17MSEC OMartinez

University Master in Secondary and Sixth Form Teaching, Vocational
Training and Language Teaching
Foreign language
itinerary
Complementary Training
for Foreign Language
Discipline
6ECTS
Ms. Oreto Martnez
Martnez
Consultant
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University Master in Secondary and

Sixth Form Teaching, Vocational
Training and Language Teaching
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University Master in Secondary

and Sixth Form Teaching,
Vocational
Training
and
Language Teaching
Foreign language itinerary
Complementary Training for Foreign

Language Discipline
6ECTS
Ms. Oreto Martnez Martnez
Valencian International University
ndice
UNIT 1. THE KNOWLEDGE SOCIETY. ENGLISH AS A LINGUA FRANCA .............................................................. 7

1.1.
Globalization. English as a lingua franca.................................................................................................. 7
1.2.
New skills needed. The digital age and the english language teaching ...................................... 8
1.3.
The council of europe ...................................................................................................................................10
1.4.
Language education policies for democratic citizenship and social inclusion (2006-2009)11
1.5.
Scientific research on language learning...............................................................................................14
1.6.
Multilingual curricula. Content and language learning dimensions ...........................................14
UNIT 2. LANGUAGE ACQUISITION RESEARCH. DIFFERENT PERSPECTIVES OF INTELLIGENCE,

LEARNING AND MOTIVATION. FROM BEHAVIOURISM TO CONSTRUCTIVISM ............................................17
2.1. Before chomsky: b.f skinners verbal behavior .........................................................................................17
2.2. Chomskys theory of learning: the metatheory of linguistics. ............................................................19
2.3. The language acquisition device (lad) ........................................................................................................19
2.4. Chomsky on intelligence: generative grammar, universal grammar, flb, and fln .......................20
2.5. The process of learning, according to bandura .......................................................................................23
2.6. Vygotsky on learning and intelligence: constructivism ........................................................................27
2.7. Constructivism. Learning theory. Jean piaget.........................................................................................30
2.8. Learning by teaching (LdL) as constructivist method ...........................................................................34
2.9. Pedagogies based on constructivism .........................................................................................................35
UNIT 3. FACTORS AFECTING SECOND LANGUAGE ACQUISITION. SOCIAL AND COGNITIVE
APPROACHES. CONSTRASTIVE ANALYSIS ................................................................................................................37
3.1. The role of transfer in interlanguage ...........................................................................................................37
3.2. Contrastive analysis ...........................................................................................................................................38
3.3. Transfer. Positive and negative......................................................................................................................40
3.4. Specific linguistic areas where the l1 influences the l2.........................................................................42
3.5. Bilingualism ..........................................................................................................................................................44
3.6. Jim cummins the common underlying proficiency theory .................................................................45
3.7. Jim cummins. The iceberg methaphore.....................................................................................................46
3.8. Krashen on intelligence and learning: input, monitoring, and affective filters............................47
UNIT 4. ENGLISH LANGUAGE TEACHING IN POSTMODERN ERA......................................................................53
4.1. Introduction. Postmodern influences in language teaching ..............................................................53
4.2. Postmodern influences in elt. Gardners multiple intelligences theory.......................................57
Complementary Training for Foreign Language Discipline

6ETCS
4.3. Postmodern influences in elt. Differentiated instruction theory ......................................................59

4.4. Postmodern influences in elt. Universal design for learning applications ....................................62
4.5. Conclusion ............................................................................................................................................................67
UNIT 5. COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE AND COMMUNICATIVE LANGUAGE TEACHING ....................71
5.1. Aspects of communicative competence....................................................................................................71
5.2. Communicative language teaching ............................................................................................................77
5.3. Glossary of linguistic terms .............................................................................................................................79
REFERENCES AND WEBSITES .........................................................................................................................................89
Unit 1................................................................................................................................................................................ 89
Unit 2................................................................................................................................................................................ 89
Unit 3................................................................................................................................................................................ 89
Key terms .................................................................................................................................................................91
Unit 4................................................................................................................................................................................ 91
Unit 5................................................................................................................................................................................ 93
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University Master in Secondary and Sixth Form Teaching, Vocational Training and Language Teaching
Complementary Training for Foreign Language

Discipline
Unit 1
The knowledge society. English as a lingua franca
To introduce concepts as Globalization, knowledge society and Digital Age, and Institutions such as
The Council of Europe with its Language Division and their influences in English Language
Teaching
1.1. Globalization. English as a lingua franca

The English language has unmistakably achieved status as the world\'s lingua franca through
globalization. English is now the official or dominant language for two billion people in at least 75
countries. According to the British Council, speakers of English as a second language probably
outnumber those who speak it as a first language, and around 750 million people are believed to
speak English as a foreign language. English is the most common language to communicate
scientific, technological, academic, and international trade information. English is clearly the
world\'s lingua franca, but how did it get that way? Part of the reason is the feedback loop driving
its history - a dynamic which may serve to illustrate how globalization often is the result of a natural
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6ETCS
course of events: before English infiltrated the world, many of the world\'s languages infiltrated
English.
The term \"lingua franca\" originated in Mediterranean ports in the Middle Ages among traders of
different language backgrounds. In order to carry on the business of trade, they spoke a common
\"patchwork\" language consisting of bits of Italian mixed with Greek, French, Spanish, and Arabic
words. Some of those words are still part of ordinary conversation today - in modern English.
Nearly every language on Earth has contributed to the development of English. Languages of the
Indian subcontinent provided words such as pundit, shampoo, pajamas, and juggernaut. From the
Spanish are several words that came to define the spirit of the American \"wild west:\" mustang,
canyon, ranch, stampede, and vigilante are a few examples. English has adopted literally hundreds
of words from Arabic and Persian. Though some filtered down through other languages, these
words that evoke images from American culture have Arabic origins: tariff, sugar, hazard, jar,
almanac, shrub, alcove, alfalfa, syrup, and spinach. Long is the list of words and expressions that
came to English from \"foreign languages.\" however It is the \"different functions\" aspect of
English vs. other languages' that is fiercely debated today. The speaking of English often functions
as an elevated socio-economic currency on the international market and in international
diplomacy, while local languages are pressured to be kept within the home or within communities,
or for entertaining tourists. English is the official language of the European Central Bank even
though the bank is in Frankfurt, Germany, and no predominantly English-speaking country is a
member of the European Monetary Union. English has become a commodity. Globalization of the
IT marketplace is accelerating the effect of English as a commodity. For decades English has
dominated the IT industry, from research and development, to the design of hardware and
software.
English, like so many other aspects of Western culture, has the potential to bring people together,
or the power to divide people into classified groups. As the debate goes on, English will continue
to grow and change with the same force that has always driven the patchworking of language: the
natural desire to exchange goods and ideas.
1.2. New skills needed. The digital age and the english language
teaching
The new millennium has emerged with radical changes regarding, not only social and economical
changes, but educative shifts, too. It seems clear that all these facts related to globalization and ICT
are having an impact on what and how we teach, thus, the following are considered the most
important factors affecting educational practices.
Digital age, exchange of information and knowledge
Globalization, the world is interconnected
Learning languages becomes a need in order to make business
World wide organizations have launched different projects related to the new basic competences
which students are expected to achieve, among them we find The International Society for
Technology in Education (ISTE), which is engaged in improving learning and teaching by
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advancing the effective use of technology in both students and teacher education. According to
this organization there is a need to transform education in order to cope which society new trends.
These basic skills are considered the following. (NETS)
International Society for Technology in Education
Creativity and Innovation
Communication and Collaboration
Research and Information fluency
Critical thinking, Problem Solving and Decision Making
Digital Citizenship
Technology and operation concepts
2007 International Society for Technology in Education.
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METIRI group have also released their conclusions on their research Engauge 21 Century Skills
related to Academic Achievement. This report states that there are emerging characteristics related
to the NET.Generation which are considered essential, thus, academic achievement must be seen
under the umbrella of different skills:
enGauge 21st Century Skills.
1.3. The council of europe

As far as Europe is concerned, The Council of Europe (founded in may 1949) with its Language
Policy Division is also carrying out programmes to contribute to the promotion of human rights,
democratic citizenship, social cohesion and intercultural dialogue. Projects are related to the
development of language education policies with a particular emphasis on plurilingualism,
Common European Standards and language education rights and responsibilities. The language
Division has been a pioneer on international cooperation in language education since 1957 for the
member states of the Council of Europe. The results of the Divisions programmes have led to a
number of recommendations which provide political support for its policy instruments and
initiatives.
The language Policy Division organized the Year of languages 2001 with the European
Commission, the aims of which are promoted in the annual day of languages. The language
Division programmes are complemented by those of the European Centre for Modern Languages,
which was set up in 1994 with the mission of the implementation of language policies and the
promotion of innovative approaches to the learning and teaching of modern languages.
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In 1995, the European Commission in The White Paper on Education and Training talked about the
need of speaking three languages: Quotes from: Fourth General Objective of the white paper on
education and training, teaching and learning: Towards the Learning Society European
Commission.( DG XXII and DGV), 1995
ts no longer possible to reserve proficiency in foreign languages for an elite or for those who
acquire it on account of their geographical mobility......its becoming a necessity for everyone.......to
be able to acquire and keep up their ability to communicate in at least two community languages
in addition to their mother tongue. It could even be argued that secondary school pupils should
study certain subjects in the first foreign language learnt
It concluded that language learning is becoming a need and that minority languages should be
promoted too. It was the first time they talked about new concepts such us the Digital Gap,
Multilingualism and CLIL.
Minority languages
The very spread of English can motivate speakers of other languages to insist on their own local
language for identification, for binding them emotionally to their own cultural and historical
tradition, however, there is no need to set up an old-fashioned dichotomy between local
languages and English as the \'hegemonic aggressor\': there is a place for both, because they fulfill
different functions.
It is the \"different functions\" aspect of English vs. other languages' that is fiercely debated today.
The speaking of English often functions as an elevated socio-economic currency on the
international market and in international diplomacy, while local languages are pressured to be kept
within the home or within communities. As far as education is concerned, multilingualism around
Europe is becoming a growing phenomena, the model which seems to be spreading includes:
The region own language, The state Language and a Foreign or Additional one.
1.4. Language education policies for democratic citizenship and

social inclusion (2006-2009)
Within this European context, the language Policy Division has launched a project on all the
languages of education. The focus is on languages of instruction in school, often the national or
official language, and also the mother tongue of the majority of the students, being for some
others their second language, adding a third language, which is considered as a need in our
European context. It is indented to promote a coherent and holistic approach to language
education policies, in order to organize plurilingualism and diversification in a planned manner so
that decisions are coherently linked. They are addressed to all those involved in educations
decision making, from the Ministry of Education, to the Principal of the school, providing a wide
inventory of possible forms of organisation of language education, embracing not only mother
tongue languages but foreign language teaching too. (See From Linguistic Diversity to Plurilingual
Education: Guide for the development of language education polices in Europe).
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6ETCS
Council of Europe language education policy aims to promote

Plurilingualism
All are entitled to develop a reasonable degree of communicative ability in a
number of languages over their lifetime in accordance with their needs
Linguistic diversity
Europe is multilingual and all its languages are equally valuable modes of
communications and expressions of identity, the right to use and to learn ones
language(s) is protected by the council of Europe Conventions
Social cohesion
Equality of opportunity for personal development, education, employment,
mobility, access and cultural enrichment depends on access to language learning
through life
Democratic citizenship
Participation in democratic and social processes in multilingual societies is
facilitated by plurilingual competence of individuals
Mutual understanding
The opportunity to learn other languages is an essential condition for intercultural
understanding and communication
Clil innovation
Introducing an L3 into a curriculum may pursue different objectives, from better skills in language
learning to better subject learning; however, other factors should be taken into consideration as:
greater intercultural understanding, better individual chances on the job market, better access to
scientific research or even greater national economic competitiveness.
This idea has resulted in some educational innovations; one of them is called CLIL and it is the
acronym for Content and Language Integrated Learning. This methodology involves competence
building in languages and communication and at the same time developing professional skills
which better prepare young people for the knowledge society. The CLIL basis was set up in 1990 by
the Council of Europe, however, research, development and experience is needed in order to
stablish a clear framework to be implemented in English Language Teaching. (A whole chapter will
be dedicated to this methodology along the couse).
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6 european Clil milestones
Council of Europe (ECML) CLIL

Country Profiles published
2005
research output
2004
research output
2003
research output
2002
availability of a comprehensive
typology of European CLIL
trans-national professional
development programmes for
vocational and professional
education
trans-national professional
development programmes for
primary and secondary
education
2001
European Year of Languages, CLIL Compendium launched
2000
Integrating Competencies for Working Life launched
1999
Learning with Languages launched, CLIL Consortium founded,

CLIL Initiatives for the Millennium published
development needs for 20002010 formalized
1998
experience in primary and

secondary education surveyed
1997
European network established
1996
European-based experiences
consolidated
pan-European information
gathering on depth, scope and
scale of 'teaching and learning
through foreign languages'
information gathering on
minority and majority language
learning needs within Europe
interest in bilingual education
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The Changing European Classroom.

The Potential of Plurilingual Education
symposium, Luxembourg Presidency
conference launched Council of Europe
Workshop (ECML) Describing & Achieving
Good Practice launched
European Commission's Action Plan for
the Promotion of Language Learning & Linguistic Diversity 20042006 published
CLILCom (Leonardo) start-up
CLILMatrix (ECML) start-up
CLILAxis (Leonardo) start-up
Major national initiatives
CLIL/EMILE, The European Dimension: Actions, Trends and
Foresight Potential, European Commission, published
1995
1994
1993
1992
CEILINK Think Tank convened, Future Scenarios in Content and

Language Integrated Learning published, Teaching with Foreign
Languages released
InterTalk released, European Centre for Modern Languages
Workshop on CLIL in Vocational and Professional Education,
Aspects of Implementing CLIL published
European Networks in Bilingual Education symposium convened,
EuroCLIC Network founded, the term Content and Language
Integrated Learning introduced, Teaching Content through a
Foreign Language published, Council of Europe Workshop 12B
'Learning and Teaching Non-language Subjects through a
Foreign Language'
European Commission White Paper on education and training
published
Increased availability of research and development publications
European Models of Bilingual Education published, Council of
Europe Workshop 12A 'Language Learning for European
Citizenship'
Needs surveys and prototypes for professional development
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methodologies increased
through Council of Europe
activities
interest shown within Europe
towards worldwide examples of
bilingual education
interest in bilingual education
methodologies increases due to
European socio-economic
integration, and globalization
produced
1991
Increasing frequency of articles published on research and

practice
1990
Lingua
1.5. Scientific research on language learning

Early Language learning is also supported by scientific research in the field of Multilingual
Learning, in this sense, it is stated that plurilingual teaching may benefit students in terms of
language awareness in the domain of Second Language Acquisition Research. These ideas are
supported by scientists who state that infants and youngsters can be very good at acquiring
languages when they are used at home; a belief which traditionally has lead to the assumption that
we learn languages best when we are very young; nevertheless, research findings support that
successful language learning can be achieved at any age when people have the opportunity to
receive instruction, and at the same time experience real life situations in which they can acquire
the language, in this sense, new methodologies are now being implemented. (See CLIL)
1.6. Multilingual curricula. Content and language learning

dimensions
According to the CLIL Compendium Development Team; which was set up with the support of the
European Commission, multilingual curricula must arrange learning taking into account 5
dimensions based on issues relating to:
Culture
Environment
Language
Content
Learning
Each of these includes a number of focus points implemented differently according to 3 major
factors:
Age-range of learners
Socio-linguistic environment
Degree of exposure
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The dimensions are idealized and usually heavily inter-related. This means that in real-life, it is likely
that a school will wish to achieve successful outcomes in relation to more than one dimension at
the same time.
The Culture Dimension
a. Build intercultural knowledge & understanding
b. Develop intercultural communication skills
c. Learn about specific neighboring countries/regions and/or minority
groups
d. Introduce the wider cultural context
The Environment Dimension
a. Prepare for internationalization, specifically EU integration
b. Access International Certification
c. Enhance school profile
The Language Dimension
a. Improve overall target language competence
b. Develop oral communication skills
c. Deepen awareness of both mother tongue and target language
d. Develop plurilingual interests and attitudes
e. Introduce a target language
The Content Dimension
a.
Provide opportunities to study content through different perspectives
b. Access subject-specific target language terminology

c. Prepare for future studies and/or working life
The Learning Dimension
a.
Complement individual learning strategies
b.
Diversify methods & forms of classroom practice
c.
Increase learner motivation
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Unit 2
Language
Acquisition
Research.
Different
perspectives of intelligence, learning and
motivation. From behaviourism to constructivism
This analysis aims to analyze, compare, and contrast the classical theoretical perspectives of
intelligence, learning, and motivation proposed by Chomsky, Bandura, Vygotsky, and Piaget under
the scope of both general learning and consequently second language acquisition (SLA)
2.1. Before chomsky: b.f skinners verbal behavior

(From lingtechguistics.wordpress.com)
The year was 1957. The post war era was witness to major developments in the
fields of science and technology. This easily opened doors for research in other
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6ETCS
areas. We would find, judging from the major events that took place at the time, that the human
race in general experienced a series of major events in a short period of time, pushing it to a fast
forward mode into the future. One of the most scientifically influential happenings during the late
1950s was the launch of the Soviet space shuttle SPUTNICK. This event marked the beginning of
the Space Era, and innocuously united the East and the West in an accomplishment shared by the
entire human race: The conquering of Space. What could the human race not be able to do?
This was the world as Chomsky would have known it: A place where scientific achievements and
new developments continued to occur in great momentum. Yet Chomskys interest laid mostly in
the fields of psychology, linguistics, and sociology. As a man with a deep respect for the empirical
and solid evidence of theory, he disagreed with the methodology used in an investigative book
written by B.F. Skinner, a social theorist who aimed to explain the process of learning, specifically,
language acquisition. In VERBAL BEHAVIOR, Skinner names behaviorism as the conduit for
acquiring new information. The concept of behaviorism is a combination of social exposure,
consistent interaction, and operant (constant) conditioning (Skinner, 1957). Therefore, in Skinners
philosophy, learning is the result of exposure to external sources, followed by modeling and
practice.
The implications of Skinners theory were that the internal processes that take place during
learning are superseded by social exposure. Skinner supported his behaviorist axiom with the
theoretical views that were common at the time, yet, the findings were not empirically supported
by enough research. For example, Skinner takes for granted that the studies performed on the way
animals acquire behaviors is enough evidence to support his operant conditioning theory that as
long as there is enough input and conditioning the learning will be acquired. (Skinner, 1957). This
paradigm applied to language learning in the same token. Skinners VERBAL BEHAVIOR offered
the linguistic community paradigms that involved identifying variables that control behaviors, the
analysis on how they interact with the individual, and the notion that reinforcement, stimulus, and
enough exposure are the conduits for acquiring language.
Pedagogies based on behaviorism
Many classical pedagogies are based on behaviorism, many of them are still very deep in laguage
learning teaching, some of them are the following.
The Audio-lingual Method
According to this method, students are considered to develop correct language habits by
repetitious training, often using technology such as tape recordings in language laboratories.
Ashers Total Physical Response
Based on the association between language and body movement. There is a shaping of response
and external rewards are faded. It is regarded as positive for those at the non-verbal stage of
language acquisition.
Direct Teaching and Mastery Learning
This type of learning emphasizes explicit instructional objectives for students and promotes the
learning of facts, sequenced steps, or rules.
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2.2. Chomskys theory of learning: the metatheory of linguistics.

