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GEOPHYSICAL

MONOGRAPH

SERIES

David V. Fitterman, Series Editor

Larry R. Lines,Volume Editor

NUMBER

FUNDAMENTALS

SEISMIC

OF

TOMOGRAPHY

By Tien-when Lo and Philip L. Inderwiesen

SOCIETY

OF EXPLORATION

GEOPHYSICISTS

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Lo, Tien-when, 1957-

Fundamentals
of seismictomography/by Tien-whenLo and
Philip L. Inderwiesen.

p. cm. (Geophysicalmonographseries;no. 6)
Includesbibliographicalreferencesand index.
ISBN 978-1-56080-028-6:$22.00

1. Seismictomography.I. Inderwiesen,PhilipL., 1953II.

Title.

III.

QE538.5.L6

Series.

1994

551.2' 2' 0287--dc20

94-23818
CIP

ISBN 978-0-931830-56-3 (Series)


ISBN 978-1-56080-028-6 (Volume)

Societyof ExplorationGeophysicists
P.O. Box 702740

Tulsa, OK 74170-2740

1994by the Societyof ExplorationGeophysicists


All rightsreserved.This bookor portionshereof
may not be reproduced
in anyform withoutpermission
in writing from the publisher.
Published

1994

Reprinted2000
Reprinted2004
Reprinted 2006
Reprinted2008
Printed in the United States of America

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Contents

Preface
I

vii

Introduction

1.1 The Concept of SeismicTomography .............

1.2

Applications ...........................

1.3 Ray vs. Diffraction Tomography ...............


1.4 Suggestionsfor Further Reading ...............

5
6

Seismic Ray Tomography

2.1

Introduction

2.2

Transform

2.2.1

2.3

2.4

...........................

Methods

.......................

10

Projection Slice Theorem ...............

10

2.2.2 Direct-TransformRay Tomography ..........


2.2.3 BackprojectionRay Tomography ...........
SeriesExpansion Methods ...................
2.3.1 The Forward Modeling Problem ...........

16
20
22
23

2.3.2

Kaczmarz'

26

2.3.3

ART

...................

.....................

33

............................

39

2.5 Suggestionsfor Further Reading ...............

42

Seismic Diffraction

45

3.1

Summary

Method

and SIRT

Introduction

Tomography

...........................

45

3.2

Acoustic Wave Scattering ...................


3.2.1 The Lippmann-SchwingerEquation .........
3.2.2 The Born Approximation ...............
3.2.3 The Rytov Approximation ...............
3.2.4 Born vs. Rytov Approximation ............
3.3 Generalized Projection Slice Theorem ............
3.3.1 CrosswellConfiguration ................
iii

46
47
51
52
56
58
59

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3.3.2 Vertical SeismicProfile Configuration ........


3.3.3 Surface Reflection Configuration ...........
3.4 Acoustic Diffraction Tomography ...............
3.4.1 Direct-Transform Diffraction Tomography ......
3.4.2 BackpropagationDiffraction Tomography ......
3.5 Summary ............................
3.6 Suggestionsfor Further Reading ...............

72
78
82
84
87
90
3

Case

95

Studies

4.1

Introduction

4.2

Steam-Flood EOR Operation .................


4.2.1 CrosswellSeismicData Acquisition ..........
4.2.2

4.3

4.4

4.5

...........................

Traveltime

95

Parameter

Measurements

.........

99

4.2.3 Image Reconstruction .................


4.2.4 Tomogram Interpretation ...............
Imaging a Fault System ....................
4.3.1 CrosswellSeismicData Acquisition ..........

108
111
125
125

4.3.2

.........

130

4.3.3 Image Reconstruction .................


4.3.4 Tomogram Interpretation ...............
Imaging Salt Sills ........................
4.4.1 Assumptions and Preprocessing............
4.4.2 Data Acquisition ....................
4.4.3 Diffraction Tomography Processing..........
4.4.4 Tomogram Interpretation ...............
Suggestionsfor Further Reading ...............

133
135
137
137
139
141
146
150

Traveltime

Parameter Measurements

A Frequency and Wavenumber


A.1 Frequency ............................
A.2

95
96

Wavenumber

153
153

..........................

154

The Fourier Transform


B.1 Fourier Series ..........................

157
158

B.2 Exponential Fourier Series ...................

159

B.3 FourierTransform- Continuousf(x) .............


B.4 FourierTransform-Sampledf(x) ...............

160
161

B.5

162

Uses of Fourier Transforms

Green's

..................

Function

167

C.1 Filter Theory ..........................


C.2 PDE's as Linear Operators ..................
C.3 Green's Function Example ...................
iv

168
170
173

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C.4 Suggestionsfor Further Reading ...............

INDEX

174

175

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Preface

Motivated by the successfulimplementation of medical tomography in


the early 1980s, geophysicistsand production engineershave attempted
analogousmethodsusingseismicenergyfor hydrocarbonexploration,reservoir characterization, and production engineering.The theoretical methods
and field techniquesemployed are broadly classifiedas "seismictomography" and were fundamentally developedin the late 1980s. Today, seismic
tomography is conductedon a commercial basis with its theory anchored
on a solid base, and its strengths and limitations known. Field applications
have demonstrated that seismictomography can provide valuable services
in upstream operations,suchas mapping subsurfacestructures,delineating
reservoirs,and monitoring enhancedoil recoveryprocesses.
Our book developsthe fundamentalsof seismictomography at the level
of a tutorial or practical guide. Considerableeffort has gone into making
the book self-containedso that any reader who has had calculuscan easily
follow the material. Referencesfor further reading on specifictopics are
given at the end of each chapter. We give a short statementfollowingeach
referencedetailingits significance
as a supplementto this book. In doingso
we hope the reader will not feel the referencesmust be read to fully understand a given concept. We use appendicesto review physicalterminology
and mathematics required to understand the theoretical presentations.
We present various tomographicmethods in a logical and straightforward manner. Unlike many other books on tomography, we use standard
notation for variableswhich span the variousmethods,enablingthe reader
to easily contrast differences. Also, mathematical steps glossed-overby
most research

articles

are filled-in

for our readers.

Sometimes

we deviate

from well-known derivations to provide a deeper physical understanding.


However,for completeness,our derivationsare followed-upwith references
to the "well-known" derivations at the end of the chapter. In addition,
we discussthe limitations of seismictomographyand illustrate successes
and pitfalls with casestudies. Our ultimate intent is that after reading
this presentation, the reader will exhibit both a greater understandingand
appreciation for seismictomography articles presentedin the literature.
Chapter I is introductory and summarizes the developmentof seismic
tomography and describeshow this new technologycan benefit the oil industry at both the exploration and producing stages. Chapters 2 and 3
are tutorials on the theoretical fundamentals of seismic ray tomography
and seismicdiffraction tomography,respectively. Chapter 4 presentsthe
vii

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data acquisition,processing,and tomogram interpretation for three seismic


tomographycasestudies. Each casestudy has its own unique data acquisition, data processing,and interpretation challenges.They provide useful
insight into designingand conductingfuture tomographystudies.
The authors thank Texaco for releasing data and results for the case
studies published in Chapter 4. We also acknowledgethe releaseof the
McKittrick data by Texaco'sjoint partner, Chevron, for that project. Both
Eike Rietsch and Bob Tatham of Texaco have encouragedthe authors to
pursue this project and have provided support during its progress. We
also acknowledgeour fellow boreholeseismologyteam membersat Texaco:
Danny Melton, Don Howlett, Ron Jackson, and Stan Zimmer for their
contributionsto this field throughout the past few years. In addition, David
Fitterman, the SEG monographsserieseditor, and Larry Lines, the volume
editor for this book, have been patient with our progressand have provided
valuable guidance. Finally, the authors thank Texaco for permission to
publish this book.

Philip L. Inderwiesen
Tien-when

Lo

EtP TechnologyDepartment
Texaco

Inc.

Houston, Texas

viii

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Chapter

Introduction

1.1

The Concept of Seismic Tomography

We definetomography
as an imagingtechniquewhichgeneratesa crosssectionalpicture (a tomogram)of an object by utilizing the object'sresponseto the nondestructive,probingenergyof an external source.Seismic
tomographymakesuseof sourcesthat generateseismicwaveswhich probe
a geologicaltarget of interest.

