ENCV600103 Peranc.

Struktur Beton 2:
Strut-and-Tie Method

November 2007

B-Regions and D-Regions

Classification portions of the structure based on design
approach:
B- (Beam or Bernoulli) Regions: Bernoulli's hypothesis of
straight-line strain profiles applies
D- (Disturbed or Discontinuity) Regions: are parts of a
structure with a complex variation in strain, include
portions near abrupt changes in geometry or concentrated
forces. Based on St. Venant's principle, the extent of a DRegion spans about one section depth of the region on
either side of the discontinuity.

Example of D-Regions in a Common

Building Structure

Figure 1 Example of D-Regions in a Common Building Structure

Example of D-Regions in a Common Bridge

Structure

Figure 2 Example of D-Regions in a Common Bridge Structure

Design Basis
B-Regions are based on a model for behavior. The design for flexure is
based on conventional beam theory while the design for shear is based
on the well-known parallel chord truss analogy.
D-Regions, such as deep beams, corbels, beam-column joints, and pile
caps, are currently still designed by empirical approaches or by using
common detailing practices. For most other types of D-Regions, code
provisions provide little guidance to designers. The Strut-and-Tie Method
(STM) is emerging as a code-worthy methodology for the design of all
types of D-Regions in structural concrete.
The STM is equally applicable to both B- and D-Region problems, it is
not practical to apply the method to B-Region problems. The conventional
beam theory for flexure and parallel chord truss analogy for shear are
recommended for those designs.

Historical Background
The Truss analogy method introduced i independently by Ritter and Mrch
in the early 1900s for shear of B-Regions;
The model was used to idealize the flow of force in a cracked concrete
beam;
In parallel with the increasing availability of experimental results and the
development of limit analysis in plasticity theory, the truss analogy method
has been validated and improved considerably in the form of full member
or sectional design procedures;
The truss model has also been used as the design basis for torsion;
The strut-and-tie method came after Marti [1] and Schlaich et al. [2]
promoted the use of truss model in D-Regions

Strut-and-Tie Models
The STM is based on the lower-bound theory of limit analysis.
In the STM, the complex flow of internal forces in the D-Region
under consideration is idealized as a truss carrying the imposed
loading through the region to its supports.
This truss is called strut-and-tie model and is a statically admissible
stress field in lower-bound (static) solutions.
A strut-and-tie model consists of struts and ties interconnected at
nodes (also referred to as nodal zones or nodal regions). A selection
of strut-and-tie models for a few typical 2-D D-Regions is illustrated
in Figure 3.
Struts are usually symbolized using broken lines, and ties are
usually denoted using solid lines.

Examples of Strut-and-Tie Models

Figure 3 Examples of Strut-and-Tie Models for Common

Structural Concrete Members

Struts
Struts are the compression members of a strut-and-tie
model and represent concrete stress fields whose
principal compressive stresses are predominantly along
the centerline of the strut.
Struts are usually symbolized using a broken line. The
idealized shape of concrete stress field surrounding a strut
in a plane (2-D) member
Struts can be prismatic (Figure 4(a)), bottle-shaped
(Figure 4(b)), or fan-shaped (Figure 4(c)) [3]. Struts can
be strengthened by steel reinforcement, and if so, they are
termed reinforced struts.

Basic Type of Struts

Figure 4 Basic Type of Struts in a 2-D Member: (a) Prismatic (b) BottleShaped (c) Fan-Shaped

Ties

Ties are the tension members of a strut-and-tie model.

Ties mostly represent reinforcing steel, but they can
occasionally represent prestressing steel or concrete
stress fields with principal tension predominant in the tie
direction.
Ties are usually denoted using a solid line.

Nodes
Nodes are analogous to joints in a truss and are where
forces are transferred between struts and ties.
As a result, these regions are subject to a multidirectional
state of stress.
Nodes are classified by the types of forces being
connected. Figure 5 shows basic types of nodes in a 2-D
member; in the figure, C is used to denote compression
and T is used to denote tension.

Basic Type of Nodes

Figure 5 Basic Type of Nodes: (a) CCC (b) CCT (c) CTT (d) TTT

Design Process
The design process using STM involves five major steps described below:
1.Define the boundaries of the D-Region and determine the boundary
forces (the ultimate design forces) from the imposed local and sectional
forces.
2.Sketch the truss, determine the equivalent boundary forces, and solve for
the truss member forces.
3.Select reinforcing or prestressing steel to provide the necessary tie
capacity and ensure that this reinforcement is properly anchored in the
nodes.
4.Evaluate the dimensions of the struts and nodes such that the capacity o
all struts and nodes is sufficient to carry the truss member forces.
5.Provide distributed reinforcement to ensure ductile behavior of the DRegion.

