Objectives

F. OPTICS

23. Physical optics

23.1
23.2 Interference
23.3 Two-slit interference pattern
23.4 Interference in a thin film
23.5 Diffraction at single slit
23.6 Diffraction gratings
23.7 Polarisation
23.8 Optical waveguides

Outcomes

Outcomes

a)

h) explain the phenomenon of thin film

b)
c)
d)
e)
f)

and diffraction phenomena

explain the concept of coherence
explain the concept of optical path difference, and
solve related problems
state the conditions for constructive and destructive
interferences
-slit interference pattern

interference for normal incident light, and

solve related problems
i) explain the diffraction pattern for a single slit
j)

minimum in the diffraction pattern for a

single slit
k)

power of an aperture

g)

interference pattern

Outcomes

Outcomes

l) explain the diffraction pattern for a

o)

diffraction grating
m) use the formula d
for a diffraction
grating
n) describe the use of a diffraction grating to
form the spectrum of white light, and to
determine the wavelength of monochromatic
light

Objectives
(a) understand and use
principle to explain
interference and
diffraction
phenomena

state that polarisation is a property of transverse

waves
p) explain the polarisation of light obtained by
reflection or using a polariser
q) understand polarisation planes
law tan B = n
r)
I = I0cos2
s) explain the basic principles of fibre optics and
waveguides
t) state the applications of fibre optics and
waveguides

emitted at the opening and they will combine

when expanding on the other side of the
opening creating the diffraction pattern.

New wavefront

Every point on a wave front is a source of

secondary wavelets.
i.e. particles in a medium excited by electric
field (E) re-radiate in all directions
i.e. in vacuum, E, B fields associated with wave
act as sources of additional fields

r=c t

Given wave-front
at t

Plane wave propagation

New wave front is still a
plane as long as dimensions
of wave front are >>
If not, edge effects become
important
Note: no such thing as a
perfect plane wave, or
collimated beam

Construct the wave front

tangent to the wavelets

Allow wavelets to
evolve for time t

23.2 Interference
Objectives
(b) understand the concept of coherence
(c) understand the concept of optical path
difference
(d) know the conditions for constructive
interference and destructive interference

Coherence

Coherence

If the phase of a light wave is well defined at all

times (oscillates in a simple pattern with time
and varies in a smooth wave in space at any
instant), then the light is said to be coherent.

For example, a laser produces highly coherent

light. In a laser, all of the atoms radiate in
phase.
An incandescent or fluorescent light bulb
produces incoherent light. All of the atoms in
the phosphor of the bulb radiate with random
phase. Each atom oscillates for about 1ns, and
produces a coherent wave about 1 million
wavelengths long. But after several ns, the
next atom radiates with random phase.

If, on the other hand, the phase of a light wave

varies randomly from point to point, or from
moment to moment (on scales coarser than
the wavelength or period of the light) then
the light is said to be incoherent.

Interference
Recall interference of sound waves. Light waves
also display constructive and destructive
interference.
For incoherent light, the interference is hard to
washed out
rapid phase jumps of the light.
Soap films are one example where we can see
interference effects even with incoherent
light.

Interference of light waves was first

demonstrated by Thomas Young in 1801.
When two small apertures are illuminated with
coherent light, an interference pattern of light
and dark regions is observed on a distant
screen:
Light

Path Difference

Constructive and Destructive

Interference

We can understand the interference pattern as

resulting because light from the two apertures
will, in general, travel a different distance
before reaching a point on the screen. The
difference in distance is known as the path
difference.
P

Two waves (top and middle) arrive at the

same point in space.
The total wave amplitude is the sum of the
two waves.
The waves can add constructively or
destructively

Light

Constructive and Destructive

Interference

23.3 Two-slit interference pattern

Objectives
(e)
-slit interference pattern
(f) derive and use the formula y = D/a for

Two Slit Diffraction

Two Slit Interference

An incoherent light source
illuminates the first slit.
This creates a nearly-uniform but
coherent illumination of the
second screen
(from side-to-side on the screen,
the light wave has the same
oscillating phase).
The two waves from the two slits
S1 and S2 create a pattern of
alternating light and dark fringes
on the third screen.