Figurel(a) is an exampleconfiguration
for crosswell
seismic
tomography. A seismicsourceis placedin one well and a seismicreceiversystem

in a nearbywell. Seismicwavesgeneratedat a sourceposition(soliddot)


probe a target containing a heavy oil reservoirsituated between the two
wells. The reservoir's responseto the seismicenergyis recordedby detec-

tors (open circles)deployedat differentdepthsin the receiverwell. The


reservoiris probedin many directionsby recordingseismicenergywith the
samereceiverconfigurationfor different sourcelocations.Thus, we obtain
a networkof seismicraypathswhich travel throughthe reservoir.
The measured responseof the reservoir to the seismic wave is called

the projectiondata. Tomographyimagereconstruction


methodsoperateon

the projectiondata to createa tomogram


suchasthe onein Figurel(b).
In this casewe usedprojectiondata consistingof direct-arrivaltraveltimes
and seismicray tomographyto obtain a P-wavevelocitytomogram.Generally,differentcolorsor shadesof gray in a tomogramrepresentlithology

with differentproperties.The high P-wavevelocities(dark gray/black)in


the tomogramin Figurel(b) are associated
with reservoirrockof high oil
saturation.

Seismictomographyhas a solid theoreticalfoundation. Many seismic

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CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION

Crosswell
Seismic
Configuration

source

receiver

/'-waveVelocity
Tomogram

heavy oil
(a)

(b)

FG. 1. (a) Geometry


forcrosswell
seismic
tomography
example.
P-wave
energy
traveling
alongraypaths
probethe geological
target. (b) P-wave

velocitytomogramreconstructed
from observedtraveltimedata. Different
shadesof gray correspond
to differentP-wavevelocities.

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1.2.

APPLICATIONS

tomography techniqueshave closeties to more familiar seismicimaging


methods such as traveltime inversion, Kirchhoff migration, and Born inversion. For example,seismicray tomographyused to determinelithologic
velocity is essentially a form of traveltime inversion and seismic diffraction tomographyis closelyrelated to Born inversionand seismicmigration.
Thus, seismictomography may actually be more familiar to you at this
point than you might think sinceit is just another aspectof the subsurface
imaging techniquesgeophysicistshave been using for years.
1.2

Applications

Seismictomography is applicable to a wide range of problems in the


oil industry, ranging from exploration to developmentto production. The
casestudies presentedin Chapter 4 demonstrate that seismictomography
can complement conventional seismicmethods and provide unique, previously unavailable subsurface information. Tomography applied to surface
seismicdata can generatesubsurfacevelocity modelsfor explorationproblems. These velocity models can in turn be used as soft information in the
geostatisticalinterpolation of well-log data between wells.
Seismictomography applied to developmentand production problems
is generally implemented by a crosswellconfiguration, as shown in Fig-

ure l(a). Figure 2 illustratesthe benefitof crosswellseismictomography


for reservoir

characterization

over conventional

reservoir

characterization

tools. Figure 2(a) representsthe true geologybetweentwo wellsin a producing field where the producing formation is a tar sand layer overlaid by

a thinner, lesspermeablebed (shadedinterval). The heavy oil in suchtar


sandsis somewhatimmobile unlessheated using the enhancedoil recovery
techniqueof steam flooding. A production engineerplanning to steam flood
a tar sand interval needsto know whether the lesspermeablebed is capable
of confiningthe steam to the tar sand. In our cartoon the lesspermeable
bed is breached by a small fault.
Well logging is a conventionalreservoir characterization tool that provides information about the reservoironly a small distancefrom the bore-

holeasdepictedin Figure2(b). Thus,no hardgeological


informationabout
the unprobed reservoir between the wells can be extracted from conven-

tional well-log data. The well-log data will only show that the low permeability layer exists between 500 and 600 feet in well A and between 400 and
500 feet in well B. Based upon the relative formation dips in each well, the
engineermay decidethe low permeability layer is continuousand interpret

the well-logdata usinglinear interpolationas shownin Figure2(c). The


small fault is thereforenot detectedand unexpectedsteam flood results will

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CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION

(a) true geology

(b) well logging

(c) well logging

interpre[ation

200 ft
4OO ft
600 ft

steam-'
8OO ff

(d) tomography

(e) _tomography
Interpretati__on

I logging
tool
I

source

D receiver

FIG.2. (a)Truegeology
wewishtoknow.(b)Welllogs
sample
onlyashort
distance
intothereservoir,
requiring
sometypeof interpolation
between
wells
asdepicted
in(c).(d)Crosswell
seismic
records
theearth's
response
toseismic
energy
between
wells
thereby
permitting
animage
reconstruction

of thegeology
asshownin (e).

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1.3.

RAY

V$.

DIFFRACTION

TOMOGRAPHY

occur.

On the other hand, crosswellseismictomography can directly probe


the reservoirbetweenthe two wellsas shownin Figure 2(d). A downhole
seismicsourcein well A generatesseismicwavespowerful enoughto travel
through the reservoirand to be recordedby sensitivedetectorsin well B. After applyingtomographyprocessingto the projectiondata, a tomographic

interpretationliketheonein Figure2(e) mightbe obtained.Thus,the engineer will be aware of the small fault and can make the necessaryalterations
to the steam flood operation. Although just a cartoon, Figure 2 illustrates
how crosswellseismictomography is a more reliable tool for delineating the
reservoir between wells than any interpolation method between well logs.
However, crosswellseismictomography becomesan even more significant
tool for reservoir characterizationwhen used in conjunctionwith well-log
information and core data as is demonstrated in Chapter 4.

1.3

Ray rs. Diffraction

Tomography

To do seismictomographywe must model the seismicwavetraveling


through the subsurface. Both ray and diffraction theoretical models are
available to us for describingseismicwave phenomena. Which model we
use dependsupon the relative sizesof the seismic wavelength and the target we wish to image. A judicial choiceof theoretical model for a given
seismicwave and target becomesimportant to the successof the seismic
tomography application.
If the target's size is much larger than the seismicwavelength,then we
may model the propagationof seismicwavesas rays usingray theory. This
is similar to using geometrical optics to describe light wave propagation
throughlenses.Seismictomographybasedupon the ray theoreticalmodel
is discussedin Chapter 2 under the title Seismic Ray Tomography. We
subdivide the topic into "transform methods" and "seriesexpansion methods." The transform methods are commonlyused in medical tomography
experimentswhile the seriesexpansionmethodsseemuchusein seismictomographyapplications.Currently seismicray tomographyis very popular
becauseit is simple to implement under a variety of situations, is computationally fast, and givesgood results.
When the size of the target is comparableto the seismicwavelength,
then we model the propagationof seismicwavesas scatteredenergy using diffraction theory. Such a target scatters the seismic wave in many
directions and only diffraction theory can properly model this response.
Seismic tomography based upon the diffraction theoretical model is discussedin Chapter 3 under the title Seismic Diffraction Tomography.As

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CHAPTER

1.

INTRODUCTION

you will see,seismicdiffraction tomographypresentedin its simplestform


requiresrestrictionson the source-receiver
geometry,ignoresmultiplescattering of energy, places limits on the sizes and velocity contrastsof targets, and is computationally intensive. Becauseof these restrictions the
method is currently applied only to a few select situations. However, re-

centdevelopments,
whichwe list under "suggestions
for further reading"in
Chapter 3, are overcomingsomeof these restrictions. Our presentationof
seismicdiffractiontornographyin its simplestform shouldgive you a solid
foundationfor understandingand appreciatingthesedevelopments.
Severalcasestudiesare presentedin Chapter 4 to illustrate the application of theory to varioussituations. We emphasizethe need to assimilate
as much data as possiblefrom other sources,such as from well logs and
core samplesin the crosswelltomographyexamples. Only by integrating
all information availablewith the tomogram can one make an optimum
assessment

about

the reservoir.

