An Introduction To The UN System - Orientation For Serving On A UN Field Mission

An Introduction to the
UN System: Orientation for

Serving on a UN Field Mission
C O U R S E AU T H O R
Lt. Col. (Retired) Christian Hrleman

S E R I E S E D I TO R
Harvey J. Langholtz, Ph.D.
Peace Operations Training Institute
C O U R S E AU T H O R
Lt. Col. (Retired) Christian Hrleman

S E R I E S E D I TO R
Harvey J. Langholtz, Ph.D.
2011 Peace Operations Training Institute.

1309 Jamestown Road, Suite 202
Williamsburg, VA 23185 USA
www.peaceopstraining.org
First edition: 2001
Second edition: October 2003
Third edition: June 2011
Cover: UN Photo #108581 by Joao Araujo Pinto
The material contained herein does not necessarily reflect the views of the Peace Operations Training Institute, the Course
Author(s), or any United Nations organs or affiliated organizations. Although every effort has been made to verify the contents of this course, the Peace Operations Training Institute and the Course Author(s) disclaim any and all responsibility
for facts and opinions contained in the text, which have been assimilated largely from open media and other independent
sources. This course was written to be a pedagogical and teaching document, consistent with existing UN policy and doctrine, but this course does not establish or promulgate doctrine. Only officially vetted and approved UN documents may
establish or promulgate UN policy or doctrine. Information with diametrically opposing views is sometimes provided on given
topics, in order to stimulate scholarly interest, and is in keeping with the norms of pure and free academic pursuit.
FOREWORD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ix
METHOD OF STUDY. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . x
SECTION I:
THE OVERALL FRAMEWORK
1144
LESSON 1: THE TASK AND THE TASK ORGANIZATION. . . . . . . . . . . 13

1.1
The Charter of the United Nations: An Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
1.2
Purposes and Principles of the United Nations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
1.3
Legal Framework. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
1.4
Financial Principles: Budget of the United Nations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
1.5
The United Nations System. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
1.6
Achievements: Some Basic Facts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
LESSON 2: THE PRINCIPAL ORGANS OF THE UNITED NATIONS. . . 29

2.1
General Assembly (GA) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
2.2
Security Council (SC) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
2.3
Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
2.4
Trusteeship Council (TC) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
2.5
International Court of Justice (ICJ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
2.6
Secretariat and the Secretary-General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
SECTION II:
THE OPERATIONAL FRAMEWORK
4586
LESSON 3: THE UNITED NATIONS ROLE IN MAINTAINING PEACE

AND SECURITY. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
3.1
Political Context . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
3.2
The Key Concepts to Maintaining Peace and Security. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
3.3
Principles Guiding Peacekeeping/Peace Operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
3.4
Structure and Main Components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
3.5
Types of Peace Operations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
3.6
Planning and Preparation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
3.7 Implementation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
3.8
Management Responsibilities. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
3.9
Peacekeeping Partnership . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
LESSON 4: THE ROLES OF THE UN IN THE FIELDS OF DEVELOPMENT AND RELATED HUMANITARIAN ACTIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
4.1
The Development Concept . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
4.2
The Interface between Disaster Relief and Development. . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
4.3
Humanitarian Imperatives. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
4.4

Distinctions and Similarities between Human Rights Law and International

Humanitarian Law (IHL). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
4.5
Human Rights (HR) and the Principles for Protection of Human Rights. . 78
4.6
Principles and Applications of International Humanitarian Law. . . . . . . . . 81
4.7
Human Development and Climate Change. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
SECTION III:
THE WORKING CONCEPT
87134
LESSON 5: ENVIRONMENTS. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
5.1
Social and Cultural Environment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
5.2
Mission Environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
5.3
Civil-Military Cooperation (CIMIC). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
5.4
The Security and Safety Environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
LESSON 6: PRINCIPLES, GENERAL DUTIES, AND

RESPONSIBILITIES. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
6.1
Background. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
6.2
Obligations and Duties. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
6.3
Cultural and Social Demands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
6.4
Personal Demands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
6.5
Privileges and Immunities. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
LESSON 7: SAFETY AND SECURITY. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117

7.1
The Principal Context . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
7.2
Main Principles and Structure of the UN Security Management System .120
7.3
Responsibilities of a UN Staff Member . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
7.4
Personal Safety and Precautions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
7.5
Travel. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
7.6
Sexual Harassment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
7.7
Special Security Precautions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
7.8
First Aid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
7.9
Stress Situations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
7.10 Health Precautions: General Rules. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
SECTION IV:
THE WORKING TOOLS
13544
LESSON 8: THE AVAILABLE TOOLS. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137

8.1
Participatory Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
8.2
Projects and Project Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
8.3
Verification/Monitoring. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
8.4
Transparent Communication. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
8.5
Negotiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
8.6
Mediation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
8.7
Written Communications and Reports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
8.8
Communication with the Media. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
LESSON 9: THE PARTNERS. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153

9.1
The Need for Proper Identification. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
9.2
UN Programmes and Funds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
9.3
UN Specialized Agencies. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
9.4
International Organizations with Member States. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
9.5
Non-Governmental International Organizations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
9.6
International Governmental Organizations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
9.7
Non-Governmental Organizations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
APPENDIX A. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
APPENDIX B. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .174
END-OF-COURSE EXAM INSTRUCTIONS. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
ABOUT THE AUTHOR. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
Foreword
The current political and socio-economic environment requires a broad and holistic approach, which
provides both challenges and opportunities for the international community. Trends of disintegration and
fragmentation in some countries, stalemates in ongoing peace processes, and new internal conflicts are
only a few of the daunting problems of todays political world. Although climate change and the global
environment may be the greatest challenges of this century, peace and security remain the priorities of the
United Nations. Peace and security must be addressed in order to arrive at a safer world, and they require
simultaneous investment in governance, democracy, and development to do so. This situation demands
efforts by the United Nations Organization to find political and financial solutions, but it also requires the
identification and exploration of appropriate and adequate human resources, particularly in the field.
United Nations field missions are a blend of peacekeeping and peace operations, humanitarian aid, and
development activities involving both civilian personnel and military specialists. Although these missions
still require a large number of military specialists, the involvement of civilians has expanded significantly,
particularly where an operation has been called upon to perform duties that are less military in nature. The
same tendency prevails in other areas of UN field operations, such as the more peaceful peacebuilding
and development activities.
All UN field missions require staffing by personnel with extensive professional training in their own
field of expertise. In addition, several field missions contain components that are more concerned with
reconstruction and development and, consequently, require civilian specialists in a number of professions.
Most of these specialists come from the private sector and without previous experience with the United
Nations in general and UN field missions in particular. This includes a good knowledge of the United
Nations system itself, but also an awareness of the complex working environment, including political,
economic, social, and security conditions in the field.
This course is primarily aimed at those from the private sector who are, or who will be, working within the
context of the United Nations and who would like to become better familiarized with the UN system, as well
as with the working conditions and requirements in the field. It is hoped that the information contained in
this course will assist these individuals in better understanding the United Nations and its work in the field.
Christian Hrleman
Stockholm, Sweden
November 2010
A N I N T R O D U C T I O N TO T H E U N S Y S T E M
| ix
Method of Study
The following are suggestions for how to proceed with this course. Though the student may have alternate
approaches that are effective, the following hints have worked for many.
Before you begin actual studies, first browse
through the overall course material. Notice the
lesson outlines, which give you an idea of what
will be involved as you proceed.
The material should be logical and
straightforward. Instead of memorizing
individual details, strive to understand concepts
and overall perspectives in regard to the United
Nations system.
Set up guidelines regarding how you want to
schedule your time.
Study the lesson content and the learning
objectives. At the beginning of each lesson,
orient yourself to the main points. If you are able
to, read the material twice to ensure maximum
understanding and retention, and let time elapse
between readings.
When you finish a lesson, take the

End-of-Lesson Quiz. For any error, go back to
the lesson section and re-read it. Before you
go on, be aware of the discrepancy in your
understanding that led to the error.
After you complete all of the lessons, take time
to review the main points of each lesson. Then,
while the material is fresh in your mind, take the
End-of-Course Examination in one sitting.
Your exam will be scored, and if you achieve
a passing grade of 75 per cent or higher, you
will be awarded a Certificate of Completion. If
you score below 75 per cent, you will be given
one opportunity to take a second version of the
End-of-Course Examination.
One note about spelling is in order. This course
was written in English as it is used in the United
Kingdom.
Key features of your course classroom:

Access to all of your courses;
A secure testing environment in which to
complete your training;
Access to additional training resources, including

Multimedia course supplements;
The ability to download your Certificate of
Completion for any completed course; and
Student fora where you can communicate with

other students about any number of subjects.
Access your course classroom here:

http://www.peaceopstraining.org/users/user_login
x |
P E A C E O P E R AT I O N S T R A I N I N G I N S T I T U T E
SECTION I
THE OVERALL FRAMEWORK
lesson one
The Task and The Task Organization
lesson two
The Principal Organs of the United Nations
LESSON 1
THE TASK AND
THE TASK ORGANIZATION
LESSON
1
LESSON OBJECTIVES
1.1 The Charter of the
United Nations: An
Introduction
In order to understand the United Nations and its field operations, it

is necessary to have an awareness of the institutional framework of
the Organization. While Lesson 1 deals with its general principles and
organizational structure, Lesson 2 provides a more detailed description of the
core United Nations in other words, the Organizations principal organs.
1.5 The United Nations

System
The first four sections of Lesson 1 provide information about the

structure and main content of the Charter of the United Nations, as well
as the basic principles that guide the Organization in its global efforts
to maintain international peace and security. Although the legal and
financial principles are complicated issues, the student should acquire an
awareness of these fundamental concepts. The fifth section introduces
the student to the United Nations system and the interrelations between
the various agencies, programmes, funds, and other bodies. The sixth
and final section of Lesson 1 deals with what might be called the empirical
framework. Since United Nations activities are always under debate,
this final section also provides some hard facts, which might be useful in
forthcoming discussions. At the end of the lesson, the student is expected
to have obtained an understanding of the overall framework.
1.6 Achievements: Some

Basic Facts
Key questions to be considered by the student when studying

Lesson 1:
1.2 Purposes and

Principles of the
United Nations
1.3 Legal Framework
1.4 Financial Principles:
Budget of the United
Nations
What were the reasons for founding the United Nations?

What is the purpose of the United Nations?
What is the main principle of the United Nations?
What document is the constituting instrument of the United Nations?
What is the legal framework for a peace operation?
What are the principles for financing a peacekeeping operation?
What are the main bodies of the UN system?
Introduction
The United Nations Charter sets out the rights and
obligations of the Member States and authorizes
the establishment of the United Nations principal
organs and main procedures. The Charter is
the constituting instrument of the Organization,
codifying the major principles of international
relations. The institutional framework of the
Organization rests in the principles, structures, and
rules of the various organs that are provided for
in the Charter. Knowledge about the Charter is a
prerequisite for understanding the interrelationship
between Member States and the United Nations,
as well as the relations between the Organizations
various organs and bodies as stipulated in the
Charter. The high ideal of the UN stated in the
Charter To end the scourge of war has guided
the UN from its founding in 1945 to its Nobel Peace
Prize award in 2001, and carries it into the future
and the challenges of the 21st Century.
The United Nations family of organizations the
UN system addresses almost all areas of
political, economic, and social endeavours.
The system consists of the United Nations
principal organs, 15 agencies, several funds
and programmes, specialized agencies, and
related organizations. In addition, there is a large
number of other international, governmental,
non-governmental, and civil societies
organizations, which are in some way linked to the
UN system. All of those actors together with other
entities outside the system that are concerned with
international issues constitute what is generally
called the international community. They all adhere
to the Charter of the United Nations.
1.1 The Charter of the United

Nations: An Introduction
History
The League of Nations was established in the
aftermath of the First World War to avoid further
global conflicts, but the organization was never
fully recognized and, consequently, failed to avert
the Second World War. Thus, the United Nations
was established in the shadow of two global
conflicts with the major purpose to prevent a repeat
of the tragedies of wars. The Organization was

established with an amazing swiftness. Between
1941 and 1944, four conferences were held at
which the allies discussed the establishment
of an international organization to maintain
international peace and security. Although the
crucial question of power-sharing was resolved at
the Yalta Conference in 1944, it was not until the
San Francisco Conference in April 1945, with the
participation of 50 states, that the Charter was
officially drafted. As originally envisioned, the
majority of the United Nations power would rest in
the five major powers sitting permanently on the
Security Council. However, at the San Francisco
Conference, the smaller states successfully argued
for stronger roles for the General Assembly, the
Secretary-General, and the International Court of
Justice. As a result, the Charter was broadened,
and the United Nations was empowered to act in
economic and social areas, as well.
On 26 June 1945, the Charter was signed by all
participating nations, and on 24 October 1945, it
was ratified by the allies five major powers (the
present five permanent members of the Security
Council) and by a majority of the signatory States.
Aims
The United Nations Charter was, and still is, a
bold prescription for maintaining international
peace and security and promoting economic and
social development. The Charter provides the
purposes and principles of the United Nations
and sets out the structure of the United Nations,
the interrelations, principles, and rules forming
the institutional framework of the United Nations.
The Charter begins with the Preamble, which
expresses the aims and ideals of the United
Nations in elevated words. The founders were
undoubtedly guided by experiences from two
major world wars, the suffering of mankind, and a
deep longing for peace based on equality, dignity,
and social and economic progress. Other themes
throughout the document are peace, human rights,
freedom, sovereignty, and respect for treaties and
the international law system, all of which are to
be achieved through tolerance, maintenance of
international peace and security, and the promotion
of the economic and social advancement of
| 15
all people. The Preamble ends with a formal

declaration in which all the signatory States agree
to the present Charter and the establishment of an
organization to be known as the United Nations.
Contents of the Charter
The Preamble is followed by 19 chapters, or 111
articles. The Chapters evolved around four major
areas: peace and security; economic and social
issues; the trusteeship system; and the judicial
organ. The various articles describe the functions,
rules, and procedures of the six principal organs,
of which the General Assembly can be considered
as the governing organ and the Secretariat as
the executive function. The Charter ends with
Provisional Rules (among others, the privileges
and immunities for United Nations officials),
Transitional Arrangements (relevant at the end of
World War II), Amendments, and Ratification and
Signature.
The annexed Statute of the International Court
of Justice is an integral part of the Charter,
comprising five chapters. The first three deal with
the Organization, Competence, and Procedures
of the Court, and the remaining two with Advisory
Opinions and Amendments.
The UN Charter can be accessed
online at http://www.un.org/en/documents/
charter/
1.2 Purposes and Principles of the

United Nations
Purposes
Articles 1 and 2 are the most important articles
of the Charter since they describe the overall
objectives and principles of the United Nations.
Article 1 sets forth the primary purposes of the
United Nations by authorizing the Organization:
to maintain international peace and security
and to that end: to take effective collective
measures for the prevention and removal of
threats to peace, and for the suppression of acts
of aggression or other breaches of peace, and
to bring by peaceful means, and in conformity
16 |
with the principles of justice and international

law, adjustment or settlement of international
disputes or situations which might lead to a
breach of peace (Art. 1)
The article also mandates the Organization to
develop friendly relations among nations and to
achieve international cooperation in addressing
economic, social and cultural matters, and
fundamental rights issues concerning groups and
individuals. The United Nations is viewed as the
harmonizing centre in attaining these common
ends.
Principles
Article 2 stipulates the principles behind the United
Nations and the Member States actions in pursuit
of the purposes of Article 1. The Article is based
on the principle of the sovereign equality of all
the Member States that fulfil in good faith their
obligations to the Charter. States are to refrain
from the threat or use of force against any other
State, and international disputes are to be settled
by peaceful means without endangering peace,
security, or justice. Members shall give the United
Nations every assistance in any action it takes in
accordance with the Charter and shall not assist
States against which the United Nations is taking
preventive or enforcement action.
However, these two articles are secondary to the
principles of sovereignty and non-interference. The
end of paragraph 7, Article 2 states that nothing
in the Charter shall authorize the United Nations
to intervene in matters which are essential within
the domestic jurisdiction of any state. On the
other hand, the Charter adds that this principle
shall not prejudice the application of enforcement
measures under Chapter VII a principle which,
in the 1990s, was used to support various political
arguments.
Experiences
As previously discussed, the founders of the
United Nations envisioned a framework for
relations between states, which would act through
cooperation instead of force, either as a means of
obtaining foreign policy goals or settling conflicts.
Despite the Charters establishment of a framework

for relations between states, the purposes and the
principles of the United Nations seemed far from
assured during the Cold War era. Instead, the era
witnessed competition between the superpowers,
and their exercise of veto power in the Security
Council significantly hampered the effective
discharge of responsibilities by the United Nations
chief security organ the Security Council. The
circumstances became an everyday political
reality, which, to a certain extent, carried over from
the Security Council to the rest of the UN system.
the Security Council did not agree to authorize

military action taken by the United States and the
United Kingdom. The failure of the Council and the
subsequent war was a painful experience for the
United Nations.
The Council is the most powerful organ of the
United Nations but is still without true international
representation. The events in 2003 further
promoted the necessity to increase the number
of permanent members in including non-nuclear
powers, as well.
With the end of the Cold War and the easing

of superpower rivalries and tensions, the
Charters relevance to the contemporary political
environment was improved. On the other hand, the
end of the Cold War and the following Post-Cold
War era witnessed conflicts of more internal
character, where states functions did not exist or
were very limited (failed states), and consequently,
the fundamental rights of the individuals became
increasingly abused. The call for the unambiguous
protection of humanity and human rights has
since spurred the international community to act
collectively and not always with the consent of the
parties (states) concerned.
The tragic events of 11 September 2001, the
issue of international terrorism, and the military
and non-military aspects of security have further
complicated the general perception of the United
Nations role in maintaining international peace and
security. This has led to the erosion of one of the
Charters fundamental principles not to intervene
in matters which are essential within the domestic
jurisdiction of any state. The development of
the intervention norm, in favour of protecting
civilians from the worst devastation, has no doubt
challenged the expectations of the international
community.
The invasion of Iraq was one of the most serious
violations of the Charters aims and principles. The
invasion was strongly opposed by a large number
of Member States that argued that invading the
country was not justified in the context of the UN
report of 12 February 2003 (UNMOVIC) and was
not in accordance with the aims and principles
of the United Nations Charter. Consequently,
Flags of the member nations flying at UN Headquarters in New York. (UN

Photo #108581 by Joao Araujo Pinto, December 2005)
1.3 Legal Framework

General
The ratification of the Charter by the five major
allies the Peoples Republic of China, France, the
Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (transferred
to the Russian Federation in 1991), the United
Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, and
the United States of America and by a majority of
the other signatory states provides the basis for its
constituent authority.
The United Nations adheres to international laws,
treaties, and conventions and is an international
body, subject to international laws and capable
of possessing international rights and duties and
it has capacity to maintain its rights by bringing
international claims (International Court).
Throughout the years, one of the most impressive
achievements of the United Nations has been the
| 17
development of a series of conventions, treaties,

and standards within the area of international
law, which all play a crucial role in economic and
social development, human rights, international
peacekeeping, and security.
As stated above, national equal sovereignty,
non-intervention in the internal affairs of a Member
State, and the prohibition of the use of force in
international relations are some of the Charters
fundamental principles. The United Nations Charter
permits a departure from these principles only
when action is necessary to prevent a threat to
intentional peace or to restore peace. The Charter
calls on the Organization to assist in the settlements
of international disputes and in maintaining
international peace and security. This is the
primary responsibility of the UN Security Council,
which may, in fulfilling its duties, adopt a range of
measures as provided for in Chapter VI (Pacific
Settlements of Disputes), Chapter VII (Action with
Respect to Peace), and Chapter VIII (Regional
Arrangements).
Courts and Tribunals
The International Court of Justice is the principal
judicial organ of the United Nations. All members
of the United Nations are automatically parties to
the Statute of the Court. Consequently, they and a
few others can be parties to cases. The General
Assembly and the Security Council can ask the
Court for advisory opinions on legal matters, while
other organs of the United Nations and specialized
agencies can do so by authorization from the General
Assembly. The jurisdiction of the Court covers all
questions that Member States refer to it and all
matters as provided for in the Charter or in treaties
and conventions in force. (See also Lesson 2.)
Among the other international legal bodies is
the International Law Commission, whose main
objective is promoting the progressive development
of international law and its codification. The United
Nations Commission on International Trade Law
(UNCITRAL) develops conventions, model laws,
rules, and legal guides in order to facilitate and
harmonize world trade. Under the Law of the Sea
Convention, there are three other legal bodies
established: the International Seabed Authority; the
International Tribunal for the Law of the Sea; and the
Commission on the Limits of the Continental Shelf.
18 |
The serious violations of international humanitarian

law in the former Yugoslavia and in Rwanda led
the Security Council to establish two international
tribunals with the power to prosecute those
individuals responsible for such violations. Thus,
the International Criminal Tribunal for the Former
Yugoslavia was established in 1993 and the
International Tribunal for Rwanda in 1994.
The International Criminal Court (ICC) is an
independent judicial body with jurisdiction over
persons charged with genocide, crimes against
humanity and war. The Court was established
by the Rome Statute of the International
Criminal Court on 17 July 1998, when 120
States participating in the United Nations
Diplomatic Conference of Plenipotentiaries on the
Establishment of an International Criminal Court
adopted the Statute. However, the statute did not
enter into force until 1 July 2002. In accordance
with Article 2 of the Rome Statute, the relationship
with the United Nations system is governed by an
agreement between the two organizations.
The website of the International
Criminal Court (ICC) can be accessed at
http://www.icc-cpi.int.
Additional information on the
courts and tribunals can be accessed at
http://www.un.org/Depts/dhl/resguide/specil.
htm#trib3trib
Principal Legal Bodies
The Sixth Committee of the General Assembly is
one of the six Main Committees of the General
Assembly. All legal items on the Assemblys
agenda are allocated to the Sixth Committee and
the decisions/resolutions of the Assembly are
based on the recommendations of the Committee.
Among the principal bodies is the International
Law Commission, with a main objective of
promoting the progressive development of
international law and its codification. The United
Nations Commission on International Trade Law
(UNCITRAL) develops conventions, model laws,
rules, and legal guides in order to facilitate and
harmonize world trade. Under the Law of the Sea
Convention, there are three bodies established: the
International Seabed Authority; the International

Tribunal for the Law of the Sea; and the
Commission on the Limits of the Continental Shelf.
Additional information on the
principal legal bodies can be accessed at
http://www.un.org/Depts/dhl/resguide/specil.
htm#legal#legal.
Within the Secretariat, the Office of Legal Affairs
provides legal advice to the Secretary-General and
acts on his or her behalf on legal matters. It also
advises the Secretariat and other organs of the
United Nations on matters related to international,
public, private and administrative laws. The Office is
also responsible for the registration and publication
of treaties and conventions and, thus, publishes the
United Nations Treaty Series.
Website of the Office of Legal Affairs:
http://untreaty.un.org/ola
Legal Framework for Peacekeeping and Other
Similar Operations
In addition, and in order to facilitate these

operations, some additional legal relationships
have been established in order to facilitate
relations between the United Nations and the
host country, and between the United Nations
and the troop-contributing country. These Status
of Forces/Mission Agreements (SOFA and
SOMA) concern the opus operandi of the Force/
Mission. The SOFA/SOMA regulates the status
of the force/mission vis--vis the host country,
for example, jurisdiction, taxation, status of UN
personnel, freedom of movement, use of facilities,
etc. The Memorandum of Understanding (MOU)
is a similar agreement between the UN and the
troop-contributing country. It deals with the
contributing countrys responsibilities vis--vis
United Nations: size, type and duration of the
contingents to be used, equipment, liability, claim
and compensation, administrative and budgetary
matters, etc. Above that, the UN Police, in their
assigned duties, follow the rules and regulations
stipulated by the United Nations Criminal Law and
Justice Branch.
Peacekeeping was not foreseen by the founders

of the United Nations and, therefore, was neither
mentioned nor provided for in the Charter.
However, the Charter authorizes the Security
Council to establish such subsidiary organs
it deems necessary for the performance of
its functions. Therefore, it is concluded (and
generally accepted) that the Security Council
(and the General Assembly) is legally justified in
creating and mandating a peacekeeping force
and other similar entities as an additional
mechanism towards fulfilling the UNs task of
maintaining international peace and security.
Even if peacekeeping is the normative mechanism
in maintaining peace and security, the Charter, the
Universal Declaration of Human Rights (HR) and
International Humanitarian Law (IHL) are the guiding
instruments of all peacekeeping operations. While
performing its peacekeeping duties, the United
Nations adheres to the Charter and recognizes
human rights as a fundamental means in promoting
peace and security; International Humanitarian
Law (the law of war) provides protection to those
who do not participate in hostilities, known as a
non-combatant. (See Lesson 4)
The first session of the International Tribunal on War Crimes in Former

Yugoslavia opens in the Hague. (UN Photo #31411, November 1993)
The Charter, as well as the Convention on the

Privileges and Immunities of the United Nations,
provides privileges and immunities as deemed
necessary for personnel working in connection
with the Organization. The 1994 Convention
on the Safety of United Nations and Associated
Personnel serves as the legal instrument for
protection and outlines duties to ensure safety and
security, release and return of detained personnel,
crimes and exercise of jurisdiction.
| 19
1.4 Financial Principles: Budget of

the United Nations1
Regular Budget
The regular budget of the United Nations covers
two years cost for the staff, infrastructure and
activities of the principal organs, offices and
regional commissions. The budget is submitted
by the Secretary-General and approved by the
General Assembly after review by the Advisory
Committee on Administrative and Budgetary
Questions (ACABQ). The main source of funds is
the mandatory contributions from Member States,
based on an assessment scale approved by the
General Assembly. As of 2006, the maximum
contribution was 22 per cent (the United States)
and the minimum contribution was fixed at 0.001
per cent. As approved for 2008-2009, the regular
budget totalled approximately $4.1 billion.
Extra Ordinary Budget
The extra ordinary budget makes up a large
part of the funding acquired through voluntary
contributions from Member States. The budget
covers the cost for the operational programmes
and funds: the United Nations Development
Programme (UNDP), the World Food Programme
(WFP), the United Nations High Commissioner for
Refugees (UNHCR), and others. UN specialized
agencies have separate budgets, which are
voluntarily supplemented by states, but not all
funding comes from the Member States. The
United Nations sometimes receives grants from
private institutions or foundations such as the
Turner Foundation and Bill and Melinda Gates
Foundation.
Peacekeeping Budget
The costs of the United Nations peacekeeping
operations are covered by the Member States
in accordance with the Special Scale of
Assessments. Since 2001 the Member States
regular assessment levels are adjusted according
to their placement in one of ten levels, ranging
from a premium payable by permanent Members
of the Security Council (Level A) to a 90 per cent
1
Ref: The United Nations Today, p. 18-22.

20 |
discount for Last Developed Countries (Level J).

The total budget for the operations has increased
from USD 2.5 billion in 2003 to USD 7.3 billion in
July 2010. The General Assembly approves this
peacekeeping budget with the recommendations
of its Fifth Committee and after review by the
ACABQ.
For more on the financing of UN
peacekeeping operations, visit http://www.
un.org/en/peacekeeping/contributors/
financing.shtml
1.5 The United Nations System2

The six principal organs, including the General
Assembly and the Security Council, are well
known. Although they have a general oversight of
the United Nations huge array of global activities,
the direct control of these activities lies with a large
number of entities known as funds, programmes,
commissions, and agencies.
This section describes the main actors, including
the principal organs, who make up what is called
the UN system. For the purpose of simplicity
the system has been divided in four major
segments: A) The Principal Organs, B) Funds,
Programmes and Other Bodies of the United
Nation, C) The Specialized Agencies, which are
further divided into Major Agencies and Technical
Agencies, and D) Outside organizations linked
to the system. Because of the complexity and
comprehensiveness of the system, a number
of entities are not listed in this section. The
coordinating body of these entities is the UN
System Chief Executives Board for Coordination
(CEB). It is chaired by the Secretary-General and
meets twice a year.
The next page depicts the UN System Chart. Visit
the UNs Web site at http://www.un.org/aboutun/
chart_en.pdf for an interactive version of the
diagram. Additionally, full documentation and the
complete list of all organizations of the UN system
can be found at http://www.unsystem.org.
Ref: The United Nations Today, p. 22-52.
| 21
Status of Women
This is not an official document of the United

Nations, nor is it intended to be all-inclusive.
tion on 1 November 1994 with the independence of Palau, the last remaining United
Nations Trust Territory, on 1 October 1994.
4 The Trusteeship Council suspended opera-
mous organizations working with

the UN and each other through
the coordinating machinery of
ECOSOC at the intergovernmental
level, and through the Chief Executives Board
for Coordination (CEB) at the inter-secretariat
level. This section is listed in order of establishment of these organizations as specialized
agencies of the United Nations.
3 Specialized agencies are autono-
cil and the General Assembly.
2 IAEA reports to the Security Coun-
OCHA Office for the Coordination

of Humanitarian Affairs
UNU United Nations University
UNODC United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime
Other Bodies
UN Peacebuilding
Commission
Advisory
Subsidiary Body
UNIDIR1 United Nations Institute

for Disarmament Research
SRSG/CAAC Office of the Special Representative

of the Secretary-General for Children
and Armed Conflict
OSAA Office of the Special Adviser on Africa
OLA Office of Legal Affairs
OIOS Office of Internal Oversight Services
UNWTO World Tourism

Organization
UNIDO United Nations Industrial

Development Organization
IFAD International Fund

for Agricultural Development
WIPO World Intellectual Property

Organization
WMO World Meteorological

Organization
UPU Universal Postal Union
ITU International
Telecommunication Union
IMO International Maritime

Organization
ICAO International Civil Aviation

Organization
UNOV United Nations Office at Vienna
UNON United Nations Office at Nairobi
UN-OHRLLS Office of the High Representative

for the Least Developed Countries, Landlocked
Developing Countries and Small Island
Developing States
UNOG United Nations Office at Geneva
UNODA Office for Disarmament Affairs
ICSID International Centre

for Settlement of Investment Disputes
MIGA Multilateral Investment

Guarantee Agency
IFC International Finance Corporation
IDA International Development

Association
OHCHR Office of the United Nations

High Commissioner for Human Rights
Other sessional and standing

committees and expert, ad hoc
and related bodies
United Nations Group of Experts

on Geographical Names
Permanent Forum on Indigenous Issues
Committee on Non-Governmental
Organizations
IBRD International Bank

for Reconstruction and Development
World Bank Group
WHO World Health Organization
UNESCO United Nations Educational,

Scientific and Cultural Organization
FAO Food and Agriculture Organization

of the United Nations
ILO International Labour Organization
IMF International Monetary Fund
WTO World Trade Organization
OPCW Organisation for the Prohibition

of Chemical Weapons
IAEA2 International Atomic Energy Agency
CTBTO Preparatory Commission for the Comprehensive

Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty Organization
Related Organizations
UNOPS United Nations Office for Project Services
UNISDR United Nations International Strategy

for Disaster Reduction
UNAIDS Joint United Nations Programme on HIV/AIDS
Specialized Agencies3
UNICRI United Nations Interregional Crime

and Justice Research Institute
Research and Training Institutes
WFP World Food Programme
UN-Women United Nations Entity for Gender Equality

and the Empowerment of Women
Committee of Experts on Public

Administration
DSS Department of Safety and Security
DPKO Department of Peacekeeping

Operations
UNSSC United Nations System Staff College
UNICEF United Nations Childrens Fund
Other Entities
UNRISD United Nations Research Institute

for Social Development
UNHCR Office of the United Nations High

Commissioner for Refugees
UNRWA1 United Nations Relief and Works Agency

for Palestine Refugees in the Near East
UNITAR United Nations Institute for Training

and Research
UN-HABITAT United Nations Human

Settlements Programme
Committee for Development Policy
DPI Department of Public Information
DPA Department of Political Affairs
DM Department of Management
ESCWA Economic and Social

Commission for Western Asia
ESCAP Economic and Social

Commission for Asia and
the Pacific
DGACM Department for General Assembly

and Conference Management
DFS Department of Field Support
DESA Department of Economic

and Social Affairs
EOSG Executive Office of the

Secretary-General
Departments and Offices
United Nations Forum on Forests
Sustainable Development
Statistics
to the General Assembly.
1 UNRWA and UNIDIR report only
Social Development
Science and Technology for Development
ECLAC Economic Commission

for Latin America and
the Caribbean
ECE Economic Commission for Europe
Narcotic Drugs
Population and Development
ECA Economic Commission for Africa
Crime Prevention and Criminal Justice
Regional Commissions
Standing committees and

ad hoc bodies
International Criminal Tribunal

for the former Yugoslavia (ICTY)
Functional Commissions
Sanctions committees (ad hoc)
Peacekeeping operations
and political missions
Military Staff Committee
UNFPA United Nations Population Fund
UNEP United Nations Environment Programme
UNV United Nations Volunteers
UNCDF United Nations Capital

Development Fund
UNDP United Nations Development

Programme
ITC International Trade Centre

(UNCTAD/WTO)
UNCTAD United Nations Conference

on Trade and Development
Programmes and Funds
International Criminal Tribunal

for Rwanda (ICTR)
Counter-terrorism committees
Subsidiary Bodies
Standing committees
and ad hoc bodies
International Law Commission
Human Rights Council
Disarmament Commission
Main and other sessional

committees
Subsidiary Bodies
NOTES:
Trusteeship
Council 4
International
Court of Justice
Secretariat
Economic and
Social Council
Security
Council
General
Assembly
UN Principal
Organs
The United Nations System
Published by the United Nations Department of Public Information DPI/247010-00133April 2011
Published by the United Nations Department of Public Information DPI/247010-00133April 2011
A. The Principal Organs

The principal organs of the United Nations
as provided for in the Charter of the United
Nations are: the General Assembly (GA); the
Security Council (SC); the Economic and Social
Council (ECOSOC); the Trusteeship Council;
the International Court of Justice (ICJ); and the
Secretariat. These six organs, described in
Lesson 2, form the core of the United Nations
system. The principal organs are mainly located
at the Headquarters in New York (UNNY) except
for the International Court of Justice, which is
located in The Hague. The United Nations Offices
in Nairobi (UNON), Vienna (UNOV), and Geneva
(UNOG) the latter located in the same building as
the former League of Nations are all considered
part of the United Nations Headquarters.
The Charter also provides for the establishment of
subsidiary bodies as the principal organs may find
necessary (e.g., various commissions, committees,
temporarily constituted peacekeeping operations,
as well as a variety of observer, verification
missions, etc.).
Reporting to the ECOSOC and operating under
the authority of the Secretary-General are the
five Economic and Social Regional Commissions
(Art.68). The basic mandate of these commissions
is to facilitate the promotion of the regional
economic and social development of each region
and to strengthen the economic relations of the
countries in that region both among themselves
and with other countries of the world. The five
Commissions, with their own structures and
secretariats, are grouped as follows: for Africa
in Addis Ababa (ECA); Asia and the Pacific in
Bangkok (ESCAP); Europe in Geneva (ECE); Latin
America and the Caribbean in Santiago (ECLAC);
and Western Asia in Beirut (ESCWA).
The above-mentioned organs, offices, and
commissions are financed through the United
Nations Regular Budget.
22 |
B. Programmes, Funds, and Bodies of the

United Nations
The core of the United Nations includes various
Programmes and Funds, which are generally
responsible for the operational development
in programme countries. Today, there are 14
various programmes and funds including: the
United Nations Childrens Fund (UNICEF); United
Nations Development Programme (UNDP); United
Nation Population Fund (UNFPA); United Nations
Environment Programme (UNEP); Office of the
United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees
(UNHCR); World Food Programme (WFP); and
United Nations Volunteers (UNV).
Although these programmes and offices seem to
be autonomous, they all report through ECOSOC
to the General Assembly. They have their own
governing bodies and set their own standards and
guidance. Their budgets are in large part funded
through voluntary contributions from governments
and the private sector through the Extra Budgetary
Resources.
In addition there are a number of related
programmes, such as the research and training
institutes UN Institute for Training and Research
(UNITAR); and UN Institute for Disarmament
Research. Other entities include the UN Office
for Project Services (UNOPS), United Nations
University (UNU), and the Joint UN Programme on
HIV/AIDS (UNAIDS), among others.
C. Specialized Agencies
These agencies provide support and assistance
to the development programmes. They are all
autonomous and work at the inter-governmental
level through ECOSOC and at the inter-secretarial
through the CEB.
Major Specialized Agencies
The major specialized agencies and the Bretton
Woods Institutions (founded at the Bretton Woods
Conference in 1944) are separately established
by governments and have their own constitution,
budgets, and governing boards and secretariats.
(i) One group consists of five agencies: the

International Labour Organization (ILO); the Food
and Agricultural Organization (FAO), the UN
Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization
(UNESCO); the UN Industrial Development
Organization (UNIDO); and the World Health
Organization (WHO). These are all brought into
the agreement with the United Nations and,
thus, formally recognized under the Charter.
Their budgets are raised by assessment from
their Member States but not as part of the United
Nations regular budget.
(ii) The Bretton Woods Institutions consist of
the International Monetary Fund (IMF) and the
World Bank Group. The World Bank is the lender
of commercially raised capital for development
projects, while the IMF, among other things,
promotes monetary cooperation and expansion
of international trade. The World Bank Group
encompasses the main commercial-rate
International Bank for Reconstruction and
Development (IBRD); the soft-loan International
Development Association (IDA); the International
Finance Corporation (IFC); the Multilateral
Investment Guarantee Agency (MIGA); and the
International Centre for Settlements of Investment
Disputes (ICSID). Their budgets are raised through
the usual capital market procedures. These two
major organizations IMF and the World Bank
have adopted a voting system where voting is
weighted in accordance to the members shares.
(iii) The third group includes the IFAD, the
WTO, and the CD. The International Fund for
Agriculture Development (IFAD) has a separate
legal status within the system. In 1995, the
World Trade Organization (WTO) replaced the
General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT)
as the mechanism to help trade flow as freely as
possible. The WTO does not fall under the Charter
as a specialized agency but has cooperative
arrangements with the United Nations. The
International Trade Centre UNCTAD/WTO operates
as the technical cooperation agency of the WTO.
The Conference on Disarmament (CD) is the single
global negotiating forum and was established under
the General Assemblys 10th Special Session. The
Conference has a special relationship with the
United Nations, since it reports to the GA and is
funded from the regular budget.
Technical Specialized Agencies

The technical specialized agencies, with the same
relations as those above, are some of the most
important technical organizations of the world. All
agencies except the International Atomic Energy
Agency (IAEA) had predecessors under the former
League of Nations. The Universal Postal Union
(UPU), the World Intellectual Property Organization
(WIPO) and the International Telecommunication
Union (ITU) were established more than a century
ago. The International Civil Aviation Organization
(ICAO), the World Meteorological Organization
(WMO), and the International Maritime
Organization (IMO) were present before World War
II, but after the war they were restructured into the
existing organizations.
D. Outside Organizations Linked to the System
Non-government organizations (NGOs) have an
important role in the United Nations activities. In
order to avoid a political dependency, most of the
NGOs stand outside the governmental system.
Their experiences and technical knowledge are of
great value to the United Nations, and, therefore,
approximately 2,100 NGOs have some sort of
consultative status with ECOSOC. They are
divided into three categories: (i) NGOs concerned
with most ECOSOC activities; (ii) NGOs with
specific knowledge in specific areas; and (iii)
NGOs for ad hoc consultations. The most eminent
member of the NGO group is the International
Committee of the Red Cross, which, in recognition
of its formal mandate under the Geneva
Convention, is invited to participate in the work of
the General Assembly.
Examples of inter-governmental organizations are
the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA),
which works under the aegis of the United Nations
(see above), and the International Panel on Climate
Change (IPCC).
The Committee of Non-Governmental
Organizations (CNGO) is responsible to examine
and report on the consultative relationship that
ECOSOC should accord to the NGOs.
| 23
In addition, there are a number of regional

organizations, which are involved in peace,
security, and social and economic development,
among others: African Union (AU); Organization
of American States (OAS); Organization of Islamic
Conference (OIC); EU; NATO; ASEAN forum;
etc. Some of them have entered into a framework
agreement with the United Nations, some are
seeking observer status, and some have neither
formal nor informal UN status. Their links to the
United Nations may fall under Article 52 of the
Charter.
Further information about the various organizations
linked to the UN system can be found in Lesson 9.
1.6 Achievements: Some Basic Facts

Now more than ever, the United Nations is engaged
in service to all the worlds nations and peoples.
Since its beginning, the United Nations

has assisted 60 former colonies attain
independence.
Within the field of International Law, more than

500 agreements have been concluded.
As of June 2009, the Secretariat had a staff of

approximately 40,000 around the world.
Seventy per cent of the work of the UN system

is devoted to helping developing countries build
the capacity to help themselves. This includes:
promoting and protecting democracy and
human rights; saving children from starvation
and disease; providing relief assistance to
refugees and disaster victims; countering
global crime, drugs and disease; and assisting
countries devastated by war and the long-term
threat of land-mines.
Costs of the UN systems operational activities

for development are estimated at USD 6 billion
a year (excluding the World Bank, International
Monetary Fund, and International Fund for
Agriculture Development). This is equal to 0.60
per cent of world total military expenditures of
over USD 1 trillion. (2007)
As of 2010, more than 121,000 personnel were

serving on 15 peacekeeping operations on four
continents. More than 85,000 of those serving
were troops and military observers and about
13,000 were police personnel. In addition, there
were more than 5,000 international civilian
personnel, 14,000 local civilian staff, and some
2,400 UN Volunteers from over 160 nations.
The approved budget for the period 1 July 2010
to 30 June 2011 was USD 7.26 billion.
In 2006, the Office for the Coordination of

Humanitarian Affairs (OCHA) launched interagency appeals, raising more than USD
3 billion to assist 40 million people in 19
countries and regions.
At the end of 2009, there were some 36 million

people of concern to the United Nations High
Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) in more
than 150 countries, and as of September 2010,
the World Food Programme (WFP) had 90
Sources:
Renewing the United Nations System.
Development Dialogue 94:1.
Building Partnerships (ISBN 92-1-100890-5).
United Nations Handbook, 2008/2009.
Children of concern for UNHCR and the WFP include the

internally displaced indigenous children in Colombia,
depicted above. (UN Photo #138798 by Mark Garten,
June 2006)
24 |
million beneficiaries in 73 countries.
Learning Questions
The Charter evolves around four major areas. Can

you describe them?
Which are the major legal organizations within the
United Nations?
Knowledge
What are the aims of the United Nations?
What are the purposes of the United Nations?
What are the principles of the United Nations?
What is the constituent authority of the United
Nations?
Which are the fundamental principles in the
relations between Member States?
What is the main role of the International Court of
Justice?
What are the six major components in the United
Nations system?
Awareness
What is the meaning of the International
Community?
How is the United Nations financed?

Which entities normally belong to what is called the
Central United Nations?
The non-governmental organizations have a kind
of consultative status to one UN organ. Which
one?
Application
You have been assigned to a United Nations
mission in Africa. Among your friends, you are
now considered as an expert on all UN issues.
At a dinner party, your friends start to discuss the
United Nations in a rather negative way. What has
the UN done? All money goes to peacekeeping
and the rest to feed the UN bureaucrats and
nothing is done to help the poor countries! How
do you respond to this statement, and what will
your answer be?
| 25
End-of-Lesson Quiz
1. On which date was the Charter of the United

Nations ratified?
5. A peacekeeping operation can be authorized

by:
A. 16 April 1945;
A. The General Assembly;
B. 26 June 1945;
B. The Security Council;
C. 24 October 1945;
C. The Secretary-General;
D. 1 January 1946.
D. The Security Council and the General

Assembly.
2. The Preamble of the Charter of the United

Nations:
A. Expresses the principles of the United Nations;
B. Is a formal declaration in which the signatory
States agree to the present Charter;
6. The minimum contribution to the United

Nations regular budget was (as of 2006)
fixed at:
A. 0.1 percent;
C. Expresses the aims and ideals of the United

Nations;
B. 0.01 percent;
D. States the purpose of the United Nations.
D. 1.0 percent.
3. Which sentence is correct?
7. The principal organs of the United Nations

system are:
A. The most important principles of the Charter of

the United Nations are stated in Article 1;
B. The most important principles of the Charter of
the United Nations are stated in Article 2;
C. The most important principles of the United
Nations are those stated in Articles 1 and 2;
D. The most important principles of the Charter of
the United Nations are stated in the Preamble.