Noam Chomsky
Skinners presumed lack of further inquiry and the seemingly quick verification of a
hypothesis, Chomsky questioned Skinners view of language acquisition as a merely
learned skill rather than a naturally-acquired skill. By naturally-acquired, he implied
that there is a biological element to the process that goes beyond exposure and
interaction. Could language be acquired by an inherent disposition that could even
overrule environmental stimuli? These were the postulates that encompass linguistic theory,
according to Chomsky. His reaction to Skinners behaviorist views are what give Chomskys
philosophy the exposure and strength upon which, to this day, continues to be researched.
A bi-partite concept of language learning
In 1955 developed the idea of a transformational grammar, that is, language which is acquired,
analyzed, and transformed into what the individual decides in natural way. It is the notion of
language as a bi-partite concept: a) Language is acquired by nature, and b) language is enhanced
by social exposure (Chomsky, 1955 p. 113). Language acquisition is, in Chomskyan terms, a
comprehensive process that integrates innate and external elements under the assumption that
there is a set apparatus within each human being that enables this to happen (Chomsky, 1955).
Chomskys theory of learning: the metatheory of linguistics.
The combination of social and cognitive elements that serve as triggers to learning under
Chomskyan perspective is notable for giving more emphasis on the study of how the brain works
during the process of language acquisition. This leads to the creation of the linguistic theory. For
this focal reason, Chomsky views the theory of linguistics as a metatheory where mental,
psychological, and cognitive processes supersede a mere behavioral input (Chomsky, 1955 ).
Chomsky argues that language is comprehensive: It involves listening, accepting and rejecting
information, conceptualizing the input, organizing it, and producing further language within the
parameters of the social context where the language takes place is being shared, and within the
limits of our natural capabilities (Chomsky, 1955). However, there is an additional dimension that
ultimately separated Chomsky from his contemporaries, and it is the idea that all these processes
occur in a part of the brain where a proposed apparatus enables all this to occur: The Language
Acquisition Device.
2.3. The language acquisition device (lad)

The metatheory of linguistics, or language learning, according to Chomsky consists on two
premises: The first premise states that humans are born with an already-established body of
common grammatical knowledge, or intelligence which can also be described as a capacity, or a
competence for language. This intelligence, which he calls linguistic corpus, is triggered by social
discourse and interaction . As interaction takes place and new language is acquired, the second
premise of Chomskys theory states that a specific place in the brain which he calls the Language
Acquisition Device or LAD. Chomsky proposes that the LAD exists inside the brain (Chomsky,
1975). It is, theoretically speaking, a congenital organ that enables the skill of acquiring language.
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6ETCS
This organ would allow individuals to use minimal rules and regulations of language to create
more words, and more sentences.
The premise of his philosophy lays Chomskys observations of children, and his preocupation about
how steadfastly children acquire language. Chomsky observed that the manner in which children
acquire language, make similar mistakes, and develop further words, must obey a general
mechanism that with a specific tendency of operation. These social and cognitive components of
the process of language learning imply Chomskys integration of psychology, human
development, and linguistics as part of his theory. That is the way that Chomsky defines learning.
Yet, once the learning takes place by the means that he suggested, what happens to the acquired
knowledge? Concisely, how does he define the term intelligence?
2.4. Chomsky on intelligence: generative grammar, universal

grammar, flb, and fln
The general definition of intelligence is, according to the Encarta Dictionary the ability to learn
facts and skills and apply them, especially when this ability is highly developed (Encarta dictionary,
2006). In a Chomskyan linguistic perspective, intelligence is defined a foundation of language that
all humans already possess as part of our biological make-up. This innate body of knowledge is
what he calls universal grammar or the linguistic corpus. This body of language knowledge
changes through time, as the individual makes additional social connections, acquires new words,
or decides how to make use of language depending on the circumstances in which it is required.
This ability to transform the language and change it through time makes it generative in nature.
(Chomsky, 1955).
The process of transformation of universal to generative grammar
The concept of universal grammar could be described cognitively as an innate foundation and a
capacity for language usage and production. It is found within the brain, where the Language
Acquisition Device (LAD) proposed by Chomsky would be triggered into action when the
individual is exposed to language. This exposure leads to the acquisition of new words which, as
they are learned, fall unequivocally in a pattern of use that is general to the group who is speaking.
An example of this pattern would be the subject-verb-predicate model. The implication rests in
that, as we socialize, our internal capacities already in place will act as a word catcher that will
automatically place the words in a pre-set order shared everyone within our own language system
and will continue to grow and expand. The process of establishing the language rules, and
expanding language further through time and level of complexity leads to deem it as generative
grammar (Chomsky, 1955)
Flb, fln and recursion
A recent research co-developed by Chomsky in 2002 brings out another dimension to his theory of
intelligence, and its findings serve as a demonstration of how Chomskys theory permeates recent
research and his argument for the inclusion of the disciplines of biology, anthropology,
psychology, and neuroscience for the study of language. This makes his theoretical perspective go
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from pragmatic to empirical. This is the theory of the Faculty of Language for Broader purposes
(FLB) and the Faculty of language for Narrow purposes (FLN) (Hauser, Chomsky, Fitch, 2002).
The theory states that, within the LAD and along with the Universal and generative language, there
is a bipartite ability that distinguishes communication from humans and animals. This bipartite
diversification consists on the faculty of language in the broad purpose (FLB) and faculty of
language in the narrow purpose (FLN). Concisely, language in the broad purpose (FLB) is all the
language produced for general and immediate responses. This faculty is not only inherent to
humans, but also to animals. Its basis is the common need to express a message, and consists on
any form of communication that is possible among living things. Therefore, FLB is responsive,
immediate, and instinctive language usage that could also be explained as language of survival for
immediate purpose (Hauser, Chomsky, Fitch, 2002 p. 1569).
Yet, the distinguishing factor between humans and animals in terms of communication is that,
within the FLB, there is an integrative system that involves concepts and intentions along with the
biological and neuropsychological elements that are required to perform operations that require
computation for recursion, the generation of mannerism and expression, and the ability to
correlate intonation, expression, and affect into language. This element of distinction is the FLN, or
faculty of language for Narrow purposes. The FLN involves critical thinking, decision making,
inferencing, computation, if/then conclusions, and the capacity of recursion (Hauser, Chomsky,
Fitch, 2002 ).
Recursion is the key element in the FLN, and is the main ingredient that sets humans apart from
other living organisms. Recursion is basically a programming technique within the brain which
assigns tasks to diverse areas to do certain duties. In other words, it is a uniquely human
component that composes the generative and universal capacity for language. This capacity for
recursion is called the Faculty of language for narrow sense (FLN). (Hauser, Chomsky, Fitch, 2002 )
An FLN goes beyond the usage of language for general purposes. It is an intelligence that is
entirely decided by the individual and, since it is inherited, can be put to work at any time (p. 1571).
Yet, Chomsky et al insist that an ability of this nature must have surged in an ecological level for
reasons other than language. For instance, the studies that compare the language of humans to
the communication means developed by animals show that navigational skills, social relations,
general communicative language, affect, and even the use of computation and linguistics at the
same time are skills used as if for survival at some point in time
Conclusively, FLB and FLN are both natural intelligences possessed by humans. Its empirical value
within the process of quantifiable data might allow theory to turn into law, as Chomsky
taxonomized the findings on how the acquired body of communicative knowledge that is inherent
to all living things transforms into an intelligent entity of its own nature within humans. This
research conducted by Chomsky et al, as previously stated, will be a part of the depth component
of the KAM, yet, it also serves as an anchor that shows how strongly bound to current research
Chomskys theory really is.
Conclusion on chomsky and his interrelation to other theorists.
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This study on Chomsky reveals his theories of learning and intelligence under a linguistic
perspective. His metatheory of linguistics contains his theories on human intelligence. According
to his linguistic theory of learning and intelligence, all humans possess and inborn body of
knowledge, or a linguistic intelligence, in the form of human capacities and competence. This
natural body of knowledge, according to Chomsky, is triggered for usage in a cognitive way by
environmental inputs, but is only achieved through the usage of an inherent apparatus which he
deems the Language Acquisition Device or LAD. Within the LAD, the acquired knowledge will be
prepositioned into a pattern that is natural to the individuals system of code and communication,
which he calls the Universal Language (UG). Not only will the LAD allow for the pattern of words
to take place, but will go from broad-purposed language usage (FLB) to specific, or narrow,
language usage (FLN) as a unique ability possessed by humans to use language in a more
discriminate way, so that affect, purpose, specificity, and proper usage is correctly applied.
Perhaps the most important things about Chomskys theory of intelligence is its granting nature:
The fact that, from the beginning, it granted that the ability to acquire intelligence is already
possessed, and that nature has granted us an apparatus ready to be put to use under our
command. Recent research by Chomsky himself shows that his views are not merely pragmatic, but
that they can be dully deemed as quantifiable, and invite further research in linguistics combining
the fields of biology, neuroscience, linguistics, anatomy, cognitive science, education, and
psychology.
Chomskys theory is reflected in the works of Bandura, Vygostky, Krashen, and Gardner, as it will be
demonstrated in the upcoming analysis of the Breadth component. The fact that Chomsky
identified the environment as a social trigger for the further involvement of the Language
Acquisition Device has a behavioral undertone that will be seen in Banduras Social learning theory.
In that theory, Bandura cites in a subtle way that inherent psychologies help activate the social
triggers that enable learning. This concretely demonstrates a Chomskyan view on the combination
of nature and nurture in the development of language as a system. Similarly, Vygostkys theory of
Constructivism and Krashens Natural Order hypothesis will denote a combination of
environmental and cognitive foundations for the acquisition of new information in the form of
language, built on the foundations of prior knowledge.
Furtherly, it will be shown how Krashen would also agree with Chomsky in the rejection of contextfree language, and context-free grammar, that is, if any new language (or information) is to be
taught, it has to be relevant, natural to the learner, and boundary-free. Chomskys influence is even
more evident in Gardners Multiple Intelligence (MI) theory which will also be part of the Breadth
discussion: Chomskys undying efforts to categorize linguistics as a cognitive science and not just
as a language art have apparently reached a new peak, as Gardner includes linguistics as an
intelligence the way Chomsky would deem it, and not just as a discipline to be learned in school.
It is a fact that Chomskyan theory has been influential and innovative. The study of Albert Bandura,
Vygotsky, Krashen, and Gardner will also be as influential and important to the theories of learning,
intelligence, and motivation. Albert Bandura, seemingly following a Chomskyan perspective on the
combination of behavioral and cognitive science, will help us explore under a different perspective
a possible approach to the study of linguistic learning.
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2.5. The process of learning, according to bandura

Albert Bandura
Nearly twenty years after Chomskys metatheory of linguistics, Albert Bandura
developed a learning theory that follows the paradigms established by
behaviorists and cognitive researchers. Bandura is a social psychologist, and his
social learning theory was officially established in his 1977 book SOCIAL
LEARNING. Similarly to Chomsky, Bandura proposes that a diversity of factors act
together as agents of learning. These factors can be behavioral, social, personal, and/or
environmental (Bandura, 1977). He bases the process of learning on observation and modeling.
The notion of reinforcement, stimulus and conditioning offered by Skinner is not entirely rejected
but is seen more of a tool that facilitates the acquisition of behaviors, rather than the only agents of
change in a person . Lastly, Bandura will demonstrate how his theory is applicable to language
acquisition and learning, as it shows that language is a behavior of its own.
Bandura on learning
Bandura (1977) explains the manner in which individuals learn new behaviors through a process
that involves observation, interaction, and modeling (Bandura 1977,). Similarly to Chomsky, his
theory reflects language as a very important element of development that requires both cognitive
and social input. Throughout ones lifetime, the consistent interaction to other peoples behavior
lead to our own adoption, or imitation of the behaviors of others depending on whether we
choose to do it (Bandura, 1977,). This change in behavior is what Bandura defines as learning. The
fact that such learning occurs in a social and interactive context is what renders the theory the
name of Social Learning (Bandura, 1977). The process through which Social Learning occurs is
comprehensive, dynamic and interactive.
The process of learning, according to bandura
As it was previously stated, Bandura defines learning as a change in behaviors that results from
social exposure. The definition of behavior under Banduras theory is the combination of all
idiosyncratic activities performed by individuals ranging from the way they talk, to the way eat, and
walk. This is not a passive process that happens without the individuals consent, or by instinct.
Bandura explains that learning is in fact a very active process that requires involvement from all of
whom are participating from it (Bandura, 1977).
The manner in which this involvement takes place is taxonomized into five methodologies which,
in Banduras theory, are part of everyday peoples life:
a) Dynamic methods: People go from one source to another to get different kinds of input,
and in the process of receiving this input new behaviors continue to be learned, accepted,
or rejected and then modeled and adopted.
b) Interactive methods: People learn from others through conversation, discourse and
open communication. The exchange of new information and feedback mediates

learning.
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Consistent methods: People are constantly exposed to other peoples behaviors either in a
communal context at work, school, church, and the neighborhood, to an independent
context through the media, and the internet.
d) Intrapersonal methods: People exchange of traits and characteristics that are inherent to
each person involved in the process of communication. Engaging in conversation, sharing

information, creating bonds, establishing rules, becoming part of a social system and a
group allows for this method of communication to set the conditions for learning.
(Bandura, 1997)
Banduras theory points to nearly every environmental input available to individuals throughout
their lives from peers, to media, technology, superiors, and family. In contrast, Chomsky would
place the environmental input as the element which will only be enhanced and increased though
cognitive activity. Bandura in some way declares the opposite: The consistent exposure to
environmental triggers will create a habit in the individual, the individual will undergo a process of
adaptation or adoption of the new behavior and, eventually, he or she will integrate (or completely
reject) the ideas, mannerisms, idiosyncrasies and natural features of those to whom they became
exposed in a lesser cognitive and higher social aspect It is through the adaption or the adoption of
the behaviors of others into our own what completes the full circle of social learning, the gist of
Banduras theory. Comparatively to Skinner, Banduras theory might at first seem to follow its
behavioral perspective. Yet, Bandura intermingles the social imputs which trigger behavior under
the premise that they do follow a natural process that is inherent to all individuals. Contrastingly to
Chomsky, Bandura does not officially defines or analyzes the internal processes that lead to
learning. Yet, he is clear in that the process of learning is worth researching under a cognitive and
psychological umbrella as it will be demonstrated in the analysis of Banduras definition of
intelligence.
Bandura on intelligence: social learning and brain activity
Bandura cites four major activities through which a person goes in order to a) obtain information
or new behaviors: Attention, b) keep that new information inside their brains: Retention, c) repeat
the information or behavior in a near future: Reproduction, d) become motivated to maintain it or
expand it: Motivation (Bandura, 1977)
These activities define how and why Bandura visualized them as part of a social context and a
cognitive context. Additional information will be provided showing briefly how research in
neurocognitive linguistics proves Banduras cognitive view of learning correctly. More detail on the
recent research in brain activity will be expanded during the Depth component of the KAM. In
summary, here are the learning processes postulated by Bandura, and the scientific support that
warrants its accuracy.
a) Attention
The process of attention consists on focused observation that searches for the functional, affective,
and unique value of the behavior (Bandura, 1997). This function, however, is done cognitively. The
Depth component of this KAM will show that research as recent as 2006, shows that the prefrontal
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and the parietal cortex in the brain attend to different attention modes (Miller, 2007). This fact
makes Banduras theory both behavioral and cognitive.
b) Retention
In Banduras behavioral perspective, retention is the process of cognitively attaining the
characteristics of the behavior and bringing them to the core of the individuals self (Bandura, 1977
p. 40).
c) Reproduction
In Banduras theory, reproduction is putting the acquired behavior into action. It is also repeating
and adopting the learned behavior to apply further in a social context (Bandura, 1977 ). In the
same way, reproduction is also a cognitive and neurological process. Inoue and Mikami (2005)
demonstrate that encoding information and the reproduction of it at a later time are two functions
that occur in the neuronal activity from the lateral prefrontal cortex during serial probe
reproduction tasks. Understanding reproduction as a cognitive and neurological action allows us
to understand with more clarity why Bandura is specific about giving it a role within the process of
learning.
d) Motivation
The last method by which humans acquire information and learn is intertwined with motivation.
Bandura defines motivation as an inner stimulus that leads to mimic the learned behavior.
(Bandura, 1977 ). This inner stimulus occurs in an area of the brain that, according to research by
Kuntson, Westdorp and Sumner, (2000) is even more activated when the stimulus for motivation
comes in the shape of rewards. Concisely, the area of the brain that is active during motivational
tasks is called the striatal and mesial forebrain. This finding makes again Banduras theory look into
the biological nature of learning as a process that is both social and neurocognitive.
Bandura on motivation: Self-efficacy
In addition to his outlook on motivation as a process that enables learning, Bandura is specific
about the unique and particular attributes of motivation as an independent process on its own.
This is evident in the coined term self efficacy (Bandura, 1994).
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Bandura (1994) introduced the term self-efficacy

self efficacy as a component in human behavior.
Self efficacy entails the individuals own perception about their performance on certain tasks
throughout their lives . Explained further, self-efficacy
self
would determine performance and behavior,
because the way people feel about themselves ultimately decides how much of their abilities they will
use (or believe they can use) to succeed at something. A person will be able to learn as much as they feel
that they can learn. This motivation comes from a diverse round of sources. Bandura attributes them
not only to the society of others, but also processes that include internal motivation, affection, and
selection.. These processes come together internally, with external input.
input. Such input comes as feedback,
support, developmentally appropriate tasks, and motivation from others. It is important to point out the
implications of these events within a classroom. A student who is motivated, feels accomplished
through appropriately designed tasks, and receives positive feedback from peers and teachers develops
that self-efficacy
efficacy feeling that will encourage better performance.
Banduras theory is then a foundation that bases further theory on how learning is a product of
environmentall motivation and cognitive processes. Accoding to Banduras most human behavior is
cognitively motivated; forethought and expectations act in an anticipatorily manner forming ideals
thatt delineate their capabilitie.
capabilitie
Conclusion on Bandura
In Banduras own
wn words:Most human behavior is learned observationally through modeling: From
observing others, one forms an idea of how new behaviors are performed, and on later occasions
this coded information serves as a guide for action
The above quote summarizes Banduras theory. Social Learning refers to the adoption and
adaption of new behaviors that are found in daily and everyday contact. It is an active process
where behaviors are observed and modeled in every context that rule the everyday lives of
individuals.
uals. As people observe the traits of others they accept them, reject them, embrace them,
imitate them, or adopt them. This process occurs under a methodology that is either: a) interactive,
or through the connection and discourse with others, b) dynamic,
c, or through the active seeking of
information that one person transfers to another, c) consistent, or continuously at exposure with
others behaviors, and d) intrapersonal, or through the bonds established through the
communication with others.
Bandura avows that the consistent and reciprocal exchange of verbal and non-verbal
non
communication in everyday human interactions stimulates a change, an adoption, or an
adaptation of the behaviors of others to our own. The choice to repeat or adopt the new behavior
is entirely dependent upon the individual. Although this might seem entirely behavioral and
external, the consequences of learning preclude a theoretical perspective on the acquisition of
intelligence
It is clear that Bandura had a solidified concept of learning,
learning, motivation, and intelligence. His views
included the concept of intelligence as a series of events that would eventually end up stored in
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the individuals cognitive capacity. He viewed learning as the process by which individuals observe,
absorb, adapt to, or adopt someone elses behavior patterns. The option of repeating the
behaviors is entirely left to the individual, yet, external motivators might be the key as to whether
they will preserve the newly learned behaviors or exterminate them all at once.
Finally, Bandura explains how motivation is not a simple trigger or boost of energy to accomplish a
goal. Individuals view motivation in three different ways according to his theory: They can perceive
that their role in meeting goals is imperative, through self-efficacy motivators, or they would blame
the failure of goals on external inputs.
Further theoretical analysis will show that Vygotsky also speaks of the process of learning under a
zone of proximal development (ZPD). This zone entails the need for appropriate tasks that are
developmentally agreeable to the students level and supported by peers and teachers for
purposes of motivation to perform at, and above, such level (Vygotsky, 1978). Similarly, Krashen
advocates that an affective filter will pronounce the ability of a student and will promote changes
in behavior conducive to learning. Yet, it is Vygotskys theory that stems directly from Bandura,
adding a cognitive edge to language as a tool for development.
2.6. Vygotsky on learning and intelligence: constructivism