' As a final note, we have crisply divided the application of seismictomographyinto ray and diffractiontomography,dependingupon the relative
sizesof the seismicwavelengthand target. However,in reality the probing
seismicwave is usually a broad-bandsignal consistingof a large range
of wavelengths,and the subsurfacecontainspotential targetswith relative
sizesranging from small to large. Thus, this suggestsa blend of seismicray
tornographyand seismicdiffractiontornographybe used to optirnallyimage all possibletargets. Although interesting,we pursuethis possibilityno
further as it is more of a researchmatter at this point in time. In this book
we will concentrateon presentingthe fundamentalsof seismictomography.

1.4

Suggestions for Further Reading


Aki, K., and Richards, P., 1980, Quantitative seismology:Theory and methods, Vol. II: W. H. Freeman & Co. Section
13.3.5 o.f Chapter 13 presents a classificationscheme based
upon seismic wavelengthand target size which will give you
a goodidea when to use ray theory or diffraction theory.

Anderson,D. L., and Dziewonski,A.M., 1984, Seismictomography: ScientificAmerican, October, 60-68. Popular arlicle
on seismic ray tomographyapplied to imaging the earth's
mantle.

Lines, L., 1991, Applications of tomography to borehole and


reflectionseismology:Geophysics:The Leading Edge, 10,
11-17. Overview of seismic ray tomographyapplications.

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1.4.

SUGGESTIONS

FOR

FURTHER

READING

Menke, W., 1984, Geophysical data analysis: Discrete inverse


theory: AcademicPress,Inc. Our bookaddressesonly those
topics in inverse theory requiredto understand the basicsin
seismic tomography. Menke's bookprovides a goodintroduction to inverse theory.

Tarantola, A., 1987, Inverseproblem theory: Methods for data


fitting and model parameter estimation: Elsevier. A comprehensivebookon inversetheorywhichincludesmanyprob-

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Chapter

Seismic Ray Tomography


2.1

Introduction

We begin the study of seismictomographywith image reconstruction


methods based on ray theory. We assumethat the sourceproducesseismic
wave energy with wavelengthsmuch smaller than the size of the inhomogeneitiesencounteredin the medium. Only when this assumptionis obeyed
can the propagation of the seismicwave energy be properly modeled by
rays. Otherwise, the seismicdiffraction tomography in Chapter 3 must be
applied to solve the problem.
Two groups of image reconstruction methods exist for doing seismic
ray tomography. The transform methodsin Section 2.2 comprisethe first
group. Applicationsof transform methodshave their roots in astronomical
and medical imaging problems. They are very limiting as far as seismic
imaging problemsare concernedsince straight raypath propagation and
full-scan aperture are generally assumed.However, the transform methods
make an excellentintroduction to the principlesof tomographybecauseof
their simplicity and serve as a bridge between applications of tomography
in other fields with applicationsin seismology.Also, the developmentof
seismicdiffraction tomography has a closerelationship with the transform
methods. The series expansionmethodsin Section 2.3 comprisethe second
groupof imagereconstructionmethods. Out of all the methodspresentedin
this book the seriesexpansionmethodspresently seethe most usein seismic
tomography. Therefore, a large part of Chapter 2 is spent addressingthe
seriesexpansionmethods.
Beforeproceedingfurther one shouldhave a good graspof the Fourier
transform conceptsto understandthe material in Section 2.2. Appendix B

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10

CHAPTER

2. SEISMIC

RAY TOMOGRAPttY

.---i'"" Ox-ray
transmitte
-

FIG. 3. Setup for a medical tomography experiment. X-ray scansare taken

in differentdirectionsabout a person'shead by rotating the transmitterdetector assembly.

presentsa review of the Fourier transform.

2.2

Transform

Methods

The projection slice theorem is presentedfirst in this sectionsinceit


providesthe theoreticalfoundationfor the transformmethods. Then, two
transform methods are derived from the projection slice theorem' directtransformray tomographyand backprojectionray tomography.

2.2.1

Projection Slice Theorem

The derivationof the projectionslicetheoremis illustratedby a typical


medicaltomographyexperiment. Figure 3 showsthe setup for medicaltomography.A donut-shapedx-ray transmitter-detectorassemblysurrounds
the target, a person'shead in this example. X-ray intensityis measuredfor
a fixed orientationof the assembly.Then the assemblyis rotated about the
personso that x-rays pass through the head in a different direction. The
experimentis completedwhen the person'shead is scannedin all directions.
The objective of the transform methods is to use attenuation information

from the measuredx-ray intensitiesto reconstructa cross-sectional


image

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2.2.

'fRANSFORM

METHODS

11

of the person'shead in the z - z plane which containsthe transmitters and


detectors. Thus, a brain tumor which attenuates x-rays differently than
normal tissuesmay be readily "seen"by the radiologist.

Figure 4 depictsa cross-section


of a person'shead. The varying contrasts within the target representnonuniformx-ray attenuation associated
with a tumor, normal tissues,and the skull. For the purposeof deriving

the projectionslicetheorem,we definethe modelfunctionM(z, z) as the


spatial distribution of the attenuation. In general, the model function representsthe unknown distribution in spaceof some physical property of the

target medium which affectsthe propagatingenergy in some observable


manner. A typical model function usedin seismictomographyis the reciprocal compressional-wavevelocity, or slowness,which has a direct influence
on the observedtraveltime of the propagatingenergy.
The projectionslicetheoremrequiresthat observationsof the propagating energy be taken along a given projection which is perpendicular to the
raypaths. Figure 4 illustrates a singleprojection in the medical tomography
experiment. X-rays emitted by the transmitters travel along the parallel
rays and are recordedby detectorspositionedalongthe u-axis. The rotated

spatialcoordinatesystem(u,v) is introducedto describeall of the possible


orientationsfor the transmitter-detectorassemblyabout the target. The
v-axis is defined parallel to the direction of x-ray propagationand the uaxis, defined perpendicular to the v-axis, is the direction along which the
x-ray intensity is measured. If the u- v coordinatesystemsharesthe same
origin as the z- z coordinate system, then the relationship between the
two coordinatesystemswhen one is rotated through an angle 0 relative to
the other

is

sin 0

cos 0

u]

(1)

For a givenray in Figure 4 we defineP(u, O) as the decimalpercent


drop in x-ray intensity,

P(u, o) =

[.'o-

0)l/o,

where I(u,O) is the intensity measuredby the detector at (u,O) and Io


is the x-ray intensity at the transmitter. We refer to P(u, O) as the data
1Other literature on tomographymight refer to the model function as an image function or as an object function. We chose "model function" to be consistent with inverse
problem terminology.

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12

CHAPTER

2.

SEISMIC

RAY

TOMOGRAPHY

x
X-RAY

SOURCES

P(., O)

FIG. 4. Cross section of a person's head where varying contrasts repre-

sentnonuniformx-ray attenuation.The projectionP(u, t) is the decimalpercent drop in x-ray intensity measuredalong the rotated coordinateaxis,
u. The u-axis is perpendicularto the v-axiswhich alwaysparallelsthe x-ray

propagationdirection. The model function M(x, z) providesa numerical


value

for the attenuation

and is an unknown

from the observedprojectionsP(u, ).

which

must

be determined

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2.2.

TRANSFORM

METHODS

13

function2. If the attenuationis small overthe raypath, then data function


P(u, O) is linearlyrelatedto the attenuationM(z, y) as the line integral,

e(,,,
o)-

(2)

ay

taken overthe raypath.s Note that eachobservationof the data functiona


P(u, O)providesan empiricalsolutionto equation(2) alongthe givenraypath without actually knowingthe model function M(x, z).
If there is negligiblex-ray attenuation outside the target, then equation (2) givesthe same measuredprojectionfor any transmitter-detector
separationas long as each transmitter and detector remainsoutsideof the

target. We usethis assumptionto rewriteequation(9)with infinitelimits;


a mathematical step which will be taken advantageof later in this section.
Thus,

0)- f::

z)a.

(a)

To obtain a simpler and more meaningful relationship between the

modelfunctionM(x, z) and the data functionP(u, 0), we transformeach


into the Fourier

domain.

The 2-D Fourier

transform

of the model function

M(z, z) is

117I(k,
k,.)- f;: ];: M(x,
z)e-J(kx
+k,.z)dxdz
' (4)
where k and kz are spatial frequenciesalong the x- and z-axes, respectively. Spatial frequency,or, wavenumber,is definedas k = 2r/A where
is wavelength. Figure 5 representsthe 2-D Fourier transform's amplitude

spectrum
ofa hypothetical
model
function
M(x, z). Notethatif (k,
2P(u, O)is a projection
in the ray tomoaphyproblem,but is ced a data]unction
in inve

theory tenology.