Interference of waves from double slit

Each slit in the
previous slide acts
as a source of an
outgoing wave.
Notice that the two
waves are coherent
The amplitude of
the light wave
reaching the screen
is the coherent sum
of the wave coming
from the two slits.

Why did Young (1800s) use single slit

before the double slit?
1.
2.

3.

The first slit forces the wave to be

coherent all the time
From moment to moment (after
many oscillations of wave) the
wave is still incoherent, but at
each moment in time, the wave
has the same phase at the two
slits.
He was too cheap to buy a 19th
century laser.

Two Slit Diffraction

Two Slit Diffraction

If the two slits are separated by a difference d

and the screen is far away then the path
difference at point P is l dsin

f we put a lens of Focal Length f=L, then the

expression l dsin is exact.
If l = 2
etc, then the waves will arrive in
phase and there will be a bright spot on the
screen.
L
P

P
Light

Light
dsin

dsin

Fringes

Interference Conditions

Consider apertures made of tall, narrow slits. If

at point P the path difference yields a phase
difference of 180 degrees between the two
beams a dark fringe will appear. If the two
waves are in phase, a bright fringe will appear.

For constructive interference,

the path difference must be
zero or an integral multiple
of the wavelength:
d sin = m , (m 0, 1, 2...)
For destructive interference,
the path difference must be
an odd multiple of half
wavelengths:
= d sin = (m - 12 ) (m 0, 1, 2...)

m is called the order number

Double Slit interference

Double Slit interference

If we know distance D,
position y of mth bright
fringe

ym

d sin

y
d m
D
m

m
ym D
d
Could be used to measure the wavelength of light!

m
If m = 1,
d

d
D
d

Example

Two Slit Diffraction:

If the distance between two slits is 0.050 m and the

distance to a screen is 2.50 m, find the spacing
between the first- and second-order bright fringes for
yellow light of 600 nm wavelength.
d sin = m , (m 0, 1, 2...)

When green light ( = 505 nm) passes through a pair of

double slits, the interference pattern shown in (a) is
observed. When light of a different color passes
through the same pair of slits, the pattern shown in (b)
is observed.

ym

L tan

sin

sin

ym

m /d
1(600 nm) /( 0.05m) 12 10

12 10 6 rad

y1

(2.5m)(12 10 6 )

y2

y1

0.030mm

0.030mm

y2

m D
d
( 2 1)600 nm 2.50m
y1
0.05m

y2

y1

6 10 7 50m

y2

y1

0.03mm

Two Slit Diffraction:

Solution

(a) Is the wavelength of the second color greater than or

less than 505 nm? Explain.
(b) Find the wavelength of the second color. (Assume that
the angles involved are small enough to set sin = tan
= .)

d sin = m , (m 0, 1, 2...)

green light ( = 505 nm)

4.5 orders of green light = 5 orders of mystery
light
4.5 (505 nm) = (5)
< 505 nm,
= (4.5/5)(505 nm) = 454 nm

d sin = m , (m 0, 1, 2...)

Thin film - continued

23.4 Thin film

example of air wedge:

reflection from upper plate, na>nb, no phase
shift
reflection from lower plate, na<nb, phase
shift of

Description of phase shift during

reflecting

Interference conditions for thin films

Non-normal
incident ray

Assume light travelling in medium with index

of na, and hits interface to the medium with
index of nb
if na>nb, no phase shift
if na<nb, half circle phase shift

Example 1: Soap film interference

Maximum reflection or
transmission happens to
be a certain (colour) at
different position (angle)

n = sin /sin

AB = BC
= d/cos

Example 1: Soap film interference

The interference colours from a soap film can
be related to the thickness of the film by
using the interference condition and noting
that there is a 180 degree phase change upon
reflection from the film surface, but no phase
change for the reflection from the back
surface.
The colour seen depends also upon the angle
of view

Example 2: Oil film interference

Example 2: Oil film interference

The interference colours from an oil film on
water can be related to the thickness of the
film by using the interference condition and
noting that there is a 180 degree phase change
upon reflection from the film surface, but no
phase change for the reflection from the back
surface.
This presumes that the index of refraction of
the oil is greater than that of the water. The
colour seen depends also upon the angle of
view

Applications:
Reflective coating
Increasing the
reflection

Applications:
Anti-reflection coating
Reducing reflection

Applications:
For constructive interference
Path deference = m
2ndCos = m ,
0 , for nearly normal light
Take
2nd = m
If m = 1 , then thickness of the film is
minimum;
2nd =
d = /2n

Anti-reflection coating
A single layer anti-reflection coating can be
made non-reflective only at one wavelength,
usually at the middle of the visible.
Multiple layers are more effective over the
entire visible spectrum.