Lev Vygotsky
Lev Vygotsky, like Bandura and Chomsky, views learning as a process that
requires environmental input and social interaction. His theory will show how,
within a set environment, individuals serve as each others monitors, supporters,
and guides. His take on language as an actively-learned behavior will similarly
agree with the views of the previous philosophers. Yet, what sets Vygotskys
theory apart is the notion of scaffolding, or building upon a foundation, through a process of
constructivism which takes place at a developmentally appropriate and prime learning zone, and
where peers act as motivators to reach the next higher level of capacity and potential.
While Albert Banduras theory philosophizes on observation and modeling as the cognitive
conduits of social learning (Bandura, 1977), Vygotsky (1978) presents a different perspective where
new behaviors and learning processes are built upon current behaviors and prior knowledge. This
view of new behavior built on the foundations of current behaviors gives light to the term that
defines Vygotskys overall theory of constructivism (Vygotsky, 1978).
Constructivism places importance on discourse and interaction as the channels for learning (Feden
& Voguel, 2003) Vygotsky, however, shifts slightly from the social perspective of the theory and
focuses on language as the key to the cognitive aspect of learning (Vygotsky, 1978). Similarly to
Banduras social learning theory, the use of language is an important element of development. In
Vygotskys theory, language is described as a powerful psychological tool that underpins the
thinking processes and helps individuals develop both cognitively and socially. Feden & Vogel
(2003) discuss that the rationale behind this philosophy is that spoken language is the first channel
used to become a part of the environment even from infancy. We continue to use language as we
progress through life, and it allows us to obtain, retain, and produce information. Concisely, brain
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and cognitive activity is pushed forward by the social contributions that come as a result of
discourse, guided collaboration, and cooperative learning. In other words, it is language what
helps us learn.
Vygotskys theory can be summarized in his own words as he states:
Every function in the childs cultural development appears twice: first, on the social level,
and later, on the individual level; first, between people (interpsychological) and then inside
the child (intrapsychological). This applies equally to voluntary attention, to logical
memory,
emory, and to the formation of concepts. All the higher functions originate as actual
relationships
lationships between individuals.
individuals
The higher functions to which Vygotsky refers occur in a particular time and place that is inherent
to each individual as part of their
thei biological and psychological make-up.
up. This time and place is
defined by Vygotsky as the Zone of Proximal Development, or the ZPD. It is there where the
interpsychological and intrapsychological development occurs with the aid of the immediate
support systems. Mentoring, collaboration, and peer relations are the key factors to make this
happen.
Vygotsky on learning: zone of proximal development and scaffolding
Vygotsky theorized that all human beings possess a zone of proximal development, or ZPD. This
Thi
concept can be paraphrased as a measure of the potential of an individual at a certain human
developmental stage versus the potential the individual could develop with added input and
guidance from a mentoring environment. The notion of a ZPD presupposes that such human
potential is unlimited and the capacity is expandable depending on the quality of input received
from the immediate support systems, for instance, peers (Vygotsky, 1978 ). Concisely, Vygotskys
theory directly implicates sociology as an essential part of cognitive development. The conduit that
connects the individual with its environment is language (Vygotsky, 1978, )
The Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) entails that cognitive development is interdependent on
environmental input, mostly in the form of peer influences that are created, strengthened and,
eventually, solidified through language. An additional dimension to this theory also states that this
process of interaction, input, and development, occurs within an organized system. This
Th system is
based on six steps through which individuals are guided towards the actual learning with the
assistance of peers. This systematic approach to learning is called scaffolding (Vygotsky, 1962).
The process of scaffolding can be paraphrased as a period of constructive dialogue and interaction
where the individuals prior and current knowledge comes together with that of other people. The
discourse that comes from sharing, particularly when tasks need to be accomplished with the aid
of others who can help accomplish them, are conducive to learning. To this day, scaffolding is one
of the methodologies that persist in most classrooms. It is exemplified in the constant exchange of
ideas and information that occurs among students. Theoretically, the optimal
o
learning
environment is one in which students who know more than others will help their peers to attain
the higher classroom goals by sharing their knowledge with the others, thus benefitting everyone
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in the classroom as a learning community. These students serve as pillars within the classroom
sociology, and Vygotsky identifies them as the MKOs or More Knowledgeable Others (Vygotsky,
1964).
Vygotsky on motivation: mko and zpds
In Vygotskys theory knowledge, or intelligence, is developed further through the exposure to
social systems and within the interactions with peers particularly those who are more
knowledgeable, or MKOs. A MKO is not a set individual. It is whoever possesses the skills or
knowledge about a specific subject or task at hand which
which will eventually lead the rest of the group
towards more learning on that subject or task. A MKO can be a peer, a family member, a role
model, or the teacher. The MKOs directly affects the ZPD by helping individuals teach their higher
potentials by raising
sing their levels of competence. The ways in which they do this include, but are not
limited to motivating and engaging the learners, breaking the tasks into subtasks that can be easily
accomplished, and maintaining focus (Vygotsky, 1978). The specific role
role of the teacher is to give
the students the opportunity to engage in this type of collaboration and being the guide who will
direct this process not as an authoritarian, but in a way in which the kids feel compelled to become
like the teacher (Vygotsky, 1978).
978).
Conclusion on Vygostky
Vygotsky writes:
In this sense, education in every country and in every epoch has always been social in nature. Indeed,
by its very essence it could hardly exist as anti-social
anti
in anyway. Both in the seminary and in the old
high school, in the military schools and in the schools for the daughters of the nobility it was never
the teacher or the tutor who did the teaching, but the particular social environment in the school
which was created for each individual instance
(Vygotsky, 1997 p. 47)
The above quote basically reaffirms Vygotsky as a behaviorist and social theorist whose main
theoretical framework consists on mutual interaction, consistent input, and collaborative learning.
These basic elements coexist within regular human development, and are the basic foundations of
social development. Building upon a foundation of knowledge is what makes his theory a
constructivist philosophy. The main idea is that learning is a process of input and output
between those who
ho know more and people who need to learn from them.
The discourse that occurs from the exchange of ideas and knowledge from those who are most
knowledgeable to others, help people build upon their current body of knowledge, and learn new
information. The strategy to do this is called scaffolding, and the aim of it is to create and build
confidence and skill among the learners in their zones of proximal development. These zones of
development are the target that aims to be reached and elevated through the sociology
s
that takes
place in the classroom. In basic terminology, Vygotsky advocates for a learning environment in
which students help each other learn more things, and where the teacher serves as a coach that
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guides the cooperative learning among peers. This community of learners will develop sociology of
mutual support; engaging learning experiences, and focuses so that new experiences and learning
can occur. Through this social component, Vygostky proposes that development is enhanced, for it
is through the experiential processes that the internal development of individuals as healthy
members of the community will take place.
The theory of constructivism as a whole conveys the extrinsic and intrinsic need for environmental
input that will allow the individual to bring out their prior knowledge, connect it to current and
new information, and then produce new behaviors. This process occurs within the persons
appropriate zone of development (ZPD) with the aim of extending the capacity and potential of
the individual towards a higher goal. Concisely, constructivism is a very similar take on learning as
in Banduras social learning, with the exception that Vygotsky emphasizes in the cognitive aspect
of language as an acquisition process that will require scaffolding to easily enter the realms of the
mind.
2.7. Constructivism. Learning theory. Jean piaget

Constructivism is a theory of knowledge that argues that humans generate knowledge and
meaning from an interaction between their experiences and their ideas (During infancy, it is an
interaction between their experiences and their reflexes or behavior-patterns (Piaget called these
schemas) Constructivism is not a specific pedagogy; Piaget's theory of constructivist learning has
had wide ranging impact on learning theories and teaching methods in education and is an
underlying theme of many education reform movements. Research support for constructivist
teaching techniques has been mixed, with some research supporting these techniques and other
research contradicting those results.
Formalization of the theory of constructivism is generally attributed to Jean Piaget, who articulated
mechanisms by which knowledge is internalized by learners. He suggested that through processes
of accommodation and assimilation, individuals construct new knowledge from their experiences.
When individuals assimilate, they incorporate the new experience into an already existing
framework without changing that framework. This may occur when individuals' experiences are
aligned with their internal representations of the world, but may also occur as a failure to change a
faulty understanding; for example, they may not notice events, may misunderstand input from
others, or may decide that an event is a fluke and is therefore unimportant as information about
the world. In contrast, when individuals' experiences contradict their internal representations, they
may change their perceptions of the experiences to fit their internal representations. According to
the theory, accommodation is the process of reframing one's mental representation of the external
world to fit new experiences. Accommodation can be understood as the mechanism by which
failure leads to learning: when we act on the expectation that the world operates in one way and it
violates our expectations, we often fail, but by accommodating this new experience and reframing
our model of the way the world works, we learn from the experience of failure, or others' failure.
It is important to note that constructivism is not a particular pedagogy, In fact, constructivism is a
theory describing how learning happens, regardless of whether learners are using their
experiences to understand a lecture or following the instructions for building a model airplane. In
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both cases, the theory of constructivism suggests that learners construct knowledge out of their
experiences. However, constructivism is often associated with pedagogic approaches that promote
active learning or learning by doing
The learner as a unique individual
Social constructivism views each learner as a unique individual with unique needs and
backgrounds. The learner is also seen as complex and multidimensional. Social constructivism not
only acknowledges the uniqueness and complexity of the learner, but actually encourages, utilizes
and rewards it as an integral part of the learning process (Wertsch 1997).
The importance of the background and culture of the learner
Social constructivism encourages the learner to arrive at his or her version of the truth, influenced
by his or her background, culture or embedded worldview. Historical developments and symbol
systems, such as language, logic, and mathematical systems, are inherited by the learner as a
member of a particular culture and these are learned throughout the learner's life. This also stresses
the importance of the nature of the learner's social interaction with knowledgeable members of
the society. Without the social interaction with other more knowledgeable people, it is impossible
to acquire social meaning of important symbol systems and learn how to utilize them. Young
children develop their thinking abilities by interacting with other children, adults and the physical
world. From the social constructivist viewpoint, it is thus important to take into account the
background and culture of the learner throughout the learning process, as this background also
helps to shape the knowledge and truth that the learner creates, discovers and attains in the
learning process (Wertsch 1997).
The responsibility for learning
Furthermore, it is argued that the responsibility of learning should reside increasingly with the
learner (Glasersfeld, 1989). Social constructivism thus emphasizes the importance of the learner
being actively involved in the learning process, unlike previous educational viewpoints where the
responsibility rested with the instructor to teach and where the learner played a passive, receptive
role. Von Glasersfeld (1989) emphasizes that learners construct their own understanding and that
they do not simply mirror and reflect what they read. Learners look for meaning and will try to find
regularity and order in the events of the world even in the absence of full or complete information.
The motivation for learning
Another crucial assumption regarding the nature of the learner concerns the level and source of
motivation for learning. According to Von Glasersfeld (1989) sustaining motivation to learn is
strongly dependent on the learners confidence in his or her potential for learning. These feelings
of competence and belief in potential to solve new problems, are derived from first-hand
experience of mastery of problems in the past and are much more powerful than any external
acknowledgment and motivation (Prawat and Floden 1994). This links up with Vygotskys "zone of
proximal development (Vygotsky 1978) where learners are challenged within close proximity to,
yet slightly above, their current level of development. By experiencing the successful completion of
challenging tasks, learners gain confidence and motivation to embark on more complex
challenges.
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Instructors as facilitators
According to the social constructivist approach, instructors have to adapt to the role of facilitators
and not teachers (Bauersfeld, 1995). Where a teacher gives a didactic lecture that covers the subject
matter, a facilitator helps the learner to get to his or her own understanding of the content. In the
former scenario the learner plays a passive role and in the latter scenario the learner plays an active
role in the learning process. The emphasis thus turns away from the instructor and the content, and
towards the learner (Gamoran, Secada, & Marrett, 1998). This dramatic change of role implies that a
facilitator needs to display a totally different set of skills than a teacher (Brownstein 2001). A
teacher tells, a facilitator asks; a teacher lectures from the front, a facilitator supports from the back;
a teacher gives answers according to a set curriculum, a facilitator provides guidelines and creates
the environment for the learner to arrive at his or her own conclusions; a teacher mostly gives a
monologue, a facilitator is in continuous dialogue with the learners (Rhodes and Bellamy, 1999). A
facilitator should also be able to adapt the learning experience in mid-air by taking the initiative to
steer the learning experience to where the learners want to create value.
The learning environment should also be designed to support and challenge the learner's thinking
(Di Vesta, 1987). While it is advocated to give the learner ownership of the problem and solution
process, it is not the case that any activity or any solution is adequate. The critical goal is to support
the learner in becoming an effective thinker. This can be achieved by assuming multiple roles, such
as consultant and coach.
A few strategies for cooperative learning include
Reciprocal Questioning: students work together to ask and answer questions
Jigsaw Classroom: students become "experts" on one part of a group project and
teach it to the others in their group
Structured Controversies: Students work together to research a particular
controversy (Woolfolk 2010)
The nature of the learning process, Learning is an active, social process
Social constructivism, strongly influenced by Vygotsky's (1978) work, suggests that knowledge is
first constructed in a social context and is then appropriated by individuals (Bruning et al., 1999; M.
Cole, 1991; Eggan & Kauchak, 2004). According to social constructivists, the process of sharing
individual perspectives-called collaborative elaboration (Meter & Stevens, 2000)-results in learners
constructing understanding together that wouldn't be possible alone (Greeno et al., 1996)
Social constructivist scholars view learning as an active process where learners should learn to
discover principles, concepts and facts for themselves, hence the importance of encouraging
guesswork and intuitive thinking in learners (Brown et al.1989; Ackerman 1996). In fact, for the
social constructivist, reality is not something that we can discover because it does not pre-exist
prior to our social invention of it. Kukla (2000) argues that reality is constructed by our own
activities and that people, together as members of a society, invent the properties of the world.
Other constructivist scholars agree with this and emphasize that individuals make meanings
through the interactions with each other and with the environment they live in. Knowledge is thus
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a product of humans and is socially and culturally constructed (Ernest 1991; Prawat and Floden
1994). McMahon (1997) agrees that learning is a social process. He further states that learning is not
a process that only takes place inside our minds, nor is it a passive development of our behaviours
that is shaped by external forces and that meaningful learning occurs when individuals are
engaged in social activities.
Vygotsky (1978) also highlighted the convergence of the social and practical elements in learning
by saying that the most significant moment in the course of intellectual development occurs when
speech and practical activity, two previously completely independent lines of development,
converge. Through practical activity a child constructs meaning on an intrapersonal level, while
speech connects this meaning with the interpersonal world shared by the child and her/his culture.
Dynamic interaction between task, instructor and learner
A further characteristic of the role of the facilitator in the social constructivist viewpoint, is that the
instructor and the learners are equally involved in learning from each other as well (Holt and
Willard-Holt 2000). This means that the learning experience is both subjective and objective and
requires that the instructors culture, values and background become an essential part of the
interplay between learners and tasks in the shaping of meaning. Learners compare their version of
the truth with that of the instructor and fellow learners to get to a new, socially tested version of
truth (Kukla 2000). The task or problem is thus the interface between the instructor and the learner
(McMahon 1997). This creates a dynamic interaction between task, instructor and learner. This
entails that learners and instructors should develop an awareness of each other's viewpoints and
then look to their own beliefs, standards and values, thus being both subjective and objective at
the same time (Savery 1994).
Some studies argue for the importance of mentoring in the process of learning (Archee and Duin
1995; Brown et al. 1989). The social constructivist model thus emphasizes the importance of the
relationship between the student and the instructor in the learning process.
Some learning approaches that could harbour this interactive learning include reciprocal teaching,
peer collaboration, cognitive apprenticeship, problem-based instruction, web quests, anchored
instruction and other approaches that involve learning with others.
Collaboration among learners
Learners with different skills and backgrounds should collaborate in tasks and discussions to arrive
at a shared understanding of the truth in a specific field (Duffy and Jonassen 1992).
Most social constructivist models, such as that proposed by Duffy and Jonassen (1992), also stress
the need for collaboration among learners, in direct contradiction to traditional competitive
approaches. One Vygotskian notion that has significant implications for peer collaboration, is that
of the zone of proximal development. Defined as the distance between the actual developmental
level as determined by independent problem-solving and the level of potential development as
determined through problem-solving under adult guidance or in collaboration with more capable
peers, it differs from the fixed biological nature of Piaget's stages of development. Through a
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process of 'scaffolding' a learner can be extended beyond the limitations of physical maturation to
the extent that the development process lags behind the learning process (Vygotsky 1978).
2.8. Learning by teaching (LdL) as constructivist method

The importance of context
The social constructivist paradigm views the context in which the learning occurs as central to the
learning itself (McMahon 1997). Underlying the notion of the learner as an active processor is "the
assumption that there is no one set of generalised learning laws with each law applying to all
domains" (Di Vesta 1987:208). Decontextualised knowledge does not give us the skills to apply our
understandings to authentic tasks because, as Duffy and Jonassen (1992) indicated, we are not
working with the concept in the complex environment and experiencing the complex
interrelationships in that environment that determine how and when the concept is used. One
social constructivist notion is that of authentic or situated learning, where the student takes part in
activities directly relevant to the application of learning and that take place within a culture similar
to the applied setting (Brown et al. 1989). Cognitive apprenticeship has been proposed as an
effective constructivist model of learning that attempts to "enculturate students into authentic
practices through activity and social interaction in a way similar to that evident, and evidently
successful, in craft apprenticeship" (Ackerman 1996:25).
Assessment
Holt and Willard-Holt (2000) emphasize the concept of dynamic assessment, which is a way of
assessing the true potential of learners that differs significantly from conventional tests. Here the
essentially interactive nature of learning is extended to the process of assessment. Rather than
viewing assessment as a process carried out by one person, such as an instructor, it is seen as a
two-way process involving interaction between both instructor and learner. The role of the
assessor becomes one of entering into dialogue with the persons being assessed to find out their
current level of performance on any task and sharing with them possible ways in which that
performance might be improved on a subsequent occasion. Thus, assessment and learning are
seen as inextricably linked and not separate processes (Holt and Willard-Holt 2000).
According to this viewpoint instructors should see assessment as a continuous and interactive
process that measures the achievement of the learner, the quality of the learning experience and
courseware. The feedback created by the assessment process serves as a direct foundation for
further development.
Engaging and challenging the learner
Learners should constantly be challenged with tasks that refer to skills and knowledge just beyond
their current level of mastery. This captures their motivation and builds on previous successes to
enhance learner confidence (Brownstein 2001). This is in line with Vygotskys zone of proximal
development, which can be described as the distance between the actual developmental level (as
determined by independent problem-solving) and the level of potential development (as
determined through problem-solving under adult guidance or in collaboration with more capable
peers) (Vygotsky 1978).
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Vygotsky (1978) further claimed that instruction is good only when it proceeds ahead of
development. Then it awakens and rouses to life an entire set of functions in the stage of maturing,
which lie in the zone of proximal development. It is in this way that instruction plays an extremely
important role in development.
To fully engage and challenge the learner, the task and learning environment should reflect the
complexity of the environment that the learner should be able to function in at the end of learning.
Learners must not only have ownership of the learning or problem-solving process, but of the
problem itself (Derry 1999).
Where the sequencing of subject matter is concerned, it is the constructivist viewpoint that the
foundations of any subject may be taught to anybody at any stage in some form (Duffy and
Jonassen 1992). This means that instructors should first introduce the basic ideas that give life and
form to any topic or subject area, and then revisit and build upon these repeatedly. This notion has
been extensively used in curricula.
It is also important for instructors to realize that although a curriculum may be set down for them,
it inevitably becomes shaped by them into something personal that reflects their own belief
systems, their thoughts and feelings about both the content of their instruction and their learners
(Rhodes and Bellamy 1999). Thus, the learning experience becomes a shared enterprise. The
emotions and life contexts of those involved in the learning process must therefore be considered
as an integral part of learning. The goal of the learner is central in considering what is learned
(Brown et al. 1989; Ackerman 1996).
The structuredness of the learning process
It is important to achieve the right balance between the degree of structure and flexibility that is
built into the learning process. Savery (1994) contends that the more structured the learning
environment, the harder it is for the learners to construct meaning based on their conceptual
understandings. A facilitator should structure the learning experience just enough to make sure
that the students get clear guidance and parameters within which to achieve the learning
objectives, yet the learning experience should be open and free enough to allow for the learners to
discover, enjoy, interact and arrive at their own, socially verified version of truth.
Final remarks
A constructivist learning intervention is thus an intervention where contextualized activities (tasks)
are used to provide learners with an opportunity to discover and collaboratively construct meaning
as the intervention unfolds. Learners are respected as unique individuals, and instructors act as
facilitators rather than as teachers.
2.9. Pedagogies based on constructivism

In fact, there are many pedagogies that leverage constructivist theory. Most approaches that have
grown from constructivism suggest that learning is accomplished best using a hands-on approach.
Learners learn by experimentation, and not by being told what will happen. They are left to make
their own inferences, discoveries and conclusions. It also emphasizes that learning is not an "all or
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nothing" process but that students learn the new information that is presented to them by
building upon knowledge that they already possess. It is therefore important that teachers
constantly assess the knowledge their students have gained to make sure that the students'
perceptions of the new knowledge are what the teacher had intended. Teachers will find that since
the students build upon already existing knowledge, when they are called upon to retrieve the
new information, they may make errors. It is known as reconstruction error when we fill in the gaps
of our understanding with logical, though incorrect, thoughts. Teachers need to catch and try to
correct these errors, though it is inevitable that some reconstruction error will continue to occur
because of our innate retrieval limitations.
In most pedagogies based on constructivism, the teacher's role is not only to observe and assess
but to also engage with the students while they are completing activities, wondering aloud and
posing questions to the students for promotion of reasoning (DeVries et al., 2002). (ex: I wonder
why the water does not spill over the edge of the full cup?) Teachers also intervene when there are
conflicts that arise; however, they simply facilitate the students' resolutions and self-regulation,
with an emphasis on the conflict being the students' and that they must figure things out for
themselves. For example, promotion of literacy is accomplished by integrating the need to read
and write throughout individual activities within print-rich classrooms. The teacher, after reading a
story, encourages the students to write or draw stories of their own, or by having the students
reenact a story that they may know well, both activities encourage the students to conceive
themselves as reader and writers.
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Unit 3
Factors afecting second language acquisition.