The,

we c

the viable P a "data fction"

sine re.on we ced M(x,y) the "modelfctioff'


data fction

with the viable

P to re.rid

for the

eSer. However,we representthe

you that the meed

data e projections.

awe oy considerthe 5ne invse problem in ts book. Thus, the data fction
will waya be nely related to the model fction, even if approximation is reqred
to force the ne relatiop.
The amption
of am x-ray attenuation is reqred
for the x-ray tomoaphy problem.

Although the actuMobservation


is the x-ray intensityl(u,O) in ta ce, we wi
frequently refer to "the observation of the data fction"
from

the observed

since it is inrectly

obtned

data.

Althoughthe2-D Foier tryfore of themodelfction (x,z) h bothmptude d phe spectra,we representthe 2-D Foier tryafore M(kx,k) with oy the

mpftude spect

component,
desiated ](k,,

k,) I.

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14

CHAPTER

2.

SEISMIC

RAY

TOMOGRAPHY

K
FIG. 5. The essenceof the projection slice theorem is represented. The

2-D Fouriertransformof a hypotheticalmodelfunctionM(x, z) produces


the amplitudespectrumI M(ks, k,) [. The contoursin the ks - k, plane
connectequal valuesof amplitude. The amplitudespectrum[ P(fi, d) [
from the 1-D Fouriertransformof the data functionP(u, t) representsa

sliceof [ J17/(ks,
k,) [ alongthefl-axisin theks- k, plane.

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2.2.

TRANSFORM

METHODS

15

is known,then the unknownmodelfunctionM(z, z) can be foundby the


2-D inverse Fourier transform

M(x,z)
= 1fj: fj: 11'I(k
k,)eJ(kx
+k,Z)dkdk,
(5)
4r2

Nowlet5(f,0) represent
the1-DFourier
transform
ofthedatafunction
P(u, O) alongthe u-axis,shownin Figure4. The 1-D Fouriertransformis
written

0)- f/:
where f/ is spatial frequencyalongthe u-axis. Substitutingequation(3)
into equation(6) gives

We nowwishto put equation(7) entirelyin termsof z and z. The variable


is replacedwith z and z usingthe inverseof equation(1) givenby
v

- sin 0

cos 0

'

Usingequation(8) andreplacing
dvduwith dzdzin equation(7) weget,

5(f,
O)-- f:: f:: M(x,
z)e-Jf(
xcos
0+zsin
O)dxdz
= f:: f:: M(x,z)e-j[(fcosO)x
+(ftsinO)z]dx
' (9)
Comparingthe integrands
of equation(9) andequation(4) weseethat
equation(9) is simplythe 2-D Fouriertransform
of M(x, z) wherekx and
k, are restricted to the Q-axis by setting
k

cos0, and

k,

f/sin0.

(10)

This relationship is evident in Figure 5.

Substitutingequation(10) into equation(9) we write

5(fi,
O)- /:: /:: M(x,z)e-J(k:x
+k,Z)dxdz,
(11)

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16

CAPTER

2.

SEISMIC

RAY

TOMOGRAPHY

whereks and kz are definedby equation(10). Comparingthe integrands


of equations(11) and (4) showsthat we haveachieveda simplerelationship
betweenthe data functionP(u, O) and the modelfunctionM(x, z) in the
spatial frequencydomain,

P(, O) -

A7/(k,,,
kz).

(12)

In words,equation(12) statesthat the 1-D Fouriertransformof the pro-

jectionrepresented
bythedatafunction
P(f],_0)isequalto onesliceofthe
2-D Fouriertransformof the modelfunctionM(kz, k) definedon the loci:
kz = f] cos0 and k, = f]sin 0. Equation(12) is calledthe projectionslice
theorem.

The projection slice theorem givesonly one slice of the model function
per projection as shown in Figure 5. We will now show how many projections at different angles of 0 are used to reconstruct the entire model
function via the projection slice theorem. The two techniquespresented
are the direct-transform ray tomography method and the backprojection

ray tomographymethod. In Chapter 3 we will define an analogoustheorem for the reconstructionmethods in diffraction tomography called the
generalizedprojectionslice theorem.

2.2.2

Direct-Transform Ray Tomography

Direct-transform ray tomography utilizes the projection slice theorem


in a straightforward manner. We showedin the previous section that the
application of the projection slice theorem to the 1-D Fourier transform

of a singleprojection
represented
bythedatafunction
/5(12,
0) determines
onlyonesliceofthemodel
function
A(k- 12cos0,k - f] sin0). Figure
5
illustrates such a slice through the model function. To recoverthe entire
model function, the target must be probed from many different directions.
Figure 6 showsthree directions along which x-rays probe the head of
our make-believepatient. The observeddata functionsfor thesethree pro-

jectionsare P(u, 0), P(u, 02), and P(u, 0a). After applyingthe projection
slice theorem to the 1-D Fourier transformsof these data functions,we
obtain the three slicesthrough the model function's amplitude spectrum
shownin Figure 7. Now the 2-D Fourier transform of the model function
M(k, k,) is better definedthan by the singlesliceshownin Figure5, but
is still inadequatefor imagereconstruction.We must probe the target with
x-rays from all directionsletting 0 range from 0 degreesto 180 degrees.
Only then will the k- kz plane in Figure 7 be completelycoveredby slices

M(f] cos0,f]sin0), where0 rangesfrom 0 degreesto 180 degrees.After


such an experiment, the complete 2-D Fourier transform of the unknown

modelfunctionM(x, z) is determinedalongradial linesin the k-k, plane.

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2.2.

TRANSFORM

METHODS

17

02
FXG. 6. The cranium of our make-believepatient is probed with x-rays in
three different directions: 0, 09.,and 03. Application of the projection slice

theorem to the data functions resulting from thesc projectionsyields the


slicesdepicted in Figure 7.

ToobtainM(z, z) from.g/(fcosO,f sin0), analgorithm


employing
the
direct-transformray tomography method must first interpolate the data

from a polar grid (fcosO,fsinO) onto a Cartesiangrid (k,,kz) in the


k - kz plane, or

AT/(fcosO,
fsinO)in,r__ot.,
A(k,kz).

(13)

One must exercisecaution in performingthe interpolation sincelarge errors


introduced by the operation could obscurethe true solution.

Lastly, a 2-D inverseFouriertransformof M(k,,k;) is performedto


obtain M(x, z),

M(z, z) = 4rI 2 ',

.l(k
k,)eJ(kz
4-kZ)dk,dk
' (14)
'

Thus, the image reconstructionis completedand the technicianmay give


the tomogram of the patient's head to the radiologistfor interpretation.
The direct-transformray tomographymethod is easilysummarizedin
five steps:

Step 1: Acquirethe data functionP(u, O) of the target with


the projectiondirection,0, rangingfrom 0 degreesto 180 de-

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18

CHAPTER

2. SEISMIC RAY TOMOGRAPHY

M(cosO
3, sin63
)1

sin61 )

Kz
F(. 7. Plot showing
slicesthroughthe unknownmodelfunction'samplitudespectrumI M(k=, k) I foundby applyingthe projectionslicetheorem
to the data functionsfoundfor the x-ray projectiondirections
01, 0, and
03 shownin Figure 6.

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2.2.

TRANSFORM

METHODS

19

grees.Rememberthat the unknownmodelfunctionM(z, z)


correspondingto the target representsa physicalproperty
which affectspropagatingenergyin somemanner(e.g., attenuation which affectspropagatingx-ray intensity in medical tomographyor slownesswhich affectsseismicwavetrav-

eltimesin seismictomography). Thus, a data functionis


just the line integral of the model function along each ray,
or

Step 2: Perform a 1-D Fourier transform along the u-axis for


each data function given by

P(n,
o)- f:: o)-J
Step 3: Use the projection slice theorem to obtain slicesof the
2-D

Fourier

transform

of the model

function.