The Major Steps in STM Design Process

Figure 6 The Major Steps in STM Design Process

Since equilibrium of the truss with the boundary forces

must be satisfied (step 2) and stresses everywhere must
be below the limits (step 3 and 4),

the STM is a lower-bound (static or equilibrium) method of

limit analysis.

Code Provisions
STM design provisions consist of rules for defining the
dimensions and ultimate stress limits of struts and
nodes as well as the requirements for the distribution
and anchorage of reinforcement.
Guidelines [5, 6] for design by the STM have been
developed for European practice.
Provisions for the STM have been incorporated in the
Canadian Concrete Design Code [7] since 1984 and in
the AASHTO LRFD [8] code since 1994.
Another specific set of provisions has been developed
to be included as an alternative design procedure in
the 2002 ACI code [9].

Code Provisions
Table 1 and Table 2 show examples of stress limits and
strength reduction factors defined in ACI Code and
AASHTO LRFD, respectively. As shown in the tables, there
are substantial differences in the rules used in these
provisions and guidelines because of uncertainties
associated with defining the characteristics of an idealized
truss within a continuum of structural concrete.

Table 1 Stress Limits and Strength Reduction

Factors According to ACI 318-02 Appendix A [9]
Stress Limits, fcu
Struts:

f cu 0.85 s f c'

where:
s = 1.00 for prismatic struts in uncracked compression zones
s = 0.40 for struts in tension members
s = 0.75 struts may be bottle shaped and crack control reinforcement is
included
s = 0.60 struts may be bottle shaped and crack control reinforcement is not
included
s = 0.60 for all other cases
fc = specified concrete compressive strength
Note:
Crack control reinforcement requirement is vi =sin i 0.003, where vi =
steel ratio of the i-th layer of reinforcement crossing the strut under review, and
i = angle between the axis of the strut and the bars.

Code Provisions
Nodes:

f cu 0.85 n f c'

where:
n = 1.00 when nodes are bounded by struts and/or bearing areas
n = 0.80 when nodes anchor only one tie
n = 0.60 when nodes anchor more than one tie
Strength Reduction Factors,
= 0.75 for struts, ties, and nodes

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Table 2 Stress Limits and Strength Reduction

Factors According to AASHTO LRFD 1999 [8]
Stress Limits, fcu
Struts:

f c'
f cu
0.85 f c'
0.8 1701

where:
1 = s + (s +0.002)cot2 s
s = smallest angle between the strut under review and the adjoining ties
s = average tensile strain in the tie direction
fc = specified concrete compressive strength
Note:
The stress limit assumes a minimum distributed reinforcement of 0.003 in each
direction is provided.

Table 2 Stress Limits and Strength Reduction

Factors According to AASHTO LRFD 1999 [8]
.Nodes:

f cu f c'

where:
= 0.85 when nodes are bounded by struts and/or bearing areas
= 0.75 when nodes anchor only one tie
= 0.65 when nodes anchor more than one tie
Resistance Factors,
= 0.7 for struts and nodes
= 0.9 for ties

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Deep Beam (1)

Consider the 2 meter deep beam described in Figure 1 below. Use the strut-and-tie
model to determine the required amount of reinforcement.
Additional details: fc= 25 MPa, fy=420 MPa, PDL=800 kN, and PLL=400 kN.

Deep Beam (1)

Step 1: Evaluate the Total Factored Load,
Pu=1.2PDL+1.6PLL=1.2(800)+1.6(400)=1600 kN
Step 2: Check Bearing Capacity at Loading and Support Locations
Bearing strength at points of loading = 0.85fc nAc = 0.75(0.85)(25)(1.0)(450)(500)/1000
= 3586 kN > 1600 kN OK
Bearing strength at supports = 0.85fc nAc = 0.75(0.85)(25)(0.80)(450)(500)/1000
= 2868 kN > 1600 kN OK

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Deep Beam (1)

Step 3: Select the Strut-and-Tie Model to Use in Design

Deep Beam (1)

Step 4: Isolate Disturbed Region and Estimate Member Forces and Dimensions
The entire deep beam is a disturbed region, but it is only necessary to consider the left
third of the structure to complete the design. The horizontal position of nodes A and B
are easy to define, but the vertical position of these nodes must somehow be estimated
or determined. What we do know is that the design strength of strut BC must be greater
than or equal to the factored load in strut BC. That is:
Strut BC: , Fnc = (0.85 s fc )bwc FBC, where s = 1.0 (prismatic strut)

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Deep Beam (1)

Similarly, the design strength of tie AD must be greater than the factored load in tie AD.
In addition, this tie must be anchored over a large enough area such that the factored
load is less than Fnn
Tie AD: Fnt = Ayfy FAD and
Tie AD: Fnn = fcuAc = (0.85 s fc )bwt FAD , where n = 0.8 (on tie anchored in
Node A)
By setting the design strength equal to the required capacity, jd will be a maximum and
wt = 1.25 wc. The flexural lever arm will be jd = 2000 - wc/2 - wt/2 = 2000 1.125wc.