A. The International Court of Justice is not one of
the six principal organs of the United Nations;
B. The International Tribunal for Rwanda was
established in 1994 by the General Assembly;
C. 0.001 percent;
A. The General Assembly and the Security

Council;
B. The General Assembly, the Security Council,
the Trusteeship Council, the Economic and
Social Council, the International Court of
Justice, and the Secretariat;
C. The Secretary-General, Programmes
and Funds, the International Bank for
Reconstruction and Development, and Major
Agencies;
D. The Security Council, the International Court
of Justice, Programmes and Funds, and Major
Agencies.
C. The Office of Legal Affairs provides legal

advice to the Secretary-General;
D. The Statute for an International Criminal Court
was ratified in Rome in 2002.
26 |
8. Most of the non-governmental organizations

involved with the UN:
A. Operate under ECOSOC;
B. Are concerned with ECOSOCs activities;
C. Have various kinds of consultative status with
ECOSOC;
D. Are invited to participate in the work of the
General Assembly.
9. The International Committee of the Red

Cross is invited to participate in the work of:
A. The Economic and Social Council;
B. The International Court of Justice;
C. The General Assembly;
D. The International Bank for Reconstruction and
Development.

A. UN funds and programmes provide assistance
for countries development efforts;
B. UN specialized agencies provide assistance for
countries development efforts;
C. UN specialized agencies deal with operational
activities for development in programme
countries;
D. UN funds and programmes do not report to
ECOSOC.
ANSWER KEY
1C, 2C, 3C, 4C, 5D, 6C, 7B, 8C, 9C, 10B
LESSON 2
THE PRINCIPAL ORGANS
OF THE UNITED NATIONS
LESSON
2
LESSON OBJECTIVES
(Ref: The United Nations Today, p. 6-14; and Articles of the Charter)
2.1 General Assembly

2.2 Security Council
2.3 Economic and

Social Council
2.4 Trusteeship Council

2.5 International Court

of Justice
2.6 Secretariat and

the Secretary-General
While Lesson 1 provided the purpose and principles of the Organization

as well as major features of the system, Lesson 2 will be a more in-depth
exercise of the Central United Nations and its six principal organs. The
student will get an understanding of their roles, interrelationships, and
functions, as well as how the work is carried out. By the end of the lesson,
the student should have achieved a fair understanding of the General
Assembly, the Security Council, and the Secretariat, in addition to an
awareness of the other principal organs
Lesson 2:
What is the main function of the General Assembly?

What is the main function of the Security Council?
What is the main function of the Economic and Social Council?
What is the role of the Secretary-General?
What are the two major roles of the International Court of Justice?
Introduction
The UN Charter authorizes the establishment
of six principal organs. These are: the General
Assembly (Chapter IV); the Security Council
(Chapter V); the Economic and Social Council
(Chapter X); the Trusteeship Council (Chapter
XII); the International Court of Justice (Chapter
XIV); and the executing Secretariat (Chapter XV).
They have their own organizations, mandates,
and procedures, and members of these organs
are selected in accordance with certain rules and
regulations. The General Assembly should be
considered as the United Nations governing body
and its forum for multilateral negotiations.
2.1
General Assembly (GA)
Role and Function

The General Assembly was established in
1945 and is considered the chief deliberative,
policy-making, and representative organ of the
United Nations. It consists of all 192 Member
States, which have (i) accepted the obligations
contained in the Charter; (ii) applied for a
membership; and (iii) have been accepted as
worthy members (Art. 4-6). The GA may discuss
any matter referred to it within the scope of
the Charter. It makes recommendations to the
Member States or to the Security Council on
any such questions except when the Security
Council is exercising its functions assigned to it
in the Charter. In particular, the GA shall initiate
studies and is empowered to make non-binding
recommendations for the purpose of international
cooperation in the political field and in the
economic and social fields (Art. 13).
Website of the General Assembly:
http://www.un.org/ga
The GA approves the budget of the Organization
and apportions the expenses among the Members
(Art. 17). Each year from mid-September until
mid-December, the GA holds a regular session.
However, at the request of the Security Council or
a majority of the Member States, special sessions
(e.g., World Summit, 2005) or emergency special
sessions (e.g., Uniting for Peace, 1950) may also
be held. The Heads of States generally make the

opening statements of the general debate, which
starts on the third Tuesday in September.
Each of the Member States has one vote. However,
a Member that is in arrears in the payment of its
financial contribution to the Organization may
jeopardize its right to vote (Art. 19). Decisions
on key issues are decided by two-thirds majority
of the Members present, while a simple majority
decides other matters. However, in many cases,
resolutions are passed by consensus.
The General Assembly can address questions
and make recommendations concerning the
maintenance of international peace and security,
the admission of new Members to the UN, and
the election of the non-permanent members
to the Security Council, as well as members to
other United Nations councils and organs. Jointly
with the Security Council, the GA elects judges
to the International Court of Justice, and, on
the recommendation of the Security Council, it
appoints the Secretary-General.
The GA is presided by a President, who is assisted
by 21 Vice-Presidents and the chairs of the six
Main Committees. During debates of the General
Assembly and its subordinate committees,
speakers interventions are delivered in one of
the six official languages of the United Nations
and simultaneously translated into the other five.
These languages include Arabic, Chinese, English,
French, Russian, and Spanish.
At the regular session, the Member States
address a wide range of international issues.
Most of these issues will later be discussed in
various committees or other bodies established
by the General Assembly. Their findings and
recommendations will be presented to the next
(or another) Assembly, which will, expressed
in resolutions, make necessary decisions. It is
notable that on the question of Palestine and the
situation in the Middle East, the GA acts directly in
its plenary meetings.
| 31
Organization
Fourth Committee: Special political affairs and
In general, the committees and various working

groups also consider agenda items referred to
them by the GA and make recommendations.
In some cases, they also draft resolutions for
submission to the General Assembly plenary. The
number of Member States is generally stipulated
by the respective mandates (GA resolution),
but always with as broad a geographical
representation as possible, and the actual
number of Member States changes frequently in
response to political fluctuations. The Holy See is
a non-Member State but has observer status in
the United Nations, while Palestine in its capacity
as GA observer has the right to participate in the
general debate but without voting power.
Fifth Committee: Administrative and budgetary
Comments
The bulk of the work involved in preparing

GA resolutions is performed by the six Main
Committees, which by their composition and
working agenda reflect the entire work of the
United Nations. The following are the six Main
Committees general responsibilities:
First Committee: Disarmament and international

security
Second Committee: Economic and financial issues

Third Committee: Social, humanitarian and
cultural issues
de-colonization
questions
Sixth Committee:International legal issues

All Member States have the right to be represented
on each Main Committee and all of the
Open-ended Ad Hoc Working Groups.
Apart from the Main Committees stand the
Subsidiary Organs, which report directly to the
General Assembly. They include:
Boards and Executive Boards, e.g., the EB of

UNICEF, UNDP, and WFP1
Commissions, among others, on disarmament

and the UN Peacebuilding Commission2
Committees on, e.g., Human Rights and on
the Rights of the Child. In addition, there are a

number of Ad hoc Committees3
Councils and Panels, such as the Human Rights

Council and the Council of the United Nations
University; and the Panel of the International
Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) 4
Working Groups and others, e.g., working
groups on the UN financial situation5

1 For more information, visit http://www.un.org/
en/ga/about/subsidiary/boards.shtml.
en/ga/about/subsidiary/commissions.shtml.
en/ga/about/subsidiary/committees.shtml.
en/ga/about/subsidiary/councils.shtml.
32 |
Although the Security Council is responsible for

international peace and security, the GA also
periodically plays a role in these areas. In 1956,
when the Security Council was deadlocked over
the Suez War, the situation provided an opportunity
for the GA to take necessary actions under the
Uniting for Peace resolution. That means that the
GA may take action if the Security Council fails to
act in its effort to maintain peace and security. The
de-colonization of a number of nations in the 1960s
brought new members to the United Nations,
and the GAs influence grew significantly during
this period. The consolidation of the Non-Aligned
Movement (NAM) provided an opportunity for
the developing countries, to a certain extent, to
balance the power of the Permanent Five in the
Security Council.
During the last decade, the GA has sometimes
become a forum for expressing dissatisfaction over
the Security Councils handling of conflicts. For
example, the GA was very vocal over the conflicts
in the former Yugoslavia (Bosnia-Herzegovina and
Kosovo) and in Iraq. However, the GA has also
used its role as a forum for the promotion of issues
related more to peacebuilding, such as the human
rights monitoring mission to Haiti and GA-initiated
electoral monitoring missions.
In order to vitalize and further broaden the human
rights issues, the World Summit 2005 mandated
en/ga/about/subsidiary/other.shtml.
the establishment of the UN Human Rights Council

(UNHRC) as a Subsidiary and Inter-Governmental
Organ of the GA. In addition, the recently
established UN Peacebuilding Commission is an
Advisory Subsidiary Organ reporting directly to
the Security Council and the General Assembly
and has a non-subsidiary relationship with the
Economic and Social Council and the Office of the
Secretary-General.
In recent years, the General Assembly has focused
efforts on decisions made by consensus as
opposed to a formal vote. As almost 200 delegates
are involved, the decision-making process of the
GA is frequently slow and unwieldy. Because of
this, the GA yields time-sensitive actions to the
Security Council, whose smaller numbers and
mandatory resolutions allow for decisive impact on
world affairs.
Organization and Function

The Security Council is organized to function
continuously. Although most of its meetings are
during normal working hours, a meeting of the
Security Council can be called on one hours
notice, 365 days per year. Membership in the
Security Council consists of five permanent
members (China, France, Russian Federation,
the United Kingdom, and the United States)
and ten non-permanent members. Five new
non-permanent members are elected each year
by the General Assembly for a term of two years,
starting on 1 January (Art. 23). The president of
the Security Council, whose seat rotates monthly
amongst the Members, guides the work of the
Council.
2.2 Security Council (SC)

Role and Power
The Charter confers on the Security Council the
primary responsibility of maintaining international
peace and security (Art. 24). The Council is
granted special power to facilitate the peaceful
settlements of disputes (Art. 33-38) and to
determine any threat to peace, breach of peace,
or act of aggression. The Council also has the
responsibility to take necessary action in order to
maintain or restore peace and security (Art. 39-51).
Thus, the Council has the legal right to authorize
the use of force for example, sanctions or military
force if deemed necessary (Art. 42). While the
other principal organs make recommendations
to governments, the Security Council, when
discharging its duties, acts on behalf of all
Members of the United Nations, and its decisions
are mandatory. As a whole, the Member States
agree to accept and carry out the decisions of the
Council in accordance with the Charter (Art. 25).
The Council may establish the subsidiary organs
it deems necessary for the performance of its
functions, such as a peacekeeping operation (Art.
29).
Website of the Security Council:
http://www.un.org/Docs/sc/
The Security Council in session.

(UN Photo #402034 by Eskinder Debebe, June 2009)
Each member of the SC has one vote. Substantive

decisions of the SC are made by an affirmative
vote (a yes vote) of nine members including the
concurring votes (yes, abstain, or no vote) of
the permanent members. The concurring vote
of the permanent five emanates from Article
27 in the Charter where concurring votes on
substantive issues are required from the five
permanent members of the Security Council.
A vote of no from one of the five permanent
members constitutes a veto and, consequently,
blocks the Security Council from adopting the
resolution under consideration. The article is
pragmatic since it is intended to save the Council
| 33
from decisions of activities impossible to fulfil, for

example, enforcement actions or sanctions against
one of the permanent five. For a procedural vote,
a straight majority of nine votes is necessary (Art.
27).
The organization and structure of the Security
Council comprises a number of different
committees, working groups, and commissions.
In addition, all peacekeeping operations and
criminal tribunals are vested under the Councils
authorization. The following subsidiary bodies
are established under the provisional rules of the
Security Council and report directly to the Council:
Standing Committees (Procedures, Meetings,

and Admission of new Members);
Ad Hoc Committees: established as needed and

meet in closed sessions;
Ad Hoc Working Groups (e.g., Peacekeeping;

Conflict Prevention in Africa; Measures to be
Imposed to Individuals/Groups Involved in
Terrorism; Children and Armed Conflicts);
Military Staff Committee (Current composition/

mandates working methods are reconsidered:
World Summit 2005);
Counter-Terrorism Committee (CTC);

Sanction Committees (11 different committees);
1540 Committee (refrain from acquiring,
developing, manufacturing, etc., NBC weapons);
Peacekeeping Operations (15 operations as of

2010 see Lesson 3);
Political and Peacebuilding Missions (12

missions as of 2010 see Lesson 3);
Commissions (e.g., Peacebuilding Commission;

Compensation Commission);
International Tribunals (former Yugoslavia and

Rwanda); and
Other organizations (e.g., UN Command in

Korea).
Except for the Standing Committees and the

Military Staff Committee, the other entities are
all essentially temporary subsidiary bodies
established by a Security Council resolution.
Each one deals with a specific situation, has an
operational mandate, and reports and makes
34 |
recommendations to the Council, limiting their

operational time and scope.
GA resolution 60/160 (2005) and SC resolution
1645 (2005) authorized the important
establishment of the Peacebuilding Commission
(PBC) to assist countries emerging from conflicts.
The PBC works as an inter-governmental advisory
body of the Council and has a direct reporting
relationship both with the Security Council and the
General Assembly.
Comments
Since its inception, the General Assembly has
assumed responsibility for establishing the
principles and ideals on which global peace
would rest. The Security Council should act
in accordance with these principles and, thus,
speedily prevent any breach or attempted breach
of international peace and security. Unfortunately,
during the Cold War, the competition and the
mistrust between the superpowers hampered the
Councils decision-making process, and instead of
an early response to crisis, the Council found itself
crippled and ineffective by the heavy use of veto.
The close of the Soviet era ended the Cold War,
resulting in more cooperative work in the Council.
Although the Security Council discussions have
been closed sessions, excepting the formal
resolutions decisions, in 2003 the Council became
an almost open forum for the issues of military
force. For example, the debate over Iraq was an
open, public, and global endeavour during which
the legitimacy, legality, and wisdom of the war was
forcefully discussed.
However, the question of Iraq splintered the
Council, and for the first time in United Nations
history, a full-fledged war was launched
against a Member State without the proper
authorization of the Security Council. This event
was most unfortunate, since the threat or use
of force against the territorial integrity or political
independence of any state is outlawed by the
Charter of the United Nations (Art. 2). This and
subsequent events underscored the necessity
to find a solution to the never-ending debate
concerning the Councils membership in general
and the role of the permanent five in particular.
2.3 Economic and Social Council

(ECOSOC)
Role and Power
The UN Charter affirms that stability and
well-being are fundamental conditions for peaceful
and friendly relations among the Member States.
Based on the universal principles of equal rights
and self-determination, the United Nations is to
advance a wide range of issues within the fields
of economic and social developments (Art. 55).
Under the authority of the General Assembly, the
Economic and Social Council has the responsibility
for the overall guidance of United Nations activities
in the economic and social fields (Art. 60). As
such, ECOSOC coordinates the related work
of the 14 UN specialized agencies, functional
commissions, and five regional commissions.
ECOSOC is empowered to initiate studies and
make recommendations to the General Assembly,
governments, and to the United Nations linked
specialized agencies concerning economic, social,
cultural, educational, health, and other related
matters. ECOSOC is also authorized to make
recommendations for the purpose of promoting
respect for and observance of human rights (Art.
62). In order to achieve these objectives, ECOSOC
is mandated to enter into agreements (subjected
to approval by the General Assembly) through
consultations and coordination with concerned
agencies (Art. 63). ECOSOC responsibilities also
include assisting the Security Council when so
required (Art. 65).
Website of the Economic and Security
Council: http://www.un.org/ecosoc/
Organization and Function
Today, ECOSOC comprises 54 Members with one
vote each. Of these geographically distributed 54
members, 18 are elected each year and serve for
a three-year term. A High-level segment serves
as a forum for ministers and senior executives.
ECOSOC meets in an annual four-week session
alternating between New York and Geneva, in
addition to holding short sessions throughout the
year. A simple majority rules the voting procedures.
Although its sessions are substantial in terms of
agendas and decisions, the year-round operational

work is carried out through ECOSOCs various
subsidiary bodies, which report to its committees
and regional commissions. None of the other
United Nations principal organs have as many
subsidiary bodies as ECOSOC. In addition, over
2,200 non-governmental organizations have
consultative status with ECOSOC (See Lesson
1). This sprawling machinery has the following
subsidiary bodies:
Nine Functional Commissions: (i) Social
Development; (ii) Crime Prevention and Criminal

Justice; (iii) Population and Development; (iv)
Narcotic Drugs; (v) Science and Technology for
Development; (vi) Sustainable Development; (vii)
Status of Women; (viii) National Statistics; and
(ix) Forum on Forests;
Five Regional Commissions: to promote the
regional economic and social development

in Africa, Asia and the Pacific, Europe, Latin
America and the Caribbean, and Western Asia;
Standing Committees (Programme and

Coordination, the Committee on NonGovernmental Organizations);
Expert Bodies (Transport, Geographic Names,

International Standards, Development, ESCO
rights, Administration and Indigenous Issues);
and
Executive Committees such as UN System
Chief Executives Board for Coordination (CEB),

High Level Committee on Management (HLCM),
and High Level Committee on Programmes
(HLCP). These three mechanisms are the center
of gravity and where most of the coordination
takes place within the UN system. (High Level
Segment)
Comments
The socio-economic agenda and the role of
ECOSOC have been debated from its beginning.
As originally envisioned, the United Nations was
supposed to help formulate and coordinate global
economic policy. However, the United Nations
never became the global economic architect,
instead allowing the separate Bretton Woods
Institutions (the World Bank Group and the
International Monetary Funds) to fill this role. As
| 35
a result, the United Nations was diverted away

from economic policy formulation and later into
the less controversial development assistance.
Macro-economic policy became formulated
through the Bretton Woods Institutions by the
industrial powers.
While ECOSOC serves as a key UN coordinator

and mediator on socio-economic activities, the
question of ECOSOCs fundamental role in shaping
the global economy as foreseen in the Charter still
remains.
2.4 Trusteeship Council (TC)

Past
ECOSOC in session. (UN Photo #186134 by Eskinder Debebe, July 2008)
This arrangement did not promote global

economic development, and the Cold War further
aggravated the economic disparities revealed by
de-colonization. The economic inequities between
developed and developing countries prevailed, and
the growing income disparities became a threat to
international peace and security.
In their efforts to further strengthen ECOSOC
at the World Summit in 2005, the Member
States recognized the Organ as the principal
body for coordination, policy review, dialogue
and recommendations on issues of economic
and social development. Pursuant to the GA
resolution (A/RES/61/16), the Annual Ministerial
Review (AMR) was established and mandated to
assess the progress made in the implementation
of goals and targets agreed upon at the major
UN conferences and summits over the past 15
years. The same resolution mandated ECOSOC
to launch a biennial Development Cooperation
Forum as a principal medium for global dialogue on
development cooperation.
36 |
The Charter provides for the establishment

of an international trusteeship system for the
administration and supervision of such territories
(trust territories) as may be placed there under
subsequent individual agreements (Art. 75). The
trusteeship system was relevant in the aftermath
of World War II and during the de-colonization
period between the 1960s and 1970s, serving
to supervise and promote advancement and
progress towards the independence of the 60
territories placed under the system. Such territories
were either (i) territories held under mandates
established by the League of Nations (e.g.,
Namibia); (ii) territories which have been detached
from enemy states as a result of World War II; or
(iii) territories voluntarily placed under the system.
The trust territories were to be administered by a
designated authority (to be called the administering
authority), which could be one or more states
or the United Nations. Under the authority of
the General Assembly, the Trusteeship Council
monitored the administering authority to act under
the purposes and principles of the Charter.
Website of the Trusteeship Council:
http://www.un.org/en/mainbodies/trusteeship/
Present
With the termination of the Trusteeship Agreement
on Palau6 (Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands,
1994), the Trusteeship Council completed its task.
The Secretary-General, therefore, recommended
the General Assembly to take necessary steps to
eliminate the organ. It was not done, and instead,
in 1997, the Secretary-General suggested that
6 Palau consists of 300 small islands located
west of the Philippines and in the eastern part of
Micronesia (Pacific Ocean). It was the last of the
territories to gain independence.
the Trusteeship Council be reconstituted as the

forum through which the Member States exercise
their collective trusteeship for the integrity of the
global environment and common areas such as
the oceans, atmosphere and outer space At the
same time, it should serve the UN and the civil
society in addressing these areas of concern.
In 1998, a task force was mandated to prepare
proposals on environmental and human settlement
areas.
However, the task of the Trusteeship Council as
envisaged in the Charter does not exist. Since the
TC has no remaining functions, the World Summit
of 2005 suggested that Chapter XIII of the Charter
and other relevant references to the TC should
come to a close.
Nations General Assembly and Security Council.

Elections are held every three years for one-third
of the seats, and retiring judges may be re-elected.
The Members of the Court do not represent their
governments but are elected as independent
magistrates. The judges must possess the
qualifications required in their respective countries
for appointment to the highest judicial offices, or
they must be jurists of recognized competence in
international law. The composition of the Court also
must reflect the main forms of civilization and the
principal legal systems of the world. The court is
assisted by a Registry organ and an administrative
entity, as well as a chamber for environmental
issues.
2.5 International Court of Justice

(ICJ)7
Role and Composition
The International Court of Justice is the principal
judicial organ of the United Nations. Its seat is at
the Peace Palace in The Hague (The Netherlands).
It began work in 1946, when it replaced the
Permanent Court of International Justice, which
had functioned in the Peace Palace since 1922.
The ICJ operates under a Statute largely similar to
that of its predecessor, which is an integral part of
the Charter of the United Nations. The Court has a
dual role: to settle in accordance with international
law the legal disputes submitted to it by States; and
to give advisory opinions to the General Assembly
and the Security Council on legal questions
referred to it. The same service is also given to
other organs of the UN and specialized agencies,
which are authorized by the General Assembly to
request them (Chapter XIV, Art. 92-96).
Website of the International Court of
Justice: http://www.icj-cij.org/
The Court is composed of 15 judges, sitting
independently of each other, and may not include
more than one judge of any nationality. Judges are
elected to nine-year terms of office by the United
A view of the Peace Palace, home of the International Court of Justice

(ICJ) at The Hague in the Netherlands. (UN Photo #110328 by Pernaca
Sudhakaran, January 1984)
Function
Only States may apply to and appear before the
Court. Member States of the United Nations and
other States that have become parties to Statute
of the Court (under conditions laid down by the
Security Council) are so entitled. The Court may
entertain a dispute only if the States concerned
have accepted its jurisdiction in one or more of the
following ways:
7 This section comprises text extracted from the

ICJs Web site.
| 37
By the conclusion between them of a special
agreement to submit the dispute to the Court;
By virtue of a jurisdictional clause, i.e.,
typically, when they are parties to a treaty

containing a provision whereby, in the event
of a disagreement over its interpretation or
application, one of them may refer the dispute to
the Court; or
Through the reciprocal effect of declarations
made by them under the Statute whereby

each has accepted the jurisdiction of the Court
as compulsory in the event of a dispute with
another State having made a similar declaration.
In cases of doubt as to whether the Court has
jurisdiction, it is the Court itself that decides.
Contentious Cases
The procedure (Statute of the Court, Chapter III
Art. 43-60) followed by the Court in contentious
cases is defined in its Statute and in the Rules
of Court adopted by it under the Statute. The
proceedings include a written phase and an oral
phase. After the oral proceedings, the Court
deliberates on camera and then delivers its
judgment at a public sitting. The judgment is final
and without appeal.
Should one of the States involved fail to comply
with the judgements passed by the Court, the other
party involved may have recourse to the Security
Council of the United Nations. Since 1946, the
Court has delivered 69 judgments on disputes
concerning inter alia land frontiers and maritime
boundaries, territorial sovereignty, the non-use
of force, non-interference in the internal affairs of
States, diplomatic relations, hostage-taking, the
right of asylum, nationality, guardianship, rights of
passage, and economic rights. The Court decides
in accordance with international treaties and
conventions in force, international custom, general
principles of law, and, as subsidiary means, judicial
decisions and the teachings of the most highly
qualified publicists.
38 |
Advisory Capacity
The advisory procedure (Statute of the Court,
Chapter III) of the Court is open solely to
international organizations. The only bodies at
present authorized to request advisory opinions
of the Court are the five principal organs and the
16 specialized agencies (e.g., UNHCR) of the
United Nations family. On receiving a request, the
Court decides which States and organizations
might provide useful information and gives them
an opportunity of presenting written or oral
statements. The Courts advisory procedure
is otherwise modelled on that for contentious
proceedings, and the sources of applicable law are
the same.
In principle, the Courts advisory opinions are
consultative in character and are, therefore,
not binding on the requesting bodies. Certain
instruments or regulations can, however, provide in
advance that the advisory opinion shall be binding.
Since 1946, the Court has given 24 advisory
opinions, concerning inter alia admission to
United Nations membership, reparation for injuries
suffered in the service of the United Nations,
territorial status of South-West Africa (Namibia)
and Western Sahara, judgments rendered by
international administrative tribunals, expenses of
certain United Nations operations, applicability of
the United Nations Headquarters Agreement, the
status of human rights rapporteurs, and the legality
of the threat or use of nuclear weapons.
2.6 Secretariat and the SecretaryGeneral

Role and Function of the Secretariat
In addition to the Headquarters in New York, the
Secretariat maintains a presence in Geneva,
Vienna, and Nairobi. While the central political
activities of the United Nations are conducted in
New York, the United Nations Office in Geneva
(UNOG) is the focal point of conferences,
multilateral diplomacy, and activities concerning
human rights and disarmament. The United
Nations Office in Vienna (UNOV) focuses on
activities in the field of international drug-abuse
control, crime prevention and criminal justice,
peaceful use of outer space, and international

trade law. The United Nations Office in Nairobi
(UNON) is the headquarters for activities that
concern the environment and human settlements.
Website of the Secretariat:
http://www.un.org/en/mainbodies/secretariat/
The Secretariat comprises the Secretary-General
and other such staff as the Organization requires.
The Secretariat itself consists of different
organizational units necessary to carry out
the day-to-day work of the Organization. With
consideration to their mandates and sizes, they are
organized as offices, departments, and offices of
Special Representatives to the Secretary-General
(other high level entities), each headed by an
official directly accountable to the SecretaryGeneral. From New York Headquarters and from
other places around the world, the staff serves
the Organization by administering programmes
and policies as decided by the five other principal
organs (Art. 97-101).
The duties carried out by the Secretariat are
as varied as the problems dealt with by the
United Nations. These range from administering
peacekeeping operations to mediating international
disputes. Secretariat staff also survey economic
and social trends and problems; prepare studies
on subjects such as human rights and sustainable
development; organize international conferences
on issues of worldwide concern; monitor the extent
to which the decisions of United Nations bodies
are being carried out; interpret speeches and
translate documents into the Organizations official
languages; and conduct information programs
to acquaint the worlds communications media
with the work of the United Nations. The main
functions of the Secretariats 13 departments and
offices are as follows:
Executive Office of the Secretary-General
(OSG): Composed by the SG senior advisers

and provides overall guidelines to the
Organization.
Office of Internal Oversight Services (OIOS):

Monitors, evaluates, and audits the UN
operations.
Office of Legal Affairs (OLA): Provides legal

service to the Organization.
Department of Political Affairs (DPA): Provides
advice and support to the SG on all political

matters and carries out, among others, activities
related to the prevention, control, and resolution
of conflicts, peacebuilding, and electoral
assistance.
Office of Disarmament Affairs (ODA): Promotes

the goals of disarmament and provides support
for norm setting in this area.
Department of Peacekeeping Operations
(DPKO): Is responsible for the planning,

preparation, management, and direction of the
peacekeeping operations.
Department of Field Support (DFS): Bolsters

the UNs capacity to mount and sustain
peacekeeping operations.
Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian
Affairs (OCHA): Strengthens the coordination

among the UN entities that give assistance in
response to emergencies.
Department of Economic and Social Affairs
(DESA): Generates and analyses relevant

data, facilitates negotiations, and advises, at
request, the translation of policy agreements into
programmes at the country level.
Department for General Assembly and
Conference Management (DGACM): Provides

technical and secretariat support to the GA as
well as to intergovernmental and expert bodies
meetings in Nw York; also provides translation
and publishing services.
Department of Public Information (DPI): Informs

globally about UN purposes and activities.
Department of Management (DM): Provides
to the Secretariat policy guidance and support

concerning finance, human resources, and
support service.
Department of Safety and Security (DSS):

Ensures coherent response to emergency
situations.
As of 2010, more than 40,000 men and women

from some 170 countries made up the worldwide
Secretariat staff under the regular budget. As
international civil servants, the Secretary-General
and the Secretariat staff answer directly to the
| 39
United Nations and are required to take an oath

to not seek or receive instructions from any
government or outside authority. As specified in
Article 100 of the Charter, each Member State
must respect the exclusively international character
of the responsibilities of the Secretary-General
and the Secretariat staff and avoid any and all
attempts to an improper influence of the staff in the
discharge of their duties.
The Secretary-General is described by the

Charter as the chief administrative officer of
the Organization (Art. 97). The United Nations
Secretariat Web site describes the role as: Equal
parts diplomat and advocate, civil servant and
CEO, the Secretary-General is a symbol of United
Nations ideals and a spokesman for the interests
of the worlds peoples, in particular the poor and
vulnerable among them.8
Role and Function of the Secretary-General
As directed by the Charter, the Secretary-General

should bring to the attention of the Security Council
any matter that threatens international peace and
security. The Charter also calls upon him the duty
to perform such other functions as are entrusted
to him by the Security Council, the General
Assembly, and the other main United Nations
organs (Art. 99). With a dual role as spokesperson
for the international community and servant of the
Member States, the Secretary-General is awarded
both a balancing act of conflicting tensions and an
extraordinary mandate for action.
The Secretary-General (SG) is appointed for a

period of five years by the General Assembly after
recommendation from the Security Council. The
SG is best known to the general public for using
his stature and impartiality his good offices in
the interests of preventive diplomacy (conflict
prevention and peace-making). This refers to
steps taken by the Secretary-General or his senior
staff both publicly and in private to prevent
international disputes from arising, escalating, or
spreading.
Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon

Mr. Ban Ki-moon of the Republic of Korea, the eighth Secretary-General
of the United Nations, was born 1944. Mr. Ban has had an extensive
career. He has served as his countrys Minister of Foreign Affairs and
Trade, but his tenure with the Ministry included responsibilities for a
variety of portfolios such as Foreign Policy Adviser to the President,
Chief National Security Adviser to the President, Deputy Minister for
Policy Planning, Director-General of American Affairs, and Ambassador
to Vienna. Mr. Ban is well acquainted with the United Nations since his
assignment as the former First Secretary at his countrys Permanent
Mission to the United Nations in New York. He has chaired the
Preparatory Commission for the Comprehensive Nuclear Test Ban
Treaty Organization and served as Chef de Cabinet during the Republic
of Koreas presidency of the General Assembly.
8 The Office, The Role of the SecretaryGeneral, <http://www.un.org/News/ossg/sg/pages/

sg_office.html>.
40 |
Reorganization and Reforms

The United Nations and its Secretariat have
undergone considerable reorganization in order
to streamline the Organization and cut its budget
deficit. To that end, the General Assembly has
adopted several reform packages, consolidating
programmes, and activities with the aim of creating
a closer cooperation and better coherence
throughout the system. Within the Secretariat,
a senior management group and four sectoral
committees facilitate the day-by-day management
of the internal work. Fruitful partnerships have
been built with a wide range of non-State actors.
The consolidation and reorganization of the reform
programme has also required the elimination of
approximately 1,000 staff posts.
Website of the UNs reorganization
and reforms: http://www.un.org/reform/
In the field, the establishment of a standard,
unified country team has brought together the
representatives of the Organizations multiple funds,
programmes, and specialized agencies and has led
to better transparency and coordination at the country
level and throughout the whole UN system. Significant
improvements have been made in the management,
deployment, implementation, and support of complex
peacekeeping operations, and the UNs peacebuilding
capacity has been further strengthened, as well.
The creation of the Human Right Council and the
establishment of the Office of the High Commissioner
for Human Rights and sub-offices in the field has
enhanced the human rights monitoring capacity.
The UNs budgeting process has shifted its focus
from detailed descriptions of activities to processes
that identify outcomes and measurable indicators of
achievement.
Website of the Office of the High
Commissioner of Human Rights: http://www.
ohchr.org/
However, the reform programme is a never-ending
undertaking. For the biennium 2008-2009, the
Secretary-General proposed further improvements,
saying peacekeeping, pre-emptive diplomacy,
climate change and improving the lot of poor
countries, as well as internal reform, will be high
on the United Nations agenda for 2008. Mr.
Ban further stressed that all these needs call for
revamping the UNs internal workings as well as

to streamline the world bodys contracts system
and a continued focus on better governance,
performance, accountability and transparency.9
Although the United Nations has become more
professional and less dependent, there is still the
need for series of improvements that for a number
of years will affect both the management and the
governing structures.
Learning Questions
Knowledge
What is the major role of the General Assembly?

What legal power does the Charter grant to the
Security Council?
How many Member States are represented in

the Security Council?
Who are the permanent members of the

Security Council?
What is the meaning of the concurring vote used

in the Security Council?
What is the responsibility of the Economic and

Social Council?
Awareness
What are the major responsibilities of the six

Main Committees of the General Assembly?
How is the work of the General Assembly

organized?
What is the interrelationship between the
General Assembly and the Security Council?
What was the purpose of the veto power in the

Security Council?
What is the purpose of the International Court of

Justice?
Application
During the same dinner (as in Lesson 1), you find
yourself fiercely defending the Secretary-General
(SG) and his role in the United Nations. After
your five-minute statement, you earn your
friends cheers and applause. Obviously you
were successful, but what were your key points in
describing the role of the SG?
9 UN News Centre, Secretary-General lays out
challenging UN agenda for 2008, 4 January 2008.
| 41
End-of-Lesson Quiz
1. The phrase shall initiate studies and
make recommendations for the purpose of
international cooperation in the political
field and in the economic and social fields
applies to:
A. All the principal organs;
B. The General Assembly;
C. The Economic and Social Council;
D. The Secretariat.
2. The General Assembly will not hold a

session:
A. Once each year;
B. At the request from the Security Council;
C. At the request of a Member State;
D. At the request of a majority of Member States.
3. Article 42 applies to the:

A. Security Councils right to maintain international
peace and security;
B. Security Councils right to settle disputes by
peaceful means;
5. Substantive decisions of the Security Council

are made by an affirmative vote of:
A. Nine members of the SC;
B. The permanent members and nine of the
non-permanent members;
C. Nine members of the SC including the
concurring vote of all permanent members;
D. All members of the SC.
6. Which of the following statements

concerning the Economic and Social Council
is false?
A. The Council is authorized to make
recommendations for the purpose of promoting
human rights;
B. Under the authority of the General Assembly,
the Council has the responsibility to formulate
and coordinate the global economic policy;
C. Under the authority of the General Assembly,
the Council has the responsibility for the
overall guidance of United Nations activities in
economic and social fields;
C. Security Councils responsibility to restore

peace;
D. ECOSOC coordinates the related work of

the 14 UN specialized agencies, functional
commissions, and five regional commissions.
D. Security Councils right to authorize the use of

force.
7. The Trusteeship Council:

A. Administers trust territories;
4. Which of the following statements about the

Security Council is correct?
B. No longer supervises territories because the

process became too convoluted;
A. It consists of five permanent members and 10

non-permanent members, and half of the 10
non-permanent members are selected each
year by the General Assembly;
C. Has had its mandate changed since the

termination of the Trusteeship Agreement on
Palau;
B. Its 10 non-permanent members are selected

every second year by the General Assembly;
D. No longer exists.
C. Its 10 non-permanent members are selected

each year by the General Assembly;
D. Half of its 10 non-permanent members are
selected each year by the Security Council.
42 |
8. The principal judicial organ of the United

Nations is:
A. The Permanent Court of International Justice;
B. The International Court of Justice;
C. The Office of Legal Affairs;
D. The International Law Commission.
9. The ICJ cannot:

A. Settle in accordance with international law the
legal disputes submitted to it by States;
B. Advise the Secretariat and other organs of
the United Nations on matters related to
international, public, private, and administrative
laws;
C. Give advisory opinions on legal questions
referred to it by authorized international organs
and agencies;
D. Make its decisions in accordance with
international treaties and conventions in force,
international customs, and general principles
of law.
10. The Secretary-General is:

A. The Chief Executive Officer of the United
Nations;
B. The chief administrative officer of the United
Nations;
C. Appointed by the Security Council;
D. Appointed by the Security Council after
recommendation from the General Assembly.
ANSWER KEY
1C, 2C, 3D, 4A, 5C, 6B, 7C, 8B, 9B, 10B
| 43
SECTION II
THE OPERATIONAL FRAMEWORK
lesson three
The United Nations Role in Maintaining Peace and Security
lesson four
The Roles of the United Nations in the Fields of

Development and Related Humanitarian Actions
LESSON 3
THE UNITED NATIONS
ROLE IN MAINTAINING
PEACE AND SECURITY
LESSON
3
3.1 Political Context

3.2 The Key Concepts to
Maintaining Peace
and Security
3.3 Principles Guiding
Peacekeeping/
Peace Operations
3.4 Structure and Main
Components
3.5 Types of Peace
Operations
3.6 Planning and
Preparation
3.7 Implementation
3.8 Management
Responsibilities
3.9 Peacekeeping
Partnership
LESSON OBJECTIVES
(Ref: The United Nations Today, p. 69-131; and Articles of the Charter)
Unstable political environments and the latent and existing threats to
peace and stability continue to cause serious concern in the world. Within
the last ten years, we have seen various arrangements for meeting these
threats, and the United Nations has developed a flexible and responsive
interrelated system for that purpose. Still, security is as elusive as ever
and requires constant attendance, where traditional concepts must yield to
a broader perception of peace and security. This lesson gives information
about how and with what means the United Nations responds to threats
that affect the international peace and security.
Lesson 3:
What is the interrelated system in the United Nations efforts to maintain
peace and security?
What are the principles of peacekeeping?
What types of Peace Operations exist?
What is the purpose of peacebuilding?
Who or what authorizes the use of force?
Who has the overall responsibility of a mission in the field?
What is Peacekeeping Partnership?
Introduction
The maintenance of international peace and
security is the central focus of United Nations
activities. Over the years, the Organization has
developed a wide range of instruments that
make up a coherent mechanism to respond to
the various security challenges the international
community may encounter. Although peacekeeping
is one of the means that has proved workable, it
is only one fragment of what today is called peace
operations. However, the international climate
requires not only problem-solving measures but
also a variety of tools for promoting lasting peace
and security. This lesson and the one that follows
(Lesson 4) provide the student with an insight into
the overall picture of the United Nations interrelated
system that maintains peace and security. While
Lesson 4 discusses the promoting tools, this
lesson deals with what is commonly identified
as peace operations and how these operations
respond to the international communitys call for
conflict management.
3.1 Political Context

The Environment
With the end of the Cold War, the global, political
environment began to evolve. Superpower rivalry
ceased, and the international community became
eager to promote a new global security system
based on equality, the individuals rights, and
social and economic developments. In spite of this
change, however, violence still prevailed. As many
as 120 inter- and intra-state conflicts were active
between 1989 and 2006, and while the number of
inter-state conflicts decreased, the world witnessed
a dramatic increase of intra-state (internal)
conflicts.
In recent years, the number of active conflicts has
hovered around 30 to 40. None of the 33 armed
conflicts active in 2006 were inter-state wars
but instead were either internal (28) or internal
with foreign involvement (5). Consequently,
the international community, also transformed
by geo-political, economic, technological, and
environmental changes, found itself more
concerned with the major causes of systemic and
intractable violent conflict such as ethnic, religious,

and socio-economic factors with less emphasis on
preventing or containing conflicts between nations.
Although the majority of conflicts have shifted
from inter-state major wars to intra-state lesser
conflicts, violence levels have rarely subsided.
Intra-state conflicts merely tend towards new forms
of violence, like insurgency, sectarian violence, and
one-sided violence against civilians.
International terrorism and non-conventional
weapons are have also become legitimate threats
to both personal and national security. These
threats require early and decisive action to avoid
escalation from isolated instances of violence to
uncontrollable conflicts or even total destruction.
The Context
The current political and security environment
requires a broad and collaborative approach,
which subsequently calls for coherent notions
of military and non-military actions along with
the socio-economic development of nations and
peoples involved. Although the military continues to
play an important role in global peace and security,
cooperative non-military conflict prevention
methods such as arms control, disarmament, and
the establishment of non-violent norms and values
have become some of the driving forces in building
confidence between nations and structures.
Consequently, international security is no longer
limited to land ownership, weapons stockpiling,
and the culture of reaction, but instead it relies on
the notions of human rights, interdependence, and
globalization.
This change in conflict prevention emphasizes
the culture of early action where the well-being
of individuals and the social and economic
development in and between States are the
means of attending to the sources of conflicts.
Healthy social conditions and distribution of
wealth strengthen the social and economic fabrics
and generate further resources for sustainable
progress. In turn, this reinforces peace and
stability.
| 49
Along with the rules and provisions related

to human rights in the Charter, International
Human Rights Law (IHRL) provides the Security
Council with the necessary guidance to promote
human rights. This forms the legal and normative
framework of any peace operation.
A member of the UN Military Observer Group in India and Pakistan Major

Emilio Altieri (Uruguay) riding a horse while on patrol along the ceasefire line; here, he exchanges a few words with a group of Kashmiris he
met on the way. (UN Photo #181024 by SC, January 1955)
In the past, peacekeeping adhered to a large body

of unwritten principles developed by the many
thousands of peacekeepers who have worked in
peacekeeping operations since 1948. However,
the current challenges and complexity of todays
multidimensional operations require normative
operational guidance. For that purpose, the United
Nations has developed a doctrinal framework
consisting of six series, covering planning,
conduct, management, and support in the field,
as well as in Headquarters. The framework
series includes United Nations Peacekeeping
Operations: Principles and Guidelines (2008),
which is considered as the capstone doctrine for
peacekeeping.
The full text of United Nations
Peacekeeping Operations: Principles and
Guidelines can be accessed at http://pbpu.
unlb.org/pbps/Library/Capstone_Doctrine_
ENG.pdf
50 |
3.2 The Key Concepts to

Maintaining Peace and Security
The Interrelated System
The international community has frequently
entered into discussions concerning the definition
of peacekeeping. Peacekeeping was originally
considered a military endeavour, although civilian
components were included in the process. Modern
peacekeeping, however, is very complex and
involves a number of activities not necessarily
referred to as peacekeeping. Recognizing the
comprehensiveness and complexity of todays
conflicts, the international community has gradually
recognized some methods that more distinctly
identify the main pillars in maintaining peace and
security.
Over the course of years, the United Nations
has developed several instruments towards
peacekeeping, including preventive actions and
peace-making; peacekeeping; peacebuilding;
and peace enforcement. While preventative
actions, peace-making, and peacekeeping can
be employed only with the consent of the parties
involved, peace enforcements are coercive
measures and thus, by definition, do not require
the consent of the parties concerned. Collectively,
all of these instruments, methods, and operations
present an inter-related system in preventing,
managing, and resolving conflicts at various levels.
Although there are various definitions, the following
may serve as guidance.
Available Responsive Mechanisms
Preventive action (conflict prevention) aims to
prevent existing inter- or intra-state disputes and
tensions from escalating into violent conflicts, and
it aims to limit the expansion of conflicts when
they occur. Preventive actions can be carried
out as preventive diplomacy and confidencebuilding, deployment of troops, or combinations
of both. Preventive action may also include the
United Nations means to fight terrorism, since
the Organization participates in the global efforts
to dissuade disaffected groups from embracing
terrorism; deny groups or individuals the means
to carry out acts of terrorism; and to sustain
broad-based international cooperation in the

struggle against terrorism.1 In the United Nations
efforts to act against terrorism, the Organization
also assists Member States in proper and
preventive legislation.
Peace-making addresses conflict in progress. It
is a diplomatic action to bring hostile parties to
negotiate a settlement to their dispute through
such peaceful means as those foreseen under
Chapters VI and VIII of the UN Charter. As such,
peace-making is central to all peace processes
and is often conducted by envoys from regional
organizations, state authorities, or United
Nations representatives. For that purpose, the
Secretary-General may exercise his/her good
office if so appropriate.
Peacekeeping is a United Nations presence in the
field, with the consent of the conflicting parties
and where fighting has been halted. The purpose
of peacekeeping is to preserve peace and to
assist in implementing agreements achieved by
peacemakers. Peacekeeping was born out of
necessity and became a practical mechanism for
containing inter-state conflicts and facilitating their
settlement.2
Peace enforcement may be needed when all other

efforts fail. It is an assortment of coercive activities
to ensure an end to conflict between parties and
may include the use of armed force. It is only
permitted in situations where the Security Council
has determined an existence of a threat to the
peace, breach of the peace or act of aggression.
Sanctions and embargoes may be used as other
enforcement tools, bringing economic pressure
on a target State or entity to comply with the
objectives set by the Security Council.
A United Nations Stabilization Mission in Haiti (MINUSTAH) batallion of