Social and cognitive approaches. Constrastive
analysis
This analysis aims to compare the different theoretical studies which have focused on studying
factors affecting second language acquisition. It departs from the idea that bilingualism raises
metalinguistic awareness; the different factors are studied under the umbrella of Contrastive
Analysis.
3.1. The role of transfer in interlanguage

To what extent is transfer responsible for the form and function of a persons interlanguage? In
order to answer this question, it will be necessary to examine what is meant by a number of
commonly used terms such as transfer, interlanguage and interference. It will also be of use to
review the history of interlanguage as a concept in order to understand where it came from and
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where it may be going. There has been debate as to whether transfer is a valid concept for use in
discussing
ng language acquisition at all. Extremes range from Lado (1957) who proposed that second
language learners rely almost entirely on their native language in the process of learning the target
language, to Dulay and Burt (1974) who suggested that transfer was
was largely unimportant in the
creation of interlanguage. It may be useful to briefly consider the historical context of the
development of interlanguage.
3.2. Contrastive analysis

Lado (1957) and Fries (1945) are the names most closely associated with the CA hypothesis.
h
In a
specific attempt to rationalise and order language teaching materials, Fries wrote:
The most effective materials are those that are based upon a scientific description of the language to
be learned, carefully compared with a parallel description of the native language of the learner.
(1945: 9)
The basic concept behind CA was that a structural

structural picture of any one language could be
constructed which might then be used in direct comparison with the structural picture of another
language. Through a process of mapping one system onto another, similarities and differences
could be identified.
tified. Identifying the differences would lead to a better understanding of the
potential problems that a learner of the particular L2 would face. Structurally different areas of the
two languages involved would result in interference. This term was used to
to describe any influence
from the L1 which would have an effect on the acquisition of the L2. This was the origin of the term
transfer, and a distinction was made between positive and negative transfer. Positive transfer
occurred where there was concordance
concordance between the L1 and L2. In such a situation, acquisition
would take place with little or no difficulty. Negative transfer, on the other hand, occurred where
there was some sort of dissonance between the L1 and L2. In this case, acquisition of the L2 would
be more difficult and take longer because of the newness (hence, difficulty) of the L2 structure.
These two concepts of transfer were central to CA and reflected an essentially behaviourist model
of language learning, which described the acquisition of language in terms of habit formation.
Reflecting Skinners interpretation of laboratory experiments on rats (1957), where positive and
negative stimuli induced certain learned behaviours, language acquisition (certainly FLA) was
described in the same way.
y. The broad acceptance that these views had in the 50s and 60s
encouraged the Audiolingual Method of teaching which focused on extensive drilling in order to
form the required habits. Error was seen as an unwanted deviation from the norm and an
imperfectt product of perfect input.
Challenging Skinners model of behaviourist learning, Chomsky (1959) proposed a more cognitive
approach to language learning which involved the use of a LAD. This device, he argued, was
reserved exclusively for processing and producing
producing language, and was separate from other
cognitive processes. Moreover, Chomsky posited that there are language universals which all
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babies have access to and which are essentially innate in humans. This idea of innateness was
particularly interesting and brought into question the practices of Audiolingualism. Language, it
was argued, was not simply a matter of habit formation, but rather had its own natural agenda and
its own developmental course. Certain aspects of vocabulary learning may follow behaviourist
principles, but an important piece of counter-behaviourist evidence is that children say things they
could not possibly have heard from those around them such as runned and falled. Chomsky
argued that children were perceiving regularities and forming rules for how the language works
rather than simply imitating other people. Importantly, language was said to be rule-governed,
structure-dependent and fundamentally generative.
The Birth of Interlanguage. Error analysis
Although Selinker (1972) coined the term interlanguage, it was Corder (1967) who is considered
responsible for raising issues which became central to studies of IL. Building on ideas already
explored by scholars such as Nemser (ibid.) above, Corder suggested that there was a structure in
learner language, and that certain inferences could be made about the learning process by
describing successive states of the learner language, noting the changes and correlating this with
the input. Moreover, Corder argued that the appearance of error in a learners production was
evidence that the learner was organising the knowledge available to them at a particular point in
time. Errors, he stated, were the most important source of information, accounting for the fact that
learners have a built in syllabus and that a process of hypothesis formulation and reformulation
was continuously occurring. The value of error-making in language learning was consequently
reassessed, with a move away from seeing error as a purely negative phenomenon. Error analysis
became a valuable tool in the classroom for teachers and researchers. Various taxonomies were
devised to account for certain types of error (e.g. Dulay and Burt 1974). It was suggested that
spoken and written texts produced different kinds of errors, that there were differences between
grammatical and lexical errors, that it was possible to construct a gradation of serious and less
serious errors.
In short, language learning began to be seen as a process which involved the construction of an IL,
a transitional competence reflecting the dynamic nature of the learners developing system. As a
result of the variety of errors and the difficulty associated with interpreting them, Corder proposed
a general law for EA and IL. He suggested that every learner sentence should be regarded as
idiosyncratic until shown to be otherwise (Corder, 1981). This is an important concept to bear in
mind since it emphasises the fact that IL is a personal construct and process, and that while it may
be true to say that certain tendencies are typical of certain learners from the same linguistic
background, it cannot be true to say that all learners from that background will have such
tendencies. As Kohn (1986) notes: for the analysis of (inter)language processes, group knowledge is
of absolutely no importance. It is the learners own autonomous and functional knowledge and his
own certainty or uncertainty which determines his interlanguage behaviour. (1986)
Evaluating Acquisition
It is perhaps useful at this point to briefly focus on language learning and consider the difficulties
of defining terms such as acquisition. Sharwood Smith (1986) claims that if a language item is
used spontaneously by the learner in 90% of obligatory contexts, then it can be said to be
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acquired. But what does this mean? If a learners production closely reflects L2 norms of speaking,
can it be assumed that the learners competence is also at a similar level? Clark (1974) warns about
the dangers of performing without competence where a student uses correct chunks of the
language without analysis, giving the impression that the norm has been attained. Conversely,
Sharwood Smith points out that it is equally possible that a learner may have 100% competence
but 90% performance -competence without performance. For example, a rule may be acquired
(competence) without showing itself due to semantic redundancy or as a result of processing
problems. A learner may be able to hear the sound // very clearly and know that it is the correct
phonological representation of th in the word think, but nevertheless produces the sound /z/
instead. This clearly rejects the simplistic notion that performance reflects competence and that
the relationship between performance and competence is a complex one.
3.3. Transfer. Positive and negative

Dulay, Burt and Krashen (1982) suggest that there are two possible ways of describing the term
interference. One is from a psychological perspective, which suggests that there is influence from
old habits when new ones are being learned. The second is from a sociolinguistic perspective
which describes the language interactions which occur when two language communities are in
contact. Three such examples are borrowing, codeswitching and fossilisation. Borrowing essentially
means the incorporation of linguistic material from one language into another, for example, the
borrowing of thousands of words from old French into Anglo-Saxon after the Norman conquest of
1066. Such words maintain their general sound pattern but alter the phonetic and phonological
system of the new language. Integrated borrowing, according to Dulay and Burt (1974b), occurs
when the new word in question is fully incorporated into the learners IL. Selinker (1992) argues that
this is in fact transfer. Communicative borrowing on the other hand, reflects a communicative
strategy which helps to get over the deficiencies of the L2. The learner falls back on structures or
patterns from the L1 in order to get a message across. Selinker (1992) notes that if communication
is successful, then transfer will (or may) happen. The danger is that successful communication does
not depend entirely on formal correction. Persistent errors (e.g. wrongly incorporated errors, covert
errors) could lead to fossilisation where a learner, uncorrected for the reasons mentioned above,
but still able to successfully get their message understood, has no sociofunctional need to alter
their IL and so it fossilises in that state. Code switching describes the use of two language systems
for communication, usually evidenced by a sudden, brief shift from one to another. This
phenomenon is not an indication of a lack of competence, but rather tends to obey strict structural
rules. Certain structural combinations, for example, are not possible, e.g. switching before relative
clause boundaries or before adverbial clauses is illegal.
A more behaviourist interpretation of interference was mentioned earlier; two types were
suggested:
1. Positive transfer
2. Negative transfer
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Both of these types refer to the automatic and subconscious use of old behaviour in new learning
situations. Specifically, semantic and syntactic transfer of this nature reflects the most commonly
understood uses of the term. Corder (1983) suggested the need for a word other than transfer
which he claimed belonged to the school of behaviourist learning theory. He suggested the term
Mother Tongue Influence. Sharwood Smith (1986) refined the idea still further by suggesting
Cross Linguistic Influence, which would take into account the potential influence of L3 on L2
where another learned language,
but not the L1 might have an effect on the learning of the L2. Also encompassed within the
meaning of CLI is the notion of possible L2 influence on L1. Transfer is also used by educational
psychologists to refer to the use of past knowledge and experience in a new situation, e.g. a literate
SLL does not have to learn that written symbols represent the spoken form of the new language.
Similarly, concepts such as deixis are already acquired when a learner comes to learn a second
language. For many people, the proof of the pudding is seen in transfer errors which reflect the
equivalent structures of the L1. Thus, for example, if a Japanese learner consistently omitted the
indefinite articles of a sentence, then negative transfer could be claimed. Conversely, if a French
learner regularly included the correct definite or indefinite articles in a sentence, then positive
transfer could be cited. The proof would be in the fact that in Japanese the article system does not
exist, while French has a similar article system to English. Generally speaking, in terms of article use,
Japanese and French learners of English do tend to follow the pattern suggested above. Is the case
therefore closed? Certain evidence suggests that the situation is somewhat more complex.
Felix (1980) describes an English boy learning German who used the word warum to mean both
why and because. Felix points out that in, say, Spanish or Greek, this one equivalent word does
carry these two meanings. So had the boy been Spanish, his error would almost certainly have
been identified as interference. Errors, Felix suggests, will always correspond to structures in some
language.
Butterworth (1978) noticed that Ricardo, a 13 year old Spanish boy learning English, often used
subjectless sentences. He therefore attributed this to interference since it is perfectly acceptable to
omit the subject in Spanish. Felix, however, points out that it is also common in FLA to miss out the
subject of a sentence. Dulay and Burt (1974), after studying 513 errors produced by Spanish
children learning English, concluded that overall, less than 5% of the total errors were exclusively
attributable to interference. Felix (1980) is clear that in certain circumstances interference does
occur. Nevertheless he concludes: Our data on L2 acquisition of syntactic structures in a natural
environment suggest that interference does not constitute a major strategy in this area. (1980:
107). There is also the perhaps surprising phenomenon of a lack of positive transfer where learners
make mistakes that they should not have made given the similarity of their L1 background to the
L2 in question (Richards, 1971).
LoCoco (1975) in a study of learner error suggested that 5% to 18% of the errors observed should
not have been made if positive transfer was in fact at work in the learners IL. Coulter (1968) noted
how CA predictions were specifically falsified in an experiment on Russian learners of English. In
Russian, there are five forms of the plural which contrast clearly with singular items in the
language. Interference theory would suggest therefore that there would be no difficulty in
acquiring the s-morpheme of English plurals. If anything there would be a positive transfer of
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complexity to simplicity since English has just the one plural form. Extended observation of the
Russian subjects showed that this was not the case. In tests of production they failed to
consistently produce the required plural forms.
All of this suggests that while transfer seems to be a reasonable and logical explanation for some
part of the nature and form of ILs, there are certain reservations that should be born in mind. Only
certain structures or forms seem to be transferable from the L1 and the identification of these items
is further complicated by the variables of context and the individual in question.
3.4. Specific linguistic areas where the l1 influences the l2

Lexis
There seems to be considerable evidence for the influence of L1 lexis on IL/L2. Ringbom (1978), for
example, studying Swedish and Finnish learners of English, suggested that the results from his
study showed clear and unambiguous evidence of CLI.
Negation
Hyltenstams study (1977) showed that learners from a variety of L1 backgrounds go through the
same stages of development in the acquisition of the negative particle in Swedish. Wodes research
(1981) was aimed at finding a universal sequence, true in essentials of all learners of all languages.
He suggested that learners go through five distinct stages of development:
1. Anaphoric sentence external: No
2. Non-anaphoric sentence external: No finish
3. Copula be: Thats no good
4. Full verbs and imperatives with dont: You have a not fish or Dont say
something
5. Do forms: You didnt can throw it
(Taken from Cook 1991: 19)
Studies suggest that learners from different L1 backgrounds do in fact follow the developmental
order suggested by Wode.
Word Order
Once again, there is evidence and counter evidence of transfer in studies related to word order.
Studies have focused on whether, for example, SVO L1s carry this pattern over into the L2.
Rutherford (1983) suggested that Japanese learners did not use their L1 SOV in learning English.
McNeill (1979) in fact argues for the SOV pattern as being the basic, universal word order in L1
acquisition.
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Subject Pronoun Drop

Theroleof CLI in Subject Pronoun Drop (SPD) is not clear. There seems to be much evidence that
such deletion takes place in the L2 of Romance language speakers, but it is also argued that such
deletion is not restricted to speakers whose L1 has SPD. Meisel (1980) found that Romance
speakers in their L2 dropped pronouns more in the third than first person. This, seemingly, cannot
be explained by transfer.
Semantic Differences
In a study of Dutch learners, Bongaerts (1983) found that few of them had problems with the
semantic distinction between:
1. Easy to see and
2. Eager to see
Bongaerts argued that this was because of a similar semantic distinction in Dutch which facilitated
positive CLI. In another study, Bongaerts found that French, Hebrew and Arabic L1 learners had
considerably greater difficulties understanding and acquiring the same semantic distinctions.
Relative Clauses
Schachter (1974) conducted a study involving four groups of students with different L1
backgrounds -Arabs, Persians, Japanese and Chinese. In a quantitative study which involved
counting the number of relative clauses produced spontaneously in a classroom situation, he
found that the students could be divided into two distinct groups. Results showed that the Arab
and Persian learners made the most mistakes when using relative clauses. Significantly, however,
this group of students used relative clauses two or three times more than the Japanese and
Chinese students. Schachter suggested that right-branching relative clause structures in Arabic and
Persian, which is the same in English, were responsible for the relatively greater use of the clauses
in spontaneous speech. As for the Japanese and Chinese students, Schachter attributes their
limited use of relative structures to avoidance strategies. This occurs where a learner, confronted
by a form of the L2 that they are unfamiliar with or they find difficult, will simply avoid using that
structure. Sometimes, this is very difficult to identify since relatively proficient students will be able
to bypass using, for example, a certain difficult structure by using another similarly appropriate
structure. Another effect of avoidance strategy, as seen in the study mentioned above, is the
possibility that a certain structure (such as a relative clause) may hardly be used, or used very
occasionally in set phrases which the student knows to be correct. Simply quantifying the errors
made in relation to this structure will not give a clear picture of an individual learners competence.
This is one of the main weaknesses of EA which can only assess what the learner chooses to show
in their production.
Kellerman (1984) reviewing several studies of the kind mentioned above, cautiously suggests that
CLI operates on the surface form of IL reflecting such processes as transfer. He goes on to argue
that CLI operates on IL at smaller and larger levels than the sentence. Advanced learners, he claims,
are equally affected by CLI as are beginners. The only difference perhaps, is that beginners tend to
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show CLI more overtly in their syntax whereas advanced learners tend to show CLI in less obvious,
more discreet ways. e.g. through subtle semantic errors or through the use of avoidance strategies.
Conclusion
In conclusion it seems clear that there is considerable evidence to support the role of CLI in the
development of IL. Studies indicate that in certain situations and under certain conditions, the
influence of the L1 can be clearly demonstrated. It is the nature of these situations and conditions
that is not always clear. The effect of CLI on IL is not necessarily instant or predictable. This is
reflected in the development of IL which is non-linear -like a flower, development takes place at
many different points at the same time, resulting in more of a spiral model of development. While
the predictions of a pure UG hypothesis are in doubt (at least in SLA), several studies suggest that
there are universal parameters which a natural language will not violate. The creation of IL can
perhaps most importantly be seen as a process which is internally consistent, has many qualities of
a natural language, and which is in direct opposition to a view of language learning as a system of
habit formation. It can be concluded that three aspects of this process are continually occurring:
1. The learner is constantly making hypotheses about the L2 input available to them.
There is much evidence to suggest that the hypotheses tested will not contravene
universal boundaries of natural language.
2. There will be a selective use of the L1 knowledge. The process of selection, and the
extent to which it is conscious or unconscious is unclear.
3. There may be influence from other ILs known to the learner. There would seem to
be a need for further investigation to determine precisely the role of transfer in the
development of IL and the acquisition of L2.In the position we are at present, it can
only be tentatively suggested that the three aspects of the process mentioned
above, must all interact in some as yet unknown way.
3.5. Bilingualism
Languages embody the intellectual wealth of the people that speak them. Losing any of them is
like dropping a bomb on the Lovre Ken Hale, linguist.
Bilingualism has been defined by different researchers, one definition by the international
Baccalaureate Organization in 2007 is: Social and emotional conditions for learning that value all
languages and cultures and affirm the identity of each learner and promote self teem. Additive
bilingualism is defined as the kind of bilingualism which does not replace that of the mother
tongue, vs. Subtractive bilingualism which does not affirm identity and result in learners with poor
self esteem, because another language has replaced that of mother tongue. (Lambert)
In this sense Multilingual programmes will aim at developing cognitive, language and literacy skills
in both first language and the second, or third, through the use of the students l1 as the medium of
instruction for part of the curriculum. These programmes should begin at the primary education
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and must encourage parental involvement. In this context, studying factors affecting second
language acquisition is regarded as beneficial in order to understand the way how the different
languages are acquired in an interdependent way.
3.6. Jim cummins the common underlying proficiency theory

Canadian Linguist James Cummins advanced the theory, in the 1980s that people who are learning
a second language are not faced with a totally unmapped territory. They posses a common
framework of language structures and functions that can be described as a common underlying
proficiency drawn form the persons knowledge of one language to help him or her learn the
second or additional language. The theory holds that there is an interdependence factor between
languages. In short, that to the extent that instruction in the first or native language (L1) is effective
in promoting proficiency in L1, transfer of this proficiency to another language (L2) will occur
provided there is adequate exposure and motivation to learn L2.
Based on the interdependence hypothesis, the first and second languages have a common
underlying proficiency (CUP). Although the surface features of any two languages (e.g.
pronunciation, fluency) may be different, the underlying cognitive/academic proficiency skills are
common across languages. Cummins represented this concept of bilingual proficiency as a dual
iceberg in which CUP skills (e.g. semantic and functional meaning) underlie the surface level
language (ex pronunciation and vocabulary differences of l1 and l2. the CUP principle implies that
linguistic exposure and experience in two languages can promote the cognitive academic skills
underlying both languages.
This theory provides excellent support to the advocacy for bilingual education, especially with
respect to the positive use of l1 to learn l2. Common Underlying proficiency is also linked to the
cognitive academic proficiency (CALP) that Cummins believes should be the goal of high quality
bilingual education because this is the type of language that allows for the transfer of academic
skills (e.g. literacy development) from on language to another.
Bilingual or multilingual individuals who have meaningful exposure and experience with two
languages in school or another environment, develop CUP skills which enable the development of
cognitive and academic skills in both languages. With enough time and good instruction, the
individuals two languages are interdependent and come to exist within one central processing
system. Cummins contribution is crucial regarding first language development, it is now accepted
that the childs first language is not a hindrance in terms of learning an l2 or l3. Cognitive
academic skills learned in the native language will transfer to the new language and that such skills
are interdependent across languages.
He also stated the literacy skills which can be transferred
Directionality
Sequencing
Ability to distinguish shapes and sounds
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Knowledge that written symbols correspond to sounds and can be decoded in

order and direction
Activation of semantic and syntactic knowledge
Knowledge of text structure
Learning to use cues to predict meaning
Awareness of the variety of purposes for reading and writing
Confidence in oneself as a reader and writer
What skills do not transfer:

Critical and Cultural literacy, for example in order to make interpretations of a text
given a specific cultural world view.
3.7. Jim cummins. The iceberg methaphore