Deep Beam (1)

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Deep Beam (1)

By taking summation of moments about point A:
MA = 1600(2000)(1000) = FBC(2000-1.125 wc). By substituting for FBC,
wc = 231 mm, and therefore wt = 288 mm.
If these values are used for the dimensions of the struts and ties, the stress in strut FBC
will be at its limit, and the force in tie FAD will be anchored in just sufficient area. It is
often wise to increase these values a little to leave some margin. wc will be selected to
be 240 mm, and wt will be selected to be 300 mm.
jd = 2000 240/2 300/2 = 1730 mm and FBC = FAD = 1600(2000)/1730 = 1850 kN
Check capacity of strut BC: = 0.75(0.85)(1.0)(25)(500)(240)/1000
= 1912 kN OK

Deep Beam (1)

Step 5: Select Reinforcement
Tie AD: Fnt = Ayfy FAD = 1850 kN

As 1850(1000)/0.75/420 = 5873 mm2.

Consider 1 layer of 6 #36(11) bars = 6036 mm2 @ 150 mm from bottom

Consider 2 layers of 5 #29(9) bars = 6450 mm2 @ 80 mm and 220 mm from bottom
Consider 3 layers of 6 #22(7) bars = 6966 mm2 @ 60, 150, and 240 mm from bottom
Check capacity of tie AD: Fnt = Asfy = 0.75(6450)(420)/1000 = 2032 kN > 1850 kN

OK

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Deep Beam (1)

Step 6: Calculate Force in Diagonal Compressive Strut FAB and Check Capacity

tan = 1730/2000 and = 40.9

Therefore, the force in the diagonal compressive strut, FAB = 1600/sin 40.9=2444 kN
Width at top of strut = w ct =lb sin + ha cos = 450sin 40.9 +240 cos 40.9 =476 mm
Width at bottom of strut = wcb= lb sin + ha cos =450sin 40.9 +300 cos 40.9 =521 mm
Assuming that sufficient crack control reinforcement is used, then s = 0.75
Check Capacity of strut AB: Fnc= (0.85 s fc )bwct= 0.75(0.85)(0.75)(25)(500)(476)/100
= 2885 kN > 2444 kN OK

Deep Beam (1)

Step 7: Minimum Distributed Reinforcement and Reinforcement for Bottle-Shaped Struts
Horizontal Web Reinforcement:
Use one #13(4) on each face at sh = 300 mm over entire length,
Ah/(b s h) = 2(129)/500/300 = 0.0017 > 0.0015 OK
Vertical Web Reinforcement:
Use one #16(5) on each face at sv = 300 mm over entire length,
Av/(b sv) = 2(199)/500/300 = 0.00265 > 0.0025 OK
Check of Reinforcement to Resist Bursting Forces in Bottle-Shaped Struts:
vi sin i =0.0017 sin 40.9 + 0.00265 sin 40.9 = 0.00312 0.003 OK

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Single Corbel
A single corbel projecting from a 350 mm 350 mm column is to be designed to
support precast beam reaction forces at 100 mm from the face of the column. The
factored vertical load to be carried is 250 kN. A horizontal force of 50 kN is assumed
to develop to account for creep and shrinkage deformations.
The concrete strength is 35 MPa (normal density), and the yield strength of
reinforcement is taken as 420 MPa.

Determine the Bearing Plate Dimensions:

Choose a 300 mm 150 mm 13 mm bearing pad. The bearing plate area is
Ac=300(150)=45000 mm2, and the bearing stress is Vu/Ac=250(1000)/45000=5.56
MPa. Since this is less than the bearing stress limit, i.e. fcu= (0.85 n
fc)=0.75[0.85(0.80)(35)]=17.8 MPa, the bearing size is adequate.

Single Corbel
Choose the Corbel Dimensions:
Choose an overall corbel depth at column face of 450 mm. The ACI Code requires that
the depth at the outside of the bearing area is at least one-half of the depth at the
column face. Therefore, select a depth of 225 mm at the free end of the corbel. Figure 1
summarizes the selected dimensions for the corbel.

Figure 1

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Single Corbel
Determine the Strut-and-Tie Model:
The vertical load is assumed to be located 25 mm toward the edge of the corbel from the
center of bearing plate to allow for load eccentricities and erection tolerances. Thus, the
position of vertical load is 25 + 100 = 125 mm from the face of column.
The geometry of the assumed truss is given in Figure 2. The center of tie CB is assumed
to be located 50 mm from the top of the corbel. Thus, d = 450 50 = 400 mm. The
horizontal tie DA is assumed to lie on the horizontal line passing through the sloping end
of the corbel

Single Corbel

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Single Corbel
The location of strut DD centerline is found by calculating the strut width a. The
required compressive force in strut DD, NDD, can be found by taking moments about
Node A as follows:
250(10+125+350-50)+50(450-50)=NDD(300-a/2)
As the stress on the nodal zone at D is to be limited to
(0.85fc nAc) =0.75[0.85(0.8)(35)]=17.8 MPa, we have a

N DD '

(0.85 n f c' )b

N DD '
17.8(350)

Solving these two equations gives NDD=495 KN and a=79 mm.