Jordanian soldiers prepares to patrol the slum of Cit Soleil, Haiti. (UN
Photo #105833 by Sophia Paris, November 2005)
Peacebuilding includes the identification

and support of measures and structures that
promote peace and build trust and interaction
among former conflicting parties in order to
avoid a lapse or relapse into conflict. As such,
peacebuilding serves as the critical linkage
between the cease of the hostilities and economic
and social development. United Nations
agencies, governmental, and non-governmental
organizations play important roles in consolidating
peace.
Disarmament is sometimes an integral part of

peace enforcement and traditionally refers to the
reduction and/or eventual elimination of weapons
of mass destruction, such as nuclear, chemical,
and biological weapons. New political realities
have led the term to include limitations of various
conventional armaments like small arms and
landmines. On occasion, disarmament can be part
of a demobilization process often monitored by an
international organization.
1 General Assembly First Committee:

Disarmament and International Security (DISEC),
Measures to Prevent Terrorists from Acquiring
Weapons of Mass Destruction.
2 The word peacekeeping is commonly used
in documents where the phrase peace operation
might be better applied. Peace operation better
coincides with the nomenclature used for non-UN
mission operations.
Combating terrorism. The United Nations has

adopted a global strategy to counter terrorism,
based on the consensus of world leaders
to condemn terrorism in all its forms and
manifestations. It demands these efforts among
others: (i) to prevent and fight terrorism; (ii) to build
state capacity to fight terrorism; (iii) to strengthen
the role of the United Nations in countering
terrorism; and (iv) to ensure the respect for human
rights and the rule of law as the foundation in
combating terrorism.
| 51
UN website on terrorism: http://www.

un.org/terrorism/
3.3 Principles Guiding

Peacekeeping/Peace Operations
The Conceptual Approach
Peace and security and development cannot
be dealt with as separate issues. They are
interrelated and must be addressed holistically.
The peace and development operations staff must
utilize and share all the instruments of conflict
resolution and confidence building, as well as
to provide information-sharing on manifest and
latent conflicts. To this end, the United Nations
systematically cooperates with regional and
national organizations, institutions, NGOs, the
private sector, and others involved in acting
in defence of the common humanity. This is
complicated by the necessity that all these actors
adhere to the principles and guidelines set forth by
the United Nations. These principles must apply
to the entire structure of any operation involved in
any UN-mandated operation, from Headquarters in
New York down to the smallest entity of a mission.
Authorization
One of the fundamental principles of the United
Nations is the concept of collective security.
The evolution of UN peace operations and
peacekeeping in particular should be seen as an
effort to make the vision of collective security a
reality. The legal basis of such effort is found
in Chapters V, VI, VII, and VIII of the Charter.
Chapter V (Art. 29) deals with the establishment
of subsidiary organs (among other peacekeeping
operations and the Department of Peacekeeping
Operations). Chapter VI Pacific Settlement of
Disputes authorizes the parties to any dispute to
seek a solution by negotiation, enquiry, mediation,
conciliation, arbitration, judicial settlement, resort
to regional agencies or arrangements, or other
peaceful means of their own choice. Chapter
VII Action with Respect to the Peace, Breaches
of the Peace and Acts of Aggression authorizes
economic sanctions to prevent aggression and/
or the use of armed force, if necessary, in order
52 |
to maintain peace. Chapter VIII Regional

Arrangements preludes the existence of regional
arrangements or agencies for dealing with such
matters relating to maintenance international peace
and security.
The Charter grants the Security Council the
specific power to discharge the duties of ensuring
international peace and security as stipulated in
Chapters VI, VII, and VIII.
Legitimacy
A peacekeeping mission derives its legitimacy
from international support, adherence to statuary
law, and conventions and the credibility of the
mission. This is especially true since the mission is
established and given its mandate by the Security
Council, which by the Charter is responsible for the
maintenance of international peace and security.
Having the full support from the Security Council
becomes even more vital when an operation
encounters difficulties.
A missions legitimacy is further enhanced by the
multinational composition of a mission, involving
personnel from a wide range of Member States.
In addition, it is essential that the mission have a
clear and achievable mandate and act within both
international and national laws, conventions, and
rules provided in the mandate. Failure to do so
may jeopardize the missions authority and affect
the missions operational effectiveness. However,
in recent years, the Security Councils approval of
unilateral or collective action has occasionally been
given retroactively.
Consent
Any peace operation other than peace
enforcement is set up with the consent of the
main parties involved in the conflict. Consent is an
inherent requirement not only for the establishment
of the force but also for the direction of the force
in implementing its mandate. In reference to
a peacekeeping mission, consent refers to the
acceptance of activities of the United Nations
force by all recognized parties to the conflict (e.g.,
freedom of movement). As the complexity of a
peacekeeping mission increases, universality of
consent becomes less probable. Seeking and

promoting consent is, therefore, an important
activity in which all personnel engage.
Impartiality and Neutrality
A United Nations force must be impartial in
character. The force cannot take sides without
being a part of the conflict it has been mandated
to control or resolve. A missions impartiality must
be based primarily on objective, even-handed, and
consistent pursuit of the mandate regardless of
provocations and challenges. Without impartiality,
there is little prospect of preserving the consent
and cooperation of conflicting parties. Therefore,
peacekeepers should not take any action that
would create an impression that the mission is in
any way partial to any of the concerned parties.
Proof that one or more parties are favoured over
another in any way will result in loss of credibility
and increased difficulties in executing operational
tasks. However, efforts to maintain impartiality
must not promote inaction or condone violations on
the part of any faction.
A careful distinction should be made in the
students mind between impartiality and neutrality.
Impartiality, as discussed above, refers to actions
the equal treatment of both sides in a conflict.
However, neutrality is a political or diplomatic
position. While neutrality is a publicly-made
statement of not favouring one side in a dispute,
impartiality involves the actual equal treatment
of both sides. It is almost impossible to be seen
as impartial in the absence of a statement of
neutrality, but an operations statement of neutrality
is not sufficient for its peacekeepers to be
perceived as neutral.
Unity
A multidimensional operation involves a wide
spectrum of civilian and military functions. The
civilians and military personnel active in an
operation will belong to various nationalities, each
with their own culture, professional background,
and perspectives of the operation. Regardless
of this diversity, a peacekeeping force must act
as an integrated unit and reflect the will of the
international community as a whole. A unified
command and knowledge of the mandate and

operational principles are prerequisites for a
successful operation. In order to fulfil the political
objectives defined in each missions mandate, the
head of the mission is responsible for establishing
the unity and the inter-operability among the
missions various components.
A unified command of UNDOF military personnel on ski patrol. (UN Photo

#184768 by Thomas Hatzl, February 2008)
Transparency
A peace operation is primarily a political mission,
and its operational principles derive from its
given mandate. Depending on the given mandate
and the composition of the force (mission), the
principles may differ. Over the years, a range
of basic operational principles (activities) have
been developed. Common for all operations,
however, are those that provide full transparency
throughout the mission, especially a transparency
that is consistent with the prevailing requirements
for security. All personnel (and parties) should
be fully aware of the motives, mission, and
intentions of the operation, since incomplete or
inaccurate communication will foster suspicion and
undermine confidence and trust. To that effect,
liaison between the mission staff and the parties
to the conflict must be the physical mechanism
that promotes transparency and ensures timely
passage of information. In addition, transparency
should include wearing the distinctive and
easily recognizable United Nations insignia that
enhances overt and visible operations.
| 53
Non-Use of Force
In peacekeeping operations, force may not be
used to carry out the mandate. However, non-use
of force excludes defence of United Nations
personnel and property or the use of armed
forces in resisting armed attempts that prevent
peacekeeping forces from discharging their duties
and mandates. Under these circumstances,
the peacekeepers may use force as a means of
self-defence. Such an example can be found at
the UN Interim Force in Lebanon (UNIFIL). 3
Using force as self-defence:

UNFIL
Peacekeepers are sometimes tasked to operate

in areas where the general security situation has
seriously deteriorated. Absence of law and order,
presence of various militia groups, and threats
posed to the civilian population may be a few of the
dangerous circumstances in which a peacekeeper
may operate. In order to improve these unstable
security conditions, peacekeepers may be required
to use force beyond self-defence. Under these
circumstances, the Security Council, acting under
Chapter VII with the consent of the main parties,
may authorize use of all necessary means to
enable the peacekeepers to perform robust
peacekeeping, which may involve the use of force
at the tactical level.
Peace enforcement, as authorized by the Security
Council, falls under Chapter VII of the Charter but
does not require the consent of the main parties.
Peace enforcement may range from diplomatic
and economic sanctions to the use of international
military armed force. The purpose of peace
enforcement is to coerce the party to comply with
the will of the international community and with
previously agreed-upon commitments. Under
these circumstances, the use of armed force will
be focused at the strategic level. Those operations
are mandated with an attempt to mitigate the
effects of armed conflicts by delimiting the rules of
an ongoing war. The mandate authorizes the use
of force but only for limited and local purposes and
not to bring a war to an end. Examples of such
situations include the UN Mission in Bosnia and
Herzegovina (UNMIBH), the UN Protection Force
3 UNIFIL: http://www.un.org/en/peacekeeping/
missions/unifil/
54 |
(UNPROFOR), the UN Organization Mission in the

Democratic Republic of the Congo (MONUC),4 and
the UN Mission in Sudan (UNMIS).5
Peace enforcement:
UNMIBH
UNPROFOR
MONUC
UNMIS
For the purpose of clarity, there is a clear

distinction between peace enforcement or peace
enforcement operation and to enforce peace.
To enforce peace requires the use of military
force and falls under Chapter VII. The United
Nations capability in this respect is, however,
largely undeveloped. The United Nations does not
have a standing force of its own, and the Military
Staff Committee of the Security Council has not
undertaken any strategic directives of forces put
at its disposal as authorized by the Council. The
Security Council has, nevertheless, authorized
States to enforce peace on the Korean peninsula
in 1950 and against Iraq in 1991 but has never itself
United Nations soldiers of the British battalion on patrol in Vitez, Bosnia. (UN Photo #318954 by John Isaac,
May 1994)
4 MONUC: http://www.un.org/en/peacekeeping/
missions/monuc/
5 UNMIS: http://www.un.org/en/peacekeeping/
missions/unmis/
commanded such an operation. In 2003, a similar

to enforce peace action took place against Iraq
but was never authorized by the United Nations.
solutions. One such unending mission is the UN

Disengagement Observer Force (UNDOF)6 on the
Golan Heights, active from 1974 to present.
The use of force has political implications and

should always be considered as a measure of last
resort. The general rule for application of force is
that only necessary force should be used and
if used, it should be done in an appropriate and
proportional manner. For that purpose, the United
Nations has developed Rules of Engagement
(ROE) for the military and the Directives on the
Use of Force (DUF) for police. ROE and DUF
clarify the different levels of force that can apply in
a variety of situations.
However, the end of the Cold War witnessed a new

form of peacekeeping. United Nations holding
and containment operations became linked to
and integrated with the entire peace process, and
the second generation of peacekeeping was born.
Missions became sometimes prefixed extended,
advanced, wider, or broader, but their main
objective remained the active pursuit of just and
final resolutions. These missions consist of military
and police units and have an array of civilian
components enabling them to manage preventive
deployment; aid in free elections; participate in
humanitarian assistance; provide security; and
maintain law and order. The UN Transitional
Administration in East Timor (UNTAET)7, which
operated from 1999 to 2002, is an example of such
a mission.
3.4
Structure and Main Components
Structure
The peacekeeping operations of today are
frequently multidimensional operations whose
structures are determined by their mandates. They
are generally organized into military components,
sometimes in tandem with military/civilian observer
units and police units. Multidimensional operations
also include a range of civilian elements.
Along with peacekeeping operations, the UN may
also mandate political and peacebuilding support
missions. While the Department of Peacekeeping
Operations (DPKO) in the UN Secretariat provides
the peacekeeping operations with policy guidelines
and strategic directions, the Department of
Political Affairs (DPA) has assumed that same
responsibility for the political and peacebuilding
support missions. The Department of Field Support
(DFS) provides logistical and administrative
support to all operations and missions.
Military Force
Traditional peacekeeping operations were
generally military operations, where observation,
supervision of cease-fire agreements, and
interposing were the means to contain a
conflict and create suitable conditions for peace
negotiations. Missions were limited in both time
and scope and had in the past a nonexistent
or limited role in the political process. Some
operations became open-ended, nearly permanent
operations while pending agreement on peaceful
The increasing complexity of the international

environment has fostered the development of
multidimensional peacekeeping operations
under an even broader international context.
Such operations are frequently deployed in the
aftermath of violent internal conflicts and in poor
countries where the States ability to maintain
law and order is limited or non-existent. Civil
unrest, shattered and damaged infrastructure,
internal displaced refugees, and a weak social
fabric further deteriorates the political state of
affairs and the humanitarian condition. These
operations are supposed to have the capabilities
to support implementation of peace agreements
and to promote political processes in seeking a
just and sustainable peace. They are occasionally
mandated to protect civilians and are even
empowered to exercise a legislative and executive
authority. A good example of a multidimensional
mission with a wide mandate is the UN
Organization Mission in the Democratic Republic of
the Congo (MONUC), which operated from 1999 to
July 2010, when it was replaced with a stabilization
mission (MONUSCO).8
6 UNDOF: http://www.un.org/en/peacekeeping/
missions/undof/
7 UNTAET: http://www.un.org/en/peacekeeping/
missions/past/etimor/etimor.htm
8 MONUSCO: http://monusco.unmissions.org/
| 55
Regardless of the type of mission, the military

force consists of its headquarters (which plans and
manages the entire operation), military and civilian
components capable to carry out operational
and humanitarian activities, and logistic elements
for transport, maintenance, and supply. A Force
Commander heads the military force. As of July
2010, more than 83,000 troops were deployed in
15 different UN operations.
UN Police (UNPOL)
In the beginning of the 1960s, one of the first
civilian police now UN Police missions was
deployed in Cyprus as a complement to the
already existing peacekeeping force located there
(UNFICYP)9. Under the umbrella of the force,
the police mission had a weak mandate, and its
usefulness was sometimes questioned. However,
the prevailing financial and political constraints on
United Nations peacekeeping led to an increased
deployment of police contingents, and with the
United Nations mission in Namibia, the police
elements have become an increasingly important
part of peacekeeping. Their civilian appearance
and professional performance make them more
politically acceptable than uniformed soldiers, and
in some missions, the United Nations Police have
become central to the success of the mission,
as in the case of MIPONUH10 and MINUSTAH
(Haiti), UNCRO (Croatia),11 and UNMIBH (Bosnia
and Herzegovina).12 As of July 2010, some 13,600
police personnel from more than 90 countries
participated in 15 UN missions.
Significant police involvement:

MIPONUH
MINUSTAH
UNCRO
UNMIBH
Military and Civilian Observers

Various types of observer missions exist. They
operate either independently, jointly with the
force level missions, or in tandem with other
units. Military Observer missions began in the
end of the 1940s to supervise cease-fires and/
or armistice agreements. Observer missions may
be composed of a small headquarters headed
by a Chief Military Observer (CMO); a logistic
element, which provides necessary logistical
support; and some civilian entities necessary for
the fulfilment of the mission mandate. In carrying
out their tasks, the unarmed observers work in
teams, normally deployed on both sides of a border
or a cease-fire line. They observe and report any
violation of a cease-fire or any other activities that
are considered breaches of an agreement. Active
observer missions include UNTSO (Middle East)16
and UNMOGIP (Kashmir).17
Observer missions:
UNTSO
UNMOGIP
UNOMIG
9 UNFICYP: http://www.un.org/en/
peacekeeping/missions/unficyp/
10 MIPONUH: http://www.un.org/en/
peacekeeping/missions/past/miponuh.htm
11 UNCRO: http://www.un.org/en/peacekeeping/
missions/past/uncro.htm
12 UNMIBH: http://www.un.org/en/peacekeeping/
missions/past/unmibh/
56 |
The UN Police is organized in headquarters,

supported by a logistic element, and works
in teams. A Police Commissioner heads the
mission. In most cases, UN Police have no actual
day-to-day law enforcement authority, but the
operations in Eastern Slavonia, Kosovo (UNMIK)13,
and East Timor (UNMISET)14 authorized the
police to assume the responsibilities for interim
law enforcement. Today, the objectives of the UN
Police in peace operations are often to focus
primarily on the reform and restructuring of local
police forces in addition to traditional advisory,
training and monitoring tasks.15 In this specific
role, the UN Police monitors have proven to be
an excellent instrument in the peacekeeping
environment.
13 UNMIK: http://www.unmikonline.org/
14 UNMISET: http://www.un.org/en/
peacekeeping/missions/past/unmiset/
15 United Nations Police, <http://www.un.org/en/
peacekeeping/sites/police/>.
16 UNTSO: http://www.un.org/en/peacekeeping/
missions/untso/
17 UNMOGIP: http://www.un.org/en/
peacekeeping/missions/unmogip/
In a number of operations, the military observers

(MILOBS) have been able to promote consent
and positive cooperation, not only between the
United Nations and the conflicting parties but also
between the parties themselves. Not surprisingly,
their tasks have gradually been expanded to
include duties within humanitarian, political,
administrative, and logistical areas. Their ability
and general competence has proven that services
of military observers quite often overlap military
and civilian functions, and, therefore, they may
be considered more or less as General Purpose
Officers.
With the expansion of United Nations
peacekeeping operations, other types of observer
missions were established, such as: police
monitor missions; geographical observer mission;
verifiers; election monitors; election observers;
and European Commission (EC) monitors. In
general, these missions only employ civilians
although some with military backgrounds whose
functional titles (such as supervisors, monitors,
and observers) indicate their level of responsibility.
The United Nations Observer Mission in Georgia
(UNOMIG)18 is supposed to be one of these
missions. The United Nations Monitoring,
Verification and Inspection Commission in Iraq
(UNMOVIC)19 was of special interest since the
Commission was empowered by the Security
Council to disarm a country of its weapons of mass
destruction.
3.5
Types of Peace Operations
Concept
As previously stated, peacekeeping operations are
complex and intricate endeavours. Their mandates
differ widely, and their sizes and compositions
depend on the specific conflict and the prevailing
conditions in the mission area. Frequently, conflicts
are caused by historical events that occurred long
before the present day. These root causes are
not always understood. Frequently, governments
acting without consideration to these historical
18 UNOMIG: http://www.un.org/en/peacekeeping/
missions/past/unomig/
19 UNMOVIC: http://www.un.org/spanish/Depts/
unmovic/
tensions can create civil unrest with unforeseen

and often violent consequences. The spectrum
of conflicts is almost unlimited, and although the
United Nations has run more than 60 operations,
no two are the same.
Root causes are not always understood. Residents in the partially destroyed Muslim enclave of Stari Vitez, Bosnia and Herzegovina. (UN Photo
#31421 by John Isaac, May 1994)
When conducting peacekeeping operations,

the United Nations relies on activities that are
consistent with the Charter, as well as principles
and methods that have proven effective in the
past. In general, the experiences indicate three
types of peacekeeping operations, including
but not limited to: (i) preventive deployment; (ii)
traditional peacekeeping, such as the monitoring/
supervision of agreements and interposition;
and (iii) multidimensional peacekeeping
with various interrelated activities, such as
humanitarian assistance and the implementation of
comprehensive settlements.
While peacekeeping is a mechanism to
prevent, contain, and assist, it can be said that
peacebuilding is more focused on promotion,
confidence, and re-building. As such,
peacebuilding involves a number of activities that
generally continue in the aftermath of a conflict and
beyond. However, maintaining and building peace
are closely related and overlap each other in most
operations mandated by the Security Council.
| 57
(i) Preventive Deployment

Conflict prevention is normally a combination
of early warning, preventive diplomacy, and
preventive deployment. Together, these may be
regarded as confidence-building measures in order
to maintain peace and security in a specific area.
Identification of a conflict by early warning allows
more time for preventive diplomacy or military
action. Such military action may take place as a
preventive deployment when concerned parties
decide that UN presence along a border can
discourage hostilities. For example, the former
Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia (FYROM)
requested the presence of the United Nations on
its side of the border, and the Security Council
authorized the Secretary-General to establish
the United Nations Preventive Deployment Force
(UNPREDEP) in the former Yugoslav Republic of
Macedonia.
Traditional operations:
UNEF II
UNFICYP
UNDOF
Preventive deployment mission:

UNPREDEP
(ii) Traditional Peacekeeping

The traditional peacekeeping operation was the
most common form of peacekeeping before the
end of the Cold War. It is deployed with the consent
of the conflicting parties and engages a neutral and
lightly-armed military force. A cease-fire agreement
is normally in place prior to the deployment.
Observation, supervision, and interposition are the
most common tools of traditional peacekeeping
operations The tactic of patrolling and monitoring a
buffer zone between the conflicting parties usually
fosters a favourable atmosphere conducive to
further negotiations. By monitoring and reporting
on the parties commitments to an agreement,
which entails a cease-fire and/or an establishment
of a demilitarized zone, traditional operations
constitute an important confidence-building
measure. Most past operations in the Middle
East, such as UNEF II (Middle East)20, and the
current UNFICYP (Cyprus) and UNDOF (the Golan
Heights) are considered traditional peacekeeping
operations.
20 UNEF II: http://www.un.org/en/peacekeeping/

missions/past/unefii.htm
58 |
UNEF Yugoslav troops on patrol duty. (UN Photo #77284,

February 1957)
(iii) Multidimensional Operations

Multidimensional operations became more frequent
after the end of the Cold War. Their mandates are
multifaceted and may encompass nation-building
responsibilities like capacity-building, creating
structure of governance, and administration, along
with military tasks such as the provision of security,
disarmament, demobilization, and demining.
As explained in the DPKO Principles and
Guidelines document, within this broader context,
the core functions of a multidimensional United
Nations peacekeeping operation are to:
Create a secure and stable environment while
strengthening the States ability to provide

security, with full respect for the rule of law and
human rights;
Facilitate the political process by promoting
dialogue and reconciliation and supporting

the establishment of legitimate and effective
institutions of governance;
Provide a framework for ensuring that all United

Nations and other international actors pursue
their activities at the country-level in a coherent
and coordinated manner.
Multidimensional operation:
Missions with heavier involvement on

humanitarian assistance:

UNOSOM II
ONUMOZ
UNMIL
MONUC
These operations require a deeper engagement

from the United Nations system, from the Member
States, and from the international community
with its array of inter- and non-governmental
organizations. Some of the missions are more
comprehensive than others, normally the
operations given multifaceted tasks in politically
complicated environments. The long-running
United Nations Organization Mission in the
Democratic Republic of the Congo (MONUC) had
such a multifaceted and wide-ranging mandate
that almost all imaginable peacekeeping and
peacebuilding tasks were included in its mandate.
A few other types of operations are listed below.
Humanitarian Assistance and Protection of
Humanitarian Operations
Volatile political situations and man-made disasters
have often created dreadful circumstances for
civilian populations. Although these problems
are primarily the concern of other United
Nations agencies, international organizations,
or non-governmental relief organizations, they
may require the involvement of a United Nations
force, sometimes deployed under conditions
of continuing warfare. The mandate includes a
number of tasks, such as stabilizing a situation,
protecting the civilian population, and protecting
and assisting the humanitarian agencies in
providing humanitarian supply and refugee relief,
while simultaneously working with the concerned
parties towards a negotiated settlement. Although
authorized under Chapter VII of the Charter, these
non-UN operations are also required to remain
neutral and impartial between the warring parties.
Examples of past missions with similar operations
are UNOSOM II (Somalia)21 and ONUMOZ
(Mozambique).22 The ongoing mission UNMIL in
Liberia is another example.
21 UNOSOM II: http://www.un.org/en/
peacekeeping/missions/past/unosom2.htm
22 ONUMOZ: http://www.un.org/en/
peacekeeping/missions/past/onumoz.htm
Villagers going to the local market in Bogoro walk past a Bangladeshi

patrol unit providing assistance and protection in the UN mission in Democratic Republic of the Congo (MONUC). (UN Photo #129576 by Martine
Perret, October 2006)
Maintenance of Cease-fire and Separation of

Forces
Generally, these operations take place with
the consent of the parties and have a rather
uncomplicated mandate. The force is usually
tasked to implement a cease-fire agreement by
interposing itself in a buffer zone between the
conflicting parties/armies to monitor the cease-fire.
Over the years, the task described as to maintain
cease-fire and to separate forces has expanded
from the more traditional peacekeeping actions to
include other, more wide-ranging responsibilities.
The mandates have frequently become broadened
to comprise demobilization as part of the force
separation, as in ONUCA (Central America).23
Other tasks may include the organization and
conduct of a referendum or assistance in an
election process, as in MINURSO (Western
Sahara).24
23 ONUCA: http://www.un.org/Depts/DPKO/
Missions/onuca.htm
24 MINURSO: http://www.un.org/en/
peacekeeping/missions/minurso/
| 59
Missions with heavier involvement

in maintaining cease-fires and separation of
forces:

ONUCA
MINURSO
Implementation of Comprehensive Settlements

Such operations are usually established with
the mandate to assist the conflicting parties
in implementing an already agreed-upon
settlement. The tasks may involve functions such
as: monitoring a cease-fire; the demobilization
of military units; assisting elections; rebuilding
infrastructure; temporarily taking over some
of the functions of the national government;
monitoring national civil police; and repatriation
and rehabilitation of refugees. Prime examples
from past operations include: UNTAG (Namibia);25
UNTAC (Cambodia);26 ONUSAL (El Salvador);27
and UNAMSIL (Sierra Leone).28 In addition to an
already complicated mandate, the present mission
in Sudan (UNMIS) has been tasked to carry
out humanitarian assistance and to protect and
promote human rights. Other similar operations are
the UN-mandated but EU-led EUFOR (previous
SFOR) in Bosnia-Herzegovina and the NATO-led
KFOR in Kosovo, as well as the International
Security Assistance Force (ISAF) in Afghanistan,
which works together with the United Nations
Assistance Mission in Afghanistan (UNAMA).29
Missions involved in the
implementation of comprehensive settlements:

UNTAG
UNTAC
ONUSAL
UNAMSIL
UNMIS
25 UNTAG: http://www.un.org/en/peacekeeping/
missions/past/untag.htm
26 UNTAC: http://www.un.org/en/peacekeeping/
missions/past/untac.htm
27 ONUSAL: http://www.un.org/en/peacekeeping/
missions/past/onusal.htm
28 UNAMSIL: http://www.un.org/en/
peacekeeping/missions/past/unamsil/
29 UNAMA: http://unama.unmissions.org/default.
aspx?/
60 |
(iv) Peacebuilding Activities Related to

Peacekeeping (Peace) Operations
Almost all peacekeeping operations include
activities that are related to peacebuilding. Even
if peacebuilding is a long-term undertaking,
peacekeeping per se is often accompanied by
various short-term peacebuilding activities in order
to prevent a relapse into a previous conflict, as
well as to generate a favourable climate to the
forthcoming peacebuilding mission. The most
frequent activities include:
Disarmament, demobilization and reintegration
of combatants (DDR): The programme is

considered to be a part of the security reform or
force reduction programme. Mission example:
ONUCA (Central America).30
Security Sector Reforms (SSR): These activities

provide advice and assistance on reform of the
security sector in a mission area. The purpose
is to contribute to creating necessary conditions
for implementation of a National Security Sector
Reform Strategy. Mission example: ONUB
(Burundi).31
Mine action: This entails education on the
removal and destruction of mines from the

ground. Medical assistance and rehabilitation
services to victims are other key components
of the UN mine action programmes. Mission
example: UNMEE (Ethiopia and Eritrea).32
Protection and promotion of human rights: This
is of principal concern for the United Nations.

For that purpose and under various international
conventions, a machinery has been set up as to
establish standards, monitor implementation,
promote compliance and investigate violations
of human rights. Peacekeeping is one of the
mechanisms to ensure promotion and protection
of human rights. Mission example: UNMISET
(East Timor).33
30 ONUCA: http://www.un.org/Depts/DPKO/Missions/onuca.htm
31 ONUB: http://www.un.org/en/peacekeeping/missions/past/onub/
32 UNMEE: http://www.un.org/en/peacekeeping/
missions/past/unmee/
33 UNMISET: http://www.un.org/en/peacekeeping/
missions/past/unmiset/
Electoral assistance programme: This can
be part of a comprehensive settlement. Upon

request by Member States, the peacekeeping
operation may be mandated to provide technical
assistance and to monitor the electoral process
and the voting procedure. Mission example:
ONUB (Burundi).34
Peacebuilding
While DPKO has the responsibility to provide
necessary guidance and strategic directives to
the peacekeeping operations, the Department of
Political Affairs (DPA) has assumed the same role
for special political missions and peacebuilding
support offices engaged in conflict prevention,
peace-making and post-conflict peacebuilding.
Peacebuilding is perceived as the umbrella
concept that encompasses not only long-term
transformative efforts but also early warning
response efforts and advocacy work.
Attainment of a sustainable peace requires
progress in at least four critical areas:
1. Restoring the States ability to provide security
and maintain public order;
2. Strengthening the rule of law and respect for
human rights;
3. Supporting the emergence of legitimate
political institutions and participatory
processes; and
4. Promoting social and economic recovery and
development, including the safe return or
resettlement of internally displaced persons
and refugees uprooted by conflict.
With the creation of the Peacebuilding Commission
within the Department of Political Affairs, the
United Nations established a mechanism to
deal with peace in a broader context. The
Peacebuilding Commission aims to prevent
outbreak, recurrence, or continuation of armed
conflicts by handling the intricate processes that
concern political, developmental, humanitarian,
and human rights issues. As of January 2010,
there were 12 peacebuilding or political missions
34 ONUB: http://www.un.org/en/peacekeeping/
missions/past/onub/
set up worldwide. Some of them were set up in the

aftermath of peace operations, such as the United
Nations Political Office for Somalia (UNPOS) and
the United Nations Assistance Mission for Iraq
(UNAMI).35
Of equal importance, however, are the economic
and social problems that arise in the aftermath of
a conflict. Other fundamental issues include the
situation for the legal institutions and the respect
for human rights and international humanitarian
law. These issues all need to be addressed if the
United Nations is to achieve a long-lasting peace.
The United Nations Peace-building Support Office
in Guinea-Bissau (UNOGBIS)36 and the United
Nations Mission in Nepal (UNMIN)37 are two other
examples of the UNs peacebuilding activities in
the field.
The Department of Political Affairs provides
guidance and support to Envoys of the
Secretary-General who are active in promoting
prevention and resolution of conflicts around the
world. These activities currently include UN Envoys
to Cyprus, Lebanon, Myanmar, Western Sahara,
and Northern Uganda. The DPA also provides
assistance to the International Commission Against
Impunity in Guatemala. The integration between
DPKO and DPA is evident in the operations in
Sudan and Sierra Leone. After the signing of
peace agreements in Sudan, the political mission
overseen by the Department of Political Affairs
has been replaced by a peacekeeping mission
supervised by the United Nations Department of
Peacekeeping Operations. In Sierra Leone, on the
other hand, the peacekeeping operation has given
way to a special political mission that oversees the
peacebuilding activities and is supervised by the
Department of Political Affairs. In other cases, as
in the United Nations Integrated Office in Burundi
(BINUB),38 the mission is set up by DPA but
directed and supported by DPKO.
35
36
37
38
php
UNAMI: http://www.uniraq.org/
UNOGBIS: http://www.unogbis.org/
UNMIN: http://www.un.org.np/unmin.php
BINUB: http://binub.turretdev.com/en/index.
| 61
3.6 Planning and Preparation

Principles
The history of United Nations peacekeeping
is full of emergency responses. Whereas ad
hoc preparations were acceptable in the past,
there is now a more institutional approach. The
implementation of a mandate requires cooperation
of all concerned parties; effective management
and timely advice by United Nations Headquarters;
appropriate and unified command structure in the
field; and adequate logistical and financial support.
Peacekeeping operations do not exclusively rely
on military actions but rather a corroboration of
military, diplomatic, economic, and humanitarian
endeavours to pursue the political objectives.
Consequently, planning is a coherent effort in order
to assess, identify, define, and later implement a
given mandate. The planning should also include
different scenarios describing under which
conditions and how the mission should withdraw.
Assessment
The effective execution of peacekeeping
operations requires a strategic assessment of the
actual situation in order to identify possible options
for UN engagement. The assessment should be
done through the combined efforts of the various
departments of the Secretariat and involve other
actors within the United Nations system, including
potential contributing countries, regional actors,
and host governments. The planning process
encompasses substantial departments such as:
the Department of Peacekeeping Operations;
the Department of Political Affairs; the Office
for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs; the
Department of Public Information; and the Office of
Legal Affairs.
As soon as the security situation permits, the
Secretariat dispatches a Technical Assessment
Mission (TAM) to the pre-designated mission area.
Working with the United Nations Country Team
(UNCT), this fact-finding mission will analyse
and assess the conditions in the field, facilitate
forthcoming liaisons, and make recommendation
on the nature of the overall operational
activities. These recommendations enable the
Secretary-General to address the Security Council
62 |
and to submit a report with possible options

for a peacekeeping operation. The Security
Council may then pass a resolution mandating
the establishment and the size and scope of the
mission.
However, a resolution usually requires the consent
of the parties to the conflict. When this is not the
case, the complexity and comprehensiveness of
the planning process increases dramatically and
may involve other regional actors, particularly if
the mission is going to operate under Chapter VII.
In order to quickly move the mission forward, the
planning process will sometimes commence prior
to a formal decision and mandate pre-planning.
The Planning Process
In approving the Secretary-Generals report, the
Council also decides the duration of the operation
and how the operation will be financed. Based on
the operations planning concept and approval/
mandate from the Security Council, the Secretariat
develops a comprehensive deployment and
implementation plan that takes into account the
allocation of troops, personnel equipment, level
of sustainability, and all other functions that are
to be performed in the mission. For that purpose,
the United Nations has adopted an Integrated
Mission Planning Process (IMPP) to help the
United Nations system to arrive at a common
understanding of the strategic directives. Other
similar processes linked to the various appeals or
assessments initiated by other actors within the
United Nations may be enacted in concert with the
IMPP.
The Secretary-General then makes arrangements
for the nomination of the head of the mission
and requests that the Member States provide
troops, police, civilian personnel, supplies,
equipment, transportation, and all other necessities
prerequisite for a mission. The existing stand-by
arrangements that concern required equipment
and troops have greatly facilitated these activities.
While DPKO plans and formulates the operational
tasks, the Department of Field Support (DFS)
prepares and puts together the logistics. It is a
cumbersome undertaking covering all the logistic
elements in the field, including personnel, budget/
finance, equipment, transport, and communication.

DFS relies on the stand-by arrangements
between the United Nations and the contributing
countries. This arrangement, which is a negotiated
formal agreement known as the Memorandum
of Understanding (MOU), establishes the
responsibility and standards for the provision of
personnel, major equipment, and self-sustainment
support services to the United Nations, as well as
to the contributing country.
Integrated Training
The increasing demands for peacekeeping
operations underscore the urgent need for the
United Nations to train more peacekeepers. Since
attitudes, tactics, and methods of peacekeeping
operations are continuously evolving processes,
training has become a prerequisite for a successful
operation.
Training, which is an integrated part of the planning
process, enables mission personnel to promote
the purposes of United Nations field operations.
Based on generic objectives, the Member States
assume the full responsibilities to prepare their
own national contingencies in performing their
duties in an efficient and professional manner.
Additionally, the various operations have their
own training that applies to the specific mission
requirements (Mission Training Focal Point).
Other training entities, like the Integrated Mission
Training Centres (IMTC), manage common field
training such as Senior Mission Administrative
and Resource Training (SMART), as well as other
similar activities. Although peacekeeping training
has improved considerably, it is not realistic to
expect that training can meet all demands. The
United Nations has limited resources, but training
must always adhere to the current peacekeeping
doctrine along with the agreed priorities.
Within DPKO, the Integrated Training Service
(ITS)39 provides UN training policies, guidance,
and training products to regional and national
training centres. Utilizing modern information
technology, ITS disseminates the training products
to the customers. Mobile Support Teams and
en/peacekeeping/its.shtml.
Pre-deployment Training Standards (PDT) further

ensure that police officers, civilians, and military
experts have the necessary knowledge to meet
the challenges in the field. Training must always
be on the cutting edge. Consequently, DPKO and
DFS have jointly launched a new training strategy
that focus on standard settings and needs that cut
across all areas of peacekeeping and leveraging
partnerships and technology.
The Involvement of the Host and the
Contributing Countries
The assurance of support from the contributing
countries and the country whose territory is
to be the operational theatre is essential. The
contributing countries, and especially the troop/
police-contributing countries (TCCs/PCCs), must
assure the provision of manpower and equipment,
and the host country must guarantee that they will
make every effort to facilitate the deployment of the
force/mission. Although the stand-by agreements
do not guarantee unconditional contributions
from the Member States for a specific operation,
they do reflect potential input on a case-by-case
basis. For that purpose, consultations take
place with the TCC/PCC in every phase of the
planning. However, it is equally vital for the TCC/
PCC to be continuously informed during the
implementation phase. Changes in the mandates,
the security situation, political development, or any
other significant changes that may affect TCC/
PCC personnel in the field are of importance.
In the same vein, regular consultations with the
TCC/PCC provide the Secretariat with valuable
information.
The Secretary-General then undertakes the
conclusion of a status agreement with the host
government(s) concerning the work of the mission
the Status of Forces Agreement (SOFA). This
agreement outlines the relationship between the
United Nations operation and the host country
and covers the right for travel and transportation,
communication, freedom of movement, import
of goods and use of facilities, etc. The mission
personnel enjoy the status, privilege, and
immunities of the United Nations as provided for
in the Charter (Art. 105) and in the Convention on
Privileges and Immunities of the United Nations.
| 63
3.7 Implementation
Implementation
A peacekeeping operation is performed in three

integrated phases: the deployment; the mandate
implementation; and the exit or transition. The
time-frame for a successful deployment has always
been a critical issue. Preferably, an operation
should be deployed when the greatest input can be
made within two to three months after a peace
agreement has been signed and when the peace
process is most fragile. Ideal deployment is not
always possible, but the new Integrated Mission
Planning Process, the regional/national stand-by
forces, and the available Strategic Deployment
Stocks (in Brindisi, Italy) have provided the
Secretariat with some very useful tools.
The implementation of the mandate requires that

the operational objectives are well defined and
that they are achieved through an active, visible,
overt, professional, and coordinated operational
performance. Consequently, the success of
a peacekeeping operation does not rely on
sophisticated weaponry or superior firepower but
on the dedication and competence of units and
individuals. The operation and its success depends
on a number of factors, which are more and less
described in the remaining lessons of this course.
Deployment
The pre-deployment process includes a readiness
assessment of troops and equipment; negotiation
of the Status of Forces Agreement (SOFA); tenders
for supply and commodities; services contracts for
the mission sites; and mobilization of the Strategic
Deployment Stocks. Rapid deployment then
dispatches small advance teams to the mission
area. They make necessary arrangements and
preparations to smooth the way for the reception of
the large number of staff and contingents.
When the mission headquarters arrives, the
command and control structure will be formed,
and the liaison and logistical system will be set
up. Logistics are handled by the Joint Logistics
Operations Centre (JLOC), which is responsible for
the overall coordination of the logistical needs to all
civilian and military components. Additionally, the
Centre often serves as a focal point for the logistic
issues that emerge when linking between UN
peacekeeping, UN agencies, and NGOs.
The arrival and deployment of all other substantive
components are prerequisites for a successful
operation. This part of the deployment phase also
entails the start-up of sector headquarters and field
offices and engages civilian key personnel, military
police, and UN Police. At this point, the mission is
now fully operational and prepared to carry out the
mandate as given by the Security Council.
64 |
Withdrawal
There might be a number of reasons for a
peacekeeping operation to withdraw. The
concerned parties may have arrived to a peaceful
settlement of their disputes that allows the
operation to cease. The mandate may be changed,
another UN partner may begin operations under
a new mandate, or the operation may be handed
over to regional actors. An exit or a handover
necessitates the same careful planning as the
deployment of a mission and must be considered
already in the pre-planning process of the mission.
The withdrawal planning process must consider
which conditions will prevail on the ground once
the operation leaves, including the political
implications of such a change.
Failure or Success
The failure or success of a mission rests on a
number of crucial requirements. First, there must
be a peace to keep. This peace is expressed in the
political will of the warring parties to stop fighting.
The peacekeeping operation should also have the
full backing of the united Security Council jointly
with a clear and achievable mandate combined
with matching financial resources. Favourable
regional factors are necessary, as well. The most
important requirement, however, is the consent
of the parties involved and support from regional
actors, expressed in a positive engagement
strategy. The efficiency, capability, and operational
and human performances of any peacekeeping
entity will also be highly decisive factors.
3.8 Management Responsibilities

Peacekeeping management in the past was an
uncomplicated exercise. Mandates were simple,
sometimes almost non-existent. The involvement
of external actors was less frequent than today,
and the modern information technology used
widely had not yet been invented. Management
of the operations depended more and less on the
personal qualities of the mission head and his/her
ability to interpret political winds and the wishes of
UNHQ in New York.
The management of today is very different. The
complexity of intra-state conflicts, delicate political
mandates, involvement of external and national/
local forces and non-governmental organizations
(NGOs), development assistance, and media cover
are intricate, sensitive activities, which require
not only professional civilian and military units
but also an innovative and competent leadership
and management at all levels. The United Nations
has evolved greatly since the first peacekeeping
operations were authorized.
At Headquarters
The Security Council has the responsibility for the
maintenance of peace and security and acts on
behalf of all Member States.
The Secretariat carries out decisions taken by

the other principal organs (GA, SC, etc.), which,
with regard to peacekeeping, lead to planning,
executive direction, and logistical support. To
a large extent, DPKO and DFS are responsible
for these activities. A peacekeeping operation
is established following a resolution decided by
the Security Council or, in exceptional cases, by
the General Assembly. Although the strategic
policies derive from the Security Council, it is from
DPKO that the mission receives policy guidance
and strategic directives. DFS, reporting to DPKO,
provides the mission with directives for logistical
and administrative support.
In the Field
When a peacekeeping force performs non-military
functions or is not limited to military tasks
(integrated mission), overall command in the field
is vested in a civilian Special Representative of the
Secretary-General (SRSG). In this capacity, he or
she also may serve as the Head of Mission (HOM),
to whom the heads of the various components
report. The SRSG/HOM is responsible for the
coordinating activities of the entire UN system in
the field, reports to the Secretary-General, and
has the mandate and authority to fully set the
direction of the mission, including the promotion
of necessary political processes. In these duties,
the SRSG/HOM is assisted by the Deputy SRSG
and other senior officials, as well as the permanent
country Resident Coordinator (RC). Together, they
form the Mission Leadership Team (MLT).
Basic Structure of an Integrated Missions Management

SRSG/HOM
MISSION HQ
and MLT
Force Commander
Head UNPOL
Component
Human Rights
Component
Head Election
Component
Chief Military Observer
Chief Administrative Officer
Head Humanitarian Component
| 65
3.9 Peacekeeping Partnership

Definition
Partnership has become a key word in
peacekeeping and other similar operations.
Its purpose is to provide a framework for
enhanced political and military cooperation for
joint multilateral activities, such as humanitarian
assistance, peacekeeping, and crisis management
and enables Partners to improve their respective
interoperability. In Africa and Europe, as well as in
many other places, there exist training programmes
specifically aimed at teaching partnership. NATO
runs a Partnership for Peace (PFP) programme,
going beyond traditional NATO roles and purposely
involving its new democratic partners in the former
Soviet bloc and some of Europes neutral countries
to enhance European security.
Through integrated planning, training exercises,

seminars, workshops, and other learning
activities, ideas and opportunities are exchanged.
Entities and individuals benefit from each other
with the purpose of maximizing the efficiency
of a field operation. Since the partnership is
a kind of interchange of information, it must
extensively affect the planning processes.
Several organizations have come to recognize the
importance of maintaining an awareness of others
in partnership and have, therefore, established
exchange or liaison programmes where staff
personnel and officials are assigned for duty
with other organizations. This is beneficial for
both parties, as the arrangements allow an early
joint awareness in both strategic and operational
planning. (See Lesson 5)
Website of the NATO Partnership for

Peace: http://www.state.gov/www/regions/eur/
nato_fs-pfp.html
The Partnership Concept
The partnership concept was conceptualized as
an interoperable function where various actors
and individuals, as well as organizations and
institutes, must be aware of the characteristics and
capabilities of each other. The term partnership
applies to individuals and organizations that work
together in order to improve the effectiveness
of modern peacekeeping operations. It is now
commonly accepted as the formal and informal
link between the various players who have
different roles in a multidimensional activity.
Peacekeeping Partnership involves, among
others, the military, humanitarian aid agencies,
good governance officials, non-governmental
organizations, and police. In fact, all those who
are or will likely be involved in any operation
of multidimensional character are part of the
Peacekeeping Partnership. The non-paper, A New
Partnership Agenda: Charting a New Horizon for
UN Peacekeeping, is a good example on how the
organization and its peacekeeping partners seek to
further reform and improve peacekeeping.
66 |
The Nobel Peace Prize of 1988 was awarded to the

United Nations peacekeeping forces. (UN Photo #114493
by John Isaac, October 1988)
Learning Questions
What are the similarities between peace-making
Knowledge
What is the significance of traditional
and peacebuilding?
What are the differences between peacekeeping

and peace enforcement?
What could motivate the Security Council to
What provides the legal authority for the
implementation of a peacekeeping operation?
What is the definition of peacekeeping?