One of the ideas which support the advantages of multilingual programmes regarding the student
cognitive skills improvement is The Iceberg Metaphor. In terms of language proficiency, the part of
the iceberg which is immediately visible, above the water line, is the BICS, which is the acronym for
Basic Interpersonal Communication Skills, and it is the language needed to interact in socials
contexts such as parties, taking to a friend, It is the language used in everyday communication or
informal settings. Below the water line, we find the CALPs, meaning Cognitive Academic Language
Proficiency which refers to formal academic learning. This level of language achievement is crucial
for students success at school.
Basic Interpersonal Communication Skills
Conversational fluency: social language, ability to converse and understand everyday
discussions
Includes Silent Period
Lasts 1 3 years
Early production: 1000 words (0-1 year)
Speech Emergence: 3000 words (1-2 years)
(First 2 years)
Cognitive Academic Language Proficiency
Academic proficiency: school language, ability to read, write, speak and listen at an
academic level
Intermediate fluency: 6000 words (1-5 years)
Advanced and continuing language development: 7000 words+ (5-7 and even 10 years)
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Jim Cummins, establishes that thinking skills such as analysis, synthesis, and evaluation are
intrinsically related to CALP, thus, It would be linked to reading comprehension strategies and
writing processes; good CALP acquisition is needed in order to understand explanations, lecture
presentations or participate in class discussions, vs., less cognitive demanding situations such as a
telephone conversation, witting notes, or a face to face conversation in which BICS takes place.
3.8. Krashen on intelligence and learning: input, monitoring,

and affective filters
Krashens theory of second language acquisition focuses on the process of
obtaining, retaining, and producing verbal communication. Much like the
theories of Bandura and Vygotsky, Krashen renders the role of language and its
acquisition as a social learning process that involves a number of cognitive
methods. Krashen and Bandura would coincide that acquiring language is a
social learning process that involves observation and modeling through the
constant interaction and exposure to language in everyday life. Krashen and Vygotsky would agree
that language acquisition is also a cognitive process in which recognition, prior knowledge,
retention, and other mental processes build a foundation of knowledge that later helps to interact
with the social environment. Yet, Krashens theory of second language acquisition mentions two
different processes by which humans input external codes from their day-to-day interactions:
Acquiring and Learning. These two ways of obtaining language are the axis of what Krashens
theory of intelligence, motivation, and learning.
Language learned, language acquired
The theory of language acquisition combines both social and cognitive elements as part of a
process which is a) acquired, and b) learned (Krashen, 1987). In theory, these two processes are
independent and based on each individuals performance. The language which is acquired
pertains to the cognitive component of human development. It occurs naturally along with other
developmental processes that begin with infancy. For it to be triggered, however, there must be
complete verbal interaction. Krashen would agree that during the stage of language acquisition
the natural language that results from the communicative act itself, that is, from the input, the
feedback, the responses, the non-verbal communication, and the affect that results as a
consequence of establishing a communicative relationship are the key to establishing a foundation
for further learning.
Krashens language acquisition theory reflects Chomskys Universal Grammar (UG), in the concept
of a language which is naturally obtained. Yet, much as with Chomskys faculty of language for
narrow purposes, Krashen offers a learned language system theory. In Krashens view, language
that is learned happens through the input one receives formally during academic instruction. The
basic difference between these two systems is that acquired language is considered to be a
natural consequence of mutual and consistent exposure to language during dialogue, whereas
acquired language refers to rules and regulations about language that are learned to use it in
diverse settings, for example, grammar and spelling tasks (Krashen, 1987).
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Krashen would agree that the acquisition of natural language is more important in terms of
relevance than the instructional language learned in school. For once, people are constantly and
consistently engaged in some sort of communication during school hours, socialization, work, and
home. Language comes as a need to enter the immediate environment, and to establish
connections among speakers. Learned language is the teaching of the proper use of language
according to the accepted grammatical rules of the culture: The way to use it, tense agreement,
subject and verb agreement, the use of articles and the proper use of adverbs, and every other
regulation that makes it general and for formal usage, for deferential purposes, and for specific
reasons (Krashen, 1987 p. 67). The manner in which he defines the preponderance of natural versus
learned language lays in his Monitor hypothesis of language acquisition.
Monitor hypothesis
Krashen explains that natural language is bound to exist in a higher echelon of relevance in an
individuals process of language acquisition because it consists on the primary utterances that are
emitted to convey a thought or idea. In a secondary tier within this concept, learned language
would serve as the mold and frame that watches over the manner in which natural language is
expressed. Krashen refers to it as monitor because of the rules and regulations that grammar,
semantics, syntax, and spelling bestows upon the regular usage of language. Therefore, an
individuals natural tendencies to use language will be in constant interaction with the tasks that
are expected from learned language. Eventually, a constant exposure to monitor language
(through the academic use of language rather than its natural usage), both systems will coexist
throughout the persons lifetime.
The monitor hypothesis is evident in certain instances of second language learning where more
emphasis is given to the correct spelling, semantic and syntactic use of the words rather than on
the word itself. This is the reason why Krashen discourages favoring monitoring over free-based
learning. In his view, if teachers adopt the teaching of language as a recital of rules and
regulations, it will never come naturally to the student. Krashen rather embraces the allowance of
free-flowing vocabulary and the affective and receptive methodologies of language teaching so
that the learner makes it a relevant part of the process as she or he would with natural language.
(Krashen, 2007).
Krashen even advocates free-based language learning to this day with the use of the internet, and
any text-based exposure to second and first languages (Krashen, 2007). This does not mean that
monitoring is considered a reductionist approach to second language teaching, on the contrary, it
is a resource that defines and solidifies words within their contexts. The monitor language is what
sets apart distinction and defines academics in society; it is not necessary to quote research or
theory to state that those individuals who are deemed educated and intelligent are often
characterized for the proper and careful use of learned language. Yet, Krashen hypothesized that
these individuals might have acquired this skill in a manner which might be similarly acquired by
other first and second language learners if the optimal learning conditions are in place and
effective teaching goals are met. This is what Krashen called the Natural Order hypothesis of
language acquisition.
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Krashens natural order hypothesis

The Natural Order hypothesis by Krashen is based on the premise that when language is learned by
acquisition (not formally), there are still grammatical structures that will come, as the name implies,
naturally throughout the process (Krashen, 1987). This is a theoretical perspective much similar to
Chomskys Universal Grammar, in that the syntactic, grammatical (and we could also say semantic)
formation of communicative language and spoken words will follow a specific pattern that is
natural to the language to which the individual is mostly exposed. Concretely, an example of this
process could be the learning of the Spanish language. The syntactic pattern of saying the noun
followed by the adjective that describes it is inherent to the Spanish language and the opposite of
English in which the adjective is said before the noun. Krashens Natural Order theory would agree
that, with constant and consistent exposure to the target language, even these differences in
grammar and syntax could be overlooked by the learner, as they will understand them as a natural
element of the language to which they are becoming exposed.
Krashens input hypothesis and vygotskys zpd
Krashens Natural Order hypothesis and Vygotskys Zone of Proximal Development theory are very
similar in explaining learning as a process in an individuals prior knowledge and foundation are
very important for the further acquisition of new information. In second language acquisition
terms, an individuals first learned language will be what will serve as a foundation to acquire the
second one. This concept is very evident in the theoretical views of Vygotsky and Krashen.
As previously analyzed, Vygotskys theory of Zone of Proximal Development explains that learning
consists in a collaborative and mutual exchange of information between those who are More
Knowledgeable than Others (MKO) and those whom they will help with specific tasks. These
interactions occur within an individuals zone of proximal development, or the appropriate
developmental cognitive state at which an individual is at the moment when he or she is about to
learn a new task. As discussed, individuals often work one step above their zone, which is the
moment where they need to learn a new task and obtain the help of others more knowledgeable
than them. The ultimate goal of the collaboration between MKOs and the rest of the learners is to
increase and expand knowledge within that zone, and increase the potential for further
development; i.e.: To reach the top of the zone, which was already set at a higher cognitive level.
Krashen similarly defines the process of acquiring a new language (or language learning) through
his Input theory. It was previously analyzed that, in Krashens terms, acquired language is that
language learned naturally by people, and learned language refers to formal grammatical studies
of language. Granting this, Krashens theory is similar to Vygotskys ZPD in that the process that
involves receiving input in the second language one step ahead of the current foundation of
knowledge of the learner. Just like with the ZPD, the goal is that the learner reaches a higher level
of knowledge by being exposed to new information. In Krashens theory, the equivalent to a zone
of proximal development would be a natural communicative input (Krashen, 1997) While
Vygotsky theorized about acquiring a new skill under a ZPD, Krashen theorized about the
individual acquiring new vocabulary under a pattern of basic language , plus (Krashen, 1987 p.
45), in other words, using the current linguistic competence of the student and adding new
terminology in a consistent basis. This is a similar pattern to Vygotskys ZPD theory where the
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current zone of student development would be increased by the addition of more and new skills
through collaborative learning (Vygotsky, 1978).
The Input hypothesis is Krashens suggestion for the development of second language curricula,
under the premise that not all learners will learn at the same time, or at the same rate, therefore,
this formula for input would result in an effective way to monitor student language learning
(Krashen, 1997).
Krashenon motivation: the affective filter
According to Krashen, a student becomes more motivated through free-based learning, free-based
web surfing, and free-based reading (Krashen, 1987, 2001, 2007). This reflects a vestige of
Chomskyan theory, since Chomsky also rejects that language could be learned without a context.
In fact, as previously analyzed, Chomsky advocates for the integration of language as a natural
acquisition to all humans. Therefore, Krashens view on language to be learned without
boundaries, in a natural environment, and with relevance, blends both theories together.
Within Krashens penta partite theory of language learning and acquisition there is a fifth
hypothesis that points at one particular element as a trigger of motivation: This element is the
Affective filter. The affective filter is a combination of variables that facilitate learning. Within these
variables motivation is a key factor as well as other types of affect such as fear, anxiety, selfconfidence, and other feelings that occur during the learning process (Krashen, 1987). Krashen can
be credited with research-based evidence supporting his claim that students who are highly
motivated, and are well-liked are more likely to have less levels of anxiety and thus their affective
filter will be open to acquisition of new information, instead of blocked by disturbing emotional
obstacles that would impede accepting input from the environment. This is where the term
mental block is often referenced. (Krashen, 1987)
The synergism between affect and motivation
Krashens theory also points out to motivation as part of the learning process. The affective filter
serves as a facilitator for learning thanks to a series of variables. Motivation is a key factor that,
depending on the positive or negative influence of emotions, will occur, cease. Feelings such as
fear, and anxiety will block the students mind and disable the capability of learning; the opposite
would occur in a positive, open environment where the proper teaching practices take place
(Krashen, 1987).
Krashen, Bandura, and Vygotsky can all be credited with the advocacy of effective learning through
cooperative learning, and with the view of the classroom as a microcosmic stratus of society.
Within this environment of mutual support, teaching, learning, and guidance, individuals become
part of a sociology that aims nothing but to acquire, and expand towards new skills and
information; a social group that engages in activity that promotes social change.
Conclusion on krashen and the similarities among theories
When revisiting Chomsky, Bandura and Vygotsky, their philosophical view of language is viewed
as a tool that is best used when the individual feels that it is important, natural, and relevant to
them. In Chomskys theory, the inherent nature of language makes it a foundation for the
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acquisition of new communication, and the natural organization of such information within the
brain (Chomsky, 1955). In Banduras theory, language is an important part of an individuals social
development, since verbal communication is the tool that brings together all social systems
(Bandura, 1964). In Social learning, motivation is a key element for this to occur. Banduras
theorizes that from the contact with others, individuals will make connections and become part of
a social system. The motivation that comes out of making these connections result in people
imitating and often acquiring new behaviors learned through the input that comes from the
behaviors of others (Bandura, 1964).
Similarly, in Vygotskys view, the collaborative interaction of learners as part of a social system
within the classroom takes place between students who are MKOs (More Knowledgeable than
Others), and their peers. The cooperative learning with MKOs helps empower their peers to absorb
new information, and to allow learning to take place as a process. A difference from Bandura,
however, is that Vygotsky theorizes that this process occurs within a students ZPD (Zone of
Proximal Development) and that the goal of the relationship between the MKOs and their peers is
to extend the peers ZPD by increasing the knowledge, and expanding their learning potential
(Vygotsky, 1978). Concisely, both Bandura and Vygotsky concide in that the learners role within a
society that invites the acquisition of new behaviors and skills is the underlying motivator that
enables the learning to occur.
This is how, whether cognitively, intra or inter psychologically, socially, or behaviorally, these
theorists embody the promotion of social change through the theoretical notions of learning and
acquisition that are promoted in their philosophical benchmarks.
Krashens theory of second language acquisition is one that combines social learning and cognitive
development. It agrees with Bandura in that language is a process that is learned through
observation and modeling. It does give importance to language as a social process that is
necessary as a tool that empowers psychological development through the use of cognitive
abilities leading to changes in behavior, which coincides with Chomsky, and Vygotsky as well.
Language, therefore, is a two-fold composite made of natural and monitor verbal codes, one is
natural, and one is a monitor of the other. Both codes are used simultaneously, and are equally
important.
Krashen is a cognitive and social theorist, and his theories can be used as continuums of Chomsky,
Bandura and Vygotsky. Its influence in todays development of curricula is most evident in the
focus that schools give to learning as a natural process that should not be taught in isolation, but
as part of the students environment. Krashen can be credited with a change in the views of
education and of second language learning. Perhaps his theory could be summarized in the saying
Less is More, that is, allow students to learn the basics within a framework of constant exposure,
and the brain will do the rest. This cognitive part is what brings us to Chomsky, as a foundation
theorist and modern theorist who also visualizes the learning process as a brain ability, but with a
twist on how exactly humans are able to perform it.
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Unit 4
English language teaching in postmodern era
The aim of this session is to analyse the concept of postmodernism and its implications in ELT.
4.1. Introduction. Postmodern influences in language teaching

Quoting assistant professor Reza Pishghadam Postmodernism is a concept which appears in a
wide variety of disciplines or areas of study including art, music, film, literature, architecture, and
technology and nowadays has burst into popular usage as a term for everything from rock music to
the whole cultural style and mood of recent decades. Another strain of postmodernism refers to
the radical changes of the society: the end of the last vestiges of European colonialism after the
Second World War, the development of mass communications and a media culture and the
shrinking of the globe by internal marketing. If postmodernism is the dominant spirit of the time
and has influenced many fields of study, this question may spring to mind: Has postmodernism
affected the field of English language teaching both in theory and practice too?
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According Reza Pishghadam,

shghadam, TELL, Vol. 2, No. 7, 2008, There seem to have been lots of
implications of the foregoing in ELT, but the
authors outline a few of the main ones.
Postmodernism seems to have influenced ELT from the 1990s when for the first time the concept
of method was put into question. For many centuries, the ELT profession was preoccupied with the
quest for the elusive 'best' teaching method (Kelly, 1969; McArthur, 1983) in the sense of a
'predetermined packaged deal' of static attitudes, theories, methods, techniques (Strevens, 1977)
generalizable across widely varying audiences, that would successfully teach students a foreign
language in the classroom. After the genesis of Direct method in the 1920s which generally marks
the beginning of this method era (Richards & Rodgers, 2001) up to the end of the 1980s lots of
such methods flourished, to name a few, audio-lingual,
audio
silent -way, total physical
physical response and
languished after a while for all of them:
Sought to find the best method of teaching English, that is, the method that yields
the best results or learning outcomes
outc
in a given period of time.
Had universal claims, trying to prescribe their procedures for all learners around the
globe assuming that a 'one-size-fits-all
'one
cookie-cutter
cutter approach' or a 'superior'
's
method benefits alll, regardless of how it is subjectively perceived by the different
teachers
eachers involved.
Were scientific, based on theories from other disciplines including linguistics,
psychology, and sociology; and were teacher-proof,
teacher
guru-based
based, and, therefore,
magnifying the role of experts.
According to Brown (2000), method in this sense can be viewed as a generalized, prescribed set of
classroom specifications for accomplishing linguistic objectives, or a set of theoretically unified
classroom techniques thought to be generalized across a wide
wide variety of contexts and audiences.
But in 1989, the concept of method went under serious attack (Pennycook, 1989). Pennycook
(1989), Long (1989, 2003), Prabhu (1990), Stern (1991), Richards (1990, 2003), and Kumaravadivelu,
(1994, 2003a) for most of them what the teachers need is to view critically all the standard
orthodoxies of ELT, investigate the interests served by such orthodoxies, conceptualize or view
ourselves as "transformative intellectual" or as "professionals who are able and willing to reflect
upon the ideological principles that inform (our) practice, either see practice and theory as
informing each other, or, better still, do away with this distinction all together, connect
pedagogical theory and practice to wider social issues, work together
together to share ideas and exercise
power over the conditions of our labor, and embody in (our teaching) a vision of a better and more
human life. Likewise, Nunan (p.
p. 172, 1991) argues:
It has been realized that there never was and probably never be a method for all, and the focus in
recent years has been on the development of classroom tasks and activities which are consonant
with what we know about SLA, and which are also in keeping with the dynamics of the classroom
itself.
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Other criticisms might be summed up as:

Methods and approaches ignore a careful consideration of the context in which
teaching and learning occur,
Choice of teaching method cannot be determined in isolation from curriculum
development processes and other planning and implementation practices,
"Guru-led methods" are full of claims and assertions about second language
learning, few of which are based on a research foundation, and
It is very difficult for teachers to use approaches and method in ways that precisely
reflect the underlying principles of the method since they find many of the
distinctions used to contrast method do not exist in actual practice (i.e., similarity of
classroom practices of methods), especially at a later stage.
Kumaravadivelu (1994, 2001, 2003a) argues that any meaningful process of decolonization of FLT
method requires a fundamental shift from the concept of method to the concept of postmethod.
This entails a greater awareness of issues such as teacher beliefs, teacher reasoning, and teacher
cognition, and a transform of disempowered periphery or merely classroom consumers into
strategic teachers, strategic researchers, or technicians in the classroom, reclaiming their teacher
autonomy that empowers teachers to theorize from their own practice and practice what they have
theorized,. This bottom-up 'pedagogic mediation' is the essence of what he, following Widdowson
(1990), calls "principled pragmatism," a key element of postmethod pedagogy that is sensitive to
language teachers' local needs, wants, and situations. It could therefore be argued that no
conceptualization of ELT as a postmethod language pedagogy is possible without being willing to
entertain the ethos of postmodernism. All attempts motivated by such trends:
Downplay the role of experts outside the field;
Disbelieve in grand theories and supermethods, embracing only local and
situation-based decisions;
Are subjective, giving more power to the teachers as reflective, strategic
researchers always involved in classroom-oriented action research;
Seek to dispute the theory/practice dichotomy;
Celebrate the diversity of the individual learners, rejecting one-size-fits-all
philosophy;
Are pragmatic, using every theory which is suitable in the classroom; and
Empower classroom participants to critically reflect upon the social and historical
conditions that give rise to social inequalities and to question the status quo that
keeps them subjugated or marginalized.
Constructivism versus instructivism
Furthermore, learner-centered constructivism rather than teacher-centered instructivism is another
major constituent of postmodernism. While instructionism is basically dependent upon the hidden
assumption that knowledge can be transferred intact from the mind of the teacher to the mind of
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the learner (Cahoone, 2003), constructivists believe that learning is an active process of knowledge
and understanding construction whereby learners build up or construct a series of approximations
to the target concepts through becoming involved in active and social interaction and
collaboration with the surrounding as well as others, matching new versus given information and
establishing meaningful connections as well as through trial and error, hypothesis testing and
creative representations of input. Constructivist theories, therefore, call for a subtle shift in
perspective for the person who stands in front of the classroom: From someone who teaches to
somebody who 'facilitates' learning; from teaching by imposition to teaching by negotiation
(McGroarty , 1998).
Many endeavors have been made to outline the features of the ELT methodology on constructivist
lines such as Reinfried, (2000). More notably, he places constructivist FLT in opposition to the
traditional forms of instructivism in language pedagogy. He hence defines instructivism as
directed by a pedagogical-psychological concept, according to which learners are considered as
reactive beings either accepting or rejecting the material offered by the teacher. Constructivists,
he holds, postulate that learning is a process which is highly subjective, autonomous, and active,
and can be achieved by dint of process-action-oriented methodology including cooperative
learning, active, and interactive forms of work as well as teaching by projects. It is evident that the
principles of methodology and procedure discussed above reflect the general consensus of the
TESOL theorists in the 90s as well. However, bringing the various principles, procedures, and
strategies under the one roof of constructivist TESOL reflects a form of novelty which offers
coherence and a superstructure for the various concepts of learning and teaching involved in the
field (Reinfried, 2000). McGroarty (1998) argues that the most productive future directions for
theory building and research in applied linguistics derive from the extent to which the field's
practitioners take insights from constructivist scholarly approaches.
Different intelligences
Incidentally, the proposal of the diversity of intelligences propounded by Howard Gardner (1983)
led Reid (1987), Oxford (1990), OMalley & Chamot (1990) to attach more importance to styles and
strategies of learners and teachers in the classrooms, or what Rodgers (2000) calls Multiintelligencia or Strategopedia. Teachers were expected to be familiar with different styles and
strategies of the learners, trying to cater for them. Besides, it was found that people in different
cultures have different styles and strategies of learning a language (Oxford, 1990). Therefore, it was
suggested that diversity of learners in each class and country be taken into account.
Chaos/complexity
Larsen-Freeman in 1997 tried to apply chaos/complexity theory of physics to TESOL. She first
argues that chaos/complexity is the science of process rather than state, of becoming rather than
being. She then points to many striking similarities between the new science of chaos/complexity
and second language acquisition and goes on to draw a number of chaos /complexity parallels in
the language class. Her persuasive argument is concluded with the fact that languages go through
periods of chaos and order as do other living systems, and their creative growth occurs at the
border between these two (Larsen-Freeman, 1997). According to her, like all open systems, second
language learning is a complex system in which learning is open, complex, non-linear, dynamic,
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emergent, evolving and changing, self-organizing, feed-back sensitive, adaptive, and