For destructive interference

Path deference = (m + )
2ndCos = (m + ) ,
0 , for nearly normal light
Take
2nd = (m + )
If m = 0 , then thickness of the film is
minimum;
2nd =
d = /4n

Anti-reflection coating
1/4
d

Anti-reflection coating
One coating layer is only for a certain
wavelength, normally chosen in the central
yellow-green portion of the spectrum ~550nm
(most sensitive to the eyes)
Overall reflection can be reduced from 4~5%
to 1%, the reflectivity can be reduced further
by multiple-layer coatings

Anti-reflection coating

Reflective coating

widely used for

highly corrected photographic lenses usually
using many pieces of glasses
devices of solar cell or phototdetectors use
this coating to increase light amount
transmitted
LED device to reduce Fresnel lossses

Reflective coating

If the quarter-wavelength layer has greater

index than the glass
half-cycle phase shift happens at the air-film
interface
no phase shift at the interface of film-glass
half-cycle phase shift during travelling in
film
the interference is constructive

23.5 Diffraction at single slit

The reflectivity is increased, for a film with

index of 2.5 increases reflectivity of 38%
100% reflectivity can be achieved by multiplecoating layers widely used in modern
optoelectronics to construct micro-cavity

Objectives
(i) know the diffraction pattern for a single slit
(j)
/a for
the first minimum in the diffraction pattern
for a single slit

Single Slit Diffraction

Diffraction
The bending of light
around objects into what
would otherwise be a

We have seen how we can get an interference

pattern when there are two slits.
The interference pattern with a single slit can
size is approximately (neither
too small nor too large)

known as diffraction.
Diffraction occurs when
light passes through very
small apertures or near
sharp edges.

Light

Single Slit Diffraction

Single Slit Diffraction

To understand single slit diffraction, we must

consider each point along the slit (of width a
) to be a point source of light.
There will be a path difference between light
leaving the top of the slit and the light
leaving the middle. This path difference will
yield an interference pattern.
P
a
Light
(a/2) sin
L

P
Light
A

(a/2) sin
A

a/2

C
B

Sin = BC/AB = 2BC/a If a = , ray AP and BP

are completely out of
BC = (a/2)sin
phase, destructive int.

Single Slit Diffraction

Single Slit Diffraction

Path difference of rays to P from top and
bottom edge of slit, L = asin
destructive if
L=m
P
a
Light
(a/2) sin
sin = m

(m 1, 2...) Destructiv e
a
Thus, a minimun is obtain at angle

where asin

Diffraction from a pinhole

Dark fringes occur at
zeros of Bessel
function, (2-D
geometry).
First dark fringe
Sin = 1.22 (l/D)
D = diameter of pinhole

Rayleigh Criterion
Diffraction limited Resolution
Two objects can be resolved (barely) if the
diffraction maximum of one object lies in the
diffraction minimum of the second object.
min = 1.22 [wavelength]/[diameter of lens or
mirror]

Diffraction Gratings
Each slit is a source of a
wave
Observe the outgoing
wave at an angle , the
contributions from all
slits add up coherently if
d sin = m ,

Notice that central

maximum is twice as
wide as secondary
maxima
Sin = m / W,
Destructive
Dark Fringes on screen
y = L tan
L (m /W)
Maxima occur for
y= 0 and,
y L (m 1/2)( /W)

m=1

m= 1

Single-Slit Diffraction from a large aperture

(telescope, microscope, camera).
A lens images parallel rays to a
point at the focal distance f.
All parallel rays experience the
same phase change from a
incident plane wave to the focus.
A image formed by a lens of
diameter a is fuzzed out by the
single slit diffraction pattern,
whose central maximum is of
width:
= 1.22 /a