What is impartiality and why is it so important in
a peace mission?
What is collective security and what does it

mean?
mandate a peace enforcement operation?
Which are the new and most significant
elements in the planning and preparation of a

peacekeeping operation?
How would you describe Peacekeeping

Partnership?
Application
Which chapter of the UN Charter provides for

the use of sanctions and embargoes?
What constitutes the use of force in a

peacekeeping mission?
Who exercises the full responsibility of a

multidimensional force in the field?
Awareness
How would you describe a preventive action?

What political issues can be raised by exercising
the use of force?
peacekeeping?
Fortunately, you have been asked to attend a

seminar at which the United Nations operations
are discussed. The discussion evolves around
peacekeeping soldiers and the possibility that they
have to use their weapons. You have read the
Introduction to the UN System course and consider
yourself to be reasonably well informed on the
topic. Consequently, you state that peacekeeping
soldiers only use their weapons in self-defence.
You are immediately questioned about the meaning
of self-defence and what the implications are for a
peacekeeping soldier. What is your answer?
| 67
End-of-Lesson Quiz
1. Which of the following does not fit into the
new political context?
6. Which of the following operations is

characterized as traditional peacekeeping?
A. Individuals right;
A. MONUC (Democratic Republic of the Congo);

B. UNFICYP (Cyprus);
C. UNTAG (Namibia);
B. Arms control;
C. Culture of reaction;
D. Monitoring manifested conflicts.
D. UNTAC (Cambodia).
2. Peace operations include:

A. Peace-making;
7. Which of the following statements

most correctly applies to peacekeeping
operations?
B. Peacebuilding;
A. Force is only used in self-defence;
C. Peace support;
B. Force is only used under Chapter VII;
D. All of the above.
C. Force is only used when resisting armed

attempts that prevent a peacekeeping force
from fulfilling its duties and mandate;
3. Which chapter of the UN Charter provides

for the use of sanctions and embargoes?
A. Chapter VI;
B. Chapter VII;
D. Force may be used in defence of UN personnel

and property.
8. Which of the following types of operations

is NOT considered second generation
peacekeeping?
C. Chapter VIII;
D. Chapter six-and-a-half.
A. Preventive deployment;
4. Which of the following statements is most

correct?
B. Protection of humanitarian operations;
A. Peacekeeping is the UNs presence in the field

with the consent of the conflicting parties;
D. A limited role in the political process.
C. Multidimensional peacekeeping;
B. Peacekeeping does not require the consent of

the parties concerned;
9. Who exercises the full responsibility of a

multidimensional operation in the field?
C. Peacekeeping takes place on an agreed basis

or in the context of coercive action under
Chapter VII of the Charter;
A. The Secretary-General;
B. The Special Representative of the SecretaryGeneral;
C. The Force Commander;
D. Preventive action aims to bring together hostile

parties to negotiate a settlement of their
disputes.
5. If an operation is to succeed, which of the

following principles of peace enforcement is
most important?
A. Clear definitions of the rules of engagement;
B. Impartiality;
D. The Chief Military Observer.
10. Peacekeeping Partnership involves:

A. All organizations involved in a peace operation
in the field;
B. Those who are or likely will be involved in any
operation of multidimensional character;
C. Legitimacy;
C. Members of NATOs Partnership for Peace

programme;
D. Authorization under Chapter VII.
D. Warring factions.
68 |
ANSWER KEY
1C, 2D, 3B, 4A, 5C, 6B, 7D, 8D, 9B, 10B
LESSON 4
THE ROLES OF THE UN
IN THE FIELDS OF DEVELOPMENT
AND RELATED HUMANITARIAN
ACTIONS
LESSON
4
4.1 The Development

Concept
4.2 The Interface
between Disaster
Relief and
Development
4.3 Humanitarian
Imperatives
4.4 Distinctions and
Similarities between
Human Rights Law
and International
Humanitarian Law
(IHL)
4.5 Human Rights (HR)
and the Principles for
Protection of Human
Rights
4.6 Principles and
Applications of
International
Humanitarian Law
4.7 Human Development
and Climate Change
LESSON OBJECTIVES
(Ref: The United Nations Today, p. 147-234, 237-291; and Articles of the Charter)
Lesson 4 covers a missions operational framework. Development and other
related activities should be regarded as an integrated part of the United
Nations main objective to maintain international peace and security.
Development activities are curative measures but also aim to address the
root and causes of conflict, making them the major mechanism in promoting
a lasting peace. Lesson 4 addresses some of the main features of the
development concept in order to give an understanding of development as
the major part of the long reconstruction process that commences at the
end of an emergency. Sections on human rights and humanitarian law have
been included in this lesson because they are considered the most vital
promoting elements in the reconstruction and democratization process that
follows a conflict. The main objective of Lesson 4 is to provide the student
with an understanding of these basic principles.
Lesson 4:
What is the development concept?

What are the main features of the UNDPs work?
What is the Interface between Disaster Relief and Development?
What are the implications of humanitarian imperatives for peace
operations?
What is participatory development?

What is reconciliation?
What are the differences and similarities between human rights and
humanitarian law?
What are the implications of humanitarian law for the conduct of military
operations?
What are the main instruments of human rights?

What are the main features of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights?
Introduction
The reconstruction of a society is one of the
most complex endeavours undertaken by the
international community. It entails several
phases, from disaster relief and development to
reconciliation. The entire process requires a broad,
holistic, and humanitarian approach.
Consequently, solutions and mandates empowered
to create confidence between and among
conflicting parties through economic and social
development have become imperative and
useful mechanisms to enhance international and
regional security. The protection and promotion of
human rights are equally essential and must be
considered as part of the development concept, as
well as part of international security. Adherence to
the International Bill of Human Rights is likewise
a necessary political condition for prosperous
development, and, therefore, human rights should
be thought of as a natural bridge between security
and development. Although security, development,
and the advancement of human rights are the
fundamental capstones in the democratization
process, the process per se can never be fully
achieved, particularly in war-torn societies, if it
does not include reconciliation.
4.1 The Development Concept

The Interface between Development and the
Maintenance of Peace and Security
From a certain perspective, emergencies are
often the result of unresolved development
problems. Economic or social injustice generates
poverty, which can be a root cause for conflict
and man-made disasters. Poverty creates
conflicts over resources, and where living
conditions are perceived a certain way, it may
foster a breeding ground for political crises.
Violence is a potential outcome in the absence
of a democratic system. Conflicts of ethnic and
religious character, witnessed in Central Africa,
Europe, and elsewhere, are compounded by social
revolts where old links are still maintained with
external forces. These root causes have brought
conflict and disaster to entire regions, devastating
populations and scarring nations for generations.
International work in development over the past

few decades has proven to be the key to the
prevention of conflicts, bringing necessary social
and economic justice and establishing the capacity
of building entities and democratic institutions.
Strategy
United Nations activities in the fields of peace
and security are well known. Political crises,
humanitarian emergencies, civil unrest, and other
natural or man-made disasters easily capture
the interest of the world media. In these cases,
the United Nations quickly shifts into action, and
the world focus turns to the Security Council
and what kind of relief its decision may bring to
suffering people. Of less media interest are the
United Nations actions in the field of development.
Despite this, more than 70 per cent of the
Organizations budget is devoted to development.
This media neglect leads to an absence of public
awareness of the global impact the United Nations
various programmes have on the world population.
Often without attracting attention, the UN and its
family of agencies are engaged in a vast array of
work that touches every aspect of peoples lives
around the world.
Before the post-Cold War era, development was
conceptualized in a giving-and-receiving formula
that subsequently created dependency among
the beneficiaries. In the era of globalization, that
concept changed drastically. Today, development
is neither a short-term nor medium-term
of engagement. Development is about the
improvement of human well-being and removal
of poverty, diseases, and ignorance; productive
employment; and meeting the priority needs
of all people than can be sustained over future
generations.1 It is a strategic undertaking and
provides an integrated framework addressing the
overriding policy objectives concerning social
justice and economic progress. This encompasses
democratic, economic, social, and human rights
policies on a macro level. This holistic approach is
generally acknowledged to result in progress and
international cooperation. Thus, development is
1 Boutros Boutros-Ghali, Agenda for
Development: Report of the Secretary-General
(A/48/935), 6 May 1994.
| 73
a part of the social and economic transformation

taking place globally and, hopefully, will narrow
the disparities between the industrialized and
developing countries. The United Nations serves
as the centrepiece for consensus-building in
formulating and advocating policies and strategic
goals.
Implementation
Since 1961, policies and goals for each decade
have been set through a series of international
development decades. These policies and
goals provide the foundation for progress in all
aspects of development. In order to have this
strategy better coordinated and integrated, the
Millennium Summit in 2000 adopted a set of
extensive targets and Millennium Development
Goals (MDG). The Johannesburg Summit (2002)
firmly stated the need for action and results
instead of new strategies or political debates. The
Summit reaffirmed that economic growth, social
development, and environmental protection are
the three main areas that will take sustainable
development to the next level, where it will benefit
more people and protect more of our environment.
All of this was further emphasized during the World
Summit in 2005 and recommitted by the world
leaders in 2008 in achieving the MDG 2015, to be
set out as concrete plans and practical steps for
action. For more information on the MDG, visit the
Web site at http://www.undp.org/mdg/.
Fisherman along the Wataboo beach in Timor Leste casts a net in the water to catch small fish, an environmentally friendly technique. (UN Photo
#256287 by Martine Perret, December 2008)
74 |
UN website on development:
http://www.un.org/development/
While the Economic and Social Council
(ECOSOC) is the United Nations principal body
for coordinating these activities, the United Nations
Development Group consisting of Secretariat
entities as well as development programmes and
funds assists in management and coordination
for development projects. Within the Secretariat,
the Department of Economic and Social Affairs
(DESA) is responsible for policy, analysis, and
coordination, among other tasks, and serves as
the substantive element in formulating global
policy, while the five Regional Commissions assist
in formulating the regional policy in Africa (ECA);
Europe (ECE); Latin America and the Caribbean
(ECLAC); Asia and the Pacific (ESCAP); and
Western Asia (ESCWA).
In the operational field, the United Nations
Development Programme (UNDP) is the main
coordinator of development assistance. The
programme works worldwide and is represented
in more than 130 countries, where it assists
countries in developing their own capacity to build
sustainable human development. In addition to the
UN funds and programmes, there are numerous
governmental and non-governmental bodies that
are instrumental in implementing sustainable
development.
The UN system has devoted a large amount of
attention and resources to the promotion of the
development of human skills and potentials. The
systems annual expenditures, including assessed
and voluntary contribution, amount to USD 20
billion (2007). UNDP, in close cooperation with
over 170 Member States and other UN agencies,
designs and implements projects within four focus
areas: poverty reduction and achievement of the
MDGs; democratic governance; crisis prevention
and recovery; and environment and sustainable
development.2 Capacity building cuts across these
four areas, and defines how the organization
contributes to development results for agriculture,
industry, education, and the environment. It
supports thousands of projects with cumulative
2 UNDP Annual Report 2009, <http://www.
undp.org/publications/annualreport2009/foreword.
shtml>.
programme expenditures of USD 14.3 billion

(2004-2007), of which USD 3.1 billion was spent in
2007 alone. It is the largest multilateral source of
grant development assistance. In addition, UNICEF
spent more than two billion in 2006, primarily on
immunization, health care, nutrition, and basic
education in 157 countries.
Developing countries require assistance to
strengthen their economies. The World Bank
Group, with its market-promotional policies, plays
an active role in lending money and providing
technical assistance and policy advice. The Group,
which is at the forefront in mobilizing support
for developing countries worldwide, has, ending
the fiscal year 2007, disbursed loans, grants,
and equities totalling USD 34.6 billion. Another
supporting financing institution is the International
Monetary Fund (IMF), the multilateral instrument
for coherent macro-economic policies designed to
achieve the Charters economic and social goals.3
Even if the Fund does not play a central role in UN
action as expected, it has the crucial responsibility
of providing temporary credits to Member States
experiencing balance-of-payments difficulties
and financial support of economic adjustment
programmes.
Other institutions providing financial assistance
in the international arena are: the World Trade
Organization (WTO), which has the responsibility
of overseeing international trade; the United
Nations Industrial Development Organization
(UNIDO), which is mandated to promote industrial
development and cooperation; the Food and
Agricultural Organization (FAO), for rural
development; the International Labour Organization
(ILO); the World Health Organization (WHO); the
United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural
Organization (UNESCO); and many others that
are all part of the development framework. Despite
their different purposes, all of these organizations
share a common goal: to advance the Charters
pledge to promote higher standards of living, full
employment and conditions of economic and social
progress and development.
3 Erskine Childers and Brian Urquhart.
Renewing the United Nations System:
Development Dialogue 1994:1. Uppsala: Dag
Hammarskjld Foundation, 1994, p. 83.
4.2 The Interface between Disaster

Relief and Development
Societies affected by natural or man-made
disasters often need international assistance in
order to recover and return to normal conditions.
Therefore, it is necessary to understand that the
transition from an emergency state to a period of
development requires a sound and comprehensive
rehabilitation phase in order to minimize the
probability of a reiteration of the emergency. In
other words, there is a need for a concerted effort
to eliminate the root causes. Subsequently, the
rehabilitation phase requires a firm policy that links
not only the rehabilitation but also the relief efforts
to the future development activities. In theory, this
is very clear, but in practice, it is more difficult.
Since relief activities focus on providing the
basics for survival, such as food, water, shelter,
medical supplies, and protection, it is crucial to
find the mechanisms and actors that can promote
a necessary environment favourable to the
development process. The rehabilitation tools
that bridge relief and development are sometimes
difficult to obtain, but they should include activities
such as conditions for security and stability;
strengthening the social fabric; rebuilding damaged
infrastructure; the promotion and protection of
human rights; and the reintegration of displaced
persons in other words, peacebuilding. Any
actors involved in relief activities must be aware
that disputes within the nation and the involvement
of local, national, regional, and international actors
can cause a highly charged, sensitive atmosphere.
As stated above, the interface between disaster
relief and development covers a wide range of
activities; some of these are far-reaching both
in terms of scope and permanency, while others
are more limited. Consequently, it is vital that
Field Operators have a sound knowledge of the
prevailing policy concerning rehabilitation and
development. Without weakening national or
local authorities or other formal structures, the
forthcoming activities must also take into account
the environmental and cultural conditions, as well
as the consultation with and the participation of the
local population.
| 75
4.3 Humanitarian Imperatives

Humanitarian imperatives can never be limited to
just emergency operations and must be considered
part of the overall strategy, regardless of their
application to emergencies or development.
Although they are not a part of the overriding
political strategy, they must concur with the
political concept if the peace process is to be fully
achieved. Human interaction, therefore, is a key
concept if goals such as social welfare, justice, and
peace are to be settled.
these circumstances, the United Nations has

previously been accused of being an aggressor,
with serious political consequences. Humanitarian
organizations may be reluctant to cooperate with
the UN if they believe that a possible linkage
to the military or to UN policy might jeopardize
their own independence and, even worse, their
humanitarian mandates. More recent experiences
have, however, recognized clear improvements and
cooperation in the civil-military relationship.
Disaster Relief and Humanitarian Operations

In the past, the international communitys
response to various emergencies was more
or less concentrated on providing relief to
populations suffering from natural disasters.
The end of the Cold War witnessed other types
of disasters, where man-made emergencies
caused by injustice, ethnic/religious conflicts, and
political power struggles became more frequent.
These kinds of emergencies produced more
uncontrollable conditions since they contained
political violence, civil unrest, and breakdowns
of democratic and even state institutions. The
world community recognized that responses to
crises in this new political environment must be far
more complex than in the past. Relief operations
became multifaceted and began to include a
number of responsive aid mechanisms, as well as
military units, for the protection of the humanitarian
mandate and occasionally for enforcement
activities. Under these particular circumstances,
development became an even more important part
of the United Nations efforts to achieve a durable
peace.
The humanitarian consequences of sanctions
or other enforcement activities must always be
contemplated. If the enforcement encompasses
economic sanctions, it may, in the long run, cause
shortages of commodities of vital importance for
the population. The much-criticized Oil-for-Food
Programme in Iraq may serve as a deterrent
example. If the sanctions involve the use of
military force, they will, if excessively used,
probably affect the political infrastructure of the
host country and even cause fatalities. Under
76 |
Pfc. Tony Hindley (right) of UNFICYP escorts an elderly

Greek woman, Maria Atteshlis, across the bridge in Ayios
Theodoros from the Turkish sector to the Greek sector.
(UN Photo #55518 by BZ, April 1964)
The Humanitarian Dimension

The new pattern of conflicts and wars emerging
towards the end of the 20th century challenged the
international community intellectually, politically,
and morally. Civil societies and governments
increasingly conducted civil or intra-state wars
in which civilians, civilian resources, social,
economic, and cultural structures were targeted.
Contemporary wars seem to be increasingly
societal, with violence directed at civil institutions.
Under these conditions, the ordinary citizen
suffered the most. Emergency assistance, followed

by peacebuilding, rehabilitation, reconstruction,
and other confidence-building measures, became
the pillars in the reestablishment of the normality
lost in a society torn apart. Development became
the curative strategy in the rebuilding efforts.
Although the international community is able to
ease the living conditions of these victims, as well
as to bring peace and development to affected
areas, it has become apparent that conditions
other than traditional political and socio-economic
notions must be recognized if a long-lasting peace
is to be accomplished.
With the involvement of various components
including the military, it is essential to keep
humanitarian imperatives in mind when these kinds
of operations are implemented. As part of an
overall strategy, humanitarian aid must be provided
in response to political realities, and subsequently,
aid activities must be integrated with and replaced
by indigenous political, security, and humanitarian
structures. Thus, the humanitarian dimension of
political problems must be considered, and human
needs must be considered and linked to political
solutions. In this perspective, social and economic
relationships must be understood, as well.
Separately from the strategic aspects, the new
dimension of humanitarian aid also encompasses
a broader agenda. Assistance to create new
institutions and capacity-building entities, as
well as demining, demobilization, integration of
refugees, monitoring of human rights issues,
gender issues, and strengthening a nations
social fabric, promote burden sharing and involve
humanitarian actors. This demands a coherent
view of humanitarian problems, as well as an
operational coordination in the field. Analysis of the
roots and causes of a conflict must be linked to the
treatment of symptoms as part of the development
strategy. In order to meet these challenges, the
UN Executive Committee on Humanitarian Affairs
(ECHA) was created. Aiming to enhance the
coordination between UN agencies in various
fields, the ECHA is composed of executives at the
highest level. ECHA Core Group is tasked to focus
on a broad range of humanitarian issues, ranging
from policy matters from the humanitarian reform
agenda and preserving humanitarian space in
integrated missions to more specific discussions.
Reconciliation
Field experiences have indeed indicated that the
human wounds from a conflict in which many
have suffered can only be cured if preceded
by a healing process and reconciliation. Such
a reconciliation may take different forms.
While national reconciliation may refer to the
reinstitution of psychological, cultural, economic,
and political conditions, human reconciliation
may involve participatory dialogues between
former adversaries and/or between brothers and
enemies. Even if there is no normative system for
the reconciliation processes, they are occasionally
set up by states emerging from periods of internal
unrest. Examples of past reconciliation processes
include the Historical Clarification Commission
(Guatemala) and the Truth and Reconciliation
Commission (South Africa).
With a few exceptions, governmental organizations
are not geared to handle these deeply human
aspects of complex conflicts, and very little is
understood about the process that has inspired
people to go through genuine reconciliation and
forgiveness. In addition, even if the importance
of the reconciliation process is accepted as a
stepping-stone in achieving sustainable peace and
development, there remains the open question
of how the international community can best
implement reconciliation as an indisputable part of
the peace process.
People-Centred Activities
In a peace operation, development and all other
humanitarian activities require the involvement
of local people. Recognizing the necessity of
humanitarian-oriented operations, the UN has
adopted people-centred strategies involving the
local population. This approach ensures that
projects and similar activities are well anchored
in the communities. No project can be decided
and implemented with just a top-down approach.
In order to achieve full success and to achieve
a continuum of projects within the community
after the peace operation withdraws, the local
residents should be involved from the very outset.
It is paramount that their needs and interests are
identified and pursued in the decision-making
| 77
process, as well as in the project implementation.

Likewise, the project/activity should utilize local
knowledge and skill. Although this is a natural
expectation, many projects/activities do not
implement this aspect of local involvement.
Nevertheless, all projects/activities require a
strategy that outlines the best way in getting people
involved in projects, particularly those that affect
their living conditions.
Officers of the Indonesian Formed Police Unit of the joint African Union/
United Nations Hybrid Operation in Darfur (UNAMID) distribute food rations and religious materials to the residents of the Zamzam camp of the
Internally Displaced Persons (IDP). (UN Photo #397625 by Olivier Chassot,
December 2008)
4.4 Distinctions and Similarities

between Human Rights Law and
International Humanitarian Law (IHL)
In general, International Humanitarian Law (IHL)
applies to the prevailing conditions in war or
similar circumstances, while human rights (HR)
pertains to peaceful conditions. As such, they are
complementary as they seek to protect individuals
in different circumstances and in different ways.
In UN field operations, there is sometimes a
misinterpretation about the applications of HR
and IHL. Thus, it is essential to clarify both the
distinctions and the similarities between these two
bodies of international law.
Human Rights Law is the inherent and fundamental
right of all people. It guarantees rights and
freedoms while ensuring that every person can
fully evolve in his/her society, as well as protect
78 |
himself/herself against every kind of abuse.

These rights are linked to national laws and to the
constitutions of States. Additionally, Human Rights
Law adheres to the international law of human
rights (protection of human rights), which are the
rules that States have agreed to observe with
regards to rights and freedoms of individuals.
International Humanitarian Law, on the other hand,
is applicable in inter- or intra-state armed conflicts
and provides: (i) the standards for protection of
conflict victims (Law of Geneva); and (ii) rules
related to the means and methods of combat and
conduct of hostilities (Law of The Hague). These
two sets of laws have been merged in the two
Protocols additional to the Geneva Convention,
adopted in 1977 and sometimes known as the
Law of War. Thus, it can be stated that Human
Rights Law is more applicable in times of peace
and stability, while International Humanitarian Law
aims at safeguarding the fundamental rights of
non-combatants and victims of armed conflicts.
The Office of the High Commissioner for Human
Rights (OHCHR) and the International Committee
of the Red Cross (ICRC) are the two principal
organizations responsible for the extent at which
HR and IHL are applicable, as well as which
mechanisms can be used for the implementation
of these two interconnected sets of law. In
emergency operations, the two organizations work
in partnership with various civilian and military
components.
4.5 Human Rights (HR) and the

Principles for Protection of Human
Rights
All human beings are born free and equal in
dignity and rights. They are endowed with
reason and conscience and should act towards
one another in a spirit of brotherhood.
UNIVERSAL DECLARATION OF HUMAN RIGHTS (Art. 1),
Adopted by General Assembly resolution 217 A (III) of 10
December 1948.
Human rights are the only universal and overriding

instruments that set out our rights as global citizens
and individuals. These instruments consist of
civilian and political rights, as well as economic,

social, and cultural rights, which are all based on
respect, dignity, and the worth of each individual.
They are all interdependent, indivisible, and equally
important.
Website of ICRC: http://www.icrc.org
Establishment
There is a renewed consciousness of the rights
of every human being to decide and control his/
her own destiny. Human rights have become
the universal principle that may overrule even
strictly traditional notions of national sovereignty,
particularly when the sovereignty no longer does
justice to the aspirations of peoples in attaining
their fundamental freedoms. The League of
Nations, the predecessor to the UN, acknowledged
human rights. When the Charter of the United
Nations was drafted and ratified, it reaffirmed
the League of Nations Founders faith in human
rights, and in 1946, the Commission on Human
Rights was established under Economic and
Social Council resolution 9. Since then, a large
number of various declarations, conventions, and
protocols on human rights have been adopted,
progressively increasing in scope and number
over the years. This development indicates the
importance of human rights as one of the most
fundamental principles of international peace and
security, as envisaged in the Charter of the United
Nations. Today, these human rights instruments
have a global impact not only on the individual
human being but also serve as a foundation of
international peace and security and promotion of
development.
Instruments
The Universal Declaration of Human Rights
(1948) sets out a list of basic rights a common
standard of achievement" for everyone in the
world, whatever their race, colour, sex, language,
religion, political or other opinion, national or
social origin, property, birth or other status. Two
instruments, both adopted in 1968, later followed
the Declaration: the International Covenant on
Economic, Social and Cultural Rights; and the
International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights
with corresponding Optional Protocol. The three
together constitute what is called the International

Bill of Human Rights. The last covenant also
provided the establishment of the Human Rights
Committee. The close link between Human
Rights and International Humanitarian Law was
further underscored in 1977 by the Diplomatic
Conference on the Reaffirmation and Development
of International Humanitarian Law applicable
in Armed Conflicts, which adopted the Protocol
additional to the Geneva Conventions of 12 August
1949, related to the Protection of Victims of
Non-International Armed Conflicts (Protocol II).
She has the right to life, liberty and security (extract from Article 1 of the
Universal Declaration of Human Rights). Young female patients wait to checkin for treatment, under a tent in the compound of the Fistula Unit of Zalingei
Hospital in Sudan. (UN Photo #149571 by Fred Noy, May 2007)
One of the most important events in the

development of human rights was the World
Conference on Human Rights in Vienna in 1993,
at which the States were recommended to draw
up an action plan in order to identify steps where
the States would improve the promotion and
protection of human rights; this plan was know
as the Vienna Declaration and Programme of
Action. The comprehensiveness and complexity of
human rights raised the demand for a mechanism
empowered to both promote and monitor human
rights globally and independently. The rising global
awareness of human rights advocated, among
other measures, the establishment of the Human
Rights Council (HRC). As a subsidiary body of
the General Assembly, the HRC will assess and
address the human right situation in all 192 UN
Member States and make recommendations to
| 79
the GA. The Office of the High Commissioner

for Human Rights (OHCHR) is still the principal
organization of human rights.
Website of the Human Rights Council:
http://www2.ohchr.org/english/bodies/
hrcouncil/
Website of the Office of the
High Commissioner for Human Rights:
http://www.ochr.org/
In the 1980s and 1990s, as well as through the
first decade of the millennium, the world witnessed
internal conflicts of seldom-seen brutality. As
a result, the World Summit in 2005 adopted a
concept underlining the responsibility of States for
protecting their own population when faced with
ethnic cleansing, acts of genocide, and crimes
against humanity. The Secretary-General has
since then institutionalized the concept and has
also recommended the appointment of a full-time
Special Representative for the Prevention of
Genocide.
Functions
The mandate of OHCHR is derived from the
Charter (Art. 1, 13, and 15) and the General
Assembly resolution of December 1993. In
implementing its various strategies, OHCHR works
in close relation with UN human rights mechanisms
including the human rights treaty bodies and the
Human Rights Council. Promotion and protection
of HR is channelled through three branches, which
are responsible for: (i) research and strategy
development; (ii) technical assistance to countries;
and (iii) support to the United Nations human
rights bodies. Through the Technical Cooperation
Programme, OHCHR assists States in building and
strengthening national structures for the overall
observance of human rights and maintenance of
the rule of law.
This is done through various approaches. At the
institutional level, there are treaty-monitoring
bodies that monitor implementation of the principal
human rights treaties. At request, States may also
be given assistance in the training of armed forces,
police forces, or legal professionals and may also
provide advisory service for the incorporation of
international human rights norms and standards
80 |
into the national legislation. Promotion and

protection of HR can also be done through
special rapporteurs or through the establishment
of a long-term presence to accompany the field
presence and may include monitoring components.
However, the fundamental basis of establishing
and promoting human rights is the practice by
which any one may bring a human rights problem
to the attention of the United Nations, as is done by
thousands of people every year.
These reporting mechanisms are an essential part
of the monitoring system. A report on a human
rights violation must describe the facts surrounding
the situation, the purpose of the report, and the
human rights that have been violated. Abusive
language or insulting remarks about the concerned
State is not tolerated, and the inclusion of any
such language may cause the report to not be
considered. Violations can be communicated from
individuals or groups who claim to be victims of
violations or from any person or group of people
that have direct, reliable knowledge of violations.
When non-governmental organizations (NGOs)
present communications on violations, the
conditions are as follows: that the NGO is acting in
good faith in accordance with recognized principles
of human rights, and that it has direct, reliable
evidence of the situation it is describing.4
Human Rights and Development
UNDP, as the major organization responsible
for development, has put human rights into the
context of development, thus recognizing the
needs for a more explicit human rights link to the
developmental concept. As such:
Key features of the work of UNDP in the area
of human rights and human security include:
support to the development of national
human rights action plans; application of
the rights-based approach to programming;
assistance for human rights initiatives involving
civic education, awareness-raising campaigns,
strengthening or creation of ombudsman offices
and extension of human rights institutions to the
sub-national level.5
4 OHCHR Fact Sheet No. 7, Communication
Procedures.
5 Ibid.
In 2000, UNDP celebrated the 10th anniversary

of its first human right policy doctrine, Integrating
Human Rights with Sustainable Human
Development, which further underscores that
human rights are the most universal documents to
which the international community adheres.
Human Rights and Peace Operations
OHCHRs support of human rights bodies
includes the entirety of the United Nations system.
Involvement in both development and peacekeeping
grants the system a natural linkage to and
implementation of human rights. In peacekeeping,
the Office provides assistance in terms of human
rights information, advisory service, legislative
analysis, and training. Recognizing the respect
for human rights as a fundamental mechanism in
promoting peace and security, human rights are
fully integrated into the interdepartmental planning
processes, and all human rights activities in the
field are coordinated by a single component.
The Integrated Mission Planning Processes
and the institutional arrangements for human
rights components in peace operations have
considerably increased the United Nations efforts
to protect and promote human rights in the field. In
this respect, OHCHR works in close cooperation
with the Department of Peacekeeping Operations
(DPKO), the Department of Political Affairs
(DPA), the United Nations High Commissioner
for Refugees (UNHCR), and the Office for the
Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs (OCHA).
Their joint efforts facilitate the field conditions
for military and civilian professionals to provide
necessary information and knowledge to
vulnerable populations and, thus, participate in
establishing an understanding of and respect for
the rights of each individual and society.
4.6 Principles and Applications of

International Humanitarian Law
As previously stated, IHL is based on the Law of
Geneva (more commonly known as the Geneva
Conventions of 1949) and the Law of The Hague.
These two sets of laws respectively deal with the
(i) protections of persons who are not participating
in the conflict (non-combatants) and (ii) limitation of
methods and means of warfare.
For more information, visit the website

of the International Committee of the Red
Cross at http://www.icrc.org/
Law of Geneva (Geneva Conventions of 1949)
This document is the principal blueprint for the
protection of and aid to all victims of war and
evolves around the four Geneva Conventions of
1949. They are:
The First Convention, which protects the
wounded and sick in armed forces in the field;
The Second Convention, which protects the
wounded, sick, and shipwrecked among armed

forces at sea;
The Third Convention, which protects prisoners

of war; and
The Fourth Convention, which protects civilians.

Each Convention of the Geneva Conventions is
headed under three provisions: (i) the General
Provisions that deal with the respect for the
convention and their application in international
conflict, followed by a number of articles with
provisions about the duration of application,
special agreement which Contracting Parties
may conclude, the right of protected persons,
duties of Protecting Powers, activities of the
ICRC and the conciliation procedure between
Contracting Parties; (ii) Repression of Breaches
of the Conventions; and (iii) the Final Provisions
which defines the procedures for the signature,
ratification.
Law of The Hague
This body of law is based on two fundamental
principles, namely, those of military necessity and
those of humanity, which together mean that only
those actions necessary for defeat of the opposing
side are allowed, whereas those which uselessly
cause suffering or losses are forbidden. Thus,
the purpose of the law is to regulate the choice of
targets and the use of weapons. As such, the law
regulates the conduct of hostilities on land, sea,
and air and also sets the rules respecting the rights
and duties of neutral powers, as well as regulations
on the use of specific weapons and ammunition.
| 81
Of special interest is that the law binds individuals

as well as states. Members of armed forces who
are found guilty of committing or authorizing
unlawful acts may be tried by legal bodies of
their own state or, due to certain circumstances,
by equivalent bodies of other states. The
establishment of the two War Crimes Tribunals in
former Yugoslavia and Rwanda are examples of
this.
1. Persons hors de combat and those who

do not take a direct part in hostilities are
entitled to the respect of their lives and their
moral and physical integrity. They shall, in all
circumstances, be protected and treated in a
humane way, without any adverse distinction.
2. It is forbidden to kill or injure an enemy who
surrenders or who is hors de combat.
3. The wounded and sick shall be collected and
cared for by the party to the conflict and who
has them in its power. Protection also covers
medical personnel, establishments, transports,
and equipment. The emblem of the Red
Cross or the Red Crescent is the sign of such
protection and must be respected.
4. Captured combatants and civilians under the
authority of an adverse party are entitled to
the respect for their lives, dignity, personal
rights, and convictions. They shall be protected
against all acts of violence and reprisals. They
shall have the right to correspond with their
families and to receive relief.
A UN peacekeeper speaks with women refugees at Farchana Camp in

Chad. (UN Photo #354943 by Olivia Grey Pritchard, March 2009)
Summary of the Provisions of International

Humanitarian Law
At present, the two sets of laws (the Law of
Geneva and the Law of The Hague) have been
merged into two Protocols additional to the
Geneva Conventions and adopted in 1977,
whereby Protocol I strengthens the protection
of victims of international armed conflicts, and
Protocol II strengthens the protection of victims of
non-international (internal) conflicts.
The following seven points are a summary of the
provisions of International Humanitarian Law.
However, it must be clearly stated that the seven
points do not have the force of an international
legal instrument and is in no way intended to
replace the treaties in force.6 The points are
designed to facilitate dissemination of international
humanitarian law.
6 ICRC, Understanding Humanitarian Law:
Basic Rules of the Geneva Conventions and Their
Additional Protocols. Geneva, September 1983.
82 |
5. Everyone shall be entitled to benefit from

fundamental judicial guarantees. No one shall
be held responsible for an act he/she has
not committed. No one shall be subjected
to physical or mental torture, corporal
punishment, or cruel and degrading treatment.
6. Parties to a conflict and members of their
armed forces do not have an unlimited
choice of methods and means of warfare. It
is prohibited to employ weapons or methods
of warfare of a nature to cause unnecessary
losses or excessive suffering.
7. Parties to a conflict shall at all times
distinguish between the civilian population
and combatants in order to spare the civilian
population and property. Neither the civilian
population nor civilian persons shall be the
objects of attack. Attacks shall be directed
solely against military objectives.
Thus, it may be said that IHL and its application
to the field is the guiding instrument for those
concerned in a conflict or in a post-conflict area
where certain rules have to apply. Aid workers
and others working in [former] war zones must
understand the principles of IHL in order to

observe and report breaches of these principles.
However, it must be understood that although IHL
applies to international human rights standards,
including but not always limited to humanitarian
law, it also applies to situations of armed conflicts.
4.7 Human Development and

Climate Change7
In 1988, two UN bodies, the World Meteorological
Organisation (WMO) and the United Nations
Environmental Program (UNEP), established
the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
(IPCC). The purpose was to explore possible
ways to reduce global warming. Since then, most
countries have joined an international treaty
the United Nations Framework Convention on
Climate Change (UNFCCC). The Secretariat of
the UNFCCC supports all institutions involved
in the climate change process, particularly the
Conferences of the Parties (COP), the subsidiary
bodies, and their Bureau. In addition, a number of
nations have approved the Kyoto Protocol, which
has more powerful (and legally binding) measures.
Website of the UNFCC:
http://unfccc.int/2860.php
Today, the IPCC is a global network comprising
more than 2,500 leading scientists and experts
whose research and findings advocated towards
legally binding and coordinated activities:
Presently the scientific consensus on climate
change is that human activity is very likely the
cause for the rapid increase in global average
temperatures over the past several decades.
Consequently, the debate has largely shifted
onto ways to reduce further human impact and
to find ways to adapt to change that has already
occurred. Climate change and its impact
on mankind and the global environment has
become the human development challenge of
the 21st century a challenge that concerns all
organizations within the UN system.
7 Ref: The United Nations Today, p.220-224
Learning Questions
Knowledge
Why should development be regarded as a tool
to maintain international peace and security?
What is the purpose of reconciliation?
How can people-centred activities further
strengthen development?
What are the objectives and purposes of the
Law of Geneva?
What is the purpose of the Law of The Hague?
What are the objectives and purposes of human
rights?
What are the preconditions for an individual to
report on any human rights violation?
What are the principal instruments of the
International Humanitarian Law?
What are the two most fundamental principles in
limiting military warfare?
Awareness
What is the essence of the strategic concept for
development?
What is your opinion on the World Bank and its
support to the developing countries?
How can humanitarian imperatives contribute
to a peace process?
How would you describe the differences
between national and human reconciliation?
How would you describe the link between a
relief operation and development?
How would you describe the differences
and similarities between Human Rights and
International Humanitarian Law?
Under what circumstances are the two sets of
laws applicable?
Applications
As a teacher for your hometown college, you and
your second-year students are discussing the United
Nations role in maintaining peace and security. One
of the students asks you why so much money is spent
on peacekeeping and similar operations and less on
development. How will you answer?
Recognizing the interest among the students,
you would like to assess their awareness and
understanding of human rights. You decide to give a
multiple-choice test. List five essential questions you
think are the most appropriate.
| 83
End-of-Lesson Quiz
1. Why is it important to understand social and
economic relationships?
5. Why are humanitarian imperatives so

essential?
A. This understanding will allow the UN to best

utilize its financial resources;
A. They must be considered as a part of the

overriding strategy;
B. This understanding must influence an

overall humanitarian strategy, allowing for
humanitarian aid to be provided in response to
political realities;
B. They must critique the political concept;
C. This understanding will allow the UN to stay

involved longer and will not place the burden
on the local population;
C. They are the capstone in achieving sustainable

peace and development;
D. They are legally binding.
6. Which statement is correct?
D. This understanding how development alone is

the curative strategy in rebuilding
efforts.
A. Human rights are the fundamental rights of all

people;
2. More than what percentage of the UN budget

is devoted to development?
C. IHL relates to the means and methods of

combat and conduct of hostilities;
A. 20%
B. 45%
B. IHL provides the standards for protection of

conflict victims;
7. The principal organization responsible for

human rights is:
C. 60%
D. 70%
A. OHCHR;
3. The United Nations Development

Programme:
B. UNHCR;
C. ICRC;
A. Is the main coordinator of development

assistance;
D. ICJ.
B. Formulates the policy concerning development;
8. Which is not part of the International Bill of

Human Rights?
C. Is the principal body for all environmental

activities;
D. Addresses the issues of economic and social
development.
4. The description instrument for coherent

macro-economic policies designed to achieve
the Charters economic and social goals
applies to:
A. The International Covenant on Economic,

Social and Cultural Rights;
B. The International Covenant on Civil and
Political Rights;
C. The Geneva Convention;
D. The Universal Declaration of Human Rights.
A. The World Bank Group;

B. The World Trade Organization;
C. The International Bank for Reconstruction and
Development;
D. The International Monetary Fund.
84 |
9. A human rights problem can be brought to

the attention of the United Nations by:
A. Special rapporteurs;
B. Any one;
C. Member States;
D. Representatives of the UN High Commissioner
for Human Rights.
10. Under which Geneva Convention are

civilians protected?
A. The First Convention;
B. The Second Convention;
C. The Third Convention;
D. The Fourth Convention.
ANSWER KEY
1B, 2D, 3A, 4D, 5C, 6D, 7A, 8C, 9B, 10D
SECTION III
THE WORKING CONCEPT
lesson five
Environments
lesson six
Principles, General Duties, and Responsibilities
lesson seven
Safety and Security
LESSON 5
ENVIRONMENTS
LESSON
5
LESSON OBJECTIVES
5.1 Social and Cultural

Environment
5.2 Mission Environment
5.3 Civil-Military
Cooperation (CIMIC)
5.4 The Security and
Safety Environment
The political and operational context of an operation is essential to have

a clear understanding of the working environment. Knowledge of a
culture and its local customs, as well as awareness of the local security
situation, are absolutely necessary if Field Operators (FOs) are going to
be successful in their everyday performances or in an emergency. Apart
from the already challenging tasks given to the FOs, they may encounter
additional difficulties if they do not fully understand the prevailing
conditions of their environment. Lesson 5 provides the student with some
background information that is necessary in order to fully appreciate the
following lessons concerning Demands and Duties and Safety and
Security.
Lesson 5:
Why is it so important to understand the environment where your work

is to be carried out?
What are the most significant elements you have to consider in the
locale?
In terms of environmental issues, what are the major obstacles you may
face in a mission?
What are the major functions of a CIMIC office?

What kind of security can a military force provide?
Introduction
The environment in which a Field Operator works
is complex. It concerns the local environment
with its specific habits and cultures and the
mission itself as a multicultural society with
representation from a great number of countries.
Last but not least, the environment referred to here
includes the security environment with its own
obligations and demands, to which the FO has to
be both responsive and dedicated.
A solid educational background and professional
experience are the fundamental criteria in
recruitment and selection of personnel. Apart
from these requirements, an FO must have the
social competence to cope and deal with human
nature. Behavioural principles, such as socializing,
forming friendships, understanding and accepting
new habits, and adjusting to others cultures,
are as important as education and working
experience, and they are prerequisites for the work
to be successful. In this respect, confidence and
accountability are key. Consequently, prospective
Field Operators should make every effort to
prepare for the assignment by making use of
official reports, information about the mission,
public libraries, and conversations with others who
have experience in the specific area. In addition, a
positive attitude, an open mind, and a fair sense of
humour are valuable assets in daily work.
5.1 Social and Cultural Environment

Working Environment
Assignments within the United Nations system
cover a variety of tasks. Duties may take place in a
small office, at the countryside, or in a large office
building in the capital. Whatever the situation, the
tasks of an FO are challenging.
Working with a development project is normally
a positive but challenging experience. The FO
will frequently find resources scarce, particularly
in developing countries. Manpower itself is
seldom an issue, but a lack of technical skill and
technical means or insufficient project funding
may slow down a project. Ineffective bureaucracy,
miscommunication, or simply insufficient planning
might cause these inadequacies. Discrepancies

or weak relationships between locals and local
institutions may also negatively influence the work.
In societies affected by war or similar events, the
challenges are far more complex and difficult
than in normal development processes.
Shortages of personnel resources, destroyed
infrastructures (roads, communications, etc.),
insecure environments, and political and military
volatility produce a level of complexity that is not
easy to cope with. The loss of trust, dignity, and
confidence, combined with the destruction of
relationships or loss of relatives, may create an
individual or collective trauma that can also, under
these circumstances, cause a potential danger. All
this will indeed broaden the agenda of the Field
Operator.
Local Environment
Cultural shock is the natural response when
an individual is taken from his/her own national
and ethnic environment and placed in another.
This can often result in feelings of discomfort or
disorientation. Some people deal with the problem
more effectively than others, and those who have
the benefit of previous assignments will overcome
the event more quickly than first-timers. The
local environment is a potential dilemma if it is
not seriously considered. The language problem,
with no means of communication except through
interpretation, may create a sense of isolationism
for the FO. Different foods and climate and poor
living conditions may increase the feeling of
unpleasantness, which will be further aggravated
by the absence of loved ones. The mission
environment and/or the local culture and habits
are other factors that will affect the Field Operator.
These characteristics are extremely important and
may become problematic issues if Field Operators
work alone and without sufficient guidance.
Equally important is a careful assessment of the
health environment. The living quarters, type of
accommodation, medical facilities, availability
of food, and quality of water have to be included
in the overall assessment of the environment.
Inadequate housing may cause health problems,
and if little or no attention is paid to these matters,
| 91
the Field Operators may encounter problems that

may jeopardize further work. Even if the living
quarters are of undesirable quality, they can be
fully acceptable if well maintained, cleaned, and
always kept neat and tidy. Temporarily employed
local cleaners should always be carefully instructed
in order to keep up with the required standards.
Food and water should always be protected from
flies and other insects, and the entire building
should be disinfected frequently.
To buy food at the local market can be a pleasure,
particularly if the FO has a genuine interest in
cooking. However, vegetables, fresh meat, and fish
are sometimes handled differently from in a Field
Operators native country and may be exposed
to bacteria. A familiarity with the market and
the quality of the various products is necessary
before a shopping excursion. Even if a local cook
is employed, that does not guarantee the quality
of the food. The ability to digest the various local
dishes should not be used as a sporting measure
of the Field Operators adjustment to local
conditions.
be observant of his/her host countrys cultural

norms. An excessive use of water in areas with a
very limited quantity will be regarded as offensive.
Water in tropical areas should be assumed as
polluted or infested in one way or another until the
quality is guaranteed. The absence of purification
facilities, even in good hotels, may result in infected
swimming pools and tap water and, thus, this
should not be considered as potable water. Even
ice cubes should be regarded with suspicion. The
use of bottled water, bottled soft drinks and, in the
field, boiled water is recommended.
Along this vein, personal hygiene should not be
forgotten. A hot climate does not normally cause
severe problems, but in combination with a high
level of humidity, Field Operators can expect to
have a very unpleasant experience if they do not
take care of their personal hygiene. Under these
circumstances, it is important for the FO to keep
their personal hygiene on a high standard but also
to advise others (mission personnel) who may be
less attentive to a tidy appearance.
The health environment includes the availability
and quality of medical facilities. Infected syringes,
needles, and/or other medical equipment may
cause severe diseases, including deadly HIV
infections. The FO must carefully assess the
situation of a health environment. In a well
established mission, this is not a matter of
major concern, since the mission has probably
established safe and reliable support from a local
hospital or through its own medical unit. However,
FOs deployed far from these facilities must ensure
that they may receive medical treatment if and
when necessary.
Gender Issues
Displaced children in Sudan fetch water using a submerged hand pump

following flooding in the villages caused by extremely heavy early rains
villages that displaced thousands of residents. (UN Photo #190223 by Tim
McKulka, August 2008)
Water is frequently another problem. While

developed countries may consume 200 litres of
potable water per person per day, this is far from
what may be acceptable in areas with scarce
sources of water. The Field Operator needs to
92 |
Gender issues should be well respected in its

cultural context. Social rules governing the
relations between men and women often have
different norms from one culture to the next, so
what may be interpreted as innocent behaviour in
one cultural context may be taken as an offence
against the accepted norms in another. Personnel
must never engage in or threaten to commit any
act that could result in the physical, sexual, or
psychological harm or suffering of women or
children. Such acts include rape, sexual abuse,

sexual harassment, intimidation, trafficking, and
forced prostitution.
Even if outwardly sexual conduct may be accepted
at home, it may not be accepted in the mission or
the mission area. Neither field personnel nor the
local population are to be viewed as objects to be
trifled with. Therefore, personnel should not be
involved in any sexual behaviour or relationships
that may lessen the credibility of or bring reproach
to the employing organization (specifically, the
United Nations).
However, gender issues encompass much more
than abuses, harassment, or trafficking. Gender in
the political context includes the advancement of
women, the recognition of the differences between
men and women (as well as their different needs),
womens self-reliance, and the promotion of social
and economic equality. Briefly, women and men
have to be fully recognized in their respective roles.
In all United Nations programmes and activities,
gender issues are fully integrated and are a key
element in most development and aid activities.
Nowadays, gender mainstreaming is a global
strategy for promoting gender equality.
Security Council resolution 1325 (2000) states
the gender perspectives are to be integrated into
peace processes. In 2007, the Secretary-General
further emphasized the gender issue by stating that
it would call on all of the United Nations systems
resources in the work to empower women and
realize gender equality worldwide and mobilize
forces of change at the global level, and inspire
enhanced results at the country level.1
For more information on gender
issues, visit: http://www.unwomen.org
1 Secretary-Generals Remarks to the Security

Council on women, peace and security, <http://
www.un.org/apps/news/infocus/sgspeeches/
print_full.asp?statID=142>.
An all-female Formed Police Unit from Bangladesh, serving with MINUSTAH, arrives in Port-au-Prince to assist with post-earthquake reconstruction. The group, 110-women strong, is the second all-female contingent in
any UN mission in the world. (UN Photo #438559 by Marco Dormino, June
2010)
5.2 Mission Environment

General Conditions
The political, humanitarian, and socio-economic
dimensions of modern emergencies have
dramatically increased the demands for
humanitarian missions. The emergencies
themselves, the initial lack of coordination among
mission workers, the intensive media-watch, and
potential donors requests for immediate access
and information create incontestable demands
on the FOs. They must thoroughly understand
the situation to be able to make the necessary
decisions regarding management and protocol.
This requires not only knowledge of the UN
system but also a good understanding of military
systems (if employed), as well as knowledge of the
capacities and mandates of various collaborating
international, governmental, and non-governmental
aid organizations.
The size of a mission is dependent on its mandate
and may consist of thousands of personnel or
just a few. Various nationalities with different
educations and/or ethnic backgrounds create a
diverse atmosphere, which is a challenge in and of
itself. Cultural and educational distinctions between
personnel may involve not only national habits and
| 93
customs but also differences in values. A mandate

may be interpreted differently by personnel, and
even assessments of the current situation may
vary. Initial priority should be paid to the process of
formulating some coherence about the mandate/
task and to find some commonalties in a code of
conduct.
The language barrier may also cause some
concerns, not only in terms of understanding
but also in terms of the value and interpretation
of certain words or phrases. It might be easier
for a civilian Field Operator to adopt himself or
herself into the existing culture of a non-military
mission than in a military mission, where military
camaraderie can be difficult to penetrate.
The military vocabulary, performance, and
uniformed appearance may also present some
initial obstacles to integration. Civil and military
organizations are aware of this militarism and have
established an agenda for civil-military cooperation
(CIMIC), in order to improve the relationship.
Members of the Pakistani contingent of the United Nations Mission in Liberia (UNMIL) march after receiving the medals of honour, in recognition
for their service. (UN Photo #239305 by Christopher Herwig, December
2008)
Military Headquarters Environment

The mission headquarters and its composition
reflect the mandate. Missions are generally
located in an urban area and frequently in the
capital, enabling smooth coordination and liaison
with national officials. Both civilian and military
94 |
components responsible for a variety of tasks

serve under the authority of the Head of Mission
(HOM). Large missions with an impact on the
region also have liaison offices established in
the neighbouring countries. Sub-headquarters,
offices, and sub-offices are found at other
locations in the country or mission region. The
headquarters will have a blend of civilian and
military personnel, particularly when the mandate
is geared to a complex emergency situation. As in
all bureaucratic organizations, the Field Operator
may have difficulty finding appropriate offices
and persons with whom to discuss and ventilate
problems, and consequently, the Field Operator
may encounter problems that have come to be
called mission culture.
In complex, multidimensional operations,
the military force will have its own separate
headquarters. The military force is commanded
by a Force Commander (FC) and comprises force
personnel (mostly military personnel) from different
countries providing a kaleidoscope of ideas and
approaches that may sometimes be difficult to
grasp. In a headquarters of considerable size,
often consisting of hundreds of soldiers, this fact
is more obvious and further highlighted by the
distinct military behaviours and appearances.
Military headquarters are typically well structured
entities based on a hierarchical system with strict
rules and regulations. Personnel are disciplined
and trained under similar conditions, and all ranks
are dressed in uniform. Officers and soldiers
behave in a certain way; they normally have a
smart appearance, and their performance is both
decisive and demanding. Personnel have a loyalty
to their unit, task, and country, and within all ranks
a strong military comradeship exists. In some
cases, it can be difficult for non-military personnel
to understand and penetrate this corpe desprit.
The military force is organized into headquarters,
operational units, and supporting elements.
Headquarters of various sections and units are
structured in similar ways all over the world.
Although headquarters are well structured and
easily recognized, the civilian Field Operator may
experience difficulties in finding his/her way around
this labyrinth of strange abbreviations such as
G2, G3, Ops., Log., etc. How are they organized?
Who is who? Who is the key person? All of these

questions are fundamental to understanding and
later using the system. Although it will take some
time to become acquainted with the military staff
organization, military personnel will appreciate it if
the FO becomes familiar with the various functions
of the headquarters that will, indeed, ease the
FOs forthcoming collaboration with the military.
This knowledge becomes particularly vital when
the military force operates under an enforcement
mandate.
At the mission level, observer or verification
missions are separate entities, sometimes
combined with and/or under the command of a
force-level mission. Missions have headquarters,
a small staff, operational units consisting of small
teams of two or three unarmed observers, and
a supporting element. These types of missions
employ both uniformed military professionals
and civilian reserve officers, who have been
assigned tasks such as supervising a cease-fire
and/or an armistice agreement, verifying the
withdrawal of troops, demobilization (monitoring
border areas), and many others. These observer or
police missions have a headquarters that reflects
the mandate. Headquarters, sub-offices, and
other elements contain a friendly atmosphere but
are small and do not have the same supporting
capacity as the military forces headquarters.
Civilian Headquarters Environment
United Nations programmes and funds, such as
UNICEF and UNDP, have their own headquarters.
Such headquarters are either on national (country
office) or regional levels. Generally, they are
staffed by UN professionals, expatriate experts,
and local experts. UNDP country offices normally
serve as the national leading agency of the UN
system, and its Resident Representative also
serves as the Resident Coordinator of the UN
systems operational activities for development
(as UNHCR). Field offices are frequently sited far
away, and personnel may sometimes be forced to
rely on their own administrative competence and
innovations.
A UNHCR aid worker hands a blanket to one of the young victims of cyclone Nargis in Myanmar. (UN Photo #177616 by UNHCR, May 2008)
Ongoing projects are either supervised by a UN

agency such as UNDP or some other UN-related
organization or work as autonomous entities
under the chapeau of an international, national, or
non-governmental organization. Often, mixtures of
organizations are deployed at the same site while
working on different projects, as in a development
programme. In order to coordinate and inform
about the diverse activities in progress, regular
meetings are crucial and beneficial to all parties.
Together with socializing, this creates a good
working atmosphere and may ease feelings of
isolation. By the same token, it is important to
involve local actors, not only as professionals
but also as human beings. As for the mission
headquarters, it is an advantage to understand
and know the different actors, their competence,
and respective tasks. (See Lesson 9 for more
information)
| 95
5.3 Civil-Military Cooperation

(CIMIC)
Concept
There are different interpretations of the terms
disaster relief operation, humanitarian actions, and
humanitarian assistance operations. In general,
disaster relief operations aim at easing the living
conditions for populations severely affected by
a natural disaster, while humanitarian actions or
humanitarian assistance operations are mandated
in response to man-made disasters caused by
political and/or social or economic conflicts.
Such conflicts are often characterized by political
instability, civil unrest, a non-secure environment,
and perhaps violence. Consequently, these
humanitarian actions or assistance operations
must address both human suffering and the rights
of civilians under international law to be protected
from discrimination, violence, and other serious
violations of human rights. Under these conditions,
the United Nations may mandate a peace
operation.
Members of the Nepalese contingent in MINUSTAH participate in CIMIC activities in an orphanage located in Kenscoff. (UN Photo #407781 by Logan
Abassi, September 2009)
These peace operations may require both civilian

and military elements. Civilian components bring in
the necessary expertise to handle refugees, food
distribution, and medical care, while the military
elements generally assume the responsibility for
transport, protection, and security. In the past,
these circumstances have created contrasting
96 |
values and expectations between military and

civilian personnel, and their resulting rivalry has
extended even to differing views of mandates.
Using their initiative and organizational capacity,
military components have tended to take
advantage of unforeseen circumstances without
considering either the political consequences
or the humanitarian imperatives. Civilian forces,
uneasy about military ethics and culture, do
not have the same homogenous structure as
the military and have less success at rapid
mobilization. Differences in attitude and
approaches to conflicts have also created issues.
Functions and Structure
Because of these different views, it became
necessary to find a mechanism that would improve
interaction between civilians and the military. The
Civil-Military Cooperation (CIMIC) concept became
the answer. Today, CIMIC is a wide-ranging
undertaking that relates to a system of interaction,
involving exchange of information, negotiation,
de-confliction, mutual support and planning at all
levels between military elements and humanitarian
organizations, development organizations and local
civil population to achieve UN objectives.
Through joint training courses, seminars, and
workshops, civil and military participants become
familiar with the nature of multidimensional
operations, the different obligations and demands
of the various actors, and the differences and
similarities in mandates and terms of references.
A number of governmental and non-governmental
organizations and institutions run training courses
where the CIMIC concept is the key issue. The
establishment of a common code of conduct of
civil-military relations will further enhance future
cooperation.
The focal point for UN civil-military coordination
in the United Nations system is the Civil-Military
Coordination Section (CMCS) of the Office for
the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs (OCHA).
Based in Geneva, Switzerland, the Section
provides the international community with a range
of services, including common training, support
for exercises, internationally agreed guidelines,
and operational capabilities. The United Nations
Civil-Military Coordination Officer Field Handbook

(March 2008) provides all of the necessary
information.
The United Nations Civil Military
Coordination Office Field Handbook may be
accessed online at http://www.unhcr.org/
refworld/docid/47da7da52.html
The generic establishment of a CIMIC office in a
field mission has also become a reality. The office
can serve as the primary interface between the
military and the humanitarian components and
facilitates coordination and cooperation among
all humanitarian actors in the field. The office can
ensure that civil-military operations activities are
coordinated and linked to the operations overall
objectives. It brings together military and civilian
efforts, avoids duplications, and serves as a
clearing-house for all of the intricate problems
that can arise when dealing with humanitarian
problems in a multidimensional operation. It serves
as a venue for sharing information concerning
military issues and ongoing humanitarian
programmes.
5.4 The Security and Safety

Environment
General Conditions
Most emergency operations take place in areas
affected by natural or man-made catastrophes.
Even if the disaster itself, by its magnitude and
nature, severely affects the living conditions of the
local population, the catastrophe also causes the
interruption of safe conditions. In emergencies
caused by civil unrest or war, the inability of
national (local) authorities to ensure security
creates additional dangerous situations that may
threaten the lives of UN personnel and others.
Field personnel operate in malign and explosive
environments where exposure to ambushes,
landmines, and the exchange of fire between
warring parties are not uncommon events. The
conditions may be further aggravated when
relief workers (and others) have to work in
isolated areas, far from normal infrastructure
and sometimes under unbearable conditions.
Basic medical facilities and means of transport

are not always accessible, and knowledge about
current security conditions is often hard to attain.
The record of such situations indicates that
life-threatening, sometimes fatal situations have
occurred with an alarming frequency in recent
years.
The effective provision of security depends on
a wide range of factors. What is the level of
threat? What kind of security is required? What is
available? How can the security environment be
enhanced? The United Nations, in combination
with its agencies and NGOs, has utilized a number
of instruments to provide mission security by such
means as peacekeeping forces with protective
mandates, military and police of various types,
local arrangements with warring parties, use of
the local police force, and various combinations of
the aforementioned. However, the complexity and
comprehensiveness of most operations require
that all humanitarian pursuits, when undertaken by
the parties concerned, are also part of confidencebuilding activities, which should, among other
things, be considered as a means of enhancing
the security environment. The most common
organizational security structures are presented in
the following sections. It should be noted that most
major organizations within the UN system have
their own security organization with the ability to
advise employed personnel on matters concerning
security and safety.
The United Nations Field Security
Handbook may be accessed online
at http://pbpu.unlb.org/PBPS/Library/
Field%20Security%20Handbook%20-%20FULL.
pdf
UN Security Structure
The United Nations has made substantial efforts
to enhance security for its field personnel. Within
the UN system, the Under-Secretary-General
for the Department of Safety and Security (DSS)
has the overall responsibility for security of all
civilian personnel. In addition, the executive
heads of UN agencies (UNICEF, etc.) support UN
security management by appointment of a Senior
Security Manager (SSM) and/or a Senior Security
Focal Point (SSFP) with the responsibility for the
| 97
organizations security functions.

In countries where the United Nations has a
presence, the Secretary-General will appoint a
senior official as the Designated Official (DO) with
the responsibility for security and protection of
staff members, their dependants, and UN property.
Normally, this person is the United Nations
Resident Coordinator (RC).
If the SRSG/HOM of a multidimensional mission is
appointed as the DO, he/she is accountable to the
Secretary-General through the Under-SecretaryGeneral of DSS. The uniformed personnel of the
military and police components do not fall under
the UN security management system but are under
the exclusive jurisdiction of the Head of Mission
(HOM). Staff members of civilian components
and their spouses and dependants are, however,
included in UN security arrangements. On security
matters, the military components will work closely
with the DO and the Security Management Team
(SMT) in order to establish the best security
environment for all personnel working within
An Italian peacekeeper of the United Nations Interim Force in Lebanon

(UNIFIL) patrols the Blue Line that demarcates the border between
Lebanon and Israel. (UN Photo #290684 by Eskinder Debebe, January
2009)
a mission. (The United Security Management

System is further described in Lesson 7.)
Security Provided by Military Organizations
In addition to other peacekeeping activities, the
deployed peacekeeping military force is normally
98 |
tasked to provide protection to UN field personnel.

Such protection may include physical protection
in case of death threats but also cooperation with
the SMT/CSA to coordinate other security activities
such as advice, assessment, and evacuation of
field personnel out of the mission area if needed. A
military force is normally deployed throughout the
mission area. Through checkpoints, observation
posts, patrols, and an area-watch, the military will
acquire very useful information about the prevailing
situation. Through an excellent communication
network, units and individuals are able to
communicate and, thus, provide reports about
changes or events of importance. As their transport
capacity provides a high degree of mobility, units
and personnel can be transported from one place
to another very rapidly.
All units are armed and, in general, able to protect
or rescue mission personnel when necessary. In
highly volatile areas, transports can be escorted,
and in case of hostilities, civilian field personnel
may find themselves safer if accommodated in
military camps. Supporting units include medical
elements of various sizes and with medical
facilities of high standards. Through organization
and professional experience in the assessment
of security conditions, the military is able to
provide briefings about security and assist with
movements or other activities in the mission area.
In case of high levels of hostilities, the Head of
Mission may decide to evacuate all personnel or
initially all civilian personnel. If this occurs, the
force is normally authorized to assume the full
responsibility for the evacuation.
Military Observer or Police Missions do not have
the same capacity in terms of protection, transport,
or medical support. In terms of manpower, they
are far behind a force, which affects the overall
presence in a mission. On the other hand, they
have superior knowledge about the general
situation, and through local populations they learn
about the local security status. Since they are
unarmed, they are not able to provide physical
protection, but through their professional education
and training, they are useful in the assessment
of current situations and in advising on questions
concerning safety and security. Their unarmed
presence is generally not considered a threat to
the conflicting parties and, thus, allows observers

and police to promote consent and positive
cooperation not only between the United Nations
and the conflicting parties but also among the
parties themselves. As a side effect, the security
conditions have frequently been improved.
Provisions by Other Entities
Because the main purpose of security is to
guarantee safe conditions for relief workers
and others in carrying out their duties, other
mechanisms for security have been utilized as well.
Although not frequently used, these mechanisms
may be in place when the United Nations is
not present or if the organizations security
arrangements have not yet been established.
In previous cases like this, non-governmental
organizations have established liaisons and
entered into security arrangements with the local
warring factions. Their main duties were to serve
as bodyguards, to escort convoys and personnel,
and to guard warehouses. However, in volatile
situations, such personnel may actually become a
threat because of long-standing loyalties to their
own factions. In some cases, these disadvantages
have often prevailed over the advantages of
utilizing local guards. Depending on the political
situation, a better solution is the use of local
police entities belonging to a national police
force, particularly since the host government
always has the main responsibility for the security.
However, if the United Nations is present, whatever
security arrangements are considered require an
assessment and approval by the present DO or
his/her SMT/CSA.
The use of private security organizations is a
problematic issue in the international setting.
As hired professionals with no stake in the
project (or conflict) and with no political or social
relations, their cooperation with local authorities
will always be a weakness. Therefore, the United
Nations may in some circumstances protect their
offices, premises, and personnel by employing
private security agencies, particularly if the host
government is unable to provide the required
security.
special security attention is not necessary, for

example, during the generally peaceful conditions
during political stability, as well as when an
established national police force is present.
However, the situation may change, and the
previous assessment may turn out to be incorrect.
Therefore, it is of utmost importance that security
assessments always be made by professionals
with security knowledge and experience and
always by the UN security management team if
they are in situ.
Learning Questions
Knowledge
Why is it so important to understand and know

the environment in which your work will be
carried out?
What does gender issues mean?

What are the functions of the Department of
Safety and Security?
What do you consider as the most essential
issues in assessing the health environment?
What kind of security can be provided by military

organizations?
What is CIMIC?
Awareness
What are the major issues to consider in what is

called the Social and Cultural Environment?
What are the differences between a mission

headquarters and a force headquarters?
Applications
At your college, you become involved in
discussions concerning sexual harassment and
gender issues. One of the students, aware of your
future assignment, asks you how this applies to the
United Nations in general and to a peace mission
in particular. What is your answer?
On the other hand, there are situations when
| 99
End-of-Lesson Quiz
1. Which is NOT a likely challenge faced by
societies affected by war?
A. Ineffective bureaucracy;
5. Personnel assigned to tasks such as

supervising a cease-fire and/or an armistice
agreement are normally:
A. Military Observers;
B. Lack of personnel resources;
B. UN Police;
C. Lack of security;
D. Apathy.
C. Local Police;
2. The living quarters, type of accommodation,

and quality of water are all components of
the:
6. What is the main purpose of a CIMIC office?
D. Civilian Personnel.
A. Mission environment;
B. Health environment;
A. To improve the interaction between the civilians

and the military in an operation;
B. To develop a code of conduct on civil-military
relations in a humanitarian operation;
C. Local environment;
D. Force environment.
3. Gender issues are matters concerning:

A. The relations between men and women;
B. Issues encompassing rape, sexual abuses,
sexual harassment, intimidation, trafficking,
and forced prostitution;
C. The advancement of women, womens
self-reliance, and promotion of social and
economic equality;
C. To serve as the primary interface between the

military and the humanitarian components,
as well as to facilitate coordination and
cooperation;
D. To serve as a clearing-house when dealing with
humanitarian problems in a multidimensional
operation.
7. If necessary, an evacuation of all civilians out

of a peacekeeping mission area is normally
executed by:
A. DSS;
4. A military force is structured into:

A. Headquarters, sub-headquarters, offices, and
sub-offices;
B. Headquarters, operational units, and
supporting elements;
C. Staff units, operational units, and supporting
elements;
D. Staff units, sub-headquarters, and offices.
B. The deployed peacekeeping force;

C. The deployed peacekeeping force in
coordination with DSS;
D. Their respective organization.
8. A military observer mission has a limited

capacity to provide physical protection
because:
A. It is unarmed;
B. It has less access to means of transportation;
C. It has a lack of medical support;
100 |
9. Local police belonging to national police

forces may assist in:
A. Providing security assessments;
B. Providing security advice;
C. Escort duties;
D. Creating security protocol.
10. In countries where the UN has a presence,

who is responsible for security?
A. The CIMIC office;
B. The Head of Mission;
C. The Designated Officer (DO);
D. The Under-Secretary-General for DSS.
ANSWER KEY
1D, 2B, 3D, 4B, 5A, 6C, 7B, 8D, 9C, 10C
LESSON 6
PRINCIPLES, GENERAL DUTIES,
AND RESPONSIBILITIES
LESSON
6
LESSON OBJECTIVES
6.1 Background
6.2 Obligations and
Duties
6.3 Cultural and Social
Demands
6.4 Personal Demands
6.5 Privleges and
Immunities
Annex

The Code of Personal

Conduct for Blue
Helmets
This lesson addresses some of the principles concerning the general

duties and responsibilities that should be kept in mind by all actors
participating in any UN field mission. The lesson should be seen as a
logical follow-up to previous lessons. It is not the intention for this lesson
to provide a full description of what is expected of the professionals,
experts, or volunteers working in the field but rather a cohesive view of the
forthcoming expectations. Detailed information about the actual mission
is assumed to be provided through in-country briefing by appropriate
organizations. This lesson will facilitate and establish an awareness of
the general duties and demands and, thus, assist the newly arrived Field
Operator in avoiding unexpected pitfalls and shortcomings during the first
weeks of his/her assignment.
Lesson 6:
What are the main objectives to keep in mind for the United Nations?
What are the necessary personal traits of an FO?
What is expected from an affiliate of a UN organization?
How would you describe the cultural and social demands therein?
What are the differences between obligations and personal demands?
What kind of personal requirements are expected of an affiliate of a UN
organization?
What is the rationale behind a code of conduct?
Introduction
UN field missions are composed of a variety of
sub-units that respond to specific tasks in specific
areas. Typically, missions are highly multifaceted,
where political assistance, humanitarian
intervention, and development are merged in a
pattern not always easy to understand. In addition,
the mixture of military personnel and civilians
has considerably expanded in the last decade,
along with the scope of civilian participation. The
resulting blend of civilians from various parts of
the world, in combination with their multi-ethnic
cultural background, is both a strength and
a weakness for a missions staff. On the one
hand, it is a political strength because it reflects
the international communitys determination
to manage and solve a problem. On the other
hand, it is an operational weakness because of
the civilians sometimes inadequate preparation
that initially hamper an efficient implementation
of a programme or an operation. Although the
weakness will be temporary, it is essential that this
period be as short as possible. A good knowledge
of the Field Operators forthcoming general duties
and responsibilities is, therefore, a prerequisite to a
future field assignment.
6.1 Background
droughts and subsequent famines, fostered

the dramatic evolution of non-governmental
organizations. This development also affected the
United Nations as the Organization became more
involved in the development of these new nations
and assumed greater responsibility for populations
suffering from natural or man-made disasters. The
end of the Cold War era increased the participation
of the international community.
The establishment of the peacekeeping mission
created another dimension to the work carried out
by civilians. The expansion of peacekeeping tools
resulted in compounding operational demands
that could not be met by the military alone;
subsequently, civilian personnel were extensively
recruited.
Today, tens of thousands of civilian and military
professionals, experts, volunteers, and others
work all over the globe under the chapeau of the
United Nations. They come from different cultures
and with different educational background but all
with the same aim and purpose to meet the
priority needs of all people that can be sustained
over future generations. As UN agents, they
serve at the best of their ability while adhering to
some basic professional principles that include
obligations and duties.
The history of humanity shows that individuals,

societies, and nations have always assisted and
helped each other in times of need. This tendency
increases during wars, catastrophes, and similar
events. The unbearable living conditions of
the Crimean War promoted the creation of the
International Red Cross. Warfare of the 20th
century spawned other similar organizations with
a similar purpose to bring relief to suffering
populations.
The end of the colonial system revealed a number
of problems caused by the colonial legacy, and
the creation of new nation states, already a slow
process, slowed even further. The expected
positive economic and social development of
newly independent states sometimes turned into
a negative trend, and many new nations found
themselves dependent on international assistance.
This dependence, together with some severe
Pakistani UNMIL peacekeepers and Liberian villagers repair a flooded

road on the outskirts of Voinjama, Liberia. UNMIL has been working on
various projects to improve the living conditions of the local residents
there. (UN Photo #120801 by Eric Kanalstein, April 2006)
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6.2 Obligations and Duties

General Obligations
While serving on a mission, a Field Operator will
be responsible to the Head of Mission (HOM);
thus, he/she should not seek or accept orders
or instructions from any other authority. In order
to maintain objectivity and efficiency in their
performances, the Field Operator should keep in
mind the best interests of the United Nations, the
government, or the NGO they are serving. The
Field Operator should have the ability to make
the distinction between idealistic and realistic
attitudes and approaches to problems and be able
to determine the best actual achievable course of
action, as opposed to one that is simply desirable.
Field Operators are almost always part of a team
and thus must coordinate their actions to cooperate
fully in carrying out all operational activities. They
have to demonstrate their commitment, dedication,
and high motivation, as well as possess a high
degree of professionalism and experience. It is
assumed that Field Operators have the ability
to analyze a problem and inform the superiors
or counterparts about the findings in a clear and
factual manner. FOs must also be prepared to
accept organizational and representative tasks in
the performance of their duties.
Duties will be carried out in an environment foreign

to FOs, usually encumbered by difficult living
conditions, high-stress situations, and language
barriers. As representatives of the United Nations,
Field Operators must ensure that they are capable
of accomplishing the tasks required and that their
performances will favourably reflect upon the
United Nations and/or their employing organization.
This requires an FO who is physically fit, of sound
character, mature in attitude and outlook, and in
possession of the appropriate professional and
technical qualifications for the mission/work. In
addition, it is expected that the FOs have a genuine
interest and commitment to supporting the efforts
of others in areas where requests are received.
The FOs, as well as others working in an
international environment, should display the
following personality traits:
Good judgement and accountability, supported

by a common-sense approach;
An objective approach to problem-solving;

The ability to discuss difficult situations without
causing offence;
A polite demeanour, combined with a firm but

flexible and honest approach;
Considerable self-discipline and patience;

A friendly, open approach and a ready sense of
humour;
An ability to influence others, engendered in

imaginativeness and persuasiveness;
Credibility as a leader;
A mind to the interests of the employing
organization (e.g., United Nations);
Comfort in both working and social

environments;
Capability to understand the organization and

functional arrangements of the mission;
Interest in the people or community he/she has

Service in remote areas requires physical fitness and mental stability.
Above, members of the fact finding team of the United Nations Mission in
Nepal (UNMIN) monitor the conditions in the remote mountain communities, in preparation of the 10th April 2008 Constituent Assembly elections.
(UN Photo #170043 by Tilak Pokharel)
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to assist;
Respect for national laws; and

Respect and regard for human rights of all.
In a UN field mission, the FO must bear in mind

that his/her job is one made up of numerous
parts, even if those parts sometimes seem totally
unrelated. It is very useful for the newly arrived FO
to be aware that non-governmental organizations,
other UN civilians, and/or military components
and humanitarian agencies have been working
in the mission area long before he/she arrived
and, accordingly, have established long-standing
contacts and liaisons. Additionally, FOs are
expected to demonstrate their professionalism and
experience in helping and assisting new, incoming
personnel.
General Duties and Demands
Depending on the level of seniority and
professional experiences, FOs may work
at centralized locations or in the field while
addressing all the areas compounded in
emergencies or development. Particularly in
central locations, FOs must be prepared to carry
out investigations and analyses, as well as to make
recommendations from a more political/strategic
level. They must be able to communicate using not
only technical jargon but also clear, concise, and
convincing language. While adapting themselves
to the organizational environment and accepting
rules and procedures that are the practices of
prevailing staff or departmental conditions, they
must always keep in mind the prevailing interests
of the United Nations. As the head of an entity, the
FO will need to manage the employed personnel
and available resources as effectively as possible,
as well as present himself or herself as a positive
representative of the mission. In the field, the
FO will encounter the same demands, but tasks
will become more challenging due to other living
conditions and scarce administrative resources.
In the areas of his/her professional capacities, the
FOs should be prepared to:
Support, collaborate, encourage, and motivate;

Maintain impartiality and objectivity;
Establish and support partnerships and links
between and among entities/communities;
Work in a team, i.e., share and interact with
others and build on the ideas of others when

appropriate;
Network and collaborate with other partners and

counterparts;
Adapt to different social, cultural, and political

circumstances; and
Promote gender equality.

All FOs are recruited and selected on the basis
of their experience and professionalism relevant
to the assigned work. In spite of their different
professional backgrounds, cultures, social, and
educational experiences, they must all possess
psychological stability and flexibility to withstand
unexpected challenges. An innate level of mental
stability, strengthened through training and
preparation, must be part of the FOs credentials.
However, mental stability relies on factors that
training alone cannot provide, no matter how
extensive it may be. The existence of a family or
loved ones, a healthy social life, a sound economy,
and an absence of personal dilemmas are
conditions that contribute to a good Field Operator.
They are all factors that provide a psychological
resiliency and firmness, which are indispensable
when difficult conditions prevail.
6.3 Cultural and Social Demands

Behavioural Principles
Appearance and performance should reflect what
is expected of UN personnel. FOs must display
tolerance towards other cultures, some of which
may differ greatly from their own in personal
attributes and habits. Appreciation of local customs
and behavioural patterns is essential, as is
recognition of locals tasks and positions. Personal
disapproval, disagreement, disappointment,
anxiety, or irritation should be minimized so
that such feelings do not prevent the FOs from
maintaining friendly and cooperative relationships
with the people with whom they are working. The
FO must understand the personal perception of
respect that is important in many cultures.
As addressed in Lesson 5, many societies have
strict rules concerning relationships between
men and women, but there are also rules on
how to pay attention to spiritual leaders, religious
artefacts, and places of worship. FOs must be
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aware that although their personal behaviour

may be considered normal in their own society,
some of these habits may cause offence in other
societies. For example, collecting souvenirs of
religious artefacts is considered both sacrilegious
and a criminal offence, and a seemingly simple
gesture, such as patting a small child on the
head, is considered highly offensive in some
cultures. Most local elders will be happy to discuss
their faith, customs, and habits with interested
foreigners as long as the approach is made in
a respectful manner and does not compromise
the elders position in his society. Therefore,
prospective FOs should make every effort to
prepare for the assignment by making use of public
documentation, written reports, and conversations
with others who previously served in the area.
This will ensure that no one will accidentally cause
offence.
Thousands of people are deployed in various
missions around the world. In each mission, small
or large, credibility depends not only on the ability
to carry out the UN mandate but also on the quality
of behaviour demonstrated by each individual. Both
the population of the hosting organization/country
and the international community closely observe
the conduct of UN personnel, particularly in highly
visible and problematic missions. Consequently,
it is important that each person serving under
the United Nations demonstrates extraordinary
discretion, restraint, and sensitivity towards other
cultures so that their behaviour does not reflect
poorly upon the image of the Organization as a
whole.
Understanding the requirements and expected
outcomes are crucial if the FO is to be successful
in his/her duties. Not surprisingly, it is required
that an FO has good manners, with flexibility,
sensitivity, and patience. Additionally, the FOs must
comprehend the overall guiding principles of a UN
organization, such as impartiality, loyalty, integrity,
and independence. These key principles may be
interpreted differently, but generally the following
applies:
Impartiality is the foundation for the United
Nations. Therefore, an FO should not favour any

party over the other but, instead, act as a bridge
when disputes occur. Feelings and private
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opinions must be unbiased in order to achieve

peace.
Loyalty means that the FO must be loyal not
only to the United Nations and its goals and

principles but also to the work and his/her
supervisors. Trust and confidence are critical
issues in tense or difficult situations.
Integrity is the foundation for credibility and
authority. The FO must always avoid activities

that may reflect poorly on the FOs position or
the United Nations, and therefore, he/she must
expect and accept special public and private
constraints.
Independence means, among other things, that
the FO must refrain from all political activities

and not seek or accept instruction from any one
outside the United Nations.
FOs need to accept these overall principles when

working in the UN system, but they should always
apply their own ideas in accordance with the local
people and share their ideas and plans with their
counterparts.
Code of Conduct
Experience over time has obliged most
organizations to issue some sort of code of
conduct. The standard of a behavioural code
is a sensitive topic, which is often emotionally
charged since it tries to impose certain behaviours
on individuals with different educational and
ethnic backgrounds. However, some standards of
conduct are necessary with a view to conforming
individuals to the specific requirements of the
mission. Every peacekeeping operation has a
code of conduct, which is adjusted sometimes to
local demands or other special circumstances.
These rules express in an explicit language what
is expected by the military peacekeepers, and, to
a certain extent, they serve as a guide to those
civilians who would like to know what is and what
is not acceptable. The FOs failure to comply with
these guidelines will result in consequences that
may jeopardize the work of the mission and may
also erode confidence and trust in the FO and/or in
the United Nations itself. These rules can be found
at the end of this lesson.
6.4 Personal Demands

This lesson and the information provided by the
organizations in the field are assumed to describe
the duties and responsibilities in the field. However,
some information is neither to be found in
Lesson 6 nor provided in the in-country briefings.
Regardless, the FO has the responsibility to obtain
all additional information available, not only about
the working requirements but also about what is
expected by the FO as an individual and as a part
of a team. Depending on the prevailing conditions,
some issues may be more important than others.
Therefore, the matter of authority is an issue to be

discussed in connection with the job description
and the areas of responsibilities.
Expectations
The overall guiding principle of a mission is its
mandate. In a large mission, the mandate may be
a part of the UN resolution, but it can also be a
part of a policy document issued by a government
or non-governmental agency. Sometimes,
particularly in small missions (a project with
limited objectives), the mandate might be a project
document. Even if it is just a project document, the
mandate falls under some overriding principles or
policy decisions.
The FO should acquaint himself or herself with
the mandate and the expressed policies/principles
by studying them, thus fully understanding
and appreciating the overall goals of his/
her forthcoming work. Even if all necessary
information has been provided in terms of duties,
expectations, and job descriptions, there will
always be questions of personal or professional
character. The FOs should never hesitate to ask
any questions, regardless of how irrelevant the
questions may seem. Questions and answers
are essential parts of human interaction and the
means for the sharing of ideas and opportunities.
In asking his/her superiors or counterpart
appropriate questions, both parties will obtain a
clearer understanding of each other, thus avoiding
potential misinterpretations in the future.
The question of authority is another area of
concern. What kind of decision can be taken, and
on whose behalf? To overstep ones authority
causes confusion, embarrassment, and, if
improperly handled, may jeopardize the work itself.
Actively listening to the other party is an important communication technique. (UN Photo #99349 by Evan Schneider, October 2005)
In the beginning of an assignment, it is a good

idea to keep a low profile when discussing specific
issues. Although the FO may have a profound
knowledge of his/her professional area, it is better
to listen, reflect, and apply the knowledge as
appropriate, rather than rushing to give opinions
and unsolicited suggestions. This does not mean
that the FOs should just accept what is being
said and not respond. However, a briefing should
be considered more than an exercise, and FOs
should recognize that they, for the time being, have
limited local experience that does not allow for
a comprehensive assessment that considers all
perspectives. It is better to bide ones time, reflect
on what has been discussed, and respond later.
Listen, learn, and wait, is a common rule to all
newly assigned personnel.
Teamwork is crucial, regardless of where an
FO is placed. FOs will work with partners from
other countries (or counterparts from the local
community) with likely different values and
expectations. Knowing his/her partners is the
foundation for future cooperation. Being able to
sit together and share information and ideas is
an essential part of mutual trust and confidence.
Likewise, it is beneficial to discuss how the work
is to be carried out, what should be achieved,
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and how to find joint solutions. The proposals and

suggested solutions of local counterparts should
be encouraged and supported as much as possible
(if their ideas are achievable). Although this
sounds rather simple in theory, it is more difficult
in practice. A positive chemistry between working
partners promotes ideas and opportunities,
but when the chemistry does not exist, the
situation becomes more problematic. Respect,
understanding, appreciation, subordination, and
listening combined with a good share of humour
are useful tools in all working relationships.
Team-work is always a matter of give and take,
and information-sharing and discussions are
proven tools.
Fitness
As of July 2010, more than 23,000 FOs (international
staff, local civilian staff, and UN Volunteers) out of
123,000 peacekeepers worked in emergency or
similar operations where the working conditions were
demanding and stressful. Consequently, physical
fitness is an important requirement for performing
duties in a foreign environment, particularly where
FOs may sometimes be encumbered by difficult
living conditions, stressful situations, or traumatic
experiences. Considering the extraordinary
circumstances of an emergency operation, it is
understandable that good physical and mental fitness
are almost a necessity in order to withstand the
constraints and pressure that are a part of daily life.
Military personnel from the Chinese engineering company of the United

Nations Organization Mission in the Democratic Republic of the Congo
(MONUC) perform their morning routine of physical training. (UN Photo
#185628 by Marie Frechon, April 2008)
110 |
The FO is expected to be splendidly fit, with no

sicknesses, allergies, or other psychological or
physical problems that may jeopardize his/her
work, since any health problem may be difficult to
cope with in areas with limited medical facilities.
Of equal importance is the ability to confront
intense or traumatic situations. Although it is
beyond the scope of this course, in dealing with
stress management it should be emphasized that
advance knowledge about the mission, such as
living conditions, duration of the assignment, and
nature of the mission, can reduce the factors that
may contribute to emotional instability. A strong
character, a well rounded personality, and stable
mental health are assets that are essential to a
pleasurable experience in the field.
6.5 Privileges and Immunities

Depending on the given contract, FOs may
enjoy the legal and international privileges and
immunities defined in the Convention on the
Privileges and Immunities of the United Nations,
specifically under Article VI (Experts on Missions
for the United Nations), which are usually
adhered to by the governments in a mission area.
Notwithstanding international acceptance of the
philosophy of Article VI, FOs must comply with
the actual countrys laws and regulations. The
Secretary-General has the right and authority to
waive the immunities and international privileges
accorded to an FO in any case where, in his/her
opinion, such immunities and privileges would
impede the course of justice.
In general, all personnel working under the United
Nations umbrella are protected. However, different
types of contracts provide different levels of
protection. While some personnel are entitled to
an official laissez-passer, others are not. In some
cases, the employing organization issues an
identity card, and in other cases, it will be issued
by the United Nations Headquarters. In addition to
the proper identification, all temporary employed
personnel will be provided with some sort of terms
of service normally contained in a Conditions-ofService Agreement.
ANNEX
The Code of Personal Conduct for Blue Helmets
WE ARE UNITED NATIONS PEACEKEEPERS
The United Nations Organization embodies the aspirations of all the people of the world for peace. In this context the
United Nations Charter requires that all personnel must maintain the highest standards of integrity and conduct.
We will comply with the Guidelines on International Humanitarian Law for Forces Undertaking United Nations Peacekeeping
Operations and the applicable portions of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights as the fundamental basis of our
standards. We, as peacekeepers, represent the United Nations and are present in the country to help it recover from the
trauma of a conflict. As a result, we must consciously be prepared to accept special constraints in our public and private
lives in order to do the work and to pursue the ideals of the United Nations Organization.
We will be accorded certain privileges and immunities arranged through agreements negotiated between the United
Nations and the host country solely for the purpose of discharging our peace-keeping duties. Expectations of the world
community and the local population will be high and our actions, behaviour, and speech will be closely monitored.
We will always:
Conduct ourselves in a professional and disciplined manner, at all times;
Dedicate ourselves to achieving the goals of the United Nations;
Understand the mandate and mission and comply with their provisions;
Respect the environment of the host country;
Respect local customs and practices through awareness and respect for the culture, religion, traditions, and gender issues;
Treat the inhabitants of the host country with respect, courtesy, and consideration;
Act with impartiality, integrity, and tact;
Support and aid the infirm, sick, and weak;
Obey our United Nations superiors and respect the chain of command;
Respect all other peace-keeping members of the mission regardless of status, rank, ethnic or national origin, race,
gender, or creed;
Support and encourage proper conduct among our fellow peace-keepers;
Maintain proper dress and personal deportment at all times;
Properly account for all money and property assigned to us as members of the mission; and
Care for all United Nations equipment placed in our charge.
We will never:
Bring discredit upon the United Nations, or our nations through improper personal conduct, failure to perform our duties
or abuse of our positions as peace-keepers;
Take any action that might jeopardize the mission;
Abuse alcohol, use drugs, or traffic in drugs;
Make unauthorized communications to external agencies, including unauthorized press statements;
Improperly disclose or use information gained through our employment;
Use unnecessary violence or threaten anyone in custody;
Commit any act that could result in physical, sexual or psychological harm or suffering to members of the local population,
especially women and children;
Become involved in sexual liaisons which could affect our impartiality, or the well-being of others;
Be abusive or uncivil to any member of the public;
Willfully damage or misuse any United Nations property or equipment;
Use a vehicle improperly or without authorization;
Collect unauthorized souvenirs;
Participate in any illegal activities, corrupt or improper practices; or
Attempt to use our positions for personal advantage, to make false claims or accept benefits to which we are not entitled.
We realize that the consequences of failure to act within these guidelines may:
Erode confidence and trust in the United Nations;
Jeopardize the achievement of the mission; and
Jeopardize our status and security as peacekeepers.
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Learning Questions
Lesson 6 deals, to a considerable extent, with
Knowledge
What is achieved by keeping in mind the best

interests of the United Nations?
Why should one maintain a clear distinction

between idealism and realism?
What are the differences between obligations,

duties, and responsibilities?
the FOs duties, obligations, demands, and

conduct. What do you think are the reasons
behind this?
What is expected of an FO in the areas of his/

her professional capacity?
What is your opinion concerning the FOs

immunities?
Application
What is the meaning of impartiality in reference

to the FOs work?
What is the foundation for credibility and

authority, and why?
What is the reason behind the demand that the

FO must refrain from political activities?
What is the rationale behind a code of conduct?

In which document does an FO find his/her
terms of service?
Awareness
How would you explain the word integrity in

reference to your assignment as an FO?
How would you explain the rationale behind
One day prior to your departure, you are asked

for an interview by the local radio station about
your forthcoming service with the United Nations.
Since the reporter knows you as an honest and
always well prepared college professor, he would
like you to answer some questions concerning the
United Nations behavioural principles in the field.
Easily done, you think, and you make necessary
preparations by using the Code of Personal
Conduct for Blue Helmets. However, during the
interview, which goes well, the reporter suddenly
asks you why the United Nations has several
and different codes of conduct and why it is not
possible to have one common code of conduct
for all personnel working in the field. What is your
answer?
fitness?
112 |
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End-of-Lesson Quiz
1. The blend of civilians from various parts of
the world in a multidimensional operation is
a strength because:
A. It reflects the international communitys will to
solve a problem;
5. In terms of general duties and demands, FOs

should be prepared:
A. To adapt themselves to the local demands of
the political environment;
B. It provides necessary financial contributions;
B. To adapt themselves to the organizational

environment;
C. It provides necessary support to the military

components;
C. To make recommendations only from the

technical level;
D. Inadequate preparation can initially hamper an

efficient implementation of a programme.
D. To stick to their own personal viewpoint.
2. The General Assembly created the United

Nations Volunteer Programme to:
A. Promote youth participation in the United
Nation development programme;
B. Serve as an operational partner in development
cooperation;
C. Serve as the major supplier of middle and
upper-level specialists;
D. Provide technical assistance to skill-short
governments.
3. In order to maintain their objectivity, the

UN Field Operators (FO) should keep in
mind the interest of:
A. The United Nations;
B. The government they are serving;
C. The organization they are serving;
D. The local government.
4. Due to the wide range of tasks they must

perform, FOs should display the following
personal traits:
A. Good judgement, accountability, and a highly
subjective approach to problem-solving;
B. The ability to discuss difficult topics regardless
of whom they offend;
C. A focus on the best interests of the locals
above anything else;
D. Respect for human rights and the ability
to influence others engendered in
imaginativeness and persuasiveness.
114 |
6. Which is NOT a task FOs should be

prepared to accept?
A. Promote gender equality;
B. Network with other partners and counterparts;
C. Explain the cultural norms of his/her culture to
the local population;
D. Establish and support partnerships and links
between entities/communities.
7. An FO must adhere to the four overall

guiding UN principles of impartiality,
loyalty, integrity, and independence. Which
situation does loyalty NOT refer to:
A. Loyalty to the United Nations;
B. Loyalty to the work;
C. Loyalty to his/her supervisor;
D. Loyalty to the local regime.
8. An FO should refrain from all political

activities because:
A. The FO may encounter difficulties in his/her
personal performance;
B. The FO may encounter difficulties in his/her
professional performance;
C. It may jeopardize his/her independence as a
UN employee;
D. It may jeopardize his/her allegiance to his/her
home nation.
9. In general, a code of conduct is:

A. A behavioural and commonly accepted code for
all UN professionals;
B. A code for civil servants;
C. A code for United Nations peacekeepers;
D. A set of guiding principles adhering to the
general principles of culture, as well as to the
practices and behaviours as a member of a
mission.
10. Physical fitness is necessary for an FO

because of:
A. The difficult living conditions;
B. The constrains and pressure from daily life;
C. The ability to confront intense and traumatic
situations;
ANSWER KEY
1A, 2B, 3A, 4D, 5B, 6C, 7D, 8C, 9D, 10D
LESSON 7
SAFETY AND SECURITY
LESSON
7
LESSON OBJECTIVES
7.1 The Principal Context
7.2 Main Principles and
Structure of the UN
Security Management
System
7.3 Responsibilities of a
UN Staff Member
7.4 Personal Safety and
Precautions
7.5 Travel
7.6 Sexual Harassment
7.7 Special Security
Precautions
7.8 First Aid
7.9 Stress Situations
7.10 Health Precautions:
General Rules
(Ref: The United Nations Today, p. 34)

Lesson 7 begins with the background and the principal context of what
is commonly called Safety and Security, but it primarily encompasses
security precautions in the field. This lesson follows the sequential pattern
of an FOs preparation, travel to the mission area, arrival, precautions
at home/office, and when in the field. To some extent, it deals with first
aid and health precautions, as well. Though the lesson offers guidance,
the responsibility of obtaining the necessary knowledge either prior to
involvement in the mission or in situ rests with the FO.
The official United Nations Field Security Handbook deals with
the system-wide arrangements for protection of UN personnel and
properties in the field. Where Lesson 7 concerns policy, directives, and
organizational structure responsibilities, it is based on relevant sections
in both the UN Field Security Handbook and the UNHCRs publication
Security Awareness - An Aide-Mmoire. This lesson complies with the
directives and guidelines of the two handbooks. However, when assigned
as a member of a mission, every student must act in accordance with the
instruction provided by United Nations. Lesson 7 is not a replacement
for these official instructions but was written in order to provide security
awareness and understanding to potential FOs as early as possible.
Lesson 7:
Why is driving one of the most dangerous activities in the field?

What are the security precautions before departure?
What are the security precautions as a Resident (at home)?
Under what circumstances are special security precautions needed?
How do you prepare yourself to handle minor medical emergencies?
Which UN office has overall security responsibility?
Introduction
have reached new levels.
Safety and security for United Nations personnel

working in the field is of major concern. Thousands
of field workers (both uniformed personnel
and civilians) have lost their lives either due to
hostile actions or through incidents of which car
accidents were the main cause. Although the UN
Under-Secretary-General for the Department
of Safety and Security (DSS) has the overriding
responsibility for policy and procedural matters, as
well as the issuance of proper recommendations
to ensure the safety and security in the field,
the practical responsibility lies upon each Field
Operator. Consequently, acquaintance with UN
security plans should have the top priority as
soon as an FO arrives to the mission. Failure to
comply with security instructions and demands is
not only a danger to the FO but may also pose a
threat to the third party. A constant awareness and
properly administrated precautions are additional
indispensable tools in order to ensure personal
safety and security.
Fatalities (UN Missions through 18 November 2010)1
7.1
The Principal Context
Background
Complex political situations frequently cause civil
unrest where violence and the use of arms create
dangerous conditions for Field Operators. Under
such circumstances, the nations infrastructure
may deteriorate, consequently affecting various
means of transport, communication, the availability
of medical facilities, food, water, etc. Remote field
stations become even more remote. Although
the figures on accidents listed below are still
frightening, improvements have occurred. A
better knowledge and awareness among UN field
personnel and the establishment of the Department
of Safety and Security has indeed improved the
situation. Between the years 2002 and 2007,
fatalities have annually numbered from 88 to 136.
The year 2008 recorded 136 fatalities. The DSS
recorded 215 violent incidents against UN staff
around the world between 1 July 2005 and 30 June
2006, including violent robbery, physical assaults,
and rape. Detention and hostage-taking activities
Types
Accident
Malicious Illness
Act
Other
Total
Total
Number
1,136
742
158
2,843
812
A number of resolutions have been passed in order

to comprehensively cope with safety and security
aspects. Between 1991 and 2004, the General
Assembly passed four resolutions on the subject,2
not counting additional resolutions passed by
the Security Council. In the resolution passed in
2006, the Secretary-General was requested by the
General Assembly:
To take necessary measures to ensure full
respect for human rights, privileges and
immunities of United Nations and other
personnel carrying activities in fulfillment of
the mandate of a United Nations operation
and also requests the Secretary-General to
seek inclusion, in negotiation, of headquarters
and other mission agreements concerning
United Nations and associated personnel,
of the applicable conditions contained in the
convention on the Privileges and Immunities of
the United Nations, the convention on Privileges
and Immunities of the Special Agencies and the
Convention on the Safety of United Nations and
Associated Personnel.3
The number of resolutions and the explicit
language in these resolutions reflects the United
Nations concern over the prevailing conditions.
1 Note: Statistics are based on available UN data

covering the period 1948 through 2010. This data
is still under review and may, therefore, contain
omissions or errors. (Source: DPKO, United
Nations)
2 1991 (GA 46/182), 1999 (GA 54/192), 2004
(GA 59/211), and 2006 (GA 60/123)
3 GA 60/123
| 119
7.2 Main Principles and Structure of

the UN Security Management System
In 2005, the Department of Safety and Security
(DSS) was created to replace the office of
the United Nations Security Coordinator
(UNSECCORD). With this change, the United
Nations security management system was shaped
for worldwide consistency, and the UN security
system was gradually implemented.
At the Headquarters Level
The Under-Secretary-General for Safety and
Security is responsible for overseeing the UN
security management system. In his/her capacity,
he/she must ensure a coherent response by the
United Nations system to any emergency situation,
with responsibility for all policy/procedural matters
related to security issues. As such, he/she heads
the Department of Safety and Security (DSS).
DSS provides leadership, operational support, and
oversight of the security management system to
enable the safest and most efficient conduct of the
programmes and activities of the United Nations
System.
The executive heads of each of the UN
organizations will appoint a Senior Security
Manager (SSM) and/or a Senior Security Focal
Point (SSFP) with the responsibility of overseeing
the organizations security function. The SSM/
SSFP from the various organizations will ensure
coordination and liaison throughout the UN security
management system.
In the Field
The primary responsibility for security and
protection of UN personnel and property rests
with the host government. Irrespective of this, the
Secretary-General designates one senior official
the Designated Official (DO) in each country
where the United Nations is present. He/she is
responsible for the security and protection of all
present UN organizations, their staff members, and
eligible dependents and property. In addition, the
representative of each present UN organization
is, through his/her executive heads, accountable
to the Under-Secretary-General for DSS for all
security matters that relate to staff members.
120 |
Each organization must work closely with the

DO. For that purpose, a Security Management
Team (SMT) will be established to ensure full
collaboration on all security matters. The SMT
oversees the security conditions in the area and
coordinates all security issues on an inter-agency
basis. The SMT must include: the DO; the heads
of Agencies, Programmes and Funds; the Chief
Security Advisor (CSA); and representatives
from IGOs/NGOs and other missions dispatched
by DSS. Together with the SMT, the DO will
develop and implement the Minimum Operations
Security Standards (MOSS) for all UN operations
throughout the country.
At each duty station, the Chief Security Advisor
(CSA) serves as a principle advisor to the DO
and the SMT and is responsible for all aspects of
security management. Field Security Coordination
Officers (FSCO) or/and the Country Security Focal
Point (CSFP) assist the CSA in his/her work.
Single-agency security officers ensure, apart from
his/her agency-specific responsibility, that their
staff members are trained and briefed on security
matters within existing policy and procedures. In
addition, a number of wardens, usually in large
cities, may ensure proper implementation the UN
Security Plan. Although the system seems a bit
complicated, the FO will always find a designated
security official whose instructions the FO should
adhere to and from whom the FO always can seek
advice.
The SRSG/HOM of a multidimensional mission
may be appointed as the DO and is, in such cases,
accountable through the Under-Secretary-General
of DSS to the Secretary-General. The uniformed
personnel do not fall under the UN security
management system but are under the exclusive
jurisdiction of the Head of Mission (HOM). Staff
members of civilian components, their spouses,
and dependants are, however, included in UN
security arrangements. On security matters, the
military components will work closely with DO and
the Security Management Team (SMT) in order
to establish the best security environment for all
personnel working within the mission area.
7.3 Responsibilities of a UN Staff

Member
Promotion of the Security Environment
Every FO should comply with the provided safety
and security rules issued in the mission. However,
some basic principles further promote these rules,
such as:
Confidence-building: A secure environment
is dependent on the confidence of the various

actors in the mission area. Confidence-building
measures are part of the physical protection of
the Field Operator.
Security consent: If possible and when
convenient, the necessary security consent

should be obtained from the national and local
authorities. In an emergency area, consent
includes acceptance of various aspects of UN
activities, such as freedom of movement, use
of communication means, employment of local
staff, etc.
Adherence to security measures in the mission
area: The UN Security Management Team

(SMT), in combination with UN agencies and
NGOs, has made a number of recommendations
including: improved training and information
on safety and security; assessment of security
conditions; local arrangements with warring
parties; protection provided by peacekeeping
forces; procedures for emergency evacuation;
etc. The FO should adhere to established
procedures and exercise common sense in case
of an emergency.
Although these rules are commonly recognized

and accepted, they are not always acknowledged
or followed, particularly in an emergency area.
For various reasons, some organizations do not
accept the authority and guidelines of the UN
umbrella and consequently may cause dangerous
situations in times of emergency. Such situations
may be further aggravated when entities have
not announced their presence to the DO or
any of his/her security officers, specifically the
Mission Security Officer (MSO). Although these
organizations operate with the best of intentions,
their unknown presence will cause considerable
problems and may jeopardize any ordered
emergency evacuations.
UN Policies and Procedures4

All staff members employed by organizations of
the United Nations system are responsible for
their own safety and security, irrespective of their
location of assignment and are responsible for
complying with all security policies and procedures
of the organizations. Staff members employed by
organizations of the United Nations system are
accountable to their country head of agency and
Executive Head agency.
The protection provided by the host government in
no way alters the responsibilities of staff members
to the organizations they serve and, in particular,
the requirement that they shall not seek nor receive
instructions from any government or authority
external to the organization, which they serve. If
they are given instructions by authorities of the
host country relative to security or protection,
which differ from those of the Designated Official,
he/she should be informed immediately.
Personnel employed by organizations of the United
Nations shall be responsible for the following:
Familiarizing themselves with information
provided to them regarding the UN security

management system at their location;
Receiving a security clearance prior to travelling

to a country in which a phase has been
declared.
Informing the Designated Official (DO) in the
country of destination when travelling to a

country where a phase has not been declared;
Attending security briefings and signing a
document certifying that they have been briefed;
Knowing who their warden and/or agency

security focal point is;
Being appropriately equipped for service at the

duty station;
Applying and complying with all security
regulations and procedures at the duty station,

whether on or off duty;
Comporting themselves in a manner which will
not endanger their safety and security or that of

others; and
4 The remainder of this section is extracted from:
United Nations Field Security Handbook, 2006,
accessed <http://pbpu.unlb.org/PBPS/Library/
Field%20Security%20Handbook%20-%20FULL.pdf>.
| 121
Completing all mandatory training.
7.4 Personal Safety and Precautions

FOs are to be cognizant of their responsibilities in
respect to personal security. The nature of their
duties indicates a necessity for greater security
awareness than would be the case in most FOs
countries of origin. There are many reasons why
an individual FO could be the target of a violent
action, crime, or even a simple robbery: his/her
nationality, appearance, gender (especially if a
woman), colour, race, or apparent wealth; the
nature of his/her duties; or simply happening to be
the most suitable target at that particular moment.
Therefore, the FO should always be aware and
suspicious, calm, and always know what they are
doing and where they are going. FOs should be
confident but should feel free to leave a location,
should they begin to feel uncomfortable. The
following suggestions may serve as guidance for
various precautions to be taken before departure
in the mission area and what actions may be
necessary when something unexpected occurs.
The following text provides some information on
how to act and how to be prepared when serving
in a UN mission, but the most reliable account
of this information may be found in the Security
Awareness - An Aide-Mmoire.
To access the UNHCR document
entitled Security Awareness - An Aide
Memoire, visit http://www.centreforsafety.
org/download.asmx?File=modules\
catalog\2\100\54\2_XX_1_1.pdf
Before Departure to the Mission
Preparation before departure must never be
overlooked. Timely and relevant information will
enable FOs to better cope with actual issues
involving their new assignment, particularly during
the very first weeks. Meticulous preparation may
prove to be life-saving. Preparations should
also include the FOs family and loved ones. By
informing family members of what can be expected
(duties, living conditions, length of absence, and
channels open for communication), emotional
stress will be reduced before the FOs departure,
as well as during the first weeks in the mission.
122 |
As an FO, your preparations may include the

following.
General Preparations
Make sure you are in good physical and mental

condition.
Never leave your home or loved ones with
personal or socio-economic problems unsolved.
Prepare yourself by studying the country and
particularly the cultural aspects of the country/

area in which you are going to work.
Study and familiarize yourself with the mission
in which you will operate (i.e., the mandate and

operational tasks).
Make sure you understand what is expected of

you as a professional.
Be prepared for your living conditions in poor

areas.
Make sure that you have proper insurance if an

accident occurs and that you know your blood
type.
Make sure you have appropriate clothing
and other necessities, such as a batterypowered flashlight or torch, pocket knife, pocket
dictionary, and a small supply of medical or
prescription drugs for emergencies (headache,
upset stomach, antiseptics for scratches, etc.).
Make sure you have UN updated security travel
advisory and/or other necessary UN documents.
Preparation Immediately Before Departure
Let someone know your travel itinerary and

where you can be reached.
Ensure that addresses and phone numbers of
the mission (organization) are correct and can

be easily attained, e.g., the security officer, the
DO, or other representatives easily accessible
upon your arrival.
Ensure that you will be met on arrival, and verify

the contact number of the person meeting you.
Make sure that you have a small amount of
local currency, but never carry large amounts of

money, credit card, drivers license, etc.
Check visas (if required) and other travel

documents.
While Travelling
Travel light.
Spread valuable things amongst your luggage
and person.
Keep travel documents, money, and other

valuables in inside pockets.
Do not display your forthcoming addresses and

telephone numbers.
Ensure that you have charge of your personal

belongings, e.g., hand luggage.
Do not sit near people if they make you

uncomfortable.
in an area that has been declared safe by UN

Security Officers. Many areas may be safe in
broad daylight but very dangerous late in the
evenings and when alone. Make sure that you
are in compliance with UN Minimum Operations
Security Standards (MOSS).
Explore the room, and check that windows and

doors can be properly locked with a key or by
other means (e.g., a chair).
If possible, never be accommodated on the
ground floor, which provides easy entrance from

outside.
Make sure you are familiar with the escape route

in case of fire or other incidents.
Ensure the telephone is working, and
communicate immediately to persons concerned.
If someone knocks at your door, do not open it
Upon Arrival
Stay alert. Watch luggage and briefcases,
before the person is identified.
and keep your travel documents and money/

travellers cheques safe.
Make sure that the person designated to meet

you has proper identification.
If no one is there to pick you up, call the UN
numbers you obtained before your departure, or

seek assistance at the airport for providing safe
transport to your final address.
You may be forced to take a taxi. Ask the
information desk at the airport about reasonable

taxi fare to your final destination. Check the
fare with the driver before entering the cab,
and make sure the cab is an authorized taxi. If
arriving late in the evening, women may want to
use a hotel shuttle instead of a taxi and, upon
arriving at the hotel, make further arrangements
for transportation.
Accommodations
If you have to make your own arrangements
concerning hotels, it is always recommended to

use a hotel with a well known, positive reputation.
In general, these hotels have proper security and
will save you from unexpected problems with
food, drinking water, ice, etc. You may always
seek advice from a UN Security Officer.
If you are going to stay in an apartment, small
house, etc., you should ensure that it is located
Living conditions may not be the same as you are used to. (UN Photo
#175097 by Ian Steele, January 1985)
Keep your room number private, and never

display your room key.
The Environment
A necessary and important safety measure is
to become acquainted with the surrounding
neighbourhood.
Find the nearest shops, police station, and

hospitals.
Check to see where the embassy of your nation

is located, or if you are staying in a remote area
far from the capital, get appropriate addresses
and phone numbers.
Check and be acquainted with the nearest route

to friends or others you trust or to a recognized
| 123
safe area (e.g., a UN compound, site, or

headquarters).
As a Resident
a stranger that you are alone and never open

the door without identifying the visitor. Always be
cautious if giving out business cards with your
resident address and phone numbers.
At Home
Walking and Using Public Transportation
If you are supposed to stay for a longer period, you

must ensure that [visiting] members of your family
are well aware of the various security precautions.
Also, servants (including temporary servants) must
be instructed on some of these issues. You must
always be on your guard and make sure that all
precautions are part of your daily routine. Ensure
that you feel comfortable in your residence and its
close surroundings.
When walking or using public transportation, you

should not run the risk of being a target by wearing
expensive clothing or jewellery. Remember
that when walking to and from official business
meetings, smart suits and nice briefcases will catch
the immediate attention of unwanted elements,
particularly in areas with poor policing and/or
known as unsafe. Avoid any unnecessary robbery
by using authorized taxis or private cars. In
general, always stay a step ahead by considering
what might happen and how should you react.
Doors and windows and locks must be solid

Doors and windows on the ground floor should
have outside bars.
Safety chains, a peephole, an intercom to the

main entrance, and outside lighting are also
important considerations.
Make sure there is restricted access to keys and

that your doors are always locked, even when
you are at home. If you lose a key, make sure
that all locks are replaced.
Use blinders or curtains at night.

Install telephones, or have access to mobile
phones.
Use one room as a safe haven to be used during

an attack if you are exposed.
Always keep a short list of emergency telephone

numbers close to your telephone (which should
be known to the servants, as well).
Always be aware of pickpockets. They exist all
over the world and appear particularly in crowds.

Keep your wallet or money/credit cards, etc.,
under clothing and never in your briefcase.
Avoid walking alone at night, and never enter

isolated areas by yourself.
Always be alert and watch your surroundings,

especially when you get off a bus or leave a
subway station. If followed across the street
or when entering a shop and accosted, draw
attention to yourself.
If dropped off at home, ask the driver to wait until

you have opened your front door.
Cash machines are rather common, and their
locations are considered to be high-risk areas.

Be extremely cautious when using your bank
or credit card. If possible, use bank cashiers or
cash machines inside the bank.
Servants must be vetted.
Never accept a ride from a stranger.
Pay extra caution when using elevators. Are
Use registered taxis or taxis known by the UN
they in service and reliable?
community, and avoid picking taxis on the street.
When exercising outdoors, never exercise alone

or in unknown areas.
Perpetrators may first call you by phone or try

to enter through the door. Therefore, you should
be very strict in giving out your number and pay
extra attention to knocks at your door. Never tell
124 |
When in a taxi, keep the doors locked and
windows rolled up all the way. Do not drive

alone, and always pay before departing the taxi.
Be extra cautious if the taxi is stopped. Never

open the door or roll down the windows; wait
until you know for sure the purpose of the
Photography is a point of concern, so taking
interruption.
At Work
You must always adhere to the safety and
security instructions (e.g., MOSS) given by the

designated security officials, and you must
always ensure you have the latest information.
Familiarize yourself with the daily routines of

your duty station (office, location).
Check doors, windows, and escape routes.
Take note of standard security procedures, and

participate in basic fire drills and security and
first aid training.
Documents used in your daily work and of a
sensitive nature must be locked away when not

in use.
Check the availability and location of fire-fighting

equipment and medical or first aid kits.
Always be aware of the risks associated with
sabotage and bomb threats, and always ask

the designated focal point for information and
advice.
Be aware that radios and telephones are not

secure means of communication, and, thus,
exercise extra precaution. As a general rule,
sensitive information should be coded for
transmission.
Take notes of evacuation plans.

When moving outside your duty station (location),
there are some rules you should follow. In general,
the rules always apply to wherever you are.
Always inform whom-it-may-concern when and

where you are going.
pictures of military installations, equipment,

personnel, or any other sensitive area or object
is not recommended.
Avoid any political behaviour and speech that
would draw unfavourable attention to the mission

or to the UN as a whole.
7.5 Travel
The FOs may do some travelling, but they should
be aware that 50 per cent of all security incidents
occur during travels. Therefore, the FO should
avoid any unnecessary travel and always make
sure that travel is permitted and along routes that
have been declared safe. Although the following
rules are for travel taking place over longer
distances, the FO should also adopt the rules
indicated below for shorter travel when appropriate.
General Rules
Possess appropriate security clearance for
countries where a security phase is in effect.
Inform security offices of your itinerary.

Check and obtain the latest security conditions
of the route before travelling.
Report to the concerned security official upon

your arrival, and request a briefing on the
prevailing security conditions.
Make sure you have adequate means of
communication. If you have access to a radio

or mobile telephone, stay in regular contact. If
radio or mobile telephones are not available,
establish some sort of communication plan, such
as points of communication or just simply a plan
to report when you have arrived.
Always remain on guard against extremists,
If travelling by car, check that the car is
Never pretend to be any kind of expert who
Carry maps and a compass if the area is
and always exercise caution when in unfamiliar

surroundings.
could be useful for extreme political factions.
Each FO will receive a specific Identification
Card (ID) to ensure verifiable and accurate

identification as a member of the relevant UN
organization. The ID must always be carried and
be presented whenever demanded.
adequately equipped with a jack, spare tire, extra

jerrycan of gasoline, water, and a first aid kit.
unfamiliar.
Avoid travelling alone and in the dark.

Never resist if the car is stopped.
Always park the vehicle in a secure area and in
a way so you can easily escape.
| 125
Never carry unauthorized passengers.

Keep a proper speed.
At daily driving between your resident and office,
vary your route.
Driving
The need to drive a car either as part of official
duties or for other reasons might be hazardous.
Therefore, bear in mind that a large number of
casualties in field operations are caused by traffic
accidents or driving under off-road conditions. The
traffic pattern, the roads, and the terrain are often
very different conditions than FOs are accustomed
to. This calls for extra caution, particularly since
most accidents are due to high speeds and
unskilled drivers.
Be extra cautious when driving through populated
areas. Children might be out playing and are
unpredictable in their movements. Slow down and
give them enough room to move out of the way.
On the road, speed is a crucial factor in difficult
weather conditions and should always be lower
than that of regular weather conditions. In winter
conditions, always keep a safe distance behind
other vehicles and keep a closer watch than usual
on other cars, motorcyclists, and bicyclists. Bear
in mind the particular characteristics of different
weather conditions. On icy roads, it is essential to
do everything more carefully than normal. Slow
to avoid harsh turns, maintain the highest gear

you can, and, if you have to brake, use short,
even applications on the brake pedal, not heavy
sustained pressure.
Rain, at any time during the year, makes roads
perilous. However, in winter conditions the effects
of rain on visibility are much worse, especially
when there is heavy spray from other vehicles.
Thus, switch on dipped headlights (not high beams)
to see and be seen. Slow down and watch for large
pools of water in heavy storms. Hitting these at
high speed can cause even the most experienced
drivers to lose control of the vehicle, either by
swerving as only one front wheel is impacted by
the water, or by hydroplaning as multiple wheels
skim on the water and momentarily lose contact
with the road surface. At night, rain worsens the
glare from headlights, so it is vital to reduce speed
in such conditions. Stopping distances are much
greater on wet roads, so allow plenty of room
between you and the vehicle in front of you.
Driving in the desert requires a competent
driver able to read the terrain and find the most
appropriate ways of getting from one destination
to another, avoiding loose sand and invisible sand
dunes. Knowledge of the area is a necessity; the
use of a guide is strongly recommended. Getting
lost in the desert is highly dangerous. Vehicles
should be equipped with extra water bottles,
jerrycans of gasoline, and shovels. Long-bodied
vehicles are preferred to short-bodied ones, as the
latter have a tendency to get stuck in the sand. If
you do get stuck in the sand, try to get out using
the same tracks.
In general, the following may apply:
Adjust your speed to the prevailing conditions.

Drive near the centre of the road.
Wear seat belts.
Make sure you can operate all of the features of
Members of the Military Liaison Office of the UN Mission for the Referendum in Western Sahara (MINURSO) attempt to push their car out of the
sand in Oum Dreyga, Western Sahara. The officers were on a ceasefire
monitoring patrol. (UN Photo #439690 by Martine Perret, June 2010)
down as soon as you are aware of ice, steer gently

126 |
the car (switching from two- to four-wheel drive,

using anti-spin control, etc.).
Be familiar with the routes, and vary the route if

your safety is in danger.
Memorize safe locations in case of

emergencies.
Report your departure and arrival.

If you have a vehicle breakdown, report it to
offices concerned, and evaluate the security

situation. In non-secure areas with checkpoints
and similar stops, drive very slowly on approach,
stop if requested and show your ID card, and do
not resist vehicle search but protest.
If you encounter a hold-up or hijacking situation,

stop the vehicle and remain calm. Always
cooperate and be compliant to the demands.
If you are followed, drive to a busy street, police

station, or other recognized safe place.
7.6 Sexual Harassment

Female UN staff members are sometimes subject
to sexual harassment. Harassment may occur at
any place, at any time, and when least expected.
Sexual harassment is defined as behaviour of a
sexual nature that might reasonably be expected
or be perceived to cause offense or humiliation to
another.5 It may happen on the street as stalking,
muttered obscenities, gestures, and even rape. It
can take place inside or outside ones residence or
working place. Female staff members, as well as
their uniformed colleagues, should be aware that
harassment does occur and know how to cope with
it.
Some missions are more volatile than others, and
law and order may be severely deteriorated. The
risks to become a subject for harassment in any
form will increase. Under these circumstances,
female staff members and uniformed female
personnel are more vulnerable than their male
colleagues, and special precautions must be taken.
For this purpose, the United Nations Department of
Safety and Security has issued the document Be
Safe, Be Secure: Security Guidelines for Women,
which describes the various situations a woman
may encounter. It creates both awareness and
knowledge on how to be prepared and how to
recognize situations that may trigger unpleasant
experiences.
5 United Nations Department of Safety and
Security, Be Safe, Be Secure: Security Guidelines
for Women, 2006, accessed <http://www.unescap.
org/asd/hrms/odlu/files/Security_Guidelines_for_
Women_2006.pdf>.
To access the DSS document entitled

Be Safe, Be Secure: Security Guidelines for
Women, visit http://www.unescap.org/asd/
hrms/odlu/files/Security _Guidelines_for_
Women_2006.pdf
7.7 Special Security Precautions

Carjacking of a UN Vehicle
The hijacking of a vehicle can take place anywhere
in the world, but it is most common in areas
where law enforcement is ineffective. Events have
demonstrated that UN personnel are especially
likely to be potential targets of vehicle hijacking.
The guidelines shown below have been developed
over the years as the most effective ways to deal
with vehicle hijacking, focusing on saving the
life of the hijacked individual by not seeking a
confrontation.
If involved in a hijacking situation, stay calm,
do not provoke or antagonize the abductors, try

to negotiate, do whatever you are forced to do.
Watch your body language, move slowly, and try
to diffuse the situation. Appear to be innocent;
do not try to save anything but your life. Never
try to hide possessions, throw away vehicle
keys, or obliterate any property.
Cooperate with hijackers, and make no attempt

to flee. Hijackers should be told that they have
taken an FO who is in their country in the
service of the United Nations and who has no
malice towards them.
If the hijackers insist on stealing the vehicle, you
may request to remove all personal belongings

from the vehicle. If two vehicles are involved,
the rear vehicle should not attempt to render
assistance but should, if possible, retire to a safe
distance, inform the office (HQ) of the situation,
and be prepared to render assistance when the
hijackers have left.
It is imperative that the FO be familiar with the

security arrangements of the working place (duty
station) or the mission area. Such arrangements
include standard procedures in case of hijacking,
as mentioned above. In such an extreme situation,
it is necessary that the UN mission be informed
| 127
of the incident by a timely and accurate message

from the potential victim if the situation allows
or by a witness to the incident. This will be
given absolute priority by any mission office or
headquarters.
other nations involved to achieve your release.
Never do anything that could undermine the fact

that you are a UN member.
Avoid any resistance that could be
misinterpreted by those detaining you.
Detained
If the FO is detained, the organization will make
every effort to secure a safe release, even if the
in-country government has the main responsibility.
There are a number of activities that will be carried
out, each one too comprehensive to be described
in this document. Nevertheless, the FO should
keep in mind that there is no reason to conceal
anything from the abductors; make it clear that you
are a member of the UN a peaceful organization
and explain the mandate of the mission. Do not
fear any later disapproval or punishment because
of saying something you were forced to. Under
these circumstances, your first task is to survive
and come out of the situation with as little difficulty
as possible.
Keep calm, obey orders, and never argue.

Try to rest and keep yourself physically and
mentally active.
Be aware that everything will be done to save

your life. Trust in the efforts of the UN and all
Mine Awareness
An FO frequently works in a conflict area or in
the vicinity of former battlefields. A thorough
knowledge of the mine situation and other types
of battlefield debris is a necessity before entering
such areas. Situations may also occur where some
elements of the conflicting parties are engaged
in operations using not only mines but also other
explosive devices directed against each other
or UN personnel. Avoid these areas. If off-route
movements are inevitable, walk or drive on stony
ground, where mines or munitions would be hard
to conceal. Recognition of devices/mines in use
and where such threat exists is a must for all UN
personnel and others concerned. The following
can serve as general guidance.
Where to expect mines:
In exits from roads and in damaged roads

(placed to delay repair).
Bottlenecks, edges, and forks in roads and

tracks.
Anywhere in unpaved tracks.

Around abandoned houses and equipment.
As booby traps in houses or buildings: doors,
drawers, toilets.
In diversions around obstacles.

Near springs, drinking places, shade, or
anywhere people are likely to be attracted.
Movement in mined areas:
Be alert in looking for signs of mines (objects

The United Nations Interim Administration in Kosovo (UNMIK) is marking
the International Day for Mine Awareness with a presentation on the successful and courageous work of the Kosovo Protection Corps deminers in
making Kosovo a safer place for everyone, future plans, and on the need
to remain vigilant regarding mine risk and supportive of the Unite Nations
Mine Action efforts, in Lukare, Kosovo. (UN Photo #142520 by Ky Chung,
April 2007)
128 |
which can be natural or artificial and look out of

place in surrounds).
Be wary of moving over obvious and easy

ground, and do not walk on road verges.
If caught in a mined or trapped area on foot,
make for the nearest safe area (hard road or

recent vehicle tracks).
If in a vehicle which is halted in a minefield,
withdraw by using the preceding vehicle tracks

until clear.
Mark and report findings.

Precautions for drivers:
Vary routes in and out to avoid roadside bombs.

Drive in the centre of the road, clear of verges,
and avoid turns on roads.
7.8 First Aid

FOs may find themselves far from medical facilities
in time of need. Thus, everyone must be prepared
to handle minor medical emergencies and know
the steps to be taken at any location in order to
obtain additional medical support. FOs should
ensure that they are familiar with the instructions
of Emergency First Aid and how to act in case of
an emergency before any assignment to the field.
Therefore, this section of Lesson 7 will only briefly
address this subject.
Accidents
Avoid excessive speed.
Be aware that a seemingly trivial accident may

have caused a major injury, such as a broken neck.
Stay calm, and act decisively with care.
Stay on the road at halts.

Snipers
In battle-zones or other areas with a high level of
violence, snipers are a genuine threat. If possible,
avoid these areas. If not, pay attention to all
unexpected movements, and use common sense.
In Buildings
As a general rule, personnel should not stand
by open windows and never leave the curtains/
blinds open at night when lights are on in occupied
rooms. However, should the FOs be subjected
to sniper fire, they are to take cover immediately.
If near a window, they should move to a position
where they have a substantial wall between
themselves and the direction from which the
gunfire was heard.
Ask, look, listen, think, and assess carefully:
Is he/she breathing, and is the air passage
clear? Assure respiration by tilting the head and

lifting the chin.
Check his/her condition. How does he/she
react? (Is the accident victim conscious and

alert, drowsy, or unconscious?) In case of
suffocation, give mouth-to-mouth resuscitation.
How is the victims pulse?

Is the victim bleeding? Give first aid treatment if
needed.
Check for any immobilized limbs.

Treat for shock. If the patient is pale, cold, and/
or weak, let him/her rest, have fluids, and be
covered by blankets.
Move out of danger, and then call for assistance
When in Vehicles
(medics).
Personnel should not remain stationary for longer

than necessary when travelling. Should personnel
be subjected to sniper fire while stationary, they
should exit the area immediately. If the sniper
fire prevents the personnel from escape using
the vehicle, they should exit the vehicle and take
cover. If possible, they should call (radio/mobile) for
assistance.
Should personnel receive sniper fire while moving
in a vehicle, they should speed up to the safest
possible speed and exit the area immediately.
If possible and if no major injury has occurred,

bring the patient to a safe place.
Gently assess the nature of the injuries/illness, and

administer the necessary care. Position the patient
appropriately, and reassure the patient. Never
leave an unconscious or severely injured patient
unattended. Call for help, or get somebody to call
an ambulance, an appropriate medical clinic, or
the office of the mission. Take whatever steps are
necessary and in accordance with the Emergency
First Aid instructions. If possible, organize and
manage the site until help arrives.
| 129
Weather Conditions
If you encounter heat exhaustion, you may
recognize the symptoms, including exhaustion,
headache, pains in the back or limbs, mental
confusion, and fainting. Cramps, abdominal pains,
vomiting, collapse, and deep unconsciousness are
indicators of severe exhaustion. Treat the patient
for shock.
Relieve hotness and sweating by any means.

Drink large, cold with one teaspoon of salt or
sugar per litre.
Cold, wind, and wet clothing may lead to a lowering

of body temperature, resulting in the dangerous
state of hypothermia. In this case, the patient
may move into lethargy, stumble, fall, and later
experience uncontrollable shivering and failure of
vision.
Prevent further loss of body heat, and move to

shelter.
Provide hot drinks and sugar.
immediate and most effective treatment is based

on communication on an emotional level. Talks
and discussions can be part of such treatment and
should focus on the present and be confidential,
supportive, and educational. Also, while talks
with friends, family, and co-workers can be highly
beneficial, professional assistance should always
be considered.
7.10 Health Precautions: General

Rules
Maintaining good personal hygiene is easy under
normal conditions. However, it may be more
problematic under stress or when extreme weather
conditions reduce the working capacity. Bad
hygiene may further aggravate an already severe
situation. Most FOs are aware of these facts but
should pay careful attention to the realities of
problematic working conditions and take necessary
precautions. Consumption of food, liquor, and
soft drinks is a common cause of problems, and
temporary sickness is frequent. The following may
serve as a general guide:
Avoid local liquors and excessive consumption
Burns
of alcohol.
For minor burns, wash the area, and apply a

clean, sterile bandage. For severe burns, cover the
burned area, and never pull away sticking clothing,
cover burned faces, or use ointments. If possible,
cool the burned area, and treat the patient for
shock.
seasoned foods, only eat them in moderation.
Raw vegetables, salads, cold sauces (gravies),

and dairy products should be avoided unless
their source or origin can be verified.
Avoid fruits unless the outer skin is unbroken

and can be removed prior to consumption.
7.9 Stress Situations
Use only canned or boiled milk, and, similarly,
Field Operators are sometimes confronted with

an inordinate amount of stressful situations,
which are potentially harmful if not managed
properly. Knowing what can be expected, such
as the nature of the task and mission, duration
of the assignment, living and working conditions,
and means for communication with loved ones
can greatly reduce the physical and emotional
demands that contribute to stress. FOs exposed
to traumatic experiences should seek professional
treatment as soon as possible. Unfortunately,
accidents occur, and everyone who has witnessed
or experienced an accident is always affected. The
130 |
If you are not accustomed to spicy and highly
ensure water purification tablets are used or

that water is boiled prior to consumption. Water
should be kept at the boiling temperature for at
least ten minutes.
Well cooked foods are normally safe to eat, but

let your common sense be the guide.
Be aware that a vast majority of people who
have the Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV)

contracted it by having sexual intercourse with
someone who was already infected. However,
HIV can also be transmitted by infected blood
or blood products (as in blood transfusions), the
use of drugs through contaminated needles, or

any needles used for tattooing.
Treat minor injuries or scratches immediately.

Sometimes you may have headaches.
Remember that headaches in hot climates may

be caused by the lack of salt. Ensure that you
have a normal salt intake either through the food
provided or through salt tablets.
Be aware of snakes and other unwelcome

inhabitants.
Applications
You have just arrived at your new duty station
(location) and have the first informal discussion
with your partners from another UN agency. The
issue of security is discussed, and it seems that
your partners are not particularly concerned. When
you stress the importance of safety and security
and the necessity to read the security instructions,
they answer, Dont worry! But, just give us five
reasons why we need to read it! How would you
answer?
Learning Questions
Knowledge
What kinds of preparations are necessary

before departure to the mission area?
What, in your opinion, are the most important
security precautions when you are at home (as a

resident in the mission area)?
What are the rules you have to follow when

moving outside your office (duty station,
location)?
What are the basic rules if you become involved

in a hijack situation?
What are the basic rules if you are detained?

What is mine-awareness and where can you
expect to find mines?
How do you protect yourself when travelling in a

car and exposed to sniper fire?
What are the symptoms of heat exhaustion?

Awareness
Global Handwashing Day 2008 is being observed in the photo above. The
day was recognized in over 70 countries across five continents in an effort
to mobilize and motivate millions around the world to wash their hands
with soap, ultimately raising awareness to the risk of disease this simple
act can prevent. (UN Photo #201508 by Marco Castro, October 2008)
What are the reasons why you may be a target

of a violent action, crime, or robbery?
Why do you have to report your departure and

arrival when travelling?
Why should doors be kept locked and windows

rolled up when you travel by car?
Why should you be restrictive in giving out your

phone number?
Why is the United Nations so concerned about

safety and security?
| 131
End-of-Lesson Quiz
1. Which is the leading cause of fatalities on
mission?
6. Which of the following is most important?

When travelling, make sure that:
A. Accidents;
A. Your family is informed about your itinerary;
B. Malicious acts;
B. Your office is informed about your itinerary;
C. Illness;
C. Security offices are informed about your

itinerary;
D. Other.
2. Upon arrival to a new locale, which one of

the four principles listed below do you judge
as the most important one?
A. Impartiality;
D. You report to your office when you have

arrived.
7. If you encounter a hijacking situation when

travelling by car:
A. Speed up and drive through as fast as possible;
B. Confidence-building;
C. Security consent;
B. Turn around and go back;
D. Adherence to security measures in the mission

area.
C. Stop the car and roll up the windows;

D. Stop the car and cooperate.
3. Make sure that you understand what is

expected of you as a professional applies to
safety precautions:
8. Where might you expect to find mines?
A. Upon arrival;
B. At the office;
C. Before departure to the Mission;
D. At work.
4. Choose the best answer. Staying at a

reputable hotel is recommended because:
A. They normally have proper security;
B. The food and drinking water is supposed to be
safe;
C. It is more safe in terms of transport and
communication;
D. It is more comfortable.
5. To avoid unnecessary robbery or

pickpocketing:
A. Purposefully wear inexpensive, untidy clothing;
B. Always keep your wallet in your briefcase;
A. In paved tracks;
B. Around houses and equipment;
C. Bottlenecks, edges, and forks in roads and
tracks;
D. Both b. and c.
9. Exhaustion, headache, and pains in the back

or limbs may be symptoms of:
A. Heat exhaustion;
B. Shock caused by injures;
C. Stress;
D. Excessive consumption of alcohol.
10. What is one way HIV may NOT be

contracted:
A. Sexual intercourse;
B. Blood products;
C. Contaminated needles;
D. Saliva.
C. Always use the first available taxi;

D. Always use authorized taxis or private cars.
132 |
ANSWER KEY
1A, 2D, 3C, 4A, 5D, 6C, 7D, 8D, 9A, 10D
SECTION IV
THE WORKING TOOLS
lesson eight
The Available Tools
lesson nine
The Partners
LESSON 8
THE AVAILABLE TOOLS
LESSON
8
LESSON OBJECTIVES
8.1 Participatory Methods
8.2 Projects and Project
Control
8.3 Verification/
Monitoring
8.4 Transparent
Communication
8.5 Negotiation
8.6 Mediation
8.7 Written
Communications and
Reports
8.8 Communication with
the Media
Previous lessons have given the student awareness of and familiarity with
the UNs guiding principles seen from both the institutional and operational
perspectives. Other lessons have focused on the working environment,
giving the student awareness of the problems and practicalities he/she
may face in the field. Subsequently, the following lessons deal with how a
Field Operator may utilize the various available mechanisms and entities
that have proven useful in the accomplishment of the work. While the
next lesson provides information on other organizations usually present
in the field, Lesson 8 discuss some of the most promoting tools that have
proven to be essential for professional fulfilment of a task. However useful
this information may be, it should be emphasized that the necessary skill
of a Field Operator can only be achieved through personal and practical
experiences.
Lesson 8:
What is the purpose of participatory models?

What is the purpose of the liasion system?
What is the purpose of information?
What are the major differences between negotiation and mediation?
What is the purpose of preparation before negotiation?
Which are the six phases in developing a project?
What should be considered in the evaluation of a project?
What is to be included in all written communcation?
In what way can the media be used as a promotional factor in an
emergency operation?
Introduction
Most United Nations missions have a humanitarian
and/or political dimension where human interaction
and contacts must be the principal instruments of
success. Positive outcomes will be hard to achieve
without an effective and practical use of these
communicative mechanisms. The basic elements
of interpersonal communications are: making
contacts, talking to people, and being concerned.
These human behaviours normally exercised at
home will also provide a favourable atmosphere in
the field. If these actions prevail amongst a mission
staff, this will greatly facilitate the FOs work,
regardless of whether the work concerns reaching
a cease-fire agreement or implementing a project.
However, the techniques of achieving a positive
atmosphere depend on the task and the available
resources. Several working tools or methods are
at the FOs disposal, generally defined as the
promoting mechanisms between a given task,
available resources, and the accomplishment.
8.1
Participatory Methods
People today have an urge an impatient urge

to participate in the events and processes that
shape their lives. And that impatience brings
many dangers and opportunities.1
While the quotation above was written in 1993, it
holds true today. The methods listed below aim
to incorporate the knowledge and opinions of a
local population in the planning and management
of development projects. Correctly implemented
and managed, participatory development methods
are powerful and useful tools. Although there is no
specific formulation of the programme objectives,
they aim at better efficiency and effectiveness, and
they encourage and empower the local population
in assuming responsibility for various projects.
See also the Participatory Methods
Toolkit: A Practitioners Manual, which
can be accessed at http://www.kbs-frb.be/
uploadedFiles/KBS-FRB/Files/EN/PUB_1540_
Participatoty _toolkit_New_edition.pdf.
1 UNDP, Human Development Report 1993, p.
1, accessed <http://hdr.undp.org/en/reports/global/
hdr1993/>.
The basic principle is to get local people involved

in a project to such an extent that they, for obvious
reasons, will take over the responsibilities of the
project. Over time, experience indicates that
local involvement, compared with the top-down
strategy, is even more effective, as it gives
confidence to local societies in improving their own
standard of living. Over the years, the methods of
this integration have been further developed, but
the practical adherences to those people-centred
activities are still valid. This commitment can be
expressed as follows:
The primacy of people: whatever the purpose
or ultimate goal of the project or programme,

peoples interests, their needs, and their wishes
must be allowed to underpin the key decisions
and actions relating to the project.
Peoples contribution: peoples knowledge and
skills must be seen as a potentially positive

contribution to the project a project which does
not seek to make use of local knowledge and
skills may not only be less effective but will also
be squandering a useful resource.
Peoples participation must empower women:
participatory development should seek to

improve gender inequalities through providing
a means by which women can take part in
decision-making.
Autonomy as opposed to control: as far as it
is realistic to do so, seek to invest as much

responsibility as possible for the project with the
local people and, thus, avoid having absolute
control in the hands of project staff.
Local actions as opposed to local responses:
encouraging local people to make decisions

and to take action within the broad parameters
of the project, as opposed to merely responding
passively to initiatives proposed by others.
Allow for some flexibility in project direction:
promoting peoples participation will mean that,

as far as it is reasonably possible, the project
should be allowed to develop in accordance with
the abilities of local people to play an increasing
role and to begin to assume some responsibility.2
2 Abid Ullah Jan, Developing Meso-Level

Institutions, Chapter 6, Integrated Regional
Support Programme: Pakistan, 2001, accessed
| 139
Decentralisation and empowerment are the key

elements of the participatory methods.
it. Regardless, management and management

control are important tools.
Over the course of many years, UNDP and other

organizations have developed a range of similar
participatory methods and programmes labelled
Rapid Rural Appraisal (RRA). They all deal with
various participatory approaches and methods
that emphasize local knowledge and enable local
people to make their own appraisal, analysis, and
plans. Other similar programmes are Participatory
Rural Appraisal; Stakeholder Analysis; Gender
Analysis; and Participatory Action Research
(PAR). Depending on the circumstances, the
actual project, and its contextual involvement in the
principal development programme, these methods
may be useful tools in the practical implementation
of projects.
Project management is usually divided in different

phases, sometimes overlapping but each with their
own distinctive objectives. The following is not
comprehensive but provides an overview of the
various steps that may be used in the field.
Project Development
The development of a project may be done in
different ways, and consequently, there are a
number of various models and processes used.
Usually a project encompasses six phases:
project identification, project justification, project
description, implementation of the project,
follow-up, and evaluation. Justification is probably
the most important of the six phases since it
provides the background and motivation for further
actions. It should refer to a feasibility study, a part
of the project identification. Including the project
justification, the six phases are as follows:
Project identification: This is the very first phase
Six-month old Christelle Jean Pierre sleeps on her mothers shoulder, as

they wait for medical assistance at a cholera treatment center of UNICEF
and its affiliated non-governmental organization AVSI. (UN Photo #465279
by Marco Dormino, December 2010)
8.2
Projects and Project Control
General
Several thousands of field workers worldwide
are involved in the technical implementation of
projects frequently associated with a national
development programme. The international and/
or national FOs who work under such conditions
will probably face a wide range of tasks, everything
from planning to evaluation. Depending on the
FOs level of expertise and experience, he/she
may be responsible for certain parts of the project
or even have to assume full responsibility for
<http://www.commdev.ca/books.php>.
140 |
of a project. It might be an incident, a point

made in a discussion, or any other events that
foster the first embryo of a future project. The
idea is only valid when it has been put into a
context and identified either as a need or as a
solution to a problem. Thereafter, the idea must
be refined and clearly described.
Project justification: This is the next step and
must answer the most fundamental questions

about the aim and purpose of the project: (i)
Who is affected? (ii) What is the problem? (iii)
How can it be solved? (iv) What are reasonable
resources to be used? The questions must
be carefully analysed and should result in a
project description, which should be brief, well
structured, and succinct. Completed analysis
should be summarized and technical information
attached as appendixes. The project justification
is the first formal step and, if approved, will
authorize the development of the detailed
description of the project.
Project description: The description should give
the necessary (i) background to why the project

is needed, previous experiences in this field, and
a clear account of its objectives and affected
target group(s). It should also address the

questions, (ii) Is the project technically feasible
and what kind of resources are available or must
be procured? (iii) Organization of the project
and its future integration in the community or
in the country must be defined and projected.
(iv) Estimated costs covering both up-front
investments and ongoing operational costs must
be identified and financial resources explained
from where and how. Financial requirements
must match expected effectiveness and eventual
profitability. (v) A timetable and a plan for
implementation must be included. Sustainability,
environmentally friendly techniques, and
future maintenance should be considered. An
approved project description is a necessity for
requested financial resources.
Implementation: A formal agreement must
precede the implementation phase. The

implementation plan should include a course
of action, periodic budgets, budget allocation,
time for reports on the status of the project,
and a statement of accounts, obligations (of the
parties), and an evaluation plan. References
should be made on specific collaboration and
coordination with others.
Follow-up: The follow-up process should include
not only the control of the economic activities

such as disbursements and the use of
available assets but also control of the physical
activities. Physical activity follow-up is preferably
fulfilled through visits to the actual site(s),
comparisons between the implementation plan
and the actual status of the project, comparison
between orders, and deliveries, as well as
through frequent follow-up meetings.
Evaluation: The project evaluation assesses
whether the achievements match the objectives

as stated in the project description and justifies
the resources used. The analysis should be
based on either an appraisal of the quantitative
or qualitative accomplishments or as a
combination of both.
Management
It is recommended that a flow chart be developed
to follow a project and ensure effective
management. The chart will provide the project
manager with an overview of the project and

will facilitate control of the various phases of the
project, the use of resources, etc. Such a chart
should be developed at the very beginning of the
project and modified as necessary. Almost all
organizations have their own guidelines for projects
and project management. FOs likely to be involved
in project activities must be sure to acquire relevant
information in situ.
The identification and acquisition of funding
can often be as difficult as the planning and
management of a project. A project may be
financed though domestic financial resources or
through international resources, such as trade,
foreign direct investment, and other private flows.
Support can also be provided by international
financial cooperation for development, including
official development assistance. Wherever the
funding comes from, it is of utmost importance to
ensure that a written commitment exists and that
the money flows to the project in accordance with
standard and accepted procedures.
8.3 Verification/Monitoring
Principles
Verification means to verify, inspect, or test that
an agreement meets the legal and/or regulatory
requirements agreed upon the parties involved.
However, monitoring implies an active collection,
verification, and an immediate use of information.
Thus, verification can be part of a monitoring
process. The words verification and monitoring
are used frequently in the UN system but are not
always properly defined.
There are a number of tasks with implications in
verification and monitoring. Sensitivity and an
awareness of the political situation are particularly
vital. This sensitivity requires a careful but not
abusive supervision, observation, and gathering
of information. Combined with accurate reporting,
these activities can be the most essential tools
towards achieving mission success. For the
purpose of this section, the various verification/
monitoring missions are all titled monitoring.
Depending on her/his previous experiences, an
| 141
FO will work in different areas and, accordingly,

must ensure that he/she knows and understands
the mandate of the mission and the nature of the
assigned tasks. The FO should aim to preserve
and demonstrate objectiveness wherever possible
and not display any signs of favouritism. Monitoring
duties may encompass a wide range of tasks,
including those as follows.
itself is monitored by short-term observers who

are present at the opening of polling stations, while
votes are cast, and during the counting process.
After the election day, some observers may remain
in the country and tasked to monitor how possible
election-related shortcomings and complaints are
handled. The findings of the observers are made
public as soon as possible after the election day.
Humanitarian Assistance
If the FO has election-related experience, he/

she may be involved as a long-term or short-term
monitor. In his/her duties as an election monitor,
the FO should always keep a low profile to avoid
jeopardizing his/her position of impartiality. As
election monitors, FOs do not directly prevent
electoral fraud, but rather, they record and report
such instances. They must be familiar with the
specific duties of the position and follow the
guidelines for the rules of conduct of an electoral
monitor, never interfering if they are assigned to
monitor the voting process.
FOs may need to cooperate with the humanitarian

organizations already working in the area. This
work can vary greatly, such as any and all tasks
including monitoring the delivery of commodities,
food distribution, health programmes, educational
tasks, administrative work, or assessment of a
certain situation. The FO may also monitor the
evacuation of refugees and the wounded from the
disaster zones. By working in the humanitarian
field, the FO may ensure that the humanitarian
imperatives are fully considered.
The UN Declaration of Principles

for International Election Observation
can be accessed online at http://www.
accessdemocracy.org/files/1923_
declaration_102705.pdf.
Human Rights (HR)
As observed in the foreword to the OHCHRs
Training Manual on Human Rights Monitoring:
A growing number of United Nations field
operations established in recent years, under
either the coordination of the Office of the High
Commissioner for Human Rights (OHCHR) or
other United Nations auspices, have included
a human rights mandate (in Angola, Burundi,
Cambodia, Colombia, El Salvador, Former
Yugoslavia, Guatemala, Haiti, Rwanda, Sierra
Leone, and elsewhere). This intensification
of field work is one of the most significant
developments in the area of human rights
protection and promotion in the last decade of
the twentieth century. While the mandate of
these field operations has varied, a major task
they have been required to perform has been
monitoring the human rights situation in the
country of operation.3
Members of the Jordanian battalion of the United Nations Stabilization

Mission in Haiti (MINUSTAH) rescue children from an orphanage destroyed
by hurricane Ike. (UN Photo #192376 by Marco Dormino, September
2008)
Election
Election monitoring engages both long-term and
short-term observers. Long-term observers begin
their work weeks before the actual election day.
They monitor the candidate registration process,
the legal framework, the media cover, the work of
the various national election committees, and the
campaigns of the political parties. The election
142 |
OHCHR, Training Manual on Human Rights
All monitoring tasks given to the FOs during his/

her assignment are determined by previous
experiences. He/she may operate independently,
assist others in the field, or act as an administrative
entity. Irrespective of level and responsibility, all
investigations, gathering of information about
incidents, event observations, visitations of
detention or refugee sites, and verifications of
alleged violence against human rights must be
carried out meticulously and with great sensitivity.
For more comprehensive information,
access the Training Manual on Human Rights
Monitoring online at http://www1.umn.edu/
humanrts/monitoring/monitoring-training.html.
Confidence-Building
It is a demanding task to monitor and report
the situation of an economy, social life, and
infrastructure and try to develop ideas for
reconstruction, but project development and
project management will be an integral part of
confidence-building activities. Accordingly, FOs
will help parties become more ready and able to
deal with each other productively, helping them
to evaluate their alternatives to cooperation,
understand each others interests, develop creative
options, and build working relationships.
8.4 Transparent Communication

Liaison
To liaise means to communicate and to coordinate
some certain activities. To work as a liaison officer
means that an FO will serve as a communicator
and sometimes as a coordinator between various
actors. Thus, liaison is an inter-communicative
tool with the purpose of promoting transparency
between local/national authorities, parties to a
conflict and other organizations concerned. FOs
should consider liaison as a structural link between
their own organization and others through which
discussions of mutual problems can take place a
kind of a working relationship that provides good
information about actual problems. The liaison
Monitoring. New York and Geneva: United Nations,
2001, accessed <http://www.ohchr.org/Documents/
Publications/training7Introen.pdf>. HR/P/PT/7
system in a multidimensional operation is crucial

since it provides timely passage of information
between all factions concerned, including the
civil population, humanitarian actors, concerned
authorities, and militia. The requirement for liaison
will increase in proportion to the complexity of
the political environment. Information passed
through the liaison system is essential since it
produces and disseminates updated assessments
of the progress of the work/mission and other
notable events. In a non-secure environment, the
information and liaison system can also serve
as a means to provide timely information about
the prevailing security condition in the mission
area. The liaison system is accessible since it
systematically channels information that helps the
FO in his/her daily work.
Information/Intelligence
In the past, information-gathering has been
almost avoided in the UN system. There was a
simple reason for this reluctance: information was
apprehended as a type of intelligence and linked
to the military system, where intelligence activities
have another purpose with a different distinction
and interpretation of the word intelligence.
Regardless of whether the activities are called
information-gathering or intelligence, this particular
concept has changed. Today, intelligence support
is essential for implementation and execution
of every mission, whether a multidimensional
peacekeeping operation or a pure civilian
mission. An intelligence support operation may
be performed as an aerial survival activity aiming
to produce maps, identify rebel headquarter
and refugees hiding places, or as an informationgathering exercise (human intelligence) where
a local population provides UN personnel with
useful information. The Joint Operations/Joint
Mission Analysis Centres carry out the intelligence/
information-gathering directives issued by DPKO in
2006.
Information-gathering (human intelligence) under
the conditions of a civilian FO is not different. A
civilian situation would still include a Field Operator
in an emergency area, affected for example, by a
severe drought, ensuring that the planned delivery
of correctly composed food commodities reach
| 143
the most affected people at an appropriate place

and time. In order to ensure these requirements,
the FO must gather information for making correct
assessments of the local conditions, resources,
etc., prior to decisions about the project and
delivery of the commodities. However, such
information may be interpreted as a non-desirable
intelligence, touching upon sensitive topics
such as local infrastructures, political elements,
composition of the local societies, and more.
Knowledge of the UN, the mandate of the specific
mission, and the FOs judgement and political
awareness should guide the FO to make the
correct assessments and necessary decisions.
the village with the surrounding villages? Are

they related? Do they support each other? Are
they hostile towards each other? Is any portion
of the village population discriminated against?
What is the food and water status of the village?
Where do they get their food? What other means

of subsistence is available? Are the villagers
farmers or herders? What is the status of their
crops/herds? What is the quality of the water
source?
What is the medical status of the village? What
services are available in the village? What is

the location of the nearest medical facility? Is
there evidence of illness and/or starvation? What
portion of the population is affected? What is the
death rate? What diseases are reported in the
village?
What civilian organizations exist in the village?

Who are their leaders?
What civil-military organizations exist in the

village? Who are their leaders?
What organization/leadership element does the

general population seem to support or trust the
most?
Which organization seems to have the most

control in the village?
Sudanese refugees in Iridimi Camp in Chad.

(UN Photo #14788 by Eskinder Debebe, July 2004)
The following points, although sourced from a

military authority, provide an excellent example
of the most important questions the FO may
consider when involved in circumstances such as
those previously described. Doing this within an
established liaison system is of great advantage,
particularly as a means to get an overall picture of
the prevailing situation.
Examples of questions to be answered, as applied
to a refugee situation:
What UN relief agencies operate in the village?
Who are their representatives? What services do

they provide? What portion of the population do
they service? Do they have an outreach program
for the surrounding countryside?
What is the security situation in the village?
What element(s) is the source of the problems?

What types and quantities of weapons are in the
village? What are the locations of the minefields?
What commercial or business activities are
present in the village? What services or products

do they produce?
Where are the refugees originally from? What is
What are the groups in the village that are in
What is the size of the refugee population? Why
What civic employment projects would the
the size of the original population? What is the

size of the area and population that the village
services in the surrounding countryside?
did they come here? What is the relationship of

144 |
the most need? What are their numbers? Where

did they come from? How long have they been
there? What are their specific needs?
village leaders like to see started?
Determine the number of families in the village.

What are their names (family)? How many in
each family?
What food items are available in the local
market? What is the cost of these items? Are

relief supplies being sold in the market? If so,
what items, what is their source, and what is the
price?
What skilled labor or services are available in

the village (non-HRA)?
various sensor systems, ground penetrating and

area survival radar systems, aerial survival with
thermal imagers and image intensifiers, and drones
for aerial information gathering. However, despite
the widespread availability of such technology, UN
peacekeeping operations have not continued to
take advantages of modern technology.
8.5 Negotiation
Purpose
What is the size of any transient population in
the village? Where did they come from and how

long have they been there?4
Information Technology
New information technology has brought
another dimension to the management of UN
field missions. At the headquarters level, the
Department of Peacekeeping Operations (DPKO)
is supported by an excellent communications
system (voice, video, and data transmission) that
can rapidly be deployed anywhere on the globe.
This new technology also offers opportunities for
better interoperability as it provides an effective
sharing of information among the various elements
in a field mission. This concept is specifically
known as transparency.
The possibilities of monitoring operationally
sensitive areas are explored and well known. In
the aftermath of the 1972 war between Egypt and
Israel, the Sinai Field Mission (SFM) was charged
with monitoring the militarily sensitive Mittla Pass in
the Sinai desert. By using highly sensitive sensors,
a small civilian contingent was engaged in an
early warning system that worked satisfactorily for
six years. Aerial surveillance was used over the
Golan Heights (Israel/Syria) in the 1970s, and other
classical intelligence activities were also carried
out during the UN Operation in the Congo (ONUC)
in the 1960s.
The technology of today includes high-tech
scanning equipment, such as video cameras,
4 US Army Center for Lessons Learned Sample Peacekeeping Operations - Intelligence
Checklist for refugee situations.
Negotiation is the most common procedure

used within a mission to settle a dispute or
reach an agreement. Negotiation refers to a
direct dialogue with one or more counterparts
or parties, and it can be used for anything
from increasing the number of workers on a
project to securing the safe passage of a relief
convoy. Mediation is similar to negotiation, but it
requires a go-between responsible for facilitating
communications between the parties. The ultimate
aim of negotiation and mediation is to reach an
agreement to which all concerned parties have
freely concurred. Particularly in negotiations, the
role of the negotiator can be very decisive. While
he/she has no authority to enforce a solution, he/
she can and should use persuasion in assisting
the disputing parties to arrive at a negotiated
settlement. Careful planning and preparation will
help the FO to accomplish this task.
The UNMIS Joint Mediation Support Team holds a negotiation meeting.

(UN Photo #148894 by Fred Noy, July 2007)
| 145
It is beyond the scope of this lesson to deal with

all aspects of negotiation. However, in negotiation
processes, whether conducted at a working or
policy level, a successful outcome is on some
level dependent on the chemistry between
the negotiators. Their expected professional
and positive performance should aim at the
establishment of mutual trust and confidence.
The following general advice is useful in the art of
negotiation.
Always arrange the following prior to the
meeting: location; time; attendees; content/

subject matter to be discussed; the nature of
documentation (i.e., agenda and minutes to
record what is discussed and hopefully agreed
upon).
Your own party should consist of at least
two people and should never outnumber the

opposing group.
Maintain dignity and politeness during dealings

with other people.
Remain respectful towards all with whom you

are dealing.
Remember to pay social compliments to hosts
and representatives involved in the negotiations.
Preparation
Since the basic purpose of negotiation is to
achieve something or to resolve a dispute, the
negotiators must be well prepared. The definition
and identification of the problem is only part of the
preparation.
What is the problem/task? Has it been
discussed before? Why should it be discussed at

this time? What is the background/history? What
is the current situation?
Obtain all possible information about the issue,

and outline the options for a settlement. Read
previous reports on the matter.
What was the conclusion, and how does it relate

to previous or future arrangements? Who were
the persons involved: name, rank, personality,
authority, and attitudes?
What are your options, limitations, frame,

mandate, etc.?
146 |
When and where will the negotiation take place?

Establish an agenda for the meeting.
When the problem has been properly identified,

the practicalities have to be discussed. If there will
be a delegation, who will be the head? Who will
do the talking? Who will take notes? Decide on the
role of the interpreter. How many of you will attend
the meeting, thus avoiding any overrepresentation?
When all preparations and practical arrangements
are complete, ensure that your party arrives in due
time.
Conduct
Be aware that the parties concerned have a stake
and share in the settlement of the dispute and
that a positive or negative outcome may not by
itself represent the end. The opening talks should
include an introduction of the (your) team and
the presentation of the agenda (if not submitted
in advance). Some introductory small-talk may
be useful and polite and gives all an opportunity
to assess the atmosphere and the mood of the
attendants.
If possible, let the counterpart start. Listen, and
do not interrupt; be patient and start to agree on

the agenda subjects.
If incorrect information is given, settle the facts

(supported by evidence), but do not argue. It
is essential to state your opinion (facts only).
If differences occur, note the opinion of your
counterpart, highlighting the most essential
points.
In some cases, the tasks of negotiation may
include conveying complaints. Ensure that the

complaint is clear in all its details, preferably
confirmed in writing. If necessary, declare
that the issue will be reconsidered after due
investigation.
Make no promises or admissions, unless the
situation or your mandate clearly permits you to

do so. Do not reveal anything about one party
that could be exploited by the other party. To be
impartial and correct is always an advantage.
Be restrained if one of the parties makes
negative comments about the organization you

represent. Try to make everybody accept the
mandate and the solution it promotes by making

careful reminders about agreements, actual
arrangements, and past practices.
Complete the negotiation by repeating what
has been agreed upon. If possible, have it

confirmed in writing. Agree upon a time and
place for further negotiations, and conclude the
discussion with some final and polite phrases,
etc.
The report of the meeting and the follow-up are

important. Prepare a short verbal briefing for your
superior/headquarters, and write a detailed report
containing, facts, conclusions, recommendations,
and further arrangements.
as follows:
Start the meeting by reading the agreed-upon

agenda.
If there has been a previous meeting, give the

status of what has been implemented.
Present possible options that have previously
been separately discussed with the parties, and

make every effort to find a common ground for
solutions.
Appear neutral and observe objectivity.

Try to balance the outcome (one for you and
one for you).
The conclusion must be agreed upon and

clearly documented.
8.6 Mediation
If nothing has been agreed upon, ensure that the
Mediation is a more complex and comprehensive

activity than negotiation. As a neutral third party,
a mediator has the responsibility of facilitating
communication and seeking agreement
between the parties. This requires meticulous
preparations, particularly concerning the agenda
and preaccepted subjects for the meeting.
Although mediation includes the same pattern
and formalities as negotiation, the following points
should be considered.
Preparation and Conduct
Meet the parties separately before the meeting,

and identify the problem areas.
Coordinate with the parties, and make an
approved agenda and distribute it before the

meeting.
Discuss the hard subjects with those
concerned, and consider possible solutions to

the main issue.
Propose and decide a meeting place.
parties can meet again never close the door.
Use of Interpreters
In mediations (as for negotiations), interpreters
are frequently needed. They are often recruited
from the local population and paid a salary in
accordance with a UN contract. A good interpreter
is an asset in all negotiations/mediations not
only in translating the local language but also in
knowing the customs and habits of the country.
However, one has to be careful not to discuss
sensitive matters directly with interpreters that
may have an impact on the situation, considering
the interpreters loyalty, which may not always rest
with the employing organization. An interpreter
should be required to interpret with the greatest
of accuracy, not add anything, try to explain a
subject, or participate in the discussions. He/
she must have a non-visible attitude and be as
impartial as possible. In an interpreted discussion,
the principals should speak directly to their
counterparts and not to the interpreter.
Discuss and establish the conditions for the
meeting, for example, number of participants,

use of interpreters, communications, seating,
separate rooms for informal settings, etc.
When the UN is involved in mediation, the parties

may sometimes require the UN to chair the
meeting. A chairperson may conduct the meeting
| 147
8.7 Written Communications and

Reports
Written Communication
FOs working in larger operations or missions
will sooner or later face the demands of
written communication, particularly if the FO
is involved in any kind of administrative work.
Types of written communication include official
communications, such as formal or informal letters,
memoranda, and facsimile (fax), and non-official
communications. Non-official communications
usually take the form of a note or a transmittal
form. Memos, draft reports, or official letters have
to be understandable, accessible, and readable;
simplicity in language and structure is a necessity.
However, UN rules for documentation are very
comprehensive. For this reason, the FO should
acquaint himself or herself with the intricacies of
the system, through the United Nations Editorial
Manual, which can be accessed online at
http://69.94.137.26/editorialcontrol/index.htm.
Written communication requires formalities,
such as addressee, sender, date, file reference,
and, if required, a security classification. The
distribution list should be carefully considered.
Who really needs the document? The subject
must be clearly defined and the purpose of the
message easy to identify. If an answer is required,
it should be indicated either in the beginning or
at the end of the message. An official report, for
example, from a project or travel, is required to
be well structured. Protocol highly recommends
an executive summary at the beginning of any
official communications, to include a background
and a summary of the recommendations. Such a
summary provides the reader with the first insights
into the subject. The terms of reference and the
purpose of the study or visit must be mentioned.
The document should end with a conclusion, which
may partly be used in the executive summary.
as e-Doc. In this system, all manuscripts or

documents should be prepared in Microsoft
Office and transmitted for electronic processing.
Documents not processed through the e-Doc
system will be submitted in hard copies together
with an electronic version (CD-ROM/floppy disk). 5
Examples of Letters
Official Letters and what are called Inter-Office
Memos are the two most common types of letters.
Examples of letters can be found at the end of this
lesson.
8.8 Communication with the Media

General Advice
Media is always a reality in a mission, although it
is not always physically present. When spectacular
or dramatic events occur, the media cover will
be intense, and improper handling may cause
embarrassment and even jeopardize the work of
the mission. Successful interaction with the media
will provide correct information with indisputable
facts but without any political statements. Missions
also frequently utilize the media as a means to
inform the public about current activities or about
the mission itself. In several operations, the UN
has used the media to inform the local populations
about the purpose of the mission, its operational
activities, and what could be expected in the near
future. In general, the media should be considered
as an asset, but FOs should also recognize the
sensitivity of dealing with media and should be well
acquainted with the missions media policy.
Rules in Dealing with the Media
FOs should be aware that the media sometimes
considers them a UN representative, regardless of
their position. Therefore, an FO should:
Be aware of the media policy within a mission

and adhere to given rules.
Email
Electronic mail is by far the fastest and most
accessible way to communicate. The UN is
currently implementing an electronic flow of
documents through a processing system known
148 |
5 For more information on the standards for the

preparation and submission of UN documents,
see the Electorial Directive prepared by the
Department for General Assembly and Conference
Management, ST/CS/SER.A/44/Rev.1.
Never give formal interviews without prior
approval from a superior or the spokesperson of

the mission.
Always note and report the presence of the
news media even if media representatives

present themselves as accredited in order to
validate their own presence.
Discuss only factual matters that are relevant to

his/her work and refer all other questions to the
mission-designated spokesperson.
Never mislead, take sides, speculate, or offer

personal opinions. A helpful, honest, and
positive performance is an asset.
Examples of Letters
Example 1
An Official Letter is normally used between two organizations.
SECURITY CLASSIFICATION
Copy _____ of _____Copies
Address of Sender ________________________________________________
Reference ___________
Addressees
SUBJECT _____________________________________________
References A................................................................
B................................................................
1................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................
2.......................................................................................
a..............................................................................................
b........................................................................................

(1)..............................................

(a).......................................
i.....................................
ii................................
SIGNATURE BLOCK
Annexes
Enclosures
Copies
| 149
Examples of Letters
Inter-Office Memo is used for internal correspondence within a mission or a HQ. It is designed to save time and
may be handwritten.
Letterhead of the Mission or Office
TO: ..............................................
DATE: __________________
THROUGH: .....................................
REF: __________________
FROM: .............................................
SUBJECT _____________________________________________
1.....................................................................................................
..............................................................
2......................................................................................

......................................................................................

a.

b.
3.....................................................................................................

Copy to:.................................
Learning Questions
Why are interpreters not permitted to participate
Knowledge
What are the main points you have to consider
in discussions?
What are the participatory methods?

Which points have to be included in the
justification of a project?
What is an evaluation?
What is a liaison?
Why is information so necessary in an
emergency operation?
What is the purpose of negotiation?

What is mediation?
Awareness
How would you describe a flow chart?

Why is it so important to make careful
preparations before a negotiation?
You will serve as a third party in a mediation

process. What does this mean?
150 |
in dealing with the media?
Applications
You have been in the mission area for several
months and consider yourself a veteran with lots
of experience. Your chief is very appreciative, and
you are given more responsibilities. One day,
he enters your office and asks you to prepare
a negotiation concerning the water purification
project your office is developing: Hi, we need to
move forward with this water project, particularly
to discuss the location of the plant. You know that
the locals are rather hesitant to the site we have
proposed. Prepare a memo with some points
discussing how we can identify the problem
and get the local people involved. Later we can
incorporate the facts. Send the memo to my office
by this afternoon at the latest! How would you
proceed, and what will be included in the memo?
End-of-Lesson Quiz
1. What are the key elements of the
participatory method?
7. The difference between negotiation and

mediation is:
A. Focus and disengagement;

B. Guidance and centralization;
C. Contribution and auditing;
A. Negotiation is similar to mediation, but it

requires a go-between responsible for
facilitating communications between the parties;
B. Mediation is similar to negotiation, but it requires
a go-between responsible for facilitating
communications between the parties;
C. Negotiation is a direct dialogue in which one
side persuades the other to its position;
D. Mediation in a direct dialogue in which one side
persuades the other to its position.
D. Decentralization and empowerment.
2. Project justification:
A. Is when the project is described in some brief
but substantial terms and then conceptualized;
B. Is the first formal step;
C. Is necessary for requested financial resources;
D. Includes a course of action.
3. Monitoring encompasses:
A. Observation, information-gathering, and
reporting;
B. Assistance and advising;
C. Observation and supervision;
D. Supervision, assistance, and reporting.
4. Liaison means:
A. To serve as a communicator between various
actors;
B. The structural link between other organizations;
C. To provide timely passage of information
between conflicting parties;
D. To observe and act as a supervisor.
5. Information should be obtained through the

liaison system. The purpose of information
gathering is:
A. To ensure the timely delivery of food in terms of
areas affected by drought;
B. To facilitate correct decision-making;
C. To understand the security environment;
8. In the preparation before a negotiation:

A. Read all the reports and obtain other useful
information concerning the matters;
B. Only view some of the most important reports
in order to retain an open mind and attitude;
C. Never set up limitations and options since you
act as a third party;
D. In order to save time, go straight to the points
after the meeting is declared opened.
9. As a mediator, it is necessary to:

A. Serve as a communicator;
B. Serve as an interpreter;
C. Serve as a facilitator;
D. Serve as an arbiter.
10. In discussions with media representatives:

A. Discuss only facts and make all efforts to be as
correct as possible;
B. Discuss only facts that are of your own
responsibility and refer other questions to
persons you may find appropriate;
C. Discuss only factual matters and refer other
questions to a designated spokesman;
D. Refer all questions to a designated spokesman.
6. Negotiation is:
A. A direct dialogue with one or more counterparts;
B. Facilitating the dialogue between other parties;
C. Making sure your demands are met.
D. The act of enforcing a solution.
ANSWER KEY
1D, 2B, 3A, 4A, 5D, 6A, 7B, 8A, 9C, 10C
LESSON 9
THE PARTNERS
LESSON
9
LESSON OBJECTIVES
9.1 The Need for Proper
Identification
9.2 UN Programmes and
Funds
9.3 UN Specialized
Agencies
9.4 International
Organizations with
Member States
9.5 Non-Governmental
International
Organizations
9.6 International
Governmental
Organizations
Organizations
A large number of organizations participate in an emergency operation.

Those organizations represent the international community either as part
of the UN system or as governmental or non-governmental organizations.
Some operations may be small in size and with limited mandates, while
others are large and with a substantial impact on an operation. On the
grounds of practical reasons, it is not possible to list all organizations that
may participate in United Nations field activities; therefore, the compilation
in this lesson can only represent a small portion of all organizations that
might be present in the field. The selection is based on the authors own
experience. Except for two organizations, which deal with training within
the UN system, all others are frequently involved in UN field activities. The
objective of Lesson 9 is to acquaint the FO with some of the organizations
that he/she will most likely encounter while on a field assignment.
Lesson 9:
What is the purpose of identifying the mission incoming organizations?

What is the definition of a non-governmental organization?
What is the coordinating body of humanitarian emergencies within the
UN system?
In what way are non-governmental organizations linked to the UN

system?
Which organization is the UNs main coordinator in terms of

development?
Introduction
The number of organizations involved in UN
operations has dramatically increased. For
instance, in 1997, just two years after the signing of
peace accords, Guatemala hosted approximately
700 different aid organizations working in the
country. Regardless of the organization, where
similar conditions prevail, experiences will be the
same. The difficulties of identifying and labelling
most of these entities are obvious, although there
are some prevalent definitions.
The term international organizations may be
interpreted as organizations and procedures that
require a framework of cooperation between
states. Non-governmental organizations (also
referred to as non-government organizations) are
organizations founded and governed by citizens
without any formal governmental representation.
Although these two definitions seem to be rather
straightforward, there are some objections to such
definitions as to the limits concerning governmental
versus non-governmental organizations. These
definitions may be further confused with the
use of the terms international governmental
organizations and non-governmental international
organizations. The United Nations has an official
classification system, which lists organizations
as either part of the UN system or as outside the
system, where distinctions are made between
different types of organizations. It is beyond the
scope and purpose of this lesson to strictly define
and follow the official classification system. The
classifications are further complicated by many
contradictions. Instead, at the authors own
discretion, the lesson will provide a compilation of
organizations that are useful to be aware of.
9.1 The Need for Proper

Identification
To work with internal and external partners at
all levels requires not only a basic knowledge of
involved organizations but also an awareness
of their respective tasks and mandates in their
work in a specific mission. In most missions,
central leadership is assumed by the concerned
government, but it is occasionally assumed by the
United Nations. The role of the governments (or
the United Nations) has to be clearly understood,

since future coordination depends on their
expressed policy and assumed leadership. Besides
the governments, other major actors may have
overriding responsibilities in certain areas. In
large-scale operations, it is essential to identify
those that have the overall responsibilities or would
like to assume such a leading role.
For instance, the UNDP Representative is
frequently given responsibility for coordinating
overall development, while UNHCR takes the lead
concerning refugees, and the WHO concerns itself
with immunization programmes. To understand
the roles of major agencies and organizations, it
is necessary to know the mandates of the various
NGOs. In general, their activities encompass
programmes in democratization, food support,
health, rebuilding the infrastructure, and education.
Some of the major NGOs may also have been
given a leading role in one of the humanitarian
assistance programmes. The FO should
always try to identify the various organizations
responsibilities, capacity, and ability.
Informal and formal coordination are the key
mechanisms used to follow up on the security
situations, assess expected achievements, or
adjust plans in accordance with new directives
and/or conditions. Although informal contacts
may provide useful information, without a formal
coordination mechanism, very little will be
achieved. Formal coordination is set up in different
levels. At the central level, the government (or
United Nations) normally establishes one single
coordination authority, which may be mandated
as a commission, committee, or as an operation
centre, at which all the major actors of the mission
are represented. This central authority should also
be represented at the site level, where similar,
lower-level coordination mechanisms should be
organized. The CIMIC concept, as previously
described, is an example of a site-level-placed
coordination mechanism. As a rule, coordination
takes place at regular formal meetings where the
progress of the operation is reviewed, giving FOs
the opportunity to identify incoming organizations
in order to facilitate their integration and adoption of
the missions objectives and standards.
| 155
The FO must obtain information about newly

arrived organizations and, in particular, whether
cooperation and/or coordination are required. FOs
should seek to discover the mandates, capacity,
levels of professional standards, and normal
coordination of activities with other organizations.
The FO should also seek ways in which he or she
can assist and/or make the best use of their ability
in order to achieve the missions overall objectives.
The following information is either quoted from the
described organizations Web sites or from the
United Nations Handbook of 2008/2009. Sources
are clearly indicated for each organization with the
web address provided with the description.
9.2 UN Programmes and Funds

The Secretariat, as part of the United Nations
Headquarters, has several departments and offices
directly involved in field activities, including the
entities concerned with humanitarian operations
and development.
Department of Political Affairs (DPA)
http://www.un.org/Depts/dpa/
DPA works to prevent and resolve conflicts and
to promote lasting peace. Along with others,
the department is responsible for the provision
of support and guidance to UN peace envoys
and political missions in the field, as well as
serving Member States directly through electoral
assistance.
Nadia Hadi, United Nations Humanitarian Affairs Officer, liaises with the
camp manager of an Internally Displaced Persons IDP camp, to facilitate
and coordinate the provision of humanitarian assistance in Timor-Leste.
(UN Photo # 366065 by Martine Perret, April 2009)
156 |

(DPKO)
http://www.un.org/en/peacekeeping/
DPKO is part of the Secretariat. In coordination
with other substantial departments, it is responsible
for planning, preparing, managing, and directing
United Nations peacekeeping operations. In
this capacity, it provides the overall guidance in
coordination and policy. It also provides guidance
and support on matters related to Rule of Law and
associated security institutions.
DPKO is supported by the Department of
Field Support, which provides logistical and
administrative support to missions in the field.
Department of Field Support (DFS)
http://www.un.org/en/peacekeeping/dfs.shtml
DFS provides support to all UN field operations,
including DPA field missions. DFS support includes
personnel, finance, procurement, logistics,
communication, information technology, and other
administrative and general management issues.
Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian
Affairs (OCHA)
http://ochaonline.un.org/
OCHA is part of the Secretariat. The Office
supports mobilization, funding, and coordination
of humanitarian action in response to complex
emergencies and natural disasters. In this capacity,
OCHA supports and facilitates the work of UN
agencies, non-governmental organisations and
the Red Cross/Crescent Movement that deliver
humanitarian services and assistance to people
in need. It also works closely to support and
guide governments as they lead the efforts of
organizing humanitarian responses to emergency
situations. OCHA is headed by the Emergency
Relief Coordinator (ERC), who is responsible
for oversight of all emergencies requiring United
Nations humanitarian assistance.
The ERC also acts as the central focal point
for governmental, inter-governmental, and
non-governmental relief activities. OCHA
discharges its coordination function at the start
of a crisis, primarily through the UN Disaster
Assessment and Coordination Team (UNDAC),

International Search and Rescue Advisory Group
(INSARAG), and Civil-Military Coordination
Personnel, among others. Another coordinating
and decision-making body is the Inter-Agency
Standing Committee (IASC), which is chaired by
the ERC. IASC ensures inter-agency coordination
of humanitarian assistance involving the key UN
and non-humanitarian partners, acting specifically
in response to complex emergencies. The
Headquarters staff is located in New York and
Geneva.
United Nations Disaster Assessment and
Coordination (UNDAC)
http://ochaonline.un.org/OCHAHome/AboutUs/
Coordination/UNDACSystem/tabid/5963/
language/en-US/Default.aspx
The UNDAC team is a stand-by team of disaster
management professionals who are nominated and
funded by member governments, OCHA, UNDP,
and operational humanitarian United Nations
Agencies such as WFP, UNICEF, and WHO.
Upon the request of a disaster-stricken country,
the UNDAC team can be deployed within hours to
carry out rapid assessment of priority needs and to
support national authorities and the UN Resident
Coordinator to coordinate international relief
on-site.
Military, Civil Defence and Logistics Section
(MCDLS)
MCDLS has two components: the Military and Civil
Defence Unit (MCDU) and the Logistics Support
Unit (LSU). The MCDU serves as the UN focal
point for governments, international organizations,
and military and civil defence establishments
when the deployment of these assets in
humanitarian situations is necessary. The MCDU
also coordinates their mobilization when needed.
The unit maintains the UNs Central Register
a database of non-commercial governmental,
international, military, and civil resources that may
be available for humanitarian use. These resources
include a wide range of equipment and supplies
(food/shelter/water capabilities, transportation
assets, medical care), expert teams, and disaster
response contacts.
LSU is responsible for the management of OCHA's

stockpile of emergency relief items stored at the
UN Humanitarian Response Depot (UNHRD,
http://www.unhrd.org/) in Brindisi, Italy. Donated
by various governments, these goods are basic
non-food, non-medical disaster relief and survival
items that can be immediately dispatched to
affected areas. The OCHA stockpile includes
such items as tents, blankets, water supply and
purification equipment, and electricity-generating
equipment.
United Nations Office for Project Service
(UNOPS)
http://www.unops.org/
UNOPS mission is to expand the capacity
of the United Nations system to implement its
peacebuilding, humanitarian and development
operations. Operating in a competitive global
market, UNOPS applies leading private
sector business practices. UNOPS offers
the international community a broad range of
services, from project-, human resource-, and
funding management to procurement and UN
common services. In responding flexibly to its
clients demands, UNOPS tailors its services
to their particular needs, applies methods for
attaining cost-effective results, and mobilizes
diverse implementing partners. UNOPS has its
headquarters in Copenhagen, Denmark, and
delivers its services through a decentralized
network of five regional offices and more than20
operations and project.
United Nations Childrens Fund (UNICEF)
http://www.unicef.org/
UNICEF addresses the long-term needs of children
and mothers in developing countries and provides
emergency assistance to children in war-ravaged
countries. The Funds objectives include working
for childrens rights, their basic survival, and their
development and protection. In this work, the Fund
is guided by the Convention on the Rights of the
Child. Resources for the Fund come from voluntary
contributions and totalled USD 3.01 billion for 2007.
UNICEF reports to the General Assembly through
the ECOSOC, and its headquarters are located in
New York.
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United Nations Development Programme

(UNDP)
United Nations Environment Programme

(UNEP)
http://www.undp.org/
http://www.unep.org/
UNDP is the main UN body responsible for

coordinating UN development work. Much of
the Programmes work focuses on aiding global
and national efforts to reach the Millennium
Development Goals (MDGs), particularly the
Goal of halving extreme poverty by 2015. The
Programmes work includes helping countries
foster democratic governance; build their capacity
to design and carry out development programmes
in poverty eradication; create employment and
sustainable livelihoods; empower women; protect
the environment; and above all, give first priority
to poverty eradication. UNDP is present in more
than 166 countries and is the largest provider
of development grant assistance within the UN
system. Its headquarters is located in New York.
The mission of UNEP is to provide leadership

and encourage partnership in caring for the
environment by inspiring, informing, and
enabling nations and people to improve their
quality of life without compromising that of future
generations. UNEP also aims to be the leading
global environmental authority, setting the global
environmental agenda, promoting the coherent
implementation of the environmental dimension
of sustainable development within the UN system,
and serving as an authoritative advocate for the
global environment. UNEPs role has been further
expanded in country-level capacity-building and
training and national-level coordination of the
environmental issues of sustainable development.
UNEPs governing Council reports to the General
Assembly through ECOSOC. Its headquarters is in
Nairobi.
Gross voluntary contribution to regular resources

in 2007 amounted to USD 1.1 billion. For that
same period, co-financing contributions, an
important component of UNDPs revenue, were
approximately USD 4 billion.
United Nations Volunteers (UNV)
http://www.unv.org/
UNV contributes to peace and development by
advocating for recognition of volunteers, working
to integrate volunteerism into development
programming, and mobilizing volunteers from a
vast array of sources.
The United Nations Volunteers programme
endorses volunteerism as a largely untapped
resource of universal inclusivity and encourages
it as a tool towards free will, commitment,
engagement and solidarity. Though it is based in
Bonn, Germany, UNV is active in 140 countries.
The programme is also represented worldwide
through the offices of the United Nations
Development Programme (UNDP), and it reports to
the UNDP Executive Board.
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United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime

(UNODC)
http://www.unodc.org/
UNODC supports Member States in the prevention
of the spread of illicit drugs, crime, and terrorism.
As such, it carries out research and analytic work
to better understand drug and crime-related issues.
The Entity assists the States in ratification and
implementation of relevant international treaties,
development of domestic legislation on drugs, and
crime and terrorism. It further provides field-based
technical cooperation to enhance the capacity of
Member States to counteract illicit drugs, crime,
and terrorism. It headquarters is located in Vienna.
United Nations Population Fund (UNFPA)
http://www.unfpa.org/
UNFPA promotes the right of every woman,
man, and child to enjoy a life of health and equal
opportunity. UNFPA supports countries in this
aim by using population data for policies and
programmes to reduce poverty and to ensure that
every pregnancy is wanted, every birth is safe,
every young person is free of HIV/AIDS, and every
girl and woman is treated with dignity and respect.
In response to individual requests, UNFPA helps

governments formulate policies and strategies
to reduce poverty and support sustainable
development. The Fund also assists countries
to collect and analyse population data to help
them understand population trends.1 The UNFPA
Programme of Action also supports the Millennium
Development Goal of reducing extreme poverty by
half by 2015. The UNFP Executive Board reports
to ECOSOC, which in turn reports to the General
Assembly. The UNFPA Headquarters is in New
York.
World Food Programme (WFP)
http://www.wfp.org/
The WFP is the food aid organization of the UN
system. The WFP not only provides food aid to
low income, food-deficit countries but also assists
in the implementation of economic and social
development projects and meets the relief needs
of victims of natural and other disasters. The
programme also administers the International
Emergency Food Reserve (IEFR) with a minimum
target of 500,000 tons of cereals. The Board
reports to ECOSOC and the FAO Council. All
contributions are on a voluntary basis. The WFP
Headquarters is in Rome.
Office of the United Nations High
Commissioner for Human Rights (OHCHR)
http://www.ohchr.org/
OHCHR represents the worlds commitment to
the universal standards of human rights. The
Office aims to promote and protect the effective
enjoyment by all of all civil, cultural, economic,
political, and social rights, including the right to
development. The High Commissioner also serves
as the secretariat to the Human Rights Council,
which provides assistance to the system of Special
Procedures. He or she acts under the direction and
authority of the Secretary-General and within the
framework of the overall competence, authority,
and decisions of the General Assembly. The
Headquarters is located in Geneva.
1 For more information, access the research at

http://www.unfpa.org/pds/research.htm.
Flood victims in Rahim Yar Khan, a city in the south of Punjab Province,
Pakistan, receive rations from the UN World Food Programme (WFP),
including wheat flour, vegetable oil and high-energy biscuits. (UN Photo
#444169 by Amjad Jamal, August 2010)
Office of the United Nations High

Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR)
http://www.unhcr.org/
The work of the UNHCR is humanitarian and
non-political. Its principal functions are to provide
international protection to refugees, seek lasting
solutions to their plights, and furnish them with
material assistance. UNHCR attempts to help
those who wish to return home and tries to assist
them to reintegrate into their home communities.
Where this is not feasible, the Office works to
help them in countries of asylum or, failing that,
to resettle them in other countries. Material
assistance is provided in the form of food, shelter,
medical aid, education, and other social services.
UNHCR reports to the General Assembly through
ECOSOC. Its Headquarters is in Geneva.
United Nations Human Settlements Programme
(UN-HABITAT)
http://www.unhabitat.org
The United Nations Human Settlements
Programme, UN-HABITAT, is the United Nations
agency for human settlements. It is mandated by
the UN General Assembly to promote socially and
environmentally sustainable towns and cities with
the goal of providing adequate shelter for all. Its
mission is to promote socially and environmentally
sustainable human settlements development and
the achievement of adequate shelter for all.
| 159
United Nations Institute for Training and

Research (UNITAR)
http://www.unitar.org/
The major objective of UNITAR is to enhance the
effectiveness of the United Nations in achieving its
major objectives, in particular the maintenance of
international peace and security and the promotion
of economic and social development. UNITAR is
to provide training to persons, particularly from
developing countries on assignment for the UN,
specialized agencies, or their national services in
association with the UN. In addition to diplomats
and personnel from Member States, capacity
development programmes are intended for staff
from local governments or representatives of the
civil society. The Headquarters are located in
Geneva.
United Nations Relief and Works Agency for
Palestine Refugees in the Near East (UNRWA)
http://www.un.org/unrwa
UNRWA provides basic services education,
health, relief, and social services to over 4.6
million registered Palestine refugees in Jordan,
Lebanon, the Syrian Arab Republic, and the
Occupied Palestinian Territory. In times of relative
calmness and in times of open conflict, the Agency
has fed, housed, and clothed tens of thousands of
fleeing refugees and has educated and provided
health care to hundreds of thousands of young
refugees. The Office of the CommissionerGeneral acts as the coordinating office for
ensuring that UNRWA activities conform to the
Agencys governing objectives and rules. UNRWA
Headquarters is split between the Gaza Strip and
Jordan.
United Nations System Staff College (UNSSC)
http://www.unssc.org/
According to its Statute, The Staff College shall
serve as a distinct, system-wide, knowledge
management and learning institution providing
strategic leadership and management
development, strengthening inter-agency
collaboration, increasing operational effectiveness;
enhancing cooperation with stakeholders inside
and outside the UN system, and developing a more
160 |
cohesive, system-wide, management culture.

The objective of the College is to promote high
standards of leadership and management for
the UN of the 21st century. With a combination
of shared learning and development of key
competencies, the College hopes to foster a
cohesive and effective management system across
the United Nations. The UNSSC is located in Turin,
Italy.
9.3 UN Specialized Agencies

International Labour Organization (ILO)
http://www.ilo.org/
The ILO brings together the governments,
employers, and workers of its Member States to
promote decent work throughout the world. The
Organization is devoted to advancing opportunities
for women and men to obtain decent and
productive work in conditions of freedom, equity,
security, and human dignity. It also conducts
research and technical cooperation activities,
including vocational training and management
development, with an aim to promote democracy
and human rights, alleviate unemployment and
poverty, and protect working people. The ILO
Headquarters is in Geneva.
Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO)
http://www.fao.org/
The FAO leads international efforts to defeat
hunger. Serving both developed and developing
countries, the FAO acts as a neutral forum where
all nations can meet as equals to negotiate
agreements and debate policy. The aims of the
Organization are to raise levels of nutrition and
standards of living; secure improvements in the
efficiency of the production and distribution of all
food and agriculture products; better the conditions
of rural populations; and contribute toward an
expanding world economy and ensuring humanitys
freedom from hunger. The Headquarters is in
Rome.
United Nations Educational, Scientific and

Cultural Organization (UNESCO)
http://www.unesco.org/
UNESCO contributes to peace and security
by promoting collaboration among the nations
through education, science, and culture. UNESCO
promotes conditions for genuine dialogue based
upon respect for shared values and the dignity
of each civilization and culture affirmed for the
people of the world, without distinction of race, sex,
language, or religion. The Headquarters is in Paris.
therefore, the cornerstones of the structure. This

institutional triangle is flanked by two other
institutions: the Court of Justice and the Court of
Auditors. A further five bodies make the system
complete.
World Health Organization (WHO)

http://www.who.int/
The WHO is the directing and coordinating
authority for health within the United Nations
system. The Organizations main objective is the
attainment by all people of the highest possible
level of health, as defined in the WHO Constitution
as a state of complete physical, mental, and social
well-being and not merely the absence of diseases
or infirmity. The WHO also organizes conventions,
promotes agreements and regulations, and
makes recommendations about international
nomenclature of diseases, causes of death, and
public health practices. It develops and promotes
international standards concerning food and
biological, pharmaceutical, and similar substances.
The Headquarters is located in Geneva.
9.4 International Organizations with

Member States
European Union (EU)
http://europa.eu/
The European Union is built on a unique
institutional system. Its website states: The
Member States delegate sovereignty for certain
matters to independent institutions, which
represent the interests of the Union as a whole,
its member countries, and its citizens. The
Commission traditionally upholds the interests
of the Union as a whole, while each national
government is represented within the Council,
and the European Parliament is directly elected
by citizens. Democracy and the rule of law are,
A nurse comforts a sick child at a cholera treatment centre (CTC) in Haitian capital, Port-au-Prince. The centre is among several established by
local health authorities and international groups, including the UN World
Health Organization (WHO), to separate cholera patients and combat
the spread of the disease. (UN Photo #456208 by Logan Abassi, November
2010)
The Directorate General for Development (DG

DEV)
http://ec.europa.eu/development/index_en.cfm
Within the EU, the Directorate contributes to
the formulation of the international communitys
development cooperation policy for all developing
countries and Overseas Countries and Territories
(OCTs). Additionally, the Directorate General
directly manages and coordinates community
relations with the 71 African, Caribbean and Pacific
states (ACP) and the 20 OCTs. DG Development
cooperates closely with other Commission
services, particularly the Humanitarian Aid Office
(ECHO), the External Relations DG, and the
Common Service for External Relations (SCR).
The purpose of the Directorates development
cooperation policy is to foster sustainable
development to eradicate poverty in developing
countries and to integrate those policies into
the world economy. The only way to achieve
these aims is by pursuing policies that promote
| 161
the consolidation of democracy, the rule of law,

good governance, and the respect for human
rights. Putting equity at the center of its policies,
the Directorate General for Development gives
priority to defending the interests of the most
disadvantaged developing countries and the
poorest sections of the population in economically
more advanced developing countries.
European Commission: Humanitarian Aid and
Civilian Protection (ECHO)
http://ec.europa.eu/echo/index_en.htm
The European Unions mandate to the European
Union Humanitarian Office (ECHO) is to provide
emergency assistance and relief to the victims
of natural disasters or armed conflict outside the
European Union. The aid is intended to go directly
to those in distress, irrespective of race, religion,
or political convictions. ECHOs task is to ensure
goods and services get to crisis zones fast. Goods
may include essential supplies, specific foodstuffs,
medical equipment, medicines, and fuel. Services
may include medical teams, water purification
teams, and logistical support. Goods and services
reach disaster areas via ECHO partners.
Organisation for European Cooperation and
Development (OECD)
http://www.oecd.org/
The OECD brings together the governments
of countries committed to democracy and the
market economy from around the world. The
OECD provides governments a setting in which
to discuss, develop and perfect economic and
social policy. They compare experiences; seek
answers to common problems; and work to
co-ordinate domestic and international policies
that increasingly, in todays globalised world,
must form a web of even practice across nations.
Their exchanges may lead to agreements to act
in a formal way for example, by establishing
legally-binding codes for free-flow of capital and
services, agreements to crack down on bribery or
to end subsidies for shipbuilding. But more often,
their discussion makes for better-informed work
within their own governments on the spectrum
of public policy and clarifies the impact of
national policies on the international community.
162 |
And it offers a chance to reflect and exchange

perspectives with other countries similar to their
own. The Headquarters is in Paris.
Organization for Security and Cooperation in
Europe (OSCE)
http://www.osce.org/
The Organization for Security and Cooperation
in Europe is the worlds largest regional security
organization whose 56 participating States are
from Europe, Central Asia, and North America.
The OSCE has been established as a primary
instrument for early warning, conflict prevention,
crisis management, and post-conflict rehabilitation
under Chapter VIII of the Charter of the United
Nations.
The OSCE approach to security is comprehensive
and co-operative. It addresses a wide range
of security-related issues, including arms
control, preventive diplomacy, confidence and
security-building measures, human rights, election
monitoring, and economic and environmental
security. All OSCE participating States have equal
status, and decisions are based on consensus.
The Headquarters is in Vienna.
The International Organization for Migration
(IOM)
http://www.iom.int/
IOM works to help ensure the orderly and humane
management of migration, to promote international
cooperation on migration issues, to assist in the
search for practical solutions to migration problems
and to provide humanitarian assistance to migrants
in need, including refugees and internally displaced
people. The IOM has 125 Member States, a
further 18 states holding observer status, and
offices in over 100 countries. The IOM focuses on
promoting humane and orderly migration for the
benefit of all by providing services and advice to
governments and migrants. The IOM Constitution
recognizes the link between migration and
economic, social, and cultural development, as well
as the right of freedom of movement.
World Trade Organization (WTO)

http://www.wto.org/
The World Trade Organization (WTO) is the only
global international organization dealing with the
rules of trade between nations at the global level.
At its heart are the WTO agreements, negotiated
and signed by the bulk of the worlds trading
nations and ratified in their parliaments. The
goal is to help producers of goods and services,
exporters, and importers conduct their business.
The WTOs overriding objective is to help trade
flow smoothly, freely, fairly, and predictably.
demonstrations to letter-writing, from human rights

education to fundraising concerts, from individual
appeals on a particular case, to global campaigns
on a particular issue. Amnesty International is
impartial and independent of any government,
political persuasion or religious creed. Amnesty
International is financed largely by subscriptions
and donations from its worldwide membership. Its
headquarters is located in London.
The bulk of the WTOs current work comes from

the 1986-94 negotiations called the Uruguay
Round and earlier negotiations under the General
Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT). The WTO
is currently the host to new negotiations, under the
Doha Development Agenda launched in 2001.
The WTO has nearly 150 members, accounting
for over 97% of world trade. Over 30 others are
negotiating membership. Decisions are made
by the entire membership, typically decided by
consensus. The WTO Secretariat is based in
Geneva.
9.5 Non-Governmental International

Organizations
Repatriation of 232 Ethiopians by the International Committee of the

Red Cross (ICRC) across the United Nations Mission in Ethiopia and Eritrea
(UNMEE) controlled Mereb Bridge. (UN Photo #128904 by Rick Bajornas,
July 2006)
The International Committee of the Red Cross

(ICRC)
http://www.icrc.org/
Amnesty International
http://www.amnesty.org/
Amnesty International is a worldwide campaigning
movement that works to promote all the human
rights enshrined in the Universal Declaration of
Human Rights and other international standards.
In particular, Amnesty International campaigns
to free all prisoners of conscience; ensure fair
and prompt trials for political prisoners; abolish
the death penalty, torture and other cruel
treatment of prisoners; end political killings and
disappearances; and oppose human rights
abuses by opposition groups.
The International Committee of the Red Cross

(ICRC) is an impartial, neutral, and independent
organization whose exclusively humanitarian
mission is to protect the lives and dignity of
victims of war and internal violence and to
provide them with assistance. The ICRC is well
known for directing and coordinating international
relief activities in times of conflict, but it also
endeavours to prevent suffering by promoting and
strengthening humanitarian law and universal
humanitarian principles. The ICRC was established
in 1863 and was the origin of the International Red
Cross and Red Crescent Movement.
Amnesty International has around 2.2 million

members and supporters in 162 countries
and territories. Activities range from public
Although the ICRC was originally a private

initiative, it has acquired international stature
through its many years of dedicated service.
| 163
The Geneva Conventions and the Additional

Protocols has also assigned the ICRC tasks
relating to the protection of war victims. Its ability
to maintain a dialogue with authorities holding war
victims without allowing those authorities official
recognition allows it to work where governments
and other international bodies may not. By existing
as an entirely non-governmental organization in
both nature and membership, the ICRC stands
apart from other international actors, including
the United Nations, by its unique neutrality and
independence.
The ICRCs headquarters agreements have
been confirmed with more than 50 States.
These agreements specify the ICRCs legal
status, allowing that States recognize it as
an international legal entity and grant it the
privileges and immunities normally enjoyed by
intergovernmental organizations. These include
immunity from legal process, which protects it
from administrative and judicial proceedings, and
inviolability of its premises, archives and other
documents.
On 19 March 1993, the ICRC signed a
headquarters agreement with Switzerland,
which recognizes the institutions international
legal personality and confirms its independence
vis--vis the Swiss authorities. The Headquarters
is located in Geneva.
The International Federation of the Red Cross
and Red Crescent Societies (IFRC)
http://www.ifrc.org/
IFRC is an international humanitarian organization
with a unique worldwide network. The IFRC
exists to improve the situation of the worlds most
vulnerable people. It provides assistance without
discrimination as to nationality, race, religious
beliefs, class, or political opinions.
Founded in 1919, the IFRC has a presence in
almost every country in the world. A network of
national Red Cross and Red Crescent societies,
the Federation provides humanitarian relief to
people affected by disasters or other emergencies
and development assistance to empower
vulnerable people to become more self-sufficient.
164 |
9.6 International Governmental

Organizations
Several countries maintain international
development agencies, which promote
development and provide assistance to developing
countries. Most often, the agencies are committed
to internationally agreed-upon objectives, such as
reducing the proportion of people living in extreme
poverty, ensuring health care, and increasing
access to primary education. These agencies
work in cooperation with other governments and
multilateral institutions with similar objectives,
with the civil societies, academic communities,
and appropriate non-governmental organizations.
A number of these agencies around the globe
represent many different nations. While not all of
the IGOs will be discussed in detail here, the ones
below can serve as a typical example of those
generally found in the developed countries.
International IDEA
http://www.idea.int/
Created in 1995, the International Institute for
Democracy and Electoral Assistance (IDEA) is
an intergovernmental organization that seeks
to nurture and support sustainable democracy
worldwide. Global in membership and independent
of specific national interests, IDEA works with both
new and long-established democracies, helping to
develop the institutions and culture of democracy.
It operates at international, regional and national
level, working in partnership with a range of
institutions. While it is based in Stockholm,
Sweden, International IDEA has offices in Africa,
Asia, and Latin America, and it is not connected to
any specific government.
Swiss Humanitarian Aid Unit (SHA)
http://www.deza.admin.ch/en/Home/Activities/
Humanitarian_Aid/Swiss_Humanitarian_Aid_Unit
The SHA (formerly the Swiss Disaster Relief
Unit) is a militia corps with a pool of at least
700 people ready for duty and who are divided
up into professional groups according to their
knowledge and abilities. The SHA is one of the
Swiss governments humanitarian aid instruments
which is available for direct actions and supports
international organizations with its specialists
(secondment).
USAID
http://www.usaid.gov/
U.S. foreign assistance has always had the
twofold purpose of furthering Americas foreign
policy interests in expanding democracy and free
markets while improving the lives of the citizens of
the developing world. Spending less than one-half
of 1 per cent of the federal budget, USAID works
around the world to achieve these goals.
USAID provides assistance in six regions of
the world: Sub-Saharan Africa; Asia and the
Near East; Latin America and the Caribbean;
and Europe and Eurasia. With headquarters in
Washington, D.C., USAIDs strength is its field
offices around the world. These offices work
in close partnership with private voluntary
organizations, indigenous organizations,
universities, American businesses, international
agencies, other governments, and other U.S.
government agencies.
Other organizations with similar structures and
objectives are:
Australia: AUSAID (http://www.ausaid.gov.au)

Canada: CIDA/ACDI (http://www.acdi-cida.
gc.ca/index.htm)
Caribbean: CDERA (http://www.cdera.org)

Denmark: DANIDA (http://www.um.dk/da/menu/
udviklingspolitik/omdanida)
Finland: Finnida (http://global.finland.fi)

France: AfD (http://www.afd.fr)
Germany: GTZ (http://www.gtz.de)
Japan: JICA (http://www.jica.go.jp)
Nederlnderna: DGIS (http://www.minbuza.nl)
Norway: NORAD (http://www.norad.no)
Sweden: Sida (http://www.sida.org)
Switzerland: CDC (http://www.deza.ch)
United Kingdom: DFID (http://www.dfid.gov.uk)
Children are shown painting and playing with clay in a tented child-friendly space conceived by Project Concern International and funded by USAID
in the Bel Air neighbourhood of Port-au-Prince, Haiti. (UN Photo #450582
by Sophia Paris, July 2010)
Organizations
More than 3,100 organizations have consultative
status with the United Nations (ECOSOC). Only a
few and the most well known are mentioned here.
Save the Children Fund
http://www.savethechildren.net/
Save the Children was founded on 19 May 1919.
Working in over 120 countries across the globe and
comprising more than 30 organizations, Save the
Children is the largest independent movement for
children. Save the Childrens programmes bring
relief to millions of children and deliver immediate
and sustainable results, working to provide both
emergency relief and long-term improvements. The
organization seeks to secure childrens rights to
food, shelter, safety, healthcare, and education.
Lutheran World Federation (LWF)
http://www.lutheranworld.org/
The Lutheran World Federation (LWF) is a global
communion of Christian churches in the Lutheran
tradition. Founded in 1947 in Lund, Sweden,
the LWF now has 140 member churches in 79
countries representing 68.5 million Christians.
The LWF acts on behalf of its member churches
| 165
in areas of common interest such as ecumenical

relations, theology, humanitarian assistance,
human rights, communication, and the various
aspects of mission and development work.
The LWF performs a number of humanitarian
operations through its Department for World
Service (DWS), including disaster relief, AIDS and
HIV prevention, promotion of gender equality, and
environmental protection. The LWF secretariat
is located in the Ecumenical Center in Geneva,
Switzerland, facilitates close cooperation with the
World Council of Churches, and other Christian
World Communions, as well as international
secular organizations.
Catholic Relief Services (CRS)
disasters occurred. In accordance with universal

medical ethics and the right to humanitarian
assistance, Doctors Without Borders observes
strict impartiality and demands full and unhindered
freedom in performing its functions.
The majority of its work is pure medical care,
but MSF increasingly uses its high international
standing in the pursuit of equality and security.
When medical assistance is not enough to save
lives, Doctors Without Borders will speak out
against human rights abuses and violations of
humanitarian law that its teams witness in the
course of providing medical relief. It has sent
more than 2,000 volunteers of more than 45
nationalities to over 80 different countries.
http://www.catholicrelief.org/
Cooperative for Assistance and Relief

Everywhere (CARE)
Catholic Relief Services was founded in 1943 to

serve the poor and disadvantaged survivors of
World War II. CRS provides relief based on need,
regardless of their race, religion, or ethnicity, in
more than 80 countries around the world. CRS
states that its aim is to promote the sacredness of
human life and the dignity of the human person.
The organizations headquarters is located in
Baltimore, Maryland, in the United States.
http://www.care.org/
Mdecins Sans Frontires (MSF)

http://www.doctorswithoutborders.org/
Doctors Without Borders, also known as
Mdecins Sans Frontires (MSF), is the worlds
largest independent international medical relief
agency. MSF aids victims of armed conflict,
epidemics, and natural and man-made disasters,
as well as others who lack health care due to
geographic remoteness or ethnic marginalization.
The organization operates independently of all
governments, institutions, political, economic,
or religious influences. It depends on volunteer
health professionals in fulfilling its mission. Largely
supported by private donors, the organization
is able to maintain great flexibility and total
independence in its choice of operations.
CARE is one of the worlds largest private

non-profit international relief and development
organizations. Founded in the aftermath of World
War II, CARE has become a leader in sustainable
development and emergency aid, reaching tens
of millions of people each year in more than
66 countries in Africa, Asia, Europe, and Latin
America. The empowerment and protection of
women is at the heart of CAREs community
based-efforts, as equipped with the proper
resources, women have the power to help whole
families and entire communities escape poverty.
Through nine different programmes, CARE works
to improve basic education, prevent the spread of
HIV, increase access to clean water and sanitation,
expand economic opportunity, and protect natural
resources. CARE also delivers emergency aid to
survivors of war and natural disasters.
CAREs headquarters is located in Atlanta, USA,
and CAREs International Secretariat is located
in Chatelaine, Switzerland. The Secretariat
coordinates the efforts of 11 national members in
North America, Southeast Asia, Australia, Europe,
and Japan.
The Organization was established in 1971 by a

group of physicians determined to offer emergency
assistance wherever wars and man-made
166 |
Oxfam
http://www.oxfam.org/
Oxfam International, founded in 1995, is
an international group of 13 autonomous
non-governmental organizations. The individual
Oxfam member organizations work in different
ways but have a common purpose: addressing the
structural causes of poverty and related injustices,
both in longer-term development work and in
times of urgent humanitarian need. Oxfam works
primarily through local organizations in more than
100 countries.
The Oxfam International Secretariat has a small
team of staff, which coordinates communication
and cooperation between 13 members from its
base in Oxford, UK. The six Advocacy Offices
lobby various institutions in Brasilia, Brussels,
Geneva, Rome, and Washington.
The British aid agency, OXFAM, installing a water supply system at Stankovac 1 near Brazde. Stankovac 1 is the first major reception site established by NATO, with UNHCRs support, several kilometers from the Kosovo
border. UN Photo #76370 by HJ Davies, April 1999)
Caritas
InterAction (American Council for Voluntary

International Action)
http://www.caritas.org/
http://www.interaction.org/
Caritas is an international confederation of Catholic

organizations. All Member Organizations seek
to contribute to the socio-pastoral mission of
the Church through the spreading of solidarity
and social justice. Caritas works mainly in three
areas: emergency and disaster relief; sustainable
development; and peacebuilding. This aid is
performed without regard to creed, race, gender, or
ethnicity. Within this context, Caritas commits itself
to:
InterAction is a membership association of U.S.

private voluntary organizations that focuses on
the worlds poor and most vulnerable people.
InterAction brings the values and experience of
the NGO community into the broader development
and humanitarian assistance community
through strategic alliances with key partners
around particular issues and objectives. These
partnerships further leverage InterActions political,
intellectual, and financial capital.
Provide a forum for dialogue and exchange
among member organizations to share ideas,

learn from each other, and support each others
efforts;
Help member organizations build their own

capacity in order to serve the poor and
marginalized more effectively;
Act as a voice or advocate for the cause of
the poor and enabling the poor to be their own

advocates; and
Facilitate cooperation within and beyond the

Caritas Confederation.
InterActions 175 member organizations work

in nearly every developing country, focusing on
expanding self-supporting opportunities and
supporting gender equality in education, health
care, agriculture, small business, and other areas.
InterAction is supported by public contributions to
its member organizations, totalling around USD 6
billion annually. InterAction leverages the impact
of this private support by advocating for U.S.
government policies and programmes that respond
to the realities of the worlds poorest and most
vulnerable populations.
| 167
Learning Questions
Awareness
What is your opinion on the relationship between
Knowledge
the IFRC and the ICRC?
What is the role of OCHA?
What are the distinctions between the two major

organizations dealing with children?
What is the role of UNDP?

Which two organizations are assumed to have
the major responsibilities for children?
Which organization has the major responsibility
in providing international protection to refugees?
Which organization is mainly dealing with

international humanitarian law?
Who is the UN official responsible for human

rights?
What is the WTO, and what is the main purpose

of the organization?
What do CARE, Oxfam, and Caritas have in

common?
168 |
What, in your opinion, are the common
interests of the non-governmental organizations

mentioned in this lesson?
How do you identify an international

organization?
How do you identify any non-governmental

organizations?
Applications
You are asked to make a presentation on the ICRC.
Although you are well aware of the mandates and
structures of the organization, you would like to be
more specific concerning the organizations unique
position in the international community. What are
the points you would like to emphasize?
End-of-Lesson Quiz
1. The term International Organizations as
commonly defined and accepted refers to:
6. The leading agency or organization

concerning refugees is:
A. Organizations founded by other international

organizations;
B. Organizations which are part of the international
system;
C. Organizations that require a framework of
cooperation and are the foundation of the
international system;
D. Organizations founded by citizens.
A. UNHCR;
B. ICRC;
C. UNICEF;
2. Which one of the following provides services

for the management of multidisciplinary
programmes that do not fall within the
purview of any UN specialized agency?
A.
B.
C.
D.
UNDP;
UNEP;
UNOPS;
UNDCP.
A. Leadership in the field of populations of

developing countries;
B. Assistance in the field of food and agriculture of
C. Assistance in the field of populations of the
D. Service as an authority on the global population
agenda.
4. The task of UNDP is to:

A. Help countries in their effort to achieve
sustainable human development;
B. Assist in the implementation of economic and
social development;
C. Provide governments a setting in which to
discuss, develop, and perfect economic and
social policy;
D. Assure the inclusion of volunteers within a
developing country.
5. The pre-eminent learning arm of the UN

system of organizations is:
UNSSC;
UNITAR;
ILO;
UNESCO.
7. UNICEF stands for:

A. United Nations Childrens Fund;
B. United Nations International Childrens Funds;
C. United Nations Childrens Emergency Funds;
D. United Nations Childrens International Fund.
8. Which statement applies to the role of the

WTO?
A. WTO acts as one of the forums for trade
organizations;
3. UNFPA provides:
A.
B.
C.
D.
D. OHCHR.
B. WTO has more than 90 members accounting

for over 30% of world trade;
C. WTO is the only international organization
dealing with the rules of trade between nations;
D. All decisions regarding trade are made by the
WTO Secretariat based in Geneva.
9. Which of the following is a

non-governmental organization?
A. UNICEF;
B. Save the Children Fund;
C. USAID;
D. ICRC.
10. Which organization stands apart from both

the UN system and other non-governmental
humanitarian organizations?
A.
B.
C.
D.
MSF;
CRS;
ICRC;
WHO.
ANSWER KEY
1C, 2C, 3C, 4A, 5A, 6A, 7A, 8C, 9B, 10C
| 169
Appendix A: List of Acronyms

Acronym Meaning
ACABQ
Advisory Committee on Administrative and Budgetary Questions
AMR
Annual Ministerial Review
ASEAN
Association of Southeast Asian Nations
AU African Union
CARE
Cooperative for Assistance and Relief Everywhere
CD
Conference on Disarmament
CEB
Chief Executives Board for Coordination
CIMIC Civil-Military Cooperation

CMCS
Civil-Military Coordination Section
CMO
Chief Military Observer
CRS
Catholic Relief Services
CSA
Chief Security Advisor
CSFP
Country Security Focal Point
CTC Counter-Terrorism Committee

DDA
Department for Disarmament Affairs
DDR
Disarmament, Demobilization and Reintegration
DESA
Department of Economic and Social Affairs
DFS
Department of Field Support
DGACM
Department for General Assembly and Conference Management
DM
Department of Management
DO
Designated Official
DPA
Department of Political Affairs
DPI
Department of Public Information
DPKO
DSS
Department of Safety and Security
DUF
Directives on the Use of Force
EC European Commission
ECA
Economic Commission for Africa
ECE
Economic Commission for Europe
ECHA
UN Executive Committee on Humanitarian Affairs
ECLAC
Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean
ECOSOC
Economic and Social Council
ERC
Emergency Relief Coordinator
ESCAP
Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific
ESCWA
Economic and Social Commission for Western Asia
EU European Union
170 |
FAO
Food and Agricultural Organization
FO Field Operator
FSCO
Field Security Coordinator Officer
GA General Assembly
GATT
General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade
HLCM
High Level Committee on Management
HLCP
High Level Committee on Programmes
HOM
Head of Mission
HQ Headquarters
HR Human Rights
IAEA
International Atomic Energy Agency
IASC
Inter-Agency Standing Committee
IBRD
International Bank for Reconstruction and Development
ICAO
International Civil Aviation Organization
ICC
International Criminal Court
ICJ
International Court of Justice
ICRC
International Committee of the Red Cross
ICSID
International Centre for Settlements of Investment Disputes
IDA
International Development Association
IDEA
International Institute for Democracy and Electoral Assistance
IEFR
International Emergency Food Reserve
IFAD
International Fund for Agricultural Development
IFC
International Finance Corporation
IFRC
International Federation of the Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies
IHL
International Humanitarian Law
IHRL
International Human Rights Law
ILO
International Labour Organization
IMF
International Monetary Fund
IMPP
Integrated Mission Planning Process
INSARAG
International Search and Rescue Advisory Group
IOM
International Organization for Migration
IPCC
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
ISAF
International Security Assistance Force
ITU
International Telecommunication Union
JLOC
Joint Logistics Operations Centre
LSU
Logistics Support Unit
LWF
Lutheran World Federation
| 171
MCDLS
Military, Civil Defence and Logistics Section
MCDU
Military and Civil Defence Unit
MDG
Millennium Development Goals
MIGA
Multilateral Investment Guarantee Agency
MILOBS
United Nations Military Observers
MLT
Mission Leadership Team
MOSS
Minimum Operations Security Standards
MOU
Memorandum of Understanding
MSF
Mdecins Sans Frontires
MSO
Mission Security Officer
NAM Non-Aligned Movement

NATO
North Atlantic Treaty Organization
NGO Non-governmental organization

OAS
Organization of American States
OCHA
Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs
OECD
Organisation for European Cooperation and Development
OHCHR
Office of the UN High Commissioner for Human Rights
OIC
Organization of Islamic Conference
OIOS
Office of Internal Oversight Services
OLA
Office of Legal Affairs
OSCE
Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe
OSG
Office of the Secretary-General
PAR
Participatory Action Research
PBC Peacebuilding Commission

PFP
Partnership for Peace Programme
RC Resident Coordinator
ROE
Rules of Engagement
RRA
Rapid Rural Appraisal
SC Security Council
SG Secretary-General
SHA
Swiss Humanitarian Aid Unit
SMT
Security Management Team
SOFA/SOMA
Status of Forces/Mission Agreements
SRSG
Special Representative of the Secretary-General
SSFP
Senior Security Focal Point
SSM
Senior Security Manager
SSR
Security Sector Reform
172 |
TAM
Technical Assessment Mission
TCC/PCC
Troop/Police-Contributing Country
UNAIDS
Joint UN Programme on HIV/AIDS
UNCITRAL
United Nations Commission on International Trade Law
UNCT
United Nations Country Team
UNDAC
United Nations Disaster Assessment and Coordination Team
UNDP
United Nations Development Programme
UNEP
United Nations Environment Programme
UNFCCC
United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change
UNFPA
United Nations Population Fund
UNHCR
United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees
UNHQ
United Nations Headquarters
UNHRC
United Nations Human Rights Council
UNHRD
UN Humanitarian Response Depot
UNICEF
United Nations Children's Fund
UNIDO
UN Industrial Development Organization
UNITAR
UN Institute for Training and Research
UNNY
UN Headquarters in New York
UNOG
UN Office in Geneva
UNON
UN Office in Nairobi
UNOPS
UN Office for Project Services
UNOV
UN Office in Vienna
UNPOL
United Nations Police
UNRWA
UN Relief and Works Agency for Palestine Refugees in the Near East
UNSSC
United Nations System Staff College
UNU UN University
UNV
United Nations Volunteers
UPU
Universal Postal Union
USAID
United States Agency for International Development
WFP
World Food Programme
WHO
World Health Organization
WIPO
World Intellectual Property Organization
WMO
World Meteorological Organization
WTO
World Trade Organization
| 173
Appendix B: List of UN Peacekeeping Operations
List of UN Peacekeeping Operations

BINUB
United Nations Integrated Office in Burundi
DOMREP
Mission of the Representative of the Secretary-General in the Dominican Republic
MINUGUA
United Nations Verification Mission in Guatemala
MINURCA
United Nations Mission in the Central African Republic
MINURCAT
United Nations Mission in the Central African Republic and Chad
MINURSO*
United Nations Mission for the Referendum in Western Sahara
MINUSTAH*
United Nations Stabilization Mission in Haiti
MIPONUH
United Nations Civilian Police Mission in Haiti
MONUA
United Nations Observer Mission in Angola
MONUC
United Nations Organization Mission in the Democratic Republic of the Congo
MONUSCO*

United Nations Organization Stabilization Mission in the Democratic Republic

of the Congo
ONUB
United Nations Operation in Burundi
ONUC
United Nations Operation in the Congo
174 |
ONUCA
United Nations Observer Group in Central America
ONUMOZ
United Nations Operation in Mozambique
ONUSAL
United Nations Observer Mission in El Salvador
UNAMA
United Nations Mission in Afghanistan
UNAMIC
United Nations Advance Mission in Cambodia
UNAMID*
African Union/United Nations Hybrid Operation in Darfur
UNAMIR
United Nations Assistance Mission for Rwanda
UNAMSIL
United Nations Mission in Sierra Leone
UNASOG
United Nations Aouzou Strip Observer Group
UNAVEM
United Nations Angola Verification Mission
UNCRO
United Nations Confidence Restoration Operation
UNDOF*
United Nations Disengagement Observer Force
UNEF
United Nations Emergency Force
UNFICYP*
United Nations Peacekeeping Force in Cyprus
UNGOMAP
United Nations Good Offices Mission in Afghanistan and Pakistan
UNIFIL*
United Nations Interim Force in Lebanon
UNIIMOG
United Nations Iran-Iraq Military Observer Group
UNIKOM
United Nations Iraq-Kuwait Observation Mission
UNIPOM
United Nations India-Pakistan Observation Mission
UNISFA*
United Nations Interim Security Force in Abyei
UNMEE
United Nations Mission in Ethiopia and Eritrea
UNMIBH
United Nations Mission in Bosnia and Herzegovina
UNMIH
United Nations Mission in Haiti
UNMIK*
United Nations Interim Administration Mission in Kosovo
UNMIL*
United Nations Mission in Liberia
UNMISS*
United Nations Mission in the Republic of South Sudan
UNMIS*
United Nations Mission in the Sudan
UNMISET
United Nations Mission of Support in East Timor
UNMIT*
United Nations Integrated Mission in Timor-Leste
UNMOGIP*
United Nations Military Observer Group in India and Pakistan
UNMOP
United Nations Mission of Observers in Prevlaka
UNMOT
United Nations Mission of Observers in Tajikistan
UNOCI*
United Nations Operation in Cte dIvoire
UNOGIL
United Nations Observation Group In Lebanon
UNOMIG
United Nations Observer Mission in Georgia
UNOMIL
United Nations Observer Mission in Liberia
UNOMSIL
United Nations Observer Mission in Sierra Leone

| 175
UNOMUR
United Nations Observer Mission Uganda-Rwanda
UNOSOM
United Nations Operation in Somalia
UNPREDEP
United Nations Preventive Deployment Force
UNPROFOR
United Nations Protection Force
UNPSG
United Nations Civilian Police Support Group
UNSF
United Nations Security Force in West New Guinea (West Irian)
UNSMIH
United Nations Support Mission in Haiti
UNTAC
United Nations Transitional Authority in Cambodia
UNTAES

United Nations Transitional Authority in Eastern Slavonia, Baranja,

and Western Sirmium
UNTAET
United Nations Transitional Administration in East Timor
UNTAG
United Nations Transition Assistance Group
UNTMIH
United Nations Transition Mission in Haiti
UNTSO*
United Nations Truce Supervision Organization
UNYOM
United Nations Yemen Observation Mission
* Ongoing operations, as of November 2011.

176 |
End-of-Course Exam Instructions

General Information
The End-of-Course Exam is provided as a separate component of this course. It covers the material in
all the lessons of this course, including any material found in the courses annexes and appendices. The
exam may be found in your Student Classroom at https://www.peaceopstraining.org/users/user_index.
Format of Questions
The exam consists of 50 multiple-choice questions. Each question gives the student a choice of four
answers marked A, B, C, and D, with only one of these being the correct answer.
Time Limit
There is no time limit for the exam. This allows the student to read and study the questions carefully, and
to consult the course text. Furthermore, if the student cannot complete the exam in one sitting, he or she
may save the exam and come back to it without being graded. The Save button is located at the bottom
of the exam, next to the Submit my answers button. Clicking on the Submit my answers button will end
the exam.
Passing Grade
To pass the exam, a score of 75 per cent or better is required. An electronic Certificate of Completion
will be awarded to those who have passed the exam. A score of less than 75 per cent is a failing grade,
and students who have received a failing grade will be provided with a second, alternate version of the
exam, which can likewise be completed without a time limit. Students who pass the second exam will be
awarded a Certificate of Completion. Those who fail the second exam will be disenrolled from the course.
| 177
About the Author

Mr. Christian Hrleman retired from the Swedish Army in 1989 as a Lieutenant Colonel. He graduated
from the Swedish Military Staff College, and holds academic degrees in International Relations and
International Humanitarian Law from Stockholm University and in Emergency Management from the
University of Wisconsin (US).
Mr. Hrleman has served in a wide variety of positions related to United Nations international conflict
management and disaster relief work. He was Commander of the United Nations Training Center in
Sweden. Between 1989 and 1995, he served as a senior military adviser at the United Nations in New
York, where he developed and implemented the United Nations global peacekeeping training policy. He
has been an adviser to the Swedish Civil Contingency Agency (MSB), and in this capacity, he developed
and implemented emergency health care units for disaster areas.
As an international consultant, Hrleman has worked, inter alia, as a Special Adviser to the Guatemalan
Minister of Foreign Affairs in the development of the Guatemalan International Institute for Peace and
Development (GIIPD) and in a similar advising capacity to the Ethiopian Minister of Foreign Affairs in
the creation of the Ethiopian International Institute for Peace and Development (EIIPD). Mr. Hrleman
has also advised the Foreign Ministries of El Salvador and Jamaica. Between 2002 and 2005, he was a
visiting lecturer on conflict management at the University of Port Elizabeth in South Africa.
Mr. Hrleman is one of the Founding Members (Asamblea de Fundadores) of GIIPD and, since then, a
Member of the Board (Consejo de Direccin). He also serves as a course author and thesis adviser for
POTI and is a former chairman of the Transnational Foundation for Peace and Future Research (TFF) in
Lund, Sweden.
Over the last seven years, Mr. Hrleman has functioned as an adviser and consultant on issues that are
business-related to international affairs in general, and to the United Nations system, in particular. He has
served and continues to serve as a chair or board member to a number of MSEs, including the Swedish
Association for UN Business (SWEUNB), associated with the Swedish Ministry of Foreign Affairs; the
Swedish Trade Council; and Josab International AB, as Senior Adviser.
Mr. Hrleman has written a large number of articles and documents related to peace, security, and
development in general, and topics related to the United Nations system, in particular.
Mr. Hrleman was born in 1939. He is married, has four children, and lives in Djursholm, Sweden.
178 |
Other Courses at the Peace Operations Training Institute

Course Name
English
French
Spanish
An Introduction to the UN System
CivilMilitary Coordination (CIMIC)
Commanding UN Peacekeeping Operations
The Conduct of Humanitarian Relief Operations
Disarmament, Demobilization, and Reintegration (DDR)
Ethics in Peacekeeping
Gender Perspectives in UN Peacekeeping Operations
The History of UN Peacekeeping 19451987
Human Rights
Implementation of SCR 1325 (2000) in Africa
Implementation of SCR 1325 (2000) in LAC
International Humanitarian Law and the Law of Armed Conflict
Logistical Support to UN Peacekeeping Operations
Operational Logistical Support
Advanced Topics in UN Logistics
Mine Action
Peacekeeping and International Conflict Resolution
Preventing Violence Against Women
Principles and Guidelines
United Nations Military Observers
United Nations Police
The Peace Operations Training Institute is committed to bringing essential, practical knowledge
to students, and is always working to expand its curriculum with the most up-to-date and relevant
information possible. POTIs latest course list can be found at www.peaceopstraining.org, which
includes the courses increasing availability in Portuguese and Arabic. Visit the website regularly
to keep abreast of the latest changes to POTIs curriculum.
Peace Operations
Training Institute
| 179
www.peaceopstraining.org

An Introduction To The UN System - Orientation For Serving On A UN Field Mission

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An Introduction to the

UN System: Orientation for

Lt. Col. (Retired) Christian Hrleman

Harvey J. Langholtz, Ph.D.

Peace Operations Training Institute

Lt. Col. (Retired) Christian Hrleman

Harvey J. Langholtz, Ph.D.

Peace Operations Training Institute

2011 Peace Operations Training Institute.

LESSON 1: THE TASK AND THE TASK ORGANIZATION. . . . . . . . . . . 13

The Charter of the United Nations: An Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15

Purposes and Principles of the United Nations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16

Financial Principles: Budget of the United Nations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20

The United Nations System. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20

Achievements: Some Basic Facts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24

LESSON 2: THE PRINCIPAL ORGANS OF THE UNITED NATIONS. . . 29

General Assembly (GA) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31

Security Council (SC) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33

Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35

Trusteeship Council (TC) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36

International Court of Justice (ICJ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37

Secretariat and the Secretary-General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38

LESSON 3: THE UNITED NATIONS ROLE IN MAINTAINING PEACE

The Key Concepts to Maintaining Peace and Security. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50

Principles Guiding Peacekeeping/Peace Operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52

Structure and Main Components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55

Types of Peace Operations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57

Planning and Preparation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62

The Development Concept . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73

The Interface between Disaster Relief and Development. . . . . . . . . . . . . 75

Distinctions and Similarities between Human Rights Law and International

Principles and Applications of International Humanitarian Law. . . . . . . . . 81

Human Development and Climate Change. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83

Social and Cultural Environment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91

Civil-Military Cooperation (CIMIC). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96

The Security and Safety Environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97

LESSON 6: PRINCIPLES, GENERAL DUTIES, AND

Obligations and Duties. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106

Cultural and Social Demands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107

Personal Demands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109

Privileges and Immunities. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110

LESSON 7: SAFETY AND SECURITY. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117

The Principal Context . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119

Main Principles and Structure of the UN Security Management System .120

Responsibilities of a UN Staff Member . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121

Personal Safety and Precautions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122

Sexual Harassment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127

Special Security Precautions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127

First Aid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129

Stress Situations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130

7.10 Health Precautions: General Rules. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130

LESSON 8: THE AVAILABLE TOOLS. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137

Participatory Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139

Projects and Project Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140

Transparent Communication. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143

Written Communications and Reports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148

Communication with the Media. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148

LESSON 9: THE PARTNERS. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153

The Need for Proper Identification. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155

UN Programmes and Funds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156

UN Specialized Agencies. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160

International Organizations with Member States. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161

Non-Governmental International Organizations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163