experience evaluations are measured simultaneously, respondents will
indicate that their expectations are greater than they actually were before the service encounter.
Variance extracted. Fornell and Larcker (1981) have suggested that variance
extracted should be stringently employed as a measure of construct validity.
Parasuraman et al. (1988) reported that the total amount of variance extracted by
the five RATER factors in the bank, credit-card, repair and maintenance, and
long-distance telephone samples was 56.0 per cent, 57.5 per cent, 61.6 per cent and
56.2 per cent respectively. Parasuraman et al. (1991a) report variance explained in
a telephone company, insurance company 1, insurance company 2, bank 1 and
bank 2 at 67.2 per cent, 68.3 per cent, 70.9 per cent, 71.6 per cent and 66.9 per cent,
respectively. When the samples are combined, variance explained is 67.9 per cent.
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Babakus and Bollers (1992) utility-sector replication reported 58.3 per cent.
Carmans (1990) modified replication in the hospital sector, tyre store, business
school placement centre and dental clinic reported 71 per cent, 61 per cent, 75 per
cent and 71 per cent respectively. Saleh and Ryans (1992) modified replication in
the hotel sector reported 78.6 per cent. Bouman and van der Wieles (1992)
modified replication in car servicing reported 40.7 per cent only. Generally, the
modified scales tended to produce higher levels of variance extracted. The higher
the variance extracted, the more valid is the measure.
Conclusion
SERVQUAL has undoubtedly had a major impact on the business and academic
communities.
This review has identified a number of theoretical and operational issues which
should concern users of the instrument. Since the most serious of these are
concerned with face validity and construct validity, this conclusion briefly reviews
the nature and significance of validity.
Face validity is concerned with the extent to which a scale appears to measure
what it purports to measure.
Construct validity generally:
is used to refer to the vertical correspondence between a construct which is at an unobservable,
conceptual level and a purported measure of it which is at an operational level. In an ideal sense,
the term means that a measure assesses the magnitude and direction of (1) all of the characteristics
and (2) only the characteristics of the construct it is purported to assess (Peter, 1981, emphases
added).
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Notes
1. The mnemonic RATER is a helpful aide mmoire, where R = reliability, A = assurance,
T = tangibles, E = empathy and R = responsiveness.
2. Richard and Allaways (1993) research was largely focused on testing SERVQUALs
predictive validity. Parasuraman et al. (1991b) have also tested the predictive validity of the
modified SERVQUAL scale. Customers in five samples were asked three questions: Have
you recently had a service problem with the company? If you have experienced a problem,
was it resolved to your satisfaction? Would you recommend the service firm to a friend? It
was hypothesized that positive answers to these questions would be correlated negatively,
positively and positively, respectively, with higher perceived SQ scores. All results were
statistically significant in the hypothesized direction, lending support to the predictive
validity of the instrument.
3. Babakus and Boller (1992) have expressed concern that it is unclear whether SERVQUAL
is measuring a number of distinct constructs or a single, global, more abstract variable.
4. Cronin and Taylor (1992), following a test of SERVQUAL in four classes of service firm,
conclude in stark contrast that the five-component structure proposed by Parasuraman,
Zeithaml and Berry (1988) for their SERVQUAL scale is not confirmed.
5. Babakus and Mangolds (1992) research into hospital SQ identified three factors within the
expectations data, accounting for 56.2 per cent of the variance in the item scores, two
factors within the perceptions data (70.6 per cent) and no meaningful factor structure
within the difference or gaps data.
6. Customer kindness, that is the front office personnels approach to the customer and his
problems, regardless of the service delivered, was the only factor to have a significant
relationship with future car servicing intentions, future car purchase intentions, and wordof-mouth recommendation.
7. Carmans Security factor is composed of Credibility, Security and Competence.
Parasuraman et al. (1988) had incorporated these three components, together with
Communication and Courtesy, into the factor Assurance.
8. For a discussion of construct, convergent and discriminant validity see Churchill (1979)
and Peter (1981).
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research agenda
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Appendix. Ten components of service quality
(1) Reliability involves consistency of performance and dependability. It also means that the
firm performs the service right first time and honours its promises. Specifically, it may
involve:
accuracy in billing;
explaining the service itself and how much the service will cost;
SERVQUAL:
review, critique,
research agenda
31
European
Journal
of Marketing
30,1
32
(8) Security is the freedom from danger, risk, or doubt. It may involve:
physical safety;
(9) Understanding/knowing the customer involves making the effort to understand the
customers needs. It involves:
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