unpredictable. Van Lier (1996) also viewed the classroom as a complex system in which events
occur in non-linear fashion and multitude of forces interact in complex, self-organizing ways,
creating changes and patterns that are part predictable and part unpredictable. Also LarsenFreeman (2002) argues that a chaos/complexity perspective substantiates a social participation
view of SLA besides the psychological acquisitionist perspective and encourages us to think (of
dichotomous pairs) in relational terms.
In fact, English teachers should be aware of the political dimension in ELT and mistrust underlying
ideologies that construct the global nature of English as neutral. They should critically evaluate the
implications of their practice in the production and reproduction of social inequalities (Pennycook,
1994). Various facets of this critical turn including critical approaches to TESOL (Pennycook, 1999),
gender and language education (Davis and Skilton-Sylvester, 2004), testing techniques (Shohamy,
2001) discourse analysis (Fairclough, 1995), and critical classroom discourse analysis
(Kumaravadivelu, 1999) have been explored from critical pedagogic perspectives. In fact, the
amount of attention paid to this area has been so considerable that a new subfield called critical
applied linguistics (Pennycook, 2001) has been advanced to cater to this felt need.
4.2. Postmodern influences

intelligences theory
in
elt.
Gardners
multiple
lThe proposal of the diversity of intelligences by Howard Gardner has influenced ELT Considerably.
This theory has emerged from recent cognitive research and "documents the extent to which
students possess different kinds of minds and therefore learn, remember, perform and understand
in different ways," according to Gardner (1991). "we are all able to know the world through
language, logical-mathematical analysis, spatial representation, musical thinking, the use of the
body to solve problems or to make things, an understanding of other individuals, and an
understanding of ourselves. Where individuals differ is in the strength of these intelligences - the
so-called profile of intelligences -and in the ways in which such intelligences are invoked and
combined to carry out different tasks, solve diverse problems, and progress in various domains."
Gardner says that these differences "challenge an educational system that assumes that everyone
can learn the same materials in the same way and that a uniform, universal measure suffices to test
student learning. Indeed, as currently constituted, our educational system is heavily biased toward
linguistic modes of instruction and assessment and, to a somewhat lesser degree, toward logicalquantitative modes as well." Gardner argues that "a contrasting set of assumptions is more likely to
be educationally effective. Students learn in ways that are identifiably distinctive. The broad
spectrum of students - and perhaps the society as a whole - would be better served if disciplines
could be presented in a numbers of ways and learning could be assessed through a variety of
means." The learning styles are as follows:
Visual-Spatial
Think in terms of physical space, as do architects and sailors. Very aware of their environments.
They like to draw, do jigsaw puzzles, read maps, daydream. They can be taught through drawings,
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verbal and physical imagery. Tools include models, graphics, charts, photographs, drawings, 3-D
modeling, video, videoconferencing, television, multimedia, texts with pictures/charts/graphs.
Bodily-kinesthetic
Use the body effectively, like a dancer or a surgeon. Keen sense of body awareness. They like
movement, making things, touching. They communicate well through body language and be
taught through physical activity, hands-on learning, acting out, role playing. Tools include
equipment and real objects.
Musical
Show sensitivity to rhythm and sound. They love music, but they are also sensitive to sounds in
their environments. They may study better with music in the background. They can be taught by
turning lessons into lyrics, speaking rhythmically, tapping out time. Tools include musical
instruments, music, radio, stereo, CD-ROM, multimedia.
Interpersonal
Understanding, interacting with others. These students learn through interaction. They have many
friends, empathy for others, street smarts. They can be taught through group activities, seminars,
dialogues. Tools include the telephone, audio conferencing, time and attention from the instructor,
video conferencing, writing, computer conferencing, E-mail.
Intrapersonal
Understanding one's own interests, goals. These learners tend to shy away from others. They're in
tune with their inner feelings; they have wisdom, intuition and motivation, as well as a strong will,
confidence and opinions. They can be taught through independent study and introspection. Tools
include books, creative materials, diaries, privacy and time. They are the most independent of the
learners.
Linguistic
Using words effectively. These learners have highly developed auditory skills and often think in
words. They like reading, playing word games, making up poetry or stories. They can be taught by
encouraging them to say and see words, read books together. Tools include computers, games,
multimedia, books, tape recorders, and lecture.
Logical -Mathematical - reasoning, calculating.
Think conceptually, abstractly and are able to see and explore patterns and relationships. They like
to experiment, solve puzzles, ask cosmic questions. They can be taught through logic games,
investigations, mysteries. They need to learn and form concepts before they can deal with details.
At first, it may seem impossible to teach to all learning styles. However, No two students enter a
classroom with identical abilities, experiences, and needs. Learning style, language proficiency,
background knowledge, readiness to learn, and other factors can vary widely within a single class
group. Regardless of their individual differences, however, students are expected to master the
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same concepts, principles, and skills. Helping all students succeed in their learning is an enormous
challenge that requires innovative thinking.
4.3. Postmodern influences in elt. Differentiated instruction

theory
Differentiated instruction is an instructional theory that allows teachers to face this challenge by
taking diverse student factors into account when planning and delivering instruction. Based on this
theory, teachers can structure learning environments that address the variety of learning styles,
interests, and abilities found within a classroom. Differentiated instruction is based upon the belief
that students learn best when they make connections between the curriculum and their diverse
interests and experiences, and that the greatest learning occurs when students are pushed slightly
beyond the point where they can work without assistance.
Vygotsky, bruner and gardner influences
The perfect model of differentiated instruction rests upon an active, student centered, meaningmaking approach to teaching and learning. The theoretical and philosophical influences embedded
in differentiated instruction support the three key elements of differentiated instruction itself:
readiness, interest, and learning profile (Allan & Tomlinson, 2000).
Lev Vygotsky proved that individuals learn best in accordance with their readiness to do so (Allan &
Tomlinson, 2008). This theoretical influence provides a concrete foundation for differentiated
instruction. The readiness of the individual should match what a student learns, how they learn it
and how the student demonstrates what they learned when using differentiated instruction.
The philosophical idea that interest based options seize on intrinsic motivation, supports the
second key element of differentiated instruction, student interest. According to Jerome Bruner (as
cited by Allan & Tomlinson, 2000), when interest is tapped, learning is more likely to be rewarding
and the student becomes a more autonomous learner.
As we have mentioned before, the American psychologist, Howard Gardner, developed the theory
of multiple intelligences, his theory states that people have different intelligences and learn in
many different ways. Gardners theory suggests that schools should offer individual-centered
education, having curriculum tailored to a childs intelligence preference (Allan & Tomlinson, 2000).
Essentially, Gardner supports the third key element of differentiated instruction, which accounts for
different student learning profiles.
Differentiated instruction integrates constructivist learning theories, learning styles, and brain
development with research on influencing factors of learner readiness, interest and intelligence
preferences toward students motivation, engagement, and academic growth within schools
(Anderson, 2007). According to educational psychologist Kathie Nunley, differentiated instruction
became an essential part of US educator's repertoire as the make-up of the general classroom
moved from homogeneous groupings of students prior to the 1970s to the ever increasing variety
of learners seen in the heterogeneous classroom make-up in the last 40 years (Nunley, 2006).
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By using differentiated instruction, educators can meet all individual student needs and help every
student meet and exceed established standards (Levy, 2008).To differentiate instruction is to
recognize students varying background knowledge, readiness, language, preferences in learning
and interests; and to react responsively. Differentiated instruction is a process to teaching and
learning for students of differing abilities in the same class. The intent of differentiating instruction
is to maximize each students growth and individual success by meeting each student where he or
she is and assisting in the learning process.
Identifying Components/Features
According to the authors of differentiated instruction, several key elements guide differentiation in
the education environment. Tomlinson (2001) identifies three elements of the curriculum that can
be differentiated: Content, Process, and Products (Figure 1).
Adapted from Oaksford, L. & Jones. L.,2001.
These are described in the following three sections

Content
1. Several elements and materials are used to support instructional content. These include
acts, concepts, generalizations or principles, attitudes, and skills. The variation seen in a
differentiated classroom is most frequently in the manner in which students gain access to
important learning. Access to the content is seen as key.
2. Align tasks and objectives to learning goals. Designers of differentiated instruction view
the alignment of tasks with instructional goals and objectives as essential. Goals are most
frequently assessed by many state-level, high-stakes tests and frequently administered
standardized measures. Objectives are frequently written in incremental steps resulting in
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a continuum of skills-building tasks. An objectives-driven menu makes it easier to find the

next instructional step for learners entering at varying levels.
3. Instruction is concept-focused and principle-driven. The instructional concepts should be
broad-based, not focused on minute details or unlimited facts. Teachers must focus on the
concepts, principles and skills that students should learn. The content of instruction
should address the same concepts with all students, but the degree of complexity should
be adjusted to suit diverse learners.
Process
1. Flexible grouping is consistently used. Strategies for flexible grouping are essential.
Learners are expected to interact and work together as they develop knowledge of new
content. Teachers may conduct whole-class introductory discussions of content big ideas
followed by small group or paired work. Student groups may be coached from within or
by the teacher to complete assigned tasks. Grouping of students is not fixed. As one of the
foundations of differentiated instruction, grouping and regrouping must be a dynamic
process, changing with the content, project, and on-going evaluations.
2. Classroom management benefits students and teachers. To effectively operate a
classroom using differentiated instruction, teachers must carefully select organization and
instructional delivery strategies. In her text, How to Differentiate Instruction in MixedAbility Classrooms (Chapter 7), Carol Tomlinson (2001), identifies 17 key strategies for
teachers to successfully meet the challenge of designing and managing differentiated
instruction.
Products
1. Initial and on-going assessment of student readiness and growth are essential. Meaningful
pre-assessment naturally leads to functional and successful differentiation. Incorporating
pre- and on-going assessment informs teachers so that they can better provide a menu of
approaches, choices, and scaffolds for the varying needs, interests and abilities that exist in
classrooms of diverse students. Assessments may be formal or informal, including
interviews, surveys, performance assessments, and more formal evaluation procedures.
Students are active and responsible explorers. Teachers respect that each task put before
the learner will be interesting, enganging and accessible to essential understanding re
thend skills. Each child should feel challenged most of the time.
2. Vary expectations and requirements for student responses. Items to which students
respond may be differentiated so that different students can demonstrate or express their
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knowledge and understanding in different ways. A well-designed student product allows

varied means of expression and alternative procedures and offers varying degrees of
difficulty, types of evaluation, and scoring.
Additional Guidelines That Make Differentiation Possible for Teachers to Attain
1. Clarify key concepts and generalizations. Ensure that all learners gain powerful
understandings that can serve as the foundation for future learning. Teachers are
encouraged to identify essential concepts and instructional foci to ensure that all learners
comprehend.
2. Use assessment as a teaching tool to extend rather than merely measure instruction.
Assessment should occur before, during, and following the instructional episode, and it
should be used to help pose questions regarding student needs and optimal learning.
3. Emphasize critical and creative thinking as a goal in lesson design. The tasks, activities, and
procedures for students should require that they understand and apply meaning.
Instruction may require supports, additional motivation, varied tasks, materials, or
equipment for different students in the classroom.
4. Engaging all learners is essential. Teachers are encouraged to strive for the development
of lessons that are engaging and motivating for a diverse class of students. Vary tasks
within instruction as well as across students. In other words, an entire session for students
should not consist of all drill and practice, or any single structure or activity.
5. Provide
balance
between
teacher-assigned
and
student-selected
tasks.
A balanced working structure is optimal in a differentiated classroom. Based on preassessment information, the balance will vary from class-to-class as well as lesson-tolesson. Teachers should ensure that students have choices in their learning.
4.4. Postmodern influences in elt. Universal design for learning

applications
Universal Design for Learning is a theoretical framework developed by CAST to guide
the development of curricula that are flexible and supportive of all students (Dolan & Hall, 2001;
Meyer & Rose, 1998; Pisha & Coyne, 2001; Rose, 2001; Rose & Dolan, 2000; Rose & Meyer, 2000a,
2000b, 2002; Rose, Sethuraman, & Meo, 2000). The concept of UDL was inspired by the universal
design movement in architecture. This movement calls for the design of structures that anticipate
the needs of individuals with disabilities and accommodate these needs from the outset.
Universally designed structures are indeed more usable by individuals with disabilities, but in
addition they offer unforeseen benefits for all users. Curb cuts, for example, serve their intended
use of facilitating the travel of those in wheelchairs, but they are also beneficial to people pushing
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strollers, young children, and even the average walker. And so, the process of designing for
individuals with disabilities has led to improved usability for everyone.
Similarly, but uniquely, UDL calls for the design of curricula with the needs of all students in mind,
so that methods, materials, and assessment are usable by all. Traditional curricula present a host of
barriers that limit students access to information and learning. Of these, printed text is particularly
notorious. In a traditional curriculum, a student without a well-developed ability to see, decode,
attend to, or comprehend printed text is compelled to adapt to its ubiquity as best as he or she can.
In contrast, a UDL curriculum is designed to be innately flexible, enriched with multiple media so
that alternatives can be accessed whenever appropriate. A UDL curriculum takes on the burden of
adaptation so that the student doesnt have to, minimizing barriers and maximizing access to both
information and learning.
The UDL framework guides the development of adaptable curricula by means of 3 principles These
3 principles parallel 3 fundamentally important learning components and 3 distinct learning
networks in the brain: recognition, strategy, and affect (Rose & Meyer, 2002). The common
recommendation of these 3 principles is to select goals, methods, assessment, and materials in a
way that will minimize barriers and maximize flexibility. In this manner, the UDL framework
structures the development of curricula that fully support every students access, participation, and
progress in all 3 essential facets of learning.
Principles of the Universal Design for Learning Framework
Provide multiple and flexible methods of presentation to give students with diverse
Provie multiple and flexible means of expression to provde diverse students with
Provide multiple and flexible means of engagement to tap into diverse learners
learning styles various ways of acquiring information and knowledge
alternatives for demonstrating what they have learned
interest, challenge them appropriately and motivate them to learn
The three UDL principles call for flexibility in relation to three essential facets of learning, each one
orchestrated by a distinct set of networks in the brain.
Critical to successfully implementing UDL theory is the use of digital materials. Digital materials,
unlike the conventional pedagogical mainstays, speech, printed text, and printed images, have an
inherent flexibility. They can be modified in a host of ways, depending on the needs of the student.
This flexibility makes it feasible to customize learning materials and methods to each individual.
Differentiated Instruction and the Universal Design for Learning Principles
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Differentiated instruction is well received as a classroom practice that may be well suited to the
three principles of UDL. The following section looks at the appropriate teaching methods,
recognition, strategic, and affective, in order to address the ways in which differentiated instruction
coordinates with UDL theory. Certain instructional techniques have been found to be very effective
in supporting different skills as students learn. Differentiated instruction is designed to keep the
learner in mind when specifying the instructional episode.
Recognition
The first UDL principle focuses on pattern recognition and the importance of providing multiple,
flexible methods of presentation when teaching patternsno single teaching methodology for
pattern recognition will be satisfactory for every learner. The theory of differentiated instruction
incorporates some guidelines that can help teachers to support critical elements of recognition
learning in a flexible way and promote every students success. Each of the three key elements of
differentiated instruction, content, process, and product, supports an important UDL Teaching
Method for individualized instruction of pattern recognition.
The content guidelines for differentiated instruction support the first UDL Teaching Method for
recognition networks, provide multiple examples, in that they encourage the use of several
elements and materials to support instructional content. A teacher following this guideline might
help students in a social studies class to understand the location of a state in the union by showing
them a wall map or a globe, projecting a state map, or describing the location in words. Also, while
preserving the essential content, a teacher could vary the difficulty of the material by presenting
smaller or larger, simpler or more complex maps. For students with physical or cognitive
disabilities, such a diversity of examples may be vital in order for them to access the pattern being
taught. Other students may benefit from the same multiple examples by obtaining a perspective
that they otherwise might not. In this way, a range of examples can help to ensure that each
students recognition networks are able to identify the fundamental elements identifying a pattern.
This same use of varied content examples supports a second recommended practice in UDL
methodology, provide multiple media and formats. A wide range of tools for presenting
instructional content are available digitally, thus teachers may manipulate size, color contrasts, and
other features to develop examples in multiple media and formats. These can be saved for future
use and flexibly accessed by different students, depending on their needs and preferences.
The content guidelines of differentiated instruction also recommend that content elements of
instruction be kept concept-focused and principle-driven. This practice is consistent with a third
UDL Teaching Method for recognition, highlight critical features. By avoiding any focus on
extensive facts or seductive details and reiterating the broad concepts, a goal of differentiated
instruction, teachers are highlighting essential components, better supporting recognition.
The fourth UDL Teaching Method for recognition is to support background knowledge, and in this
respect, the assessment step of the differentiated instruction learning cycle is instrumental. By
evaluating student knowledge about a construct before designing instruction teachers can better
support students knowledge base, scaffolding instruction in a very important way.
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Strategic learning
People find for themselves the most desirable method of learning strategies; therefore, teaching
methodologies need to be varied. This kind of flexibility is key for teachers to help meet the needs
of their diverse students, and this is reflected in the 4 UDL Teaching Methods. Differentiated
instruction can support these teaching methods in valuable ways. Differentiated instruction
recognizes the need for students to receive flexible models of skilled performance, one of the four
UDL Teaching Methods for strategic learning. As noted above, teachers implementing
differentiated instruction are encouraged to demonstrate information and skills multiple times and
at varying levels. As a result, learners enter the instructional episode with different approaches,
knowledge, and strategies for learning.
When students are engaged in initial learning on novel tasks or skills, supported practice should be
used to ensure success and eventual independence. Supported practice enables students to split
up a complex skill into manageable components and fully master these components.
Differentiated instruction promotes this teaching method by encouraging students to be active
and responsible learners, and by asking teachers to respect individual differences and scaffold
students as they move from initial learning to practiced, less supported skills mastery.
In order to successfully demonstrate the skills that they have learned, students need flexible
opportunities for demonstrating skill. Differentiated instruction directly supports this UDL
Teaching Method by reminding teachers to vary requirements and expectations for learning and
expressing knowledge, including the degree of difficulty and the means of evaluation or scoring.
Affective learning
Differentiated instruction and UDL Teaching Methods bear another important point of
convergence: recognition of the importance of engaging learners in instructional tasks. Supporting
affective learning through flexible instruction is the third principle of UDL and an objective that
differentiated instruction supports very effectively.
Differentiated instruction theory reinforces the importance of effective classroom management
and reminds teachers of meeting the challenges of effective organizational and instructional
practices. Engagement is a vital component of effective classroom management, organization, and
instruction. Therefore teachers are encouraged to offer choices of tools, adjust the level of difficulty
of the material, and provide varying levels of scaffolding to gain and maintain learner attention
during the instructional episode. These practices bear much in common with UDL Teaching
Methods for affective learning: offer choices of content and tools, provide adjustable levels of
challenge, and offer a choice of learning context. By providing varying levels of scaffolding when
differentiating instruction, students have access to varied learning contexts as well as choices
about their learning environment.
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An example
UDL Teaching Method
Supportive Differentiated Instruction Feature(s)
Provide multiple examples.
In preparation for this lesson, the teacher created multiple

examples of finding and identifying seeds. Additionally, the
teacher provided several examples of finding appropriate texts
to complete the assignment. Students have multiple examples of
texts from which to find information about the life cycle of seeds.
As another example, fast growing seeds were planted in the
classroom, giving students the opportunity to observe the seed
life cycle.
Highlight critical features.
Teacher provides critical information for the lesson through oral

presentation and highlights critical features in written form, then
monitors students to check their focus on important features of
the lesson. Additionally, by having texts available in digital
format, the teacher or students may literally highlight critical
features of the text in preparation of lesson assignments.
Provide multiple media and
The teacher located several (45) resources, in this case books of
formats.
different reading difficulty, containing the same science

constructs on seed life cycles. The books were then made
available digitally as well as in audio format for flexible
accessibility. Thus, materials were available in a variety of media
and formats.
Support background context.
Several levels of preparation were designed to support

background context:.
Before this assignment the teacher and students found seeds in a
variety of vegetables and fruits. In this way, the concept of seeds
was brought out of the abstract; students had experiences
seeing and finding seeds from a range of plants.
Careful instruction was organized to teach students the concept
of finding a book that is just right, helping students to find a
book that is challenging, yet not too difficult. This, helped keep
students work and learn in their zone of proximal development
when obtaining background information for the lesson.
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opportunities
to
67
Students had the option to work in selected pairs as they search

for answers to the science questions.
practice with support.
During guided practice and independent practice portions of

each lesson, the teacher provides supports by checking and
prompting.
Offer flexible opportunities for
The design of this lesson allows students varied approaches
demonstrating skill.
throughout the lesson. Students may select their best or

preferred type of working situation and means for responding.
Offer choices of content and
The teacher organized the lesson at multiple points for choice of
tools.
tools:
choice of resource materials,
choice of access (text, digital, audio), and
choice of response style.
Offer
adjustable
levels
of
challen e.g
The teacher offers multiple texts, representing a range of

difficulty levels, and different means to access these texts. This
helps to ensure that researching the answers to science questions
is appropriately challenging for each student. For example, if
decoding were challenging, the student could use a simpler text
and/or access the information via audio or digital read-aloud.
Offer choices of learning contexts
Throughout the lesson the teacher has organized several choices

that help diversify the available learning contexts:
students
can
select
from
variety
of
methods
to respond to the science questions (written, scribed, recorded),

students can opt to work independently or with a partner during
the assignment completion portion of the lesson, and
students can select the right book based on difficulty and/or
interest
4.5. Conclusion
Differentiated instruction, although somewhat still developing in educational settings, has
received significant recognition. When combined with the practices and principles of UDL,
differentiated instruction can provide teachers with both theory and practice to appropriately
challenge the broad scope of students in classrooms today. Although educators are continually
challenged by the ever-changing classroom profile of students, resources, and reforms, practices
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continue to evolve and the relevant research base should grow. And along with them grows the
promise of differentiated instruction and UDL in educational practices.
What differenciated intruction theory means for teachers
Teachers DO
Provide several learning options, or different paths to learning, which help students
take in information and make sense of concepts and skills.
Provide appropriate levels of challenge for all students, including those who lag
behind, those who are advanced, and those right in the middle.
Teachers DON'T
Develop a separate lesson plan for each student in a classroom.
Water down" the curriculum for some students.
Laying the Foundation for Differentiated Instruction.
Differentiated instruction does not happen by accident. It requires planning, commitment, and
acknowledgment of the fact that diverse abilities, experiences, and interests have a tremendous
impact on student learning. If you are considering using differentiated instruction in your classroom,
the three steps below provide a place to start.
1. Get to know your students.
Identify the level at which individual students are working in your subject area.
Standardized test scores and other information found in student records can help
determine this information.
Administer a learning style inventory to determine how your students best learn.
An instrument can be obtained through the guidance department at your school.
Determine student interests. On a regular basis, ask students to identify topics that
interest them and activities that occupy their non-school time.
2. Identify areas of your curriculum that could be adapted
Study the instructional goals and objectives for your subject established by your
state's department of education. Identify the major concepts, principles, and skills
students should learn.
Choose one or two broad concepts or skills that lend themselves to being taught at
different degrees of complexity.
Brainstorm ideas for activities, tasks, and assessments that address a specific
concept or skill. Ideas should cover a range of learning preferences, abilities, and
interests.
3. Examine your role as teacher in the differentiated classroom.
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Brainstorm ways to vary your instructional delivery methods. Target auditory,

visual, and kinaesthetic learners in your approaches.
Develop a general plan for facilitating time, space, and materials in your classroom.
On any given day, not all students will be working on the same assignment at the
same time. You must have a plan for student access to necessary materials, where
individuals or groups will work, and how much time can be allotted to specific
tasks.
Identify alternative methods of assessing student performance and understanding.
Assessment results should increase teacher understanding of students' abilities,
interests, and needs, and should be incorporated into future planning.
Regarding the proposed question, we have witnessed that TESOL in theory like other fields and
disciplines has been affected by the theories of the postmodernists and the field is no exception;
beyond methods, focus on styles and strategies, multiple intelligences, chaos/complexity theory,
and critical theory, all are witnesses to the aforementioned claims that TESOL is also in the period
of postmodernism.
the idea of the best should be jettisoned, holding seminars to pinpoint the features of the best
teachers should be banned, the concept of World Englishes - American and British English as the
best types of English- should be discarded, native speaker should not be the only yardstick
anymore, local decisions should be made, the idea of the product-based education should be
undermined, the notion of the process-based education should be underlined and finally, critical
pedagogy and participatory education should be mainstreamed
Postmodern TEFL theory presents English as a lingua franca with regional variations a global
language in which there are no native speakers, no standard pronunciations or grammars, and no
target culture. Learning to learn is being seen as a lifelong process, in which language is used as a
means of learning language, and the mass media has successfully colonized the profession,
bringing its global messages of financial accountability, consumerism, and the image as reality.
In this situation, TEFL as a profession cannot make any modernist claims to be progressive, unified
or universal in its approaches or practices, though it is a postmodern contradiction and
doubleness that various establishments and schools of thought (e.g. the peace as a global
language movement) continue in this endeavor, and that postmodern approaches include both
neo-liberal and neo-conservative views on education reform.
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Unit 5
Communicative competence and communicative

language teaching
To analyze the concept of Communicative Competence and its implications in Language Teaching.
5.1. Aspects of communicative competence

Communicative competence is a concept introduced by Dell Hymes and discussed and redefined
by many authors. Hymes' original idea was that speakers of a language have to have more than
grammatical competence in order to be able communicate effectively in a language; they also
need to know how language is used by members of a speech community to accomplish their
purposes.
The communicative competence is the group of knowledge, capacities and attitudes needed for
the reception, interpretation and production of discourse, through the different channels, and that
facilitates and promotes interpersonal relationships, the integral education of the individual and
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mobility. The communicative competence includes the following components: the linguistic, the
sociolinguistic and the pragmatic components. Each of these components includes mainly
knowledge, skills and know to do.
Linguistic aspects
Phonology and orthography
Grammar
Vocabulary
Discourse (textual)
Pragmatic aspects
Functions
Variations
Interactional skills
Cultural framework
Introduction
The linguistics aspects of communicative competence are those that have to do with achieving an
internalized functional knowledge of the elements and structures of the language.
Linguistic competence
The linguistic competence refers to the mastery of the code, it includes the knowledge and the
lexical, phonetic and syntactic skills, and any other dimensions of language as a system,
independently form the sociolinguistic value of its varieties and the pragmatic functions of its
productions.
Phonological Competence
Phonological competence is the ability to recognize and produce the distinctive meaningful
sounds of a language, including:
consonants
vowels
tone patterns
intonation patterns
rhythm patterns
stress patterns
any other suprasegmental features that carry meaning
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Related to phonological competence is orthographic competence, or the ability to decipher and

write the writing system of a language.
Example
In Korean there are three kinds of velar stops: aspirated, fortis and lenis. It is important to be able to
distinguish these sounds, because there are a number of different words that are pronounced the
same, except for the difference in these stops. It is also important to be able to pronounce these
consonants correctly so that Korean speakers can tell which word the language learner means
Grammatical Competence
Grammatical competence is the ability to recognize and produce the distinctive grammatical
structures of a language and to use them effectively in communication
Examples
Learners of French need to learn to understand the different time references of sets of words such
as je partais, je parte, je parterai, and to be able to make appropriate time reference when speaking
or writing.
Lexical Competence
Lexical competence is the ability to recognize and use words in a language in the way that
speakers of the language use them. Lexical competence includes understanding the different
relationships among families of words and the common collocations of words
Example
Learners learning English need to be able to recognize the concept of chair and what makes it
different from a stool, a sofa, or a bench. They also need to know that a chair is a piece of furniture,
and that there are various kinds of chairs, including easy chairs, deck chairs, office chairs, rocking
chairs and so on. They also need to understand how chair is now used in an extended sense for
what used to be termed a chairman, especially when referring to a woman, as in Julie Wright is the
chair of the committee.
Discourde competence
Discourse competence is used to refer to two related, but distinct abilities. Textual discourse
competence refers to the ability to understand and construct monologues or written texts of
different genres, such as narratives, procedural texts, expository texts, persuasive (hortatory) texts,
descriptions and others. These discourse genres have different characteristics, but in each genre
there are some elements that help make the text coherent, and other elements which are used to
make important points distinctive or prominent
Learning a language involves learning how to relate these different types of discourse in such a
way that hearers or readers can understand what is going on and see what is important. Likewise it
involves being able to relate information in a way that is coherent to the readers and hearers.
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Many authors use the term discourse to refer to conversational interaction, so that discourse
competence could also refer to the ability to participate effectively in conversations. In the
Language Learning Bookshelf conversational interaction is considered a part of interactional
competence.
Example
Once upon a time there was an old woman named Mother Hubbard, who had a dearly-loved dog
named Bowser. Mother Hubbard was very poor and didn't always have enough food for herself and
her pet. One day Bowser came running up and barked hopefully to show his mistress how hungry
he was. Mother Hubbard went to the cupboard to get her poor doggie a bone, because she felt
sorry for him. But when she got to the cupboard it was bare, and so poor Bowser went hungry
This story starts with the phrase Once upon a time, which tells us that it is a fairy tale. The first
paragraph goes on to introduce the two characters: Mother Hubbard and Bowser. It also tells us the
background information we need to know about Mother Hubbard. Even though this is such a short
story we need to keep track of the two participants and the props: the cupboard and the bone.
Note the words used to refer to Mother Hubbard: an old woman, herself, his mistress, she and
those used to refer to Bowser: a dearly-loved dog, her pet, her poor doggie, him, poor BowserThe
second paragraph starts with the words One day, which introduce an event we expect to be
important. (In fact, it is the only episode in our story!) This episode has three main events:
Bowser ran up and barked hopefully
Mother Hubbard went to the cupboard
The cupboard was bare
There is also some further information in subordinate clauses, which are linked to the main clauses
by words that show the relationship between them:
to show his mistress how hungry he was tells us the purpose for which Bowser
barked.
because she felt sorry for him tells us the reason why Mother Hubbard went to the
cupboard.
to get her poor doggie a bone tells us the purpose of going to the cupboard. and
so poor Bowser went hungry tells us the result of the cupboard being bare.
The words But when she got there introduce the climax of the story: She expected the bone to be
there, but it wasn't so poor Bowser went hungry. So even in a short story such as this, we can
identify cohesive and prominence elements in an English narrative text. Children learn intuitively as
they are learning English, but adult learners may be helped by conscious attention to such
elements
Pragmatic aspects of communicative competence
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The pragmatic competence is related to the functional use of the linguistic resources (production
of linguistic functions, speech acts, mastery of presuppositions and implicit
implicit language) in situations
of communicative exchanges.
The pragmatic competence includes the discursive competence that refers to the mastery of the
rules for the elaboration of discourse. It is concerned with coherence, cohesion, text organization,
etc.
Bearing
aring all this in mind, if we consider that the sociolinguistic, discursive, encyclopedic and
strategic competences are integrated in the pragmatic competence we may say that:
LINGUISTIC
COMPETENCE
PRAGMATIC
COMPETENCE
COMMUNICATIVE
COMPETENCE
Functional competence
Sociolinguistic competence
Interactional competence
Cultural competence
The pragmatic aspects of communicative competence are those that have to do with how
language is used in communication situations to achieve the speaker's purposes
Functional Competence
unctional competence refers to the ability to accomplish communication purposes in a language.
There are a number of different kinds of purposes for which people commonly use language
Example
Greeting people is one purpose for which we use language. What we actually
actually say in English could
be Good morning, Hi, How ya doin, or Yo, depending on who we are and who we are talking to.
Interactional Competence
Interactional competence involves knowing and using the mostly-unwritten
mostly unwritten rules for interaction in
various communication situations within a given speech community and culture. It includes,
among other things, knowing how to initiate and manage conversations
conversations and negotiate meaning
with other people. It also includes knowing what sorts of body language, eye contact, and
proximity to other people are appropriate, and acting accordingly
Examples
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A conversation with a checker at the check-out line in a grocery store in the US or England
shouldn't be very personal or protracted, as the purpose of the conversation is mainly a business
transaction and it would be considered inappropriate to make the people further back in the
queue wait while a customer and the checker have a social conversation. Other cultures have
different rules of interaction in a market transaction.
Cultural competence is the ability to understand behavior from the standpoint of the members of a
culture and and to behave in a way that would be understood by the members of the culture in the
intended way. Cultural competence therefore involves understanding all aspects of a culture, but
particularly the social structure, the values and beliefs of the people, and the way things are
assumed to be done.
Sociocultural competence
Sociolinguistic competence is the ability to interpret the social meaning of the choice of linguistic
varieties and to use language with the appropriate social meaning for the communication
situation. Sociolinguistics is a very broad discipline and the term sociolinguistic competence could
be used much more broadly than it is here, where we have restricted its use to refer to the
recognition and use of appropriate varieties of language.
The sociolinguistic competence refers to the socio cultural conditions in the use of the language; it
refers to a persons capacity to properly produce and understand linguistic expressions in different
contexts of use, in which there are variables depending on the relationship of interlocutors, the
communicative intentions in this particular situation and the rules and conventions of interaction
that regulate it.
The sociolinguistic competence is guided by the rules of social use that regulate the
communicative
interaction
(channel,
formal/informal
character,
specific/general,
objective/subjective, purpose of the interaction...)
The sociolinguistic component sensitive to social conventions (courtesy rules, the rules that
govern the relationships among generations, sexes, classes and social groups, the linguistic
codification of some fundamental rituals to the functioning of a community) affects any linguistic
communication among representatives of different cultures, even though the participants are not
usually aware of the influence.
Some authors consider other competences such as the encyclopedic competence (cultural
competence and knowledge of the world that assure the communicative flow), the strategic
competence (application of verbal and non verbal capacities to solve the deficiencies of the other
competences and assure the effectiveness in the communication; it includes aspects such as
empathy or the capacity to put oneself into the others place or capacity to connect easily with the
others).
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Examples
When greeting someone in a very formal situation an American might say, Hello, how are you? or
Nice to see you again, but if he were meeting a friend in an informal situation it would be much
more appropriate to say Hi, or Hey, whatcha been doing?
Cultural competence
Cultural competence is the ability to understand behavior from the standpoint of the members of a
culture and and to behave in a way that would be understood by the members of the culture in the
intended way. Cultural competence therefore involves understanding all aspects of a culture, but
particularly the social structure, the values and beliefs of the people, and the way things are
assumed to be done.
Examples
It is impossible to speak Korean or Japanese correctly without understanding the social structure of
the respective societies, because that structure is reflected in the endings of words and the terms
of address and reference that must be used when speaking to or about other people
5.2. Communicative language teaching

Communicative language teaching (CLT) is an approach to the teaching of second and foreign
languages that emphasizes interaction as both the means and the ultimate goal of learning a
language. It is also referred to as communicative approach to the teaching of foreign languages
or simply the communicative approach.
Relationship with other methods and approaches
Historically, CLT has been seen as a response to the audio-lingual method (ALM), and as an
extension or development of the notional-functional syllabus. Task-based language learning, a
more recent refinement of CLT, has gained considerably in popularity.
The audio-lingual method
The audio-lingual method (ALM) arose as a direct result of the need for foreign language
proficiency in listening and speaking skills during and after World War II. It is closely tied to
behaviorism, and thus made drilling, repetition, and habit-formation central elements of
instruction. Proponents of ALM felt that this emphasis on repetition needed a corollary emphasis
on accuracy, claiming that continual repetition of errors would lead to the fixed acquisition of
incorrect structures and non-standard pronunciation.
In the classroom, lessons were often organized by grammatical structure and presented through
short dialogues. Often, students listened repeatedly to recordings of conversations (for example, in
the language lab) and focused on accurately mimicking the pronunciation and grammatical
structures in these dialogs.
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Critics of ALM asserted that this over-emphasis on repetition and accuracy ultimately did not help
students achieve communicative competence in the target language. Noam Chomsky argued
"Language is not a habit structure. Ordinary linguistic behaviour characteristically involves
innovation, formation of new sentences and patterns in accordance with rules of great
abstractness and intricacy". They looked for new ways to present and organize language
instruction, and advocated the notional functional syllabus, and eventually CLT as the most
effective way to teach second and foreign languages. However, audio-lingual methodology is still
prevalent in many text books and teaching materials. Moreover, advocates of audio-lingual
methods point to their success in improving aspects of language that are habit driven, most
notably pronunciation.
The notional-functional syllabus
A notional-functional syllabus is more a way of organizing a language learning curriculum than a
method or an approach to teaching. In a notional-functional syllabus, instruction is organized not
in terms of grammatical structure as had often been done with the ALM, but in terms of notions
and functions. In this model, a notion is a particular context in which people communicate, and
a function is a specific purpose for a speaker in a given context. As an example, the notion or
context shopping requires numerous language functions including asking about prices or features
of a product and bargaining. Similarly, the notion party would require numerous functions like
introductions and greetings and discussing interests and hobbies. Proponents of the notionalfunctional syllabus claimed that it addressed the deficiencies they found in the ALM by helping
students develop their ability to effectively communicate in a variety of real-life contexts.
Overview of CLT
As an extension of the notional-functional syllabus, CLT also places great emphasis on helping
students use the target language in a variety of contexts and places great emphasis on learning
language functions. Unlike the ALM, its primary focus is on helping learners create meaning rather
than helping them develop perfectly grammatical structures or acquire native-like pronunciation.
This means that successfully learning a foreign language is assessed in terms of how well learners
have developed their communicative competence which can loosely be defined as their ability to
apply knowledge of both formal and sociolinguistic aspects of a language with adequate
proficiency to communicate.
CLT is usually characterized as a broad approach to teaching, rather than as a teaching method
with a clearly defined set of classroom practices. As such, it is most often defined as a list of general
principles or features. One of the most recognized of these lists is David Nunans (1991) five
features of CLT:
1. An emphasis on learning to communicate through interaction in the target
language.
2. The introduction of authentic texts into the learning situation.
3. The provision of opportunities for learners to focus, not only on language but
also on the Learning Management process.
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4. An enhancement of the learners own personal experiences as important

contributing elements to classroom learning.
5. An attempt to link classroom language learning with language activities outside
the classroom.
These five features are claimed by practitioners of CLT to show that they are very interested in the
needs and desires of their learners as well as the connection between the language as it is taught in
their class and as it used outside the classroom. Under this broad umbrella definition, any teaching
practice that helps students develop their communicative competence in an authentic context is
deemed an acceptable and beneficial form of instruction. Thus, in the classroom CLT often takes
the form of pair and group work requiring negotiation and cooperation between learners, fluencybased activities that encourage learners to develop their confidence, role-plays in which students
practice and develop language functions, as well as judicious use of grammar and pronunciation
focused activities.
In the mid 1990s the Dogma 95 manifesto influenced language teaching through the Dogme
language teaching movement, who proposed that published materials can stifle the
communicative approach. As such the aim of the Dogme approach to language teaching is to
focus on real conversations about real subjects so that communication is the engine of learning.
This communication may lead to explanation, but that this in turn will lead to further
communication.
Classroom activities used in CLT
Example activities
Role play
Interviews
Information gap
Games
Language exchange
Surveys
Pair work
Learning by teaching
However, not all courses that utilize the communicative language approach will restrict their
activities solely to these. Some courses will have the students take occasional grammar quizzes, or
prepare at home using non-communicative drills, for instance.
5.3. Glossary of linguistic terms

Linguistic; Referring to the study or ways of language and the use of words to create meaning.
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Accent refers solely to the way words are pronounced, e.g. in the south of England, it is normal to
pronounce the word path as p-ar-th, but in the Midlands and the North, the phoneme 'a' is
articulated as a short vowel and pronounced as in, 'cat'. The accent known as 'Received
Pronunciation' is considered as a prestige accent and is one frequently heard on television and
radio news bulletins, for example.
Dialect refers to choices of vocabulary, grammar and pronunciation made by people in different
geographical regions or social contexts. The dialect known as 'Standard English' is generally
considered to be a prestige dialect and is the choice of many teachers, business people,
newsreaders, etc.
Orthography
Orthography is the term used in linguistics used to refer to the way that words are spelled
Phonetics/Phonology
Phonetics is the study of the way people physical produce and perceive the different sounds we
use to create speech. These sounds are called phonemes and are created by the various 'organs of
speech' in the body, including the tongue, the soft and hard palate, lips, pharynx, etc. Phonetics,
unlike phonology, is not concerned in any way with the meaning connected to these sounds.
Phonology is the study of the way speech sounds are structured and how these are combined to
create meaning in words, phrases and sentences. Phonology can be considered an aspect of
grammar and, just as there are grammar 'rules' that apply to the syntax of a sentence and the
morphology of words, there are phonological rules, too.
Even in very early childhood, children are said to be able to produce (i.e. they can articulate) the full
range of sounds needed to create all of the words used in any world language, yet as language
acquisition progresses, those phonemes that do not apply to their mother tongue become
forgotten. This is so much so that in later life, if a second language is then attempted, the
pronunciation of non-English phonemes needs to be re-learned - this time at a wholly conscious
level, as opposed to the ability to pronounce each English phoneme without any conscious
thought. Even 'non-words' such as 'erm', 'uh?', etc. use English phonemes.
An important part of phonology is the study of those sounds that form distinct units within a
language. The smallest unit of sound that can, in itself, alter the meaning of a word is called a
phoneme. Although there are 26 letters in the English alphabet, it's interesting to note that there
are around 44 phonemes in the dialect called Standard English. This means that letters cannot
represent phonemes as such and so other symbols are used. Each phoneme is given a symbol so
that the accurate pronunciation of any English word can be represented in writing. Here is the
(American) English phonetic alphabet - version of the International Phonetic Alphabet or IPA:
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The extra sounds we have above the number of letters we have available in part explains the
complexities of English spelling (see orthography). Consider the word might, in which there are
three phonemes m-ight-t (represented as m/ai/t using the Phonetic Alphabet), changing just a
single phoneme can completely change the meaning of this word, e.g. mate, m-a-te (represented
as m/ei/t phonetically).
Some of the extra sounds are there because we use phonemes that are called diphthongs. If the
tongue has to move significantly to make a vowel sound, the result is a diphthong; it sounds like a
rapid blend of two vowel sounds. The letter 'i' in the word 'kite' is a diphthong - it is a rapidly made
blend of an 'a' and an 'i' sound. The movement of sound from the 'a' to the 'i' is called a glide.
Phonology also covers the study of important sound features such as rhythm, pitch, tone, melody,
stress and intonation. These phonological features of language are aspects of prosody - they are
referred to as the prosodic or suprasegmental features of language.
Pragmatics is an aspect of how language generates meaning - and as such, it falls under the
'umbrella' of semantics, which is the study of meaning. Semantics is often, simplistically, said to be
the the study of surface 'sentence meaning' and pragmatics to be the study of the deeper, inferred
'social force' of language.
The clearest way we can communicate our ideas and thoughts is through language. To achieve
this, the ideas and thoughts we want to communicate become 'encoded' either
PHONOLOGICALLY (by the sound of spoken words) or GRAPHICALLY (through marks on a
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handwritten or printed page). When this meaning is conveyed semantically, the encoded meaning
- the words, phrases and sentences we create - can be easily DE-coded without particular thought
of the context. Sometimes, however, a deeper, inferred meaning is also encoded within language,
and this creates a pragmatic force within the text. Thus, pragmatics operates whenever we write or
say one thing semantically but MEAN to infer extra force to our text or utterance.
Pragmatics is an absolutely key aspect of any A-level textual analysis as it is so very
revealing of important linguistic aspects.
If you ignore the pragmatic force of language in your analyses, you will lose many
marks.
An example will make this clearer. If you think about the phrase, 'Give him one!', the meaning this
contains will very much depend upon the social situation in which it is used. It is the noun 'one'
that, in certain social situations, will carry different levels of force: it is a pragmatically loaded word,
where its precise meaning can only be inferred by the context of the language use.
Pragmatic meanings can be inferred in this way because, owing to the context of
the language use, we are able to 'read into' a word the extra meaning the utterance's pragmatic force - conferred on it by the way it is used within a
particular social situation.
Pragmatics can allow language to be used in interesting and social ways: knowing that your
listener or reader shares certain knowledge with you allows your conversation to be more personal,
lively or less extended. It also allows you to use words and give them inferred elements such as
power aspects, because your listener is aware of your social standing, for example. Similarly,
language can act in ideological ways to reinforce a society's values - again, pragmatically. At
another level, language users can rely on pragmatics to help them cut down on the number of
words needed to make meaning clear - and hence contributes to a more lively style.
Here are a few examples that require more than a semantic analysis to reveal the intended
meaning of the text's words and phrases, but where the pragmatic meaning is perfectly clear:
'BABY SALE - GOING CHEAP' (poster seen in shop window - but no babies are for
sale).
'QUICK! FIRE!' (and you know you must run).
'PASS THE SALT' (and you know it's not an order).
'ARE YOU GOING INTO TOWN?' (and you know it's a request for the person to come
with you).
'HE'S GOT A KNIFE!' (and you don't ask how sharp it is)
'I PROMISE TO BE GOOD.' (and you don't expect a repeat of the bad deed).
'THE PRESENT KING OF ENGLAND IS BALD.' (said on TV, yet you can work out what
is meant even though we have a queen).
'ANOTHER PINT...?' (and you know you've already had one).
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'I SAID, 'NOW!'' (and you know when).

'GOSH - IT'S COLD IN HERE!' (and someone shuts the door or window).
An important area of pragmatics is in the study of language and power. The implicit understanding
of a power relationship between, say, two speakers, is often indicated by the meanings implied by
the language used. This meaning can be very context dependent
Register; when context results in a commonly recognisable style to be produced, the resulting style
is called a register (e.g. an informal register, a medical register, a scientific register). Context can be
an effective way to categorise texts.
Purpose. Purpose is the reason why a text was created. This may be, for example, to entertain,
explain, instruct, persuade or inform. The purpose of a text is its writer or speakers controlling idea:
the message they wish the text to leave with the reader or listener. When you consider a texts
purpose, you need to recognise how the writer has chosen stylistic devices to bring about a
particular series of effects on the reader. One of the most common purposes is to persuade and it
can be one of the most difficult to determine because professional writers are experts at making
persuasion appear to be information: quite a different thing (as wartime propaganda has shown).
Audience is also a way to categorise texts.
Context is always an important aspect to consider whenever you analyse a text. Context refers to
those particular elements of the situation within which the text is created AND interpreted that in
some way or another affect it (for example, the effects of time, place, ideology, social hierarchies,
relationships, etc.).
Importantly, language has two potentially important contextual aspects: the context in which it
was created and that in which it was interpreted. For example, a letter from a manager to one of his
staff will be affected by context such as the situation itself, the power relationship that exists
between the manager and the worker, the historical conditions and so on. Another example, when
you speak to your parents or when you speak to a friend on the phone you will see that context
naturally affects the linguistic choices - the style - of the discourse in important ways. Also see
register.
Semantics; Semantics is the study of word and phrase meaning (but also see pragmatics). In the
new exam specifications for A-level English Language (from 2008-9), it has been combined with
lexis.
Writers often play with semantics to create interesting stylistic effects or to create a style suited to a
particular context or audience. For example, a simplified semantic level would be chosen to suit a
younger audience, and so on. When examining a text at the level of its lexis and semantics, it's
important to look out for uses of, for example, irony, simile, semantic fields (see below) metaphor
or hyperbole (called figurative language).
An important area of semantics is in the use of idioms or idiomatic language.
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Lexis
Lexis means the vocabulary of a language as opposed to other aspects such as the grammar of the
text. Lexis is clearly an important aspect of creating a suitable style or register (i.e. when choosing
language and language features to suit a particular genre, context, audience and purpose).
Lexis and semantics are very close and often used interchangeably.
Lexical cohesion occurs when words have an affinity for each other as in collocation.
Style; Style is the result of the choices a writer (or speaker) makes regarding aspects of language,
language features and structure with regard to creating a text or discourse that will suit a particular
genre, context, audience and purpose. Three key aspects of style that are often worthy of comment
are a text's degree of formality or informality, its use of standard or non-standard grammar and its
discourse structure. Some skilled writers also develop distinctive, individual aspects of style, which
may also be called a 'voice' - akin to a person's spoken idiolect.
Discourse / discourse analysis ; When we use language, what we are doing is trying to express
thoughts and ideas that are in our head to a someone else. Sometimes this will be to a known
person, sometimes to an unknown audience. Conversation is the obvious example of the former,
media texts of the latter.
We are very sophisticated communicators (and of course use more than just language!). This makes
discourse a massively subtle, sophisticated and complex area of study, in fact. But, even a basic
understanding of it can help push your marks up to the highest bands. Aspects of communication
that affect the discourse include genre, context, audience and purpose ('G-CAP'). All of these, and
especially the first three, will act as a 'constraint' on what we say or write. Context is an especially
important aspect of discourse analysis as the social and hierarchical aspects of life often bring all
kinds of pragmatic meanings into the discourse.
A discourse occurs whenever we put thought into language. This could be for a whole range of
reasons - we might be in a conversation, writing a novel, producing a piece of homework, holing
someone to ransom, texting a friend... all kinds of reasons. The result of this 'conversion' of thought
and ideas into language is the production of a discourse between the parties involved. And these
discourses can ne productively analysed as an analysis at the level of discourse will reveal many
interesting and subtle areas of language use.
Discourse, therefore, is no more than language - a kind of 'text' - but considered as a part of the
original context of its use. When considering discourse, therefore, you need to consider all of the
important aspects of context that affected either its creation, its reception or its interpretation. And
remember that discourses or spoken - planned, spontaneous, to a known audience, an unknown
audience, historical, etc..
Thus, everyday language, technical language, business language, children's language, cookerybook language, newspaper language... any and all kinds of language, can all be considered at the
level of discourse. All texts will contain within them some discernible aspects of their user's
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personal, cultural, social and historical situation. Discourse analysis comments on these contextual
aspects.
Commenting on the social circumstances of a text means taking account of aspects
of its . Social and cultural context
When analysing a text, it can be fascinating (and gain many extra marks because of its subtlety) to
dig deeper than the surface meaning of the words to try to reveal interesting contextual aspects of
the text's users. To make this clearer, you can imagine that our own society is far more liberalminded than, say, the society of a century ago. This aspect will show up in the texts written in these
periods through a variety of aspects including word choice and grammar. Similarly, aspects of
social hierarchy and social power always manifest themselves within texts. Imagine a conversation
between a patient and a doctor, for example - again, discourse analysis seeks to reveal this.
We can, somewhat artificially perhaps, but useful, 'lump together' certain discourses and see that
they contain broadly similar elements because of the context, for example, in which they occur.
Thus the idea of a 'discourse community' or discourse communities can be used, similar to the idea
of a 'register'. Young people, to take an example, tend to use language that shares many similar
features, and they can be called a 'discourse community'. In this instance, this is similar to the idea
of sociolect, also - but not all discourse communities share a sociolect.
An important part of discourse analysis is to determine what are called the orders of discourse. In
any discourse, it is clear that speakers or readers are rarely 'on equal terms'. Usually there is a
hierarchy of power or a power relationship involved, wherein one participant - through language
choices - can 'position' the other participant in a less powerful position. An analysis of men and
women in conversation has revealed many ways in which apparently innocent uses of language
create a power relationship between the participants.
Disccourse structure can be a useful part of discourse analysis and is generally rewarded highly in
your exams. Analysing a text at the level of its discourse structure sets out to reveal the various
methods used, effects created and purposes intended by the language user to create a coherent
and unified stretch of language. A text aimed at a child, for example, will have a much more
obvious structure with clear 'linguistic signposts' to guide the child through it. If you compare such
a text with, say, a broadsheet newspaper article, you will immediately notice that the means of
linking ideas in the latter will be far more complex, sophisticated and subtle. Discourse structure,
therefore, is one of the elements of style: those choices a language user makes to suit context,
genre, audience and purpose.
Idiomatic language refers to many words or phrases that are a familiar and everyday feature of our
language. Idioms are a part of the comfortable, conversational style of language we use daily - but
to a foreigner, idioms are difficult to understand because their meaning is very different from the
literal meaning of the words that make them up, e.g. 'He wants his pound of flesh.' 'You scratch my
back, I'll scratch yours' 'That's real cool' 'No way, Jos', 'He's a pain in the neck!', etc. Each of these
are idioms - or idiomatic phrases. You will notice that idioms always exist as fixed collocations
which do not work if the phrase order is altered at all. For example, we cannot really say, 'He
scratched my back and I scratched
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Morphology / morpheme; The suffix "morph-" is to do with shape, and morphology concerns the
form and shape of words. It is an important aspect of grammar (along with syntax); morphology is
the study of the way words are formed. The smallest part of a word that can exist alone or which
can change a word's meaning or function is called a morpheme (e.g. un-, happy, -ness).
A bound morpheme is an affix, i.e. usually a prefix or a suffix, e.g. un-, -tion. These are 'bound' called
because they must be attached to another morpheme to create a word. Morphemes that can exist
alone as a complete word are called free morphemes, e.g. happy. Grammar is the set of rules that
tells how words can be put into a sequence and a form that allows their meaning to become
unambiguous in a sentence. The order of words in a phrase, clause or sentence is called its syntax
and the form of words is called morphology (for example, to show plural we add the morpheme s,
to Syntax (syntactic how possession, we add the morpheme 's).
Syntax is the most important aspect of English grammar. It refers to the way words are put
together in a group to create meaning as phrases, clauses or as a sentence. Studying the syntax of a
sentence involves investigating the structure and relationships of its words.
Standard syntax refers to the syntax of a particular dialect of English called Standard English - this is
the syntax you will read in most written texts and hear from teachers in lessons, newsreaders and in
any other more formal context. Non-standard syntax is a normal part of much spoken English and
is common in regional dialects.
Cohesion, (cohere / coherent / coherence)
Many patterns of words exhibit a quality known as cohesion. This means that they form coherent
units. Phrases are an important coherent grammatical unit. Words that cohere are cohesive: they
appear to act not as individual words but as a single unit, e.g. 'inside out', 'at three o'clock', 'the
awful creature', 'has been eating', 'in a traditional manner'. These examples of coherent groups are
all phrases, but clauses, sentences and discourses are also, if they are to be effective in
communicating ideas and facts, coherent.
At the level of discourse, the reader or listener also needs to be able to link the different sentences
and paragraphs (or stanzas in a poem, etc) in a logical way. This is achieved by many linguistic
means including, graphology, semantics, pragmatics, narrative structure, tone, lists, pronouns,
proper nouns, repetition of either logical or similar ideas, use of synonyms, and so on. The analysis
of the cohesive qualities (i.e. the coherence) of a text is the analysis of discourse structure.
Accent refers solely to the way words are pronounced, e.g. in the south of England, it is normal to
pronounce the word path as p-ar-th, but in the Midlands and the North, the phoneme 'a' is
articulated as a short vowel and pronounced as in, 'cat'. The accent known as 'Received
Pronunciation' is considered as a prestige accent and is one frequently heard on television and
radio news bulletins, for example.
Dialect refers to choices of vocabulary, grammar and pronunciation made by people in different
geographical regions or social contexts. The dialect known as 'Standard English' is generally
considered to be a prestige dialect and is the choice of many teachers, business people,
newsreaders, etc.
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ESP; Refers to English for Specific Purposes, such as technical terms related to medicine, law or
business academic vocabulary.
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References and Websites
Unit 1
CLIL COMPENDIUM
www.clilcompendium.com
COUNCIL OF EUROPE, LANGUAGE POLICY DIVISION LEAFLET
www.coe.int/lang
ISTE. INTERNATIONAL SOCIETY FOR TECHNOLOGY IN EDUCATION
www.iste.org
METIRI 21ST SKILLS
www.metiri.com
Unit 2
DEMETRIOU, A. (1998). Cognitive development. In A. Demetriou, W. Doise, K. F. M. van Lieshout (Eds.), Life-span
developmental psychology (pp. 179-269). London: Wiley.
DEMETRIOU, A., SHAYER, M., & EFKLIDES, A. (1992). Neo-Piagetian theories of cognitive development: Implications and
applications to education. London: Routledge.
CHOMSKY, N. (1959). A review of B.F. Skinners verbal behavior. Cited in J.A. Fodor. and J.J.KATZ. (1968). The Structure of
Language. Englewood Cliffs. Prentice Hall.
VAN PATTEN B, WILLIAMS J. Theory in Second Language Acquisition.
VYGOTSKYS PHILOSOPHY: Constructivism and its criticisms examined Liu & Matthews, International Education Journal,
2005, 6(3), 386-399.
http://lingtechguistics.wordpress.com
Unit 3
CUMMINS, J. (2002): Lenguaje, poder y pedagoga, Morata/MECD, Madrid.
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VYGOTSKY, L. S. (1979): El desarrollo de los procesos psicolgicos superiores, Grijalbo, Barcelona.
CLARK, R. (1974). Performing without competence. Journal of Child Language 1.pp 1-10.
COOK, V. (1991). Second Language Learning and Language Teaching. London. Arnold.
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DAVIES, A., CRIPER, C. AND HOWATT, A.P.R. (1984). Interlanguage. (eds). Edinburgh. Edinburgh University Press.
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Key terms
L1 -Native or first language
L2 -Target or second language
L3 -A third or other learned language
FLA -First language acquisition
SLA -Second language acquisition
FLL -First language learner
SLL -Second language learner
IL -Interlanguage
CA -Contrastive analysis
EA -Error analysis
SOV -Subject-Object-Verb language
SVO -Subject-Verb-Object language
CLI -Cross Linguistic Influence
Unit 4
DOLAN, R. P., & HALL, T. E., (2001). Universal Design for Learning:
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ROSE, D., & MEYER, A., (2000A). Universal design for individual differences. Educational Leadership, 58(3), 39-43.
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15(2), 26-60.
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TOMLINSON, C. A., & ALLAN, S. D., (2000). Leadership for differentiating schools and classrooms. Alexandria, VA: ASCD.
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THE ACCESS CENTER
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ED443572.
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.TOMLINSON, C. A., (1995). DIFFERENTIATING INSTRUCTION FOR ADVANCED LEARNERS IN THE MIXED-ABILITY MIDDLE
SCHOOL CLASSROOM. ERIC DIGEST E536.
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TOMLINSON, C. A., & ALLAN, S. D., (2000). LEADERSHIP FOR DIFFERENTIATING SCHOOLS AND CLASSROOMS.
ASSOCIATION FOR SUPERVISION AND CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT.
WEB ARTICLE: MAPPING A ROUTE TOWARD DIFFERENTIATED INSTRUCTION.
CAROL ANN TOMLINSON, AN ASSOCIATE PROFESSOR OF EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP, FOUNDATIONS
AND POLICY AT THE CURRY SCHOOL OF EDUCATION, UNIVERSITY OF VIRGINIA, CHARLOTTESVILLE, VA PROVIDES AN
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EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP RESEARCH LINK

HOLLOWAY, J. H., (2000). PREPARING TEACHERS FOR DIFFERENTIATED INSTRUCTION. EDUCATIONAL
LEADERSHIP, 58(1).
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Unit 5
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University Master in Secondary and Sixth Form Teaching, Vocational

Training and Language Teaching

University Master in Secondary and

University Master in Secondary

Complementary Training for Foreign

Ms. Oreto Martnez Martnez

Valencian International University

UNIT 1. THE KNOWLEDGE SOCIETY. ENGLISH AS A LINGUA FRANCA .............................................................. 7

Globalization. English as a lingua franca.................................................................................................. 7

The council of europe ...................................................................................................................................10

Scientific research on language learning...............................................................................................14

Multilingual curricula. Content and language learning dimensions ...........................................14

UNIT 2. LANGUAGE ACQUISITION RESEARCH. DIFFERENT PERSPECTIVES OF INTELLIGENCE,

Complementary Training for Foreign Language Discipline

4.3. Postmodern influences in elt. Differentiated instruction theory ......................................................59

Foreign language itinerary

Complementary Training for Foreign Language

The knowledge society. English as a lingua franca

1.1. Globalization. English as a lingua franca

Complementary Training for Foreign Language Discipline

Foreign language itinerary

2007 International Society for Technology in Education.

Complementary Training for Foreign Language Discipline

enGauge 21st Century Skills.

1.3. The council of europe

Foreign language itinerary

1.4. Language education policies for democratic citizenship and

Complementary Training for Foreign Language Discipline

Council of Europe language education policy aims to promote

Foreign language itinerary

6 european Clil milestones

Council of Europe (ECML) CLIL

European Year of Languages, CLIL Compendium launched

Integrating Competencies for Working Life launched

Learning with Languages launched, CLIL Consortium founded,

development needs for 20002010 formalized

experience in primary and

European network established

The Changing European Classroom.

CEILINK Think Tank convened, Future Scenarios in Content and

Complementary Training for Foreign Language Discipline

Increasing frequency of articles published on research and

1.5. Scientific research on language learning

1.6. Multilingual curricula. Content and language learning

Foreign language itinerary

Provide opportunities to study content through different perspectives

b. Access subject-specific target language terminology

Complement individual learning strategies

Diversify methods & forms of classroom practice

Increase learner motivation

Complementary Training for Foreign Language Discipline

Foreign language itinerary

2.1. Before chomsky: b.f skinners verbal behavior

Complementary Training for Foreign Language Discipline

Foreign language itinerary

2.2. Chomskys theory of learning: the metatheory of linguistics.

2.3. The language acquisition device (lad)

Complementary Training for Foreign Language Discipline

2.4. Chomsky on intelligence: generative grammar, universal

Foreign language itinerary

Conclusion on chomsky and his interrelation to other theorists.

Complementary Training for Foreign Language Discipline