23.6 Diffraction gratings

Objectives
(k) know the diffraction pattern for diffraction
gratings
(l) use the formula d
n for diffraction
gratings
(m) describe the use of diffraction gratings to
form the spectrum of white light and
measure the wavelength of monochromatic
light

Diffraction Gratings
If the incident wave
uniformly and coherently
excites N slits, then the
contribution from all of the
slits will exactly cancel if
d sin = (m+1/N) , (m=0,
By virtue of using many
slits, the diffraction grating
reduces the width of each
maximum by a factor 1/N.

Sharpening of Diffraction Pattern

Diffraction pattern with N=5
Width of each principal maximum is
= /(Nd), d = spacing of grating
N = number of slits illuminated by source.

Resolution of Diffraction Grating

With what precision can we measure the
wavelength of incident light?
d sin = (m+1/N) ,
N = (5000/cm)(0.5cm) = 2500
Consider two wavelengths 1 and 2 such that
Sin = (m) 1/d = (m+1/N) 2/d
1
2 = measurement precision

Diffraction Grating Resolution

N = 2500, m = 3
Relative precision = 1/(2500 3) = 1.3e-4
Red light l = 800 nm
Absolute precision = (800 nm) 1.3e-4 = 0.1nm
(One atomic diameter!!!!!)

EM waves

Resolution of Diffraction Grating

A grating can be used to measure the
wavelength of a spectral line from an atomic
or molecular transition.
A grating has 5000 rulings/cm,
Our light source makes a spot 5mm across on
the grating.
We observe the diffraction pattern in 3rd
order.

Resolution of Diffraction Grating

= sin (d/m)
2 = sin [d/(m+1/N)]
( 1
2) / 1 = relative precision
1

[d /(m 1 / N )]sin
(d / m) sin
2
m
1/ N
1
1
m 1 / N m 1 / N mN
Precision improves with larger values of either N
or m, But diffraction maxima get weaker and
weaker as m increases
1

(d / m) sin

23.7 Polarisation
Objectives
(n) understand that polarisation is a property of
transverse waves
(o) understand the production of polarised
light by polaroid and by reflection
(p) understand polarisation planes
(q) use the formula I = I0cos2

Plane of polarisation

Light is a transverse wave - like waves on a

string, or ripples on the surface of water
The associated electric and magnetic fields, E
and B are at right angles to the direction the
wave is traveling and to each other
Direction wave
is traveling

The plane of polarisation is the plane

containing the electric field E and the
direction of the wave

Direction the wave

is traveling

electric

magnetic

Production of radio waves

Production of radio waves

Radio waves are produced by electric currents

in an aerial
The waves are polarised in the same direction
as the aerial.

Radio waves are produced by electric currents

in an aerial
The waves are polarised in the same direction
as the aerial.

A horizontal aerial makes

waves that are polarised
in the horizontal plane

Light waves

A vertical aerial makes

waves that are polarised in
the vertical plane

Polarised vs unpolarised

Light waves are produced by electric currents

within atoms
Usually atoms are oriented randomly and the
produced light is unpolarised

Observed along the direction the wave is traveling,

A polarised wave
looks like this:

An unpolarised wave
looks like this:

E has a definite direction

Direction of E changes
and oscillates up and
randomly with time
down

Production of polarized light

Polarising filters

This is most easily done by placing a

polarising filter in front of an unpolarised light
source
Optical axis
E Transmitted
of polarising filter
polarised light
Unpolarised
incident light

A polarising filter has conducting lines of molecules

Electric fields along these lines generate electric
currents and are absorbed
Only the component perpendicular to the E
conducting lines is transmitted
NB: the optical axis is
perpendicular to the
conducting lines

Conducting lines
of molecules

polariod

Transmitted intensity

Combining polarising filters

A polarising filter absorbs half the intensity of

unpolarised light
E

A second polarising filter with the same

optical axis as the first does not absorb
additional light
E
E

100%
100%

50%

50%

50%

Combining polarising filters

A second polarising filter with an optical axis
perpendicular to the first absorbs all
remaining light
0%
E