This fixes the geometry of the truss and means that member CD has a horizontal
projection of 10 + 125 + 79/2 = 175 mm while member BC has a horizontal projection
of 300 - 79/2 = 260 mm.

Single Corbel
Determine the Required Truss Forces by Statics:
The required forces in the other important members of the truss are given in the
following table. Note that positive indicates tension, negative compression.
Member

CD

Force (kN)

-273 +159 -292 +245 +50 -495

CB

BD

BA

DA

DD'

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Single Corbel
Design the Ties:
The area of reinforcement required for tie CB is
As min 0.04

Asrequired

f c'
35
bd 0.04
(350)(400) 467 mm 2
fy
420

N CB 159(1000)

505mm 2
f y 0.75(420)

2
Choose 4 No. 13 mm bars, As 4(129) 516mm

As shown in the above table, tie BA has a larger tension than tie CB. However, this tie
force should be resisted by column longitudinal reinforcement. Therefore, continue the
4 No. 13 mm bars down the column just to have a sufficient development length.
50(1000)
N
Asrequired DA
159mm 2
The area of reinforcement required for tie DA is
f y 0.75(420)
Choose 2 No. 10 mm additional column ties at location DA,
]

As 4(2)(71) 284mm 2

Single Corbel
Design the Nodal Zones and Check the Anchorages:
The width a of nodal zone D was chosen to satisfy the stress limits on the nodal zone.
To anchor tie CB, the horizontal loop is used. The detail is shown in Figure 4. To
satisfy the nodal zone stress limit, the tie reinforcement must engage an effective depth
of concrete at least equal to:
N CB

f cu b

NCB

(0.85 n f c' )b

159(1000)
25mm
0.75[0.85(0.80)(35)9350]

This limit is easily satisfied since the nodal zone available is 100 mm.
The required anchorage length for tie AA is ldh

100d b
f c'

0.7

100(13)
154mm
35

Since this is less than the available length, i.e. 50 + 150 (25 + 10) = 165 mm, the
anchorage length is adequate.

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Single Corbel
Check the Struts:
The struts will be checked by computing the strut widths and checked whether they will
fit in the space available.
The stresses in the diagonal struts CD and BD is limited to
fcu = (0.85 s fc ) =0.75[0.85(0.750(35)]=16.7 MPa..
Hence, the required widths for struts CD and BD are
and

N BD

f cu b

292(1000)
50mm
16.7(350)

N CD

f cu b

273(1000)
47 mm
16.7(350)

respectively.
Choose 50 mm width for both struts CD and BD. The required width for strut DD is
equal to a, i.e. 79 mm.

Single Corbel
As shown in Figure 3, all the strut widths fit into the outline of the corbel region. Thus,
this solution is accepted. Figure 3 also shows a summary of the stress demand for each
strut and its corresponding stress limit (in brackets).

Figure 3

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Single Corbel
Calculate the Minimum Reinforcement Required for Crack Control:
According Appendix A, the minimum reinforcement provided must satisfy vi =sin i
0.003 to be able to take s as 0.75 for the diagonal struts, and the minimum spacing for
the vertical reinforcement is the smallest of 300 mm or d/2.
In addition, the code requires closed stirrups or ties parallel to the reinforcement
required for tie CB to be uniformly distributed with 2/3 of the effective depth adjacent to
tie CB, i.e. 2/3 (400) = 267 mm; use 275 mm. The area of these ties must exceed ,
0.5(As-An), where An is the area of reinforcement resisting the tensile force Hence, the
minimum area required is 0.5( As An ) 0.5 As NUC 0.5 516 50(1000) 179mm 2

f y

0.75(420)

Try 3 No. 10 mm closed stirrups with average spacing of 275/3 = 92 mm.

Av 3(2)(71) 426mm 2

vi

sin i

2(71)
sin 57.00 0.00370 0.003
350(92)

Since this amount of reinforcement satisfies both requirements, provide 3 No. 10 closed
stirrups distributed over a depth of 275 mm from tie CB with a concrete cover of 25 mm.

Single Corbel
Summary of the Design:
The reinforcement details for the corbel designed using the strut-and-tie model
according to Appendix A are shown in Figure 4.

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Figure 4

Acknowledment
Materi dalam kuliah ini di ambil dari
http://www.cee.uiuc.edu/kuchma/strut_and_tie/STM/

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