Each slice is

defined by

cos0,iqsin0) -- J5(i2,0).
Step 4: Convert the 2-D Fourier transform of the model func-

tion in the k -kz planefrom a polar grid (f cos0, fsin 0)


to a Cartesiangrid (k, kz),

Step 5: Perform a 2-D inverseFouriertransformon M(k,, k)


to obtain M(x,z), the reconstructedimage of the target.
The inversetransform is given by

47i-2

The direct-transformray tomographymethod would be quick to implement if it were not for the fourth step above requiring interpolation of the
model function in the frequency domain. In the next section we present
backprojectionray tomographywhich obviates the need for interpolation
resultingin a faster and more accuratealgorithm.

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CHAPTER

2.2.3

Backprojection

2.

SEISMIC

RAY

TOMOGRAPtIY

Ray Tomography

Backprojection
ray tomography
usesthe samedata acquisition
scheme
asthe direct-transform
ray tomography:recordthe data functionP(u, O)by
experimentallymeasuringthe line integral of the unknown mode] function

M(:r,z) along differentraypathsor projections. The differencebetween


backprojectionray tomographyand direct-transformray tomography is
how we compute the model function from the data function.
To derive the backprojectionray tomography method, we first write

downthe2-D inverse
Fouriertransform
of themodelfunction(k, k,),

( ' z) = 42

( ' )j(+z)

(5)

Next we makea changeof variablesin equation(15) by replacingk with


cos0 and k with sin 0, and by changingthe integration from dkdk,

to ] l ddO. This gives,

M(x,z) = 42
M(cos0,sin0)
ej(xcosO
+ zsin
0)IlddO.

(1)

Integrationwith respectto 0 in equation(16) can be rewritten two


integrals,

1
M(r,z) = 4=

( cos
0, sin
0)

ej(xcos
0+ zsin0) IlddO
+

'

[ o(0
+), in(0
+)]

j[ o(0+ ) + zin(0
+ )] I [0.

(17)

Using the fundamentaltrigonometricanglsum relations,cos(0+ ) =


- cos0 andsin(0+ ) = - sin0, we may rewritethe secondmodelfunction
The te

"bmjection"

impes the invee problemwherewe stt with the pr

jection d lve for the model fction. Here the projections e ten Mong raypat.
Section 3.4.2 the meed
projectio of scattered energy e described by the wave
equation d we e Mogo
te,
"backpropagation."

The chge inteation is Mogo


coornes
is the rM

to compute the ea of a sk.


stce

from

ce to presee the si
negative vMu.

the sk's

to goingfrom Ctesi

coorSnatesto pol

For a sk we replace dxdz by rdOdr, where r

center.

The

absolute

vMue

of

is ten

of the fferentiM ea when we will shortly ow

in o

to te

on

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2.2.

TRANSFORM

21

METHODS

on the right-handsidein equation(17) as,

.g/[fcos(0
+ r),fsin(0
+ r)] = .tfl(-fcosO,-f sinO).

(18)

The secondsetof integralson the right-handsidein equation(17) is rewritten by replacingthe modelfunctionwith equation(18), applyingthe anglesum relationsusedin obtainingequation(18) to the exponential,setting
f - -f and dfl - -dfl, and reversingthe direction of integration with
respectto fl. With theseoperationsequation(17) is written,

M(x
z) = 421
,

(fl cos
0,flsin
0)

x ej(xcos
0+ zsin0)

cos, sin)

j( o i. ) I I .
Combiningthe integralswith respectto the variable we get,
'

'

d( o i. ) I I .

()

Usingthe projection
slicetheorem,wereplaceM( cos,sin ) in equastruction

formula

42

'

We cansummarizethe backprojection
ray tomographyreconstruction
method
in just three steps:

Step 1: Data acquisition.Let the modelhnction M(x, z) representthe unknownparameter(such seismicwaveslow-

ness)at position(x, z). Experimentally


determinethe line
integralof the modelfunctionalongeachray whichyieldsa
setof datahnctions(such seismic
wavetraveltime),

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22

CHAPTER

2.

SEISMIC

RAY

TOMOGRAPttY

Step 2: Take the 1-D Fourier transform of each data function

along the u axis.

P(fl,
O)- /:: P(u,
O)e-Jfl
udu.
Step 3: Use the backprojectionformulaequation(20) to compute the unknownmodelfunctionM(x, z), or

4.2

'

[ I

Unlike direct-transformray tomography,backprojectionray tomography does not require a 2-D interpolation in the wavenumberdomain, and
therefore,is in generalfaster and more accuratethan direct-transformray
tomography.
It shouldbe mentionedthat mostcommercialCAT (ComputerizedAxial Tomography)scannersuse the backprojectionray tomographyor its
modificationas their image reconstructionalgorithm.
2.3

Series Expansion Methods


Seriesexpansionmethods comprisea group of computation algorithms

which,like the transformmethods,determinethe modelfunctionM(x, z) of


the target area. However,unlike the transformmethods,thesealgorithms
easily allow curved raypath trajectories through the target area and are
therefore well suited for applicationsin seismictomography. As before, we

restrictthe discussion
to a 2-D problemsothat the modelfunctionM(z, z)
is determined in a plane which cuts through the target and containsall of
the sources and receivers.

Our discussionof the seriesexpansionmethods is divided up into three


subsections. Section 2.3.1 presentsthe forward modeling problem which
permits us to predict the tomographydata in terms of a system of linear
equationswhich explicitly contain an estimate of the true model function.
Section2.3.2 showshow the true model function is determinedusing Kaczmarz' method. The method devised by Kaczmarz in 1937 is iterative and
determinesan approximate solution to the true model function. Drawing
an analogy,the Kaczmarz method is to the seriesexpansionmethod as the

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2.3.

SERIES

EXPANSION

METHODS

23

projection slice theorem is to the transform methods. We exploit Kaczmarz' method in Section 2.3.3 to derive two seriesexpansionalgorithms:

the algebraicreconstruction
technique(ART) and the simultaneous
iterative reconstruction
technique(SIRT).

2.3.1

The Forward Modeling Problem

As will be shown shortly, the seriesexpansionmethod iteratively up-

datesan estimatedmodelfunctionM e't so that it converges


towarda true
model function M true. The updates are found by comparingthe observed
data functionpolo with a predicteddata functionppre. Forwardmodeling
is required to determine the predicted data function and is the subject of
this section.

Equation (2) in Section2.2 definesthe experimentalprocessfor the


transformmethodsas the line integral of the function M(a:,z) along a
straight raypath in the v-axis direction. Accordingto the abovenotation
equation(2) couldbe written,

Pb(u,
O)-- i Mt"u(z'
z)dv'
ay

We did not requirea forwardmodelingprocedurein Section2.2 becausethe


raypathswere straight and the projectionslicetheoremcouldbe employed

directlyto determinethe true modelfunctionMtrue(x,z).


For the seriesexpansionmethodswe wish to include curvedraypaths.

Equation(2) is easilytransformedto accommodate


curvedraypathsby
rewriting the model function in terms of a position vector r. Thus, for a

givensource-receiver
pair the line integralof the modelfunctionM(r) over
the raypath is

pobo
= f MtrU(r)dr,
ay

wherethe observed
projectiongivenby the datafunctionpolo represents
the measured
lineintegral(observed
tomography
data) and MtrUe(r) is the
true model function which remains to be determined. The last equation is
used to formulate the forward modeling by setting

P- i M(r)dr,
ay

(21)

where P is now the predicteddata function and M(r) is the estimated

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CHAPTER

24

2.

SEISMIC

RAY

MI

M2

M3

M4

M5

M7

M8

M9

M10 Mll

TOMOGRAPtIY

M6
M12

M13 M14 M15 M16 M17 M18


M19 M20 M21 M22 M23 M24
FIG. $. The seriesexpansionmethodsusea discretemodelfunctionMj,
j - 1,..., J, whereMj is the averagevalueof the continuous
modelfunction M(r) within the jth cell. Here J - 24.

modelfunctions. Thus, forwardmodelingis definedas determiningthe


predicted data function from the line integral along the raypath through a
known, but estimated, model function.
Just as was done with the transform methods, the model function in the
seriesexpansionray tomographyis discretizedto allow computationby digital computer. Figure 8 showsan image area of a target divided into many
small cells. Each cell is assignedthe averagevalue of the physical parame-

ter (e.g., x-ray attenuation,slowness,


etc.) represented
by the continuous
modelfunctionM(r) within that cell. The modelfunctionin Figure 8 is
divided into 24 cells and is written discretely as M, where j - 1,..., 24.