100%
E

50%

A = A0 cos ,
Optical
transmission
The intensity of the component
axis
wave I is related to the component
amplitude, A, where
I A2
Then
I/Io = A2/A02
A0
= A02cos2 /A02
I = I0cos2

The intensity I0 the light is

Optical
proposional to its amplitude
transmission
I0 A02
axis
When a polarized light of
amplitude A0 insidents to a
polaroid whose transmission axis
is inclined a an angle of , only the
light parallel to the transmission
A0
axis is allowed to pass through,
where the component amplitude,
A = A0 cos

600
E

100%
I = I0

25%
I = I0cos2
=
I0cos2600
=0.25I0

Polarisation by scattering in air

600

I = I0

12.5%

100%
E

50%
I1 = 0.5I0

I2 = I1cos2
= I1cos2600
= 0.25I1
= 0.25 0.5I0
= 0.125I0

Polarisation by scattering in air

If one observes the
Sunlight
scattered light at
right angles to the (unpolarised)Induced electric
currents in air
incident light
molecules
direction, it will be
polarised because
oscillations along
Scattered
the observation
light
direction cannot
Polarised light
produce transverse
scattered light
observer

Sunlight induces
Sunlight
electric current
oscillations in air (unpolarised)Induced electric
currents in air
molecules
molecules

Scattered
light
Polarised light
observer

Polarisation by reflection
Light reflected off non-metallic surfaces (e.g.
water, glass) is partly polarised with E parallel
to the surface

Reflection off non-metallic surfaces

Brewster angle

1.0
n=1.5

normal

0.8

reflection

The amount of polarisation

depends on the incidence angle
At the Brewster angle of
incidence the reflection is fully
polarised
At the Brewster angle of
incidence, the reflected and
refracted light are at right
angles
The Brewster angle is
calculated as tan B=n2/n1

n1
n2

component
parallel
to surface

0.6
0.4
0.2

for air,
n1=1.0

n2

0.04
0o
20o
Normal incidence

1.3 52
1.4 54
1.5

56

Polarising sun-glasses
Some sunglasses are made with
a polarising filter
The optical axis is vertical
This reduces the reflection from
horizontal surfaces (e.g. water
on the road)

Randot and Titmus tests

If the optical axis differs by 90o
between the two filters, the left
eye sees a different image than
the right eye
This is used to test stereoscopic
vision in the Randot and Titmus
tests
Further study: 3D Movies

n2 n1
n2 n1

0.5
2.5

40o

60o

80o

component
perpendicular
to surface

56.3o

0.04

Brewster angle tan B=n2/n1

Randot and Titmus tests

The left and right eye see slightly
different images: close objects are
displaced more between the left
and right eye than far objects.
This allows depth perception.
One way to simulate this is
overlaying two images with
different polarisations and
watching them through
polarizing glasses (3D movies)

23.8 Optical waveguides

explain the basic
principles of fibre
optics and
waveguides
state the applications
of fibre optics and
waveguides.

http://wiki.answers.com/Q/Why_do_Real_D_3D_glas
ses_work_in_the_cinema_but_they_wont_work_with
_any_other_3D_images_at_home_Are_there_any_ima
ges_that_do_work

History of Fiber Optics

John Tyndall demonstration in 1870

Total Internal reflection is the basic idea of fiber optic

History of Fiber optics

During 1930, other ideas were developed with
this fiber optic such as transmitting images
through a fiber.
During the 1960s, Lasers were introduced as
efficient light sources
In 1970s All glass fibers experienced excessive
optical loss, the loss of the light signal as it
traveled the fiber limiting transmission
distance.

Source and transmitters

History of Fiber optics

This motivated the scientists to develop glass
fibers that include a separating glass coating.
The innermost region was used to transmit the
light, while the glass coating prevented the
light from leaking out of the core by reflecting
the light within the boundaries of the core.

A basic fiber optic communications system

consists of three basic elements:
Fiber media
Light sources
Light detector

Today, you can find fiber optics used in variety

of applications such as medical environment to
the broadcasting industry. It is used to
transmit voice, television, images and data
signals through small flexible threads of glass or
plastic.

Several applications of fiber optic

Configuration of a Fiber Optic Sensor System

A Light Sources

LED (Light emitting diode)

ILD (injection laser diode)

Fiber media

Detectors
Detector is the receiving end of a fiber optic link.
There are two kinds of Detectors
1.PIN (Positive Intrinsic Negative)
2.APD (Avalanche photo diodes)

There are three types of fiber optic cable

commonly used
Optical fibers are the actual media that guides
the light
Plastic optic fiber

PIN

APD

How Does fiber optic transmit light

Single Mode

Step-index Multimode fiber

The loss of fiber optic

Material obsorption
Material Scattering
Waveguide scattering
Fiber bending
Fiber coupling loss

The advantages of fiber optic over

wire cable

Idea of Modulation
When sending information by an optical fiber,
the information must be encoded or
transformed somehow into information that
capable of being transmitted through a fiber.
The signal needs to be modulated. There are
two types of modulation Analog and digital.

Disadvantage of fiber optic over

copper wire cable
Optical fiber is more expensive per meter than
copper
Optical fiber can not be join together as easily
as copper cable. It requires training and
expensive splicing and measurement
equipment.

Optical fiber transmits light. But,

what prevents the light from escaping
from the fiber?

Laws of Reflection & Refraction

Total internal Reflection

Critical angle: sin

Thinner
Higher carrying capacity
Less signal degradation
Light signal
Low power
Flexible
Non-flammable
Lightweight

= n2/n1 (n1>n2)

Reflection law: angle of incidence=angle of reflection

n1 sin

n2 sin

[2-18]

Optical Fiber com munications, 3rd ed.,G.Keiser,McGrawHill, 2000

Total Internal Reflection & Critical Angle

Transmitted
(refracted) light
2
kt
n2
n 1 > n2
ki

Incident
light

kr

90

Evanescent wave

Phase shift due to TIR

The totally reflected wave experiences a phase
shift however which is given by:
N

n 2 cos 2

n sin

c
1

Critical angle

Reflected
light
(a)

TIR
( c)

(b )

Light wave travelling in a more dense medium strikes a less dense

medium. Depending on the incidence angle with respect to
which is determined by the ratio of the refractive indices, the
wave may be transmitted (refracted) or reflected. (a) 1 < c
(b) 1 = c (c) 1 > c and total internal reflection (TIR).

sin

n2
n1

tan
n

1
1

tan

n n 2 cos 2
sin

n1
n2

Where (p,N) refer to the electric field components

parallel or normal to the plane of incidence
respectively.

Optical waveguiding by TIR:

Dielectric Slab Waveguide

Launching optical rays to slab waveguide

sin

n2
; minimum angle that supportsTIR
n1

min

Maximum entrance angle,

0max

is found

end face.

n sin

0 max

n1 sin

n1

n2

Numerical aperture:

0 m ax

n sin

NA
n1

0 max

n1

n2

n1 2

n2
n1

Propagation mechanism in an ideal step-index optical waveguide.

Optical Fiber communications, 3rd ed.,G.Keiser,McGrawHill, 2000

Optical rays transmission through dielectric slab

waveguide
n1

n2 ;

Optical Fibers: Modal Theory (Guided or

Propagating modes) & Ray Optics Theory

n1

n2
Optical Fiber comm unications, 3rd ed.,G.Keiser,McGrawHill, 2000

n1 n2
For TE-case, when electric waves are normal to the plane of incidence
must be satisfied with following relationship:

tan

n1 d sin

m
2

n1 cos 2

n2

[2-25]

n1 sin

Step Index Fiber

Optical Fiber comm unications, 3 rd ed.,G.Keiser,McGrawHill, 2000

Different Structures of Optical Fiber

Ray Optics Theory (Step-Index Fiber)
Skew rays

Each particular guided mode in a fiber can be represented by a group of rays which
Make the same angle with the axis of the fiber.

Optical Fiber com munications, 3 rd ed.,G.Keiser,McGrawHill, 2000

Optical Fiber com munications, 3rd ed.,G.Keiser,McGrawHill, 2000