Thus, Mj represents
the averagevalueof M(r) within the jth cell.
Figure 9 depicts a single ray traveling through the discretizedmodel
function. Equation(21) is rewritten in discreteform, to describeray travel
through the discretemodel function, as
J

Pj=l

whereMj is theestimatedmodelfunctionfor thejth cell,,5'


i is the raypath
SHere we will symbolize the predicted data function as P and the estimated model
function a M for brevity. Thesesymbolswill be changedto ppre and M est, respectively,
in the following section.

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2.3.

SERIES

EXPANSION

METHODS

25

.._1..

source

receiver
._..1.. 15 M16M17IV116
M19 M20 M21 M22 M23 M24
FIG. 9. Ray travel through a discretemodel function. The resulting data
function, determinedby the line integral through the discretemodel function, is definedby equation(22).

length of the ray within the jth cell, and J is the total number of cells in
the gridded target. The example in Figure 9 has J - 24 cells, but the ray

penetratesonly sevencells(j - 12, 11, 10, 16, 15, 14, and 13). To keep
equation(22) consistentwith equation(21) we set Sj - 0 for all cellsnot
penetratedby the ray. After all, the ray'spath lengthSj for the jth cell is
obviously zero if the ray did not traverse that cell.
Figure 9 shows17 cellsfor which we don't have information becausethe
singleraypath did not traversethem. By addingmore sourcesand receivers
around the unknowntarget region, differentrays samplethe 17 unsampled
cellsin addition to someof the cellsalready sampled. The addition of extra
rays is depicted in Figure 10. Now all of the cells are interrogatedby this
network of rays.

We must modify the index notationof equation(22) to includea projection value for every ray. If Pi representsthe projection, or line integral,

predictedfor the ith ray, then equation(22) is rewritten,


J

Pi = E Mj$ij,for/- 1,...,1,

(23)

whereI is the total numberof rays,$ij is the path lengthof the ith ray
throughthe jth cell, and, asbefore,Mj is the discreteestimateof the model
functionfor the jth cell and J is the total numberof cells.Equation(23) is

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26

CHAPTER

2.

SEISMIC

RAY

TOMOGRAPHY

source

ray I

receiver
ray 2

ray I

FIG. 10. Generally, a single ray does not provide information on all of
the model function's cells. However, by using more source and receiver
locations around the target all of the cells can eventually be sufficiently
interrogated. I rays were found sufficienthere.

the formulation of the "forward modeling problem" usedin seriesexpansion


ray tomography.

Equation (23) can effectivelymodel the data acquisitionprocessif we


let the projectionsPi, i - 1,..., I, be the observeddata (i.e., traveltime
or decimalpercentdecreasein x-ray intensity)and the modelfunction
j: 1,..., J, be the true, but unknown model function, or
J

Pi' = M]"'*Sii,
fori- 1,...,I.

(24)

j=l

Kaczmarz' method providesthe theoreticalframeworkfor indirectly solving


equation(24) for the true modelfunction.
2.3.2

Kaczmarz'

Method

In this section we introduce Kaczmarz' method to indirectly solve

equation
(24)forthetruemodelfunction
M]ru*,j = 1,..., J, whichisthe
tomogram. As stated in the previoussection,forward modelingis required
to determine the true model function. Thus, before proceedingwe will
reformulateequation(23) into a matrix form to simplifythe mathematical
discussion.Sinceequation(23) is discreteits elementsare easily put into
matrices.In matrix form equation(23) becomes,

SM,

(25)

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2.3.

SERIES

EXPANSION

METHODS

27

where the predicted projections in data vector P are,


P1

Pl

the discrete estimated model function values in model vector M are,


ml

Ma

and the raypath lengthsfor I rays and J cells in S are,


S
S.

S.
S

...
...

S
S

Si

S2

-..

Note that S in equation (25) can be thought of as a linear operator that


operates on the estimated model vector M producing the predicted data
vector

P.

We couldalsoformulateequation(24) in matrix form as

po, = SM'.

(29)

Althoughwe will not directlysolveequation(29), we wouldwant to determinethe true modelvectorM truegivenpoband S. The problembecomes
oneof findinga generalized
inverseoperatorS-.9 Then wecouldapplythe
generalizedinverseoperatorS- to both sidesof equation(29) to determine
the true model vector, or
S-ap oh, =
m

S-aSM 'e
M true .

Theoretically the last equation is true, but in practice it is very often difficult to determine S-a for two reasons. First, S is usually quite large and
9We write

S-g

rather

squaxe and because S-9S

than S -1

as in usual matrix

notation

is not always the identity matrix.

since S-g

need not be

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28

CHAPTER

2.

SEISMIC

RAY

TOMOGRAPHY

sparse,which makes computation of S- costly. Second, S is usually "ill


conditioned"whichmakescomputationof S- very unstable.i
Kaczmarz' method circumvents the problems associated with the inversion of a large and sparsematrix and provides an efficient means for
determiningan approximatesolutionto equation (29) using an iterative
procedure. Figure 11 presentsa flowchart outlining the method in which
there are three basicstepsto the iterative part of the algorithm. An initial

estimateof the modelvectorM init is input to the iterativeloopof the algorithmandservesasthe first "currentestimate"M st of the true solution
M true. For now we assume that the initial model vector M init is known.

However,morewill be saidon the selectionof the initial modelvectorM


in the casehistoriespresentedin Chapter 4.

With the current estimate of the model vector M est known, the first
step is to usethe forwardmodelingproblemdefinedby equation(25) to
determinea predicteddata vectorppre. This stepis carriedout by applying
the linearoperatorS (determinedby someray tracingtechniqueof personal
choice)definedby equation(28) to the estimatedmodelvectorM s,

ppr = SMt.

(30)

In the second step the predicted data vector PPr is compared with

the observed
data vectorpob, by takingthe difference
betweenthe two. A
small differenceor good agreementbetweenthe predicted and observeddata
vectorsimpliesgood agreementbetweenthe estimated model vector M
and the true model vector M t". Thus, if the differenceis smaller than a
specifiedtolerance, then the current estimate of the model vector M t is

output as the solutionto equation(29) in the final step of the algorithm.


The selection of a suitable tolerance for the difference is discussed with the

case histories in Chapter 4.


The third step of the iterative portion of Kaczmarz' method comesinto
play when the difference between the predicted and observed data vec-

tors is larger than the specifiedtolerance. This important step essentially

makesuseof the differenceinformation,pob_ pp,.e,to updatethe current estimated model vector M

with a new estimate of the model vector

M("ew) whichhopefullyis closerto the true modelvectorM r". This


third step is written in equation form as

M ("w)t = M e'+ A/M,


fori

(31)

1,...,I,

Ill conditioned
meanssmallchanges
in S producelargechangesin the modelfunction
true or in S-g howeveryou wishto look at it

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2.3.

SERIES

EXPANSION

METHODS

29

Initial estimate

Minit

currenf
estimafe
est

Step

predicted

observed

data vector

data vector

Ppre
Step

Step

pObS

FIG. 11. Flow chart for Kaczmarz' method. M i"i' is the initial estimate

of the model vector; M e' is the current updated estimate of the model
vector; ppre is the predicted data vector from the forward modelinggiven

by equation(30); andpobois the observed


data vector.M eis iteratively
updateduntil ppre matchespoboto within a specifiedtolerance.

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CttAPTER

3O

2.

SEISMIC

RAY

TOMOGRAPttY

whereAiM represents
the incrementalupdate to the currentestimateof
the modelvectorand superscripti meansapplyingequation(31) whenthe
ith row of the pob and ppre vectorsare compared. The new estimate
M (new)et is then taken as the current estimate for the next iteration. As

you will soonsee,equation(31) bringsthe current modelestimatetoward


the true solution, at least in theory.

The methodof computing


AiM in equation(31) is obviously
a crucial
factor

in the success of Kaczmarz

'method.

Kaczmarz' method computes

AiM with the equation'


AiM1
A i M2

(32)

AiMj
where

pi.b
s __piPre

(33)
Note that the summation in the numerator is just the predicted data vector

ppre found in the forward modelingin equation(30).


Now we will geometricallyderiveequation(33) and showthe convergenceof Kaczmarz'methodthrougha simpleexample.Let two rays(I = 2)
travel througha two-cellmodel(J = 2) so that the vectorequation(29)
for the problem can be written as

p,b, = Sll M1 + S12M2,for ray 1, and


pb, __ S21
M1+ S22M2,forray2,

(34)
(35)

whereP'band P* are observed


data and M1 and M2 are unknown
TM.
Rememberthat $i1 is just the ith ray's path lengththroughthe jth cell
and is generallyknownfrom the forwardmodeling.We plot equations(34)
and (35)in Figure12 as lines(hyperplanes)
on a 2-D spacewith axesM1
and M2 .12 The solutionto the equationsoccursat point X where the two
Here M and M2 are unknown and therefore defined as independent variables. Only

whenthe solutionis foundare theyreferredto as M[ ue andM ue as in equation(29).


2If I = 3 and J = 3, then we would be looking for the intersection point of three
planes in a 3-D model space. For situations where J > 3, equation (29) representsa
J-dimensionM space and we would look for the solution at the intersection of I = J

hyperplanes where a hyperplane has J - 1 dimensions. Note that we must have at least
I = J hyperplanesto solve equation (29) and generally I > J.

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2.3.

SERIES

M2

EXPANSION

METHODS

31

obs

M2= P1
o\ ,,....__/
S12

obs

12M2

FIG. 12. For two rays (I = 2) in a two-cellmodel (d = 2), possiblevalues

for M andM2 aredefined


by [hetwolines(hyperplanes).
p,b,and
are [he observed data from [he two rays. Point X represents[he desired

modelvalueswhichlie at the intersection


of the twohyperplanes.A M and
AM2 for ray 1 are geometrically
derivedsothat point B is the projection
of point A ontothe hyperplanedefinedby equation(34). The resultof this
geometricalderivationis equation(33).

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32

CHAPTER

2. SEISMIC

RAY TOMOGRAPItY

lines(hyperplanes)
intersect.
Sincethe solutionat point X with coordinates(M"'e,M"'e) is unknown, we must start with an initial estimate at point A given by the
coordinates
(M1A, MA). Thisinitialestimatebecomes
the currentestimate
as shownin the flow chart for Kaczmarz'methodin Figure 11. The geometricalstepin Figure 12 is to find the perpendicularprojectionof point A

ontothehyperplane
:defined
byequation
(34) at pointB. Mathematically
this step is given by,

s = M+AM,and

(36)

whereAM and AM2 are the corrections


soughtgeometrically
and defined by equation(33) for i- 1 and j- 1,2.
The first geometricalrelationshipto note in Figure 12 is the similarity
of trianglesAABC, AFED, and AGEH. Using these similaritieswe can
immediately write

AIM = AB cosc= DFcos c =

EF cos2 c

__GH
EF
'E:Z'

EF

A M2 = AB sinc= DF sinc

--GH

and

(38)

cos c sin c

EH

= EFG--- .

(39)

Our task now is to determineEF, GH/--, and EH/GE in equations (38) and (39).

On the line segmentEF, point E is located at

(M = P'b'/sI,M2 = 0). PointF is the intersection


with the M-axisof
a linewhichis parallelto equation(34) andcontains
the point(MIA,M).
The equation for this line is

S11M
A + S2MA - SM1 + S1:

(40)

Fromequation(40) we determinethe coordinateof point F alongthe M-

axisas (M - (SIM1A+ S2MA)/SI,M2 - 0). Thus,the lengthof the


line segment EF is given by
1

(41)
laAlthoughequations(34) and (35) both representlines,we will continueto refer to
them as hyperplanes since that is what they are called when J > 3.

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2.3.

SERIES

EXPANSION

METHODS

33

The ratio GH/GE is simply,


GH
GE

(42)

Similarly, EH/GE

is givenby,

EH

P/Szz
+

S12 .

(43)

results in the model corrections due to the first ray,

pb

I:p
re

i and
AiM1-- '!1_--'
S121
..S122
pbs IPr

- -
AiM2- $1$---+$
,

(44)

(45)

where,rre
_ SzzMi + $zM t Equations(44) and (45) are the sameas
a I

equation
(33) wheni = 1 andj = 1,2. Thus,weseethat equation
(33)
simplydeterminesthe projectionof a modelestimateonto oneof the hyperplanesdefinedby equation(29).
Carryingthisexampleonestepfurther,wecandeterminepoint I in Figure 12, the projectionof point B ontohyperplane2 definedby equation(35)
for the secondray usingthe indicesi - 2, j - 1, 2 in equation(33). If we
alternateprojectionsof the modelestimatesbetweenthe two hyperplanes,
then the updatedmodelestimates(step3 in Figure 11) must convergeon
point X as depictedin Figure 13. Thus, Kaczmarz'methodwill converge
to the solutionof equation(29).
2.3.3

ART

and

SIRT

The algebraicreconstruction
technique(ART) and the simultaneous
iterativereconstruction
technique(SIRT) are the two commonimplementations of Kaczmarz' method in seismicray tomography. This sectiondescribesthe basic features of both algorithms.

ART is a computational
algorithmfor solvingequation(29) that directly
uses Kaczmarz' method. Thus, the ART algorithm is comprisedof the

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34

CHAPTER

2.

SEISMIC

RAY

TOMOGRAPHY

M2

Hyperplane2

:-M I
Hyperplane

FIG. 13. By applyingequation(31) to alternatinghyperplanes,the model


estimateof (M, M2), starting at point A, convergestowardsthe solution
for equations(34) and (35) at point X. The iterative updating of the model
estimate correspondsto the loop in Kaczmarz' method shown in the flow
chart in Figure 11.

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2.3.

SERIES

EXPANSION

35

METHODS

stepsshownin Figure11. Wefirstsettheestimated


modelfunction
M 't,

j-

1,..., or, to theinitialmodelestimate


Mj"i' j - 1,

or Thenthe

followingthree stepsare iterated cyclicallyfrom one hyperplaneto the

next until the observed


data p/ob,matches
the predicteddata pfre, for
i=

1,...,I.

Step 1: Conductforwardmodeling(ray tracing)for the ith ray


usingequation(23) or equation(25), restatedfor reference
here as,
J

Only one ray is traced out of a total of I rays sincewe are


determining the projection of the current model estimate
onto only one hyperplane. Note that if our model consists

of slownesses,
thenthe predicteddata P'reare calculated
traveltimes
fromtheforwardmodeling
andp/oh,areobserved
traveltimes.

Step 2: Subtractthe predictedith ray data p0, from the


observed
ith data p/o,,anduseequation(33) to findcorrectionsfor all of the J cellscomprisingthe model function
estimateTM,

'

Step 3: Apply the correctionsto the model estimaterecommended by the ith ray to all orcells,

SIRT differsfrom ART in that all I rays are traced throughthe model

sothat all AiMj corrections


determined
forthe I hyperplanes
areknown.
14Note that the model adjustment dependsupon the discrepancybetween the predicted aaadobserveddata values and the raypath length through the cells for the ith
ray.

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36

CHAPTER 2. SEISMIC RAY TOMOGRAPtIY

Thenan average
of AiMj withrespect
to indexi is takenfor eachmodel

cellj - I , ..., J,togetnew


model
estimates

,j-1,...,J.

As

withART,themodel
estimates
M[t areupdated
untilthepredicted
data
Pfecompares
favorably
withtheobserved
datap/oh,,
i- 1,..., I.
After settingthe currentmodelfunctionestimateequalto the initial

model
function,
orMf t- M'.
i"itforj = I

are iterated to update the model estimates:

J thefollowing
threesteps

Step1: Conductforwardmodeling
(ray tracing)usingequation (23)or equation(25),

for all raysi

Step 2: Findthecorrection
foreachcellbyexamining
therays
cut throughthat celland averaging
the corrections
recommendedby eachray. Thisoperation
is definedfor the jth
cell by,
I

= W,..=
1AiM
1
_

forj

BlObS
1 s,s

- EsS=

(46)

i=1

1,...,J.

The weightWj is the numberof raysintersecting


the jth
cellor someothersuitableraydensityweightusedto obtain
an averagecorrectionAMj.

Step 3: Determine
thenewmodelestimate
fromthe average
modelcorrections
AMj, or

M"ew)e"
= M;"+AM./,j - 1,...,J.
Figure14illustrates
howequation
(46)makes
SIRTdifferent
fromART.

Asin Figure
12weuseonlytworays(orI - 2 hyperplanes)
andtwomodel
cells(or J - 2 modelspace)
in orderto visualize
theproblem.TheART
algorithm
isshown
inFigure
14(a)andtheSIRTalgorithm
inFigure
14(b).

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2.3.

SERIES

EXPANSION

M2

37

M2

D
A

METHODS

C
B
Hyperplane I

(a)

(b)

FIG. 14. Comparisonof ART andSIRT algorithmsfor the two-ray(or I 2 hyperplanes)


and two-cellmodel(or J - 2 modelspace)examplegiven
in Figure 12' a) Convergence
of model estimatesfor the ART algorithm
startingwith an initial modelestimateat pointA. b) Convergence
of model
estimatesfor the SIRT algorithm starting with an initial model estimate
at point A. The iteratively updated model estimates, determined from the

averagecorrections
AMj in equation(46), are alongthe solidline defined
by points A, B, C, D, and E. Each estimated point is the average of
the same letter's primed and double primed projection points located on
hyperplanesI and 2, respectively.

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CHAPTER

38

2.

SEISMIC

RAY

TMGRAPHY

The ART algorithmin Figure 14(a) finds the solutionby alternatelyprojecting the current model estimate onto each hyperplane. The model estimate moves along the solid line from the initial model estimate at A to
B, to C, to D, and so on. On the other hand, the SIRT algorithm finds
point A's projections on both hyperplanes,points B t and B t, then moves
the initial estimate from point A to point B, the midpoint between B t and
Btt. For the next iteration the SIRT algorithm finds point B's projections
on both hyperplanes, points C t and C", then moves the current estimate

from point B to the midpoint betweenC t and C t, or point C. Starting


with the initial model estimate at point A, SIRT convergestowardsthe
solution along the solid line from point A to B, to C, to D, to E, etc. If
a true model solution exists and is unique, then both ART and SIRT will
convergeto that solution. However,one shouldnote that the convergence
of ART depends upon the ordering of the hyperplane projections while the
convergence
of SIRT doesnot. You may seethis by projecting point A onto
hyperplane2 first in Figure 14(a).
The ART and SIRT methods, as we have stated, are intended to solve

linear systemsof equationslike thoserepresentedby equation(29) which


explicitly relate the model function to the data function. But just because

equation(29) explicitly relatesthe modelfunctionto the data functionin


a linear form does not imply a linear relationship for all types of model
and data functions.

Take

for instance

a model

function

of slowness and

a data function of observeddirect-arrivaltraveltime. Equation (29) does


not provide a linear relationshipin this casebecausethe raypat.h lengths
in S are also dependent upon the slownessesdefined in the model function.
Thus, we do not know the true raypath lengthsin S until the true slowness
field is also known.

To solvethe nonlinearproblemin practice we computeestimatedraypath lengthsusing the estimatedslownesses


in the model function and use
the estimatedraypath lengthsin the ART or SIRT algorithm. This is called
an iterative linear approach to solving a nonlinear problem. We can use
Figure 12 to visualizewhat happensto the hyperplaneswhen solvinga nonlinear problemby an iterative linear approach. The two hyperplanesshown
in Figure 12 are the true hyperplaneswhen we know the raypath lengthsin
S. When we useestimated raypath lengthsin S the estimated hyperplanes
will not be coincident with the true hyperplanes. The resulting projection will be different from the projection shown in Figure 12 as point A is
projected onto an estimated hyperplane. Each time we update the model
function slownesses,using either the ART or SIRT method, the new estimated hyperplanes will be located differently in the model space since we
also have new estimated raypath lengths in S. What we hope happens is
that the estimated hyperplanes will not be wildly repositioned to a new

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2.4.

SUMMARY

39

location each time the model slownessesare updated. Then as we iterate


further towards the true model function slownessesthe estimated hyperplanes should become more coincident with the true hyperplanessince the
estimated raypath lengths will be approachingthe true raypath lengths.
Thus, we can get convergenceto a solution even though the problem is
nonlinear.

2.4

Summary

1. Seismicray tomography attempts to solvethe inverseproblem formulated by the line integral equation,
p

__

.yM(r)dr,

taken over the raypath. P is called the data function and represents

the observeddata. M(r) is called the model function and representsthe spatial distribution of somephysicalproperty of the medium

whichaffectsthe propagatingenergyin someobservablemanner. The


model function is unknown and the goal of seismicray tomography
is to determine an estimated model function M et of the true model
function M tre.

2. Transform methodsin seismicray tomography are of limited usesince


straight raypaths and full scan aperturesare generallyassumed.However, they serve to introduce the tomography concept and terminology,and provideinsightinto seismicdiffractiontomographypresented
in Chapter 3.

3. The projectionslicetheoremis the basisfor the transformmethods.


The theorem states that the 1-D Fourier transform of the data func-

tion/5(f,0) provides
a sliceof information
in thek - k, wavenumberplaneof themodelfunctionA74(k,kz)
defined
ontheloci'k =
f cos0 and k, - fsin 0 as shownin Figures4 and 5. Equation(12)
definesthe projection slice theorem as,

4. Direct-transformray tomographyappliesthe projectionslicetheorem

tomany
projections
ofthedatafunction/5(f,
0for0 degrees
_(0 _(
180 degrees.The resultis the modelfunctionM(fcosO, fsinO) definedon a polar grid. Interpolationof the modelon the polar grid onto
a rectangularks - k, grid is requiredto take the 2-D inverseFourier

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CHAPTER

40

2.

SEISMIC

RAY

TOMOGRAPHY

transformof the modelfunctionwhichyieldsM(x, z). Interpolation


error may distort the resultingestimated model function.
5. Backprojection ray tomography is another transform method which
utilizes the projectionslice theorem. However,by making a change
of variableswe were able to do the image reconstructionwithout the
interpolationstep requiredby direct-transformray tomography.The

reconstruction
formulagivenby equation(20) is

M(x,z) = 4r
,
x ej(xcosO
+ zsin0)]]dC2da.
Backprojectionray tomographyor its modificationis usedas the image reconstructionalgorithm in computerizedaxial tomographybecause it is both accurate and fast.

6. Seriesexpansionmethods are the most frequently used seismictomographymethods. The model function is divided up into small cells
where each cell is assignedan averagevalue of the continuousmodel
function within that cell. Thus, the ith observation of the data function is related to the discretemodel function by the equation,
J

Pi' -- Z$ijM]",i- l,...,I,


j=l

where I is the total number of rays or observations, J is the total

numberof cellsin the discretemodel function, and $ij is the path


length of the ith ray in the jth cell. The inverseproblem is to deter-

mineanestimated
modelfunction
M ' of thetruemodelfunction

M]ruegiven
theobserved
datafunction
Pis.
7. Kaczmarz' method iteratively solvesthe system of equations defined
for the seriesexpansionmethods for the estimated model function

Mf s. Theiterativepartof thealgorithm
consists
of threestepsas
shownin Figure11andaninitialestimateof themodelfunctionY init
must be input.

Step i requiresthat the current estimate of the model function be

usedin forwardmodeling(i.e., ray tracing) to get a predicteddata


functionP/P for the ith ray. The forwardmodelingis definedby the
equation,
J

j=l

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2.4.

SUMMARY

41

Step2 compares
the predicteddata functionpfre with the observed
datafunctionPib.If theobserved
andpredicted
datafunctions
agree

to withina specified
error,thentheestimated
mode]
function
Mf
istakena.sa goodestimate
ofthetruemodelfunction
M]rue.
Step3 updates
thecurrent
estimate
ofthemodel
function
M if the
observedand predicteddata functionsdo not comparefavorably.The
updatecorrectionis determinedby projectingthe currentestimateof
the model function onto the hyperplane defined by the ith ray. The
correctionis given by,

pfbz__pfre
1

The corrections to the model estimate recommended by the ith ray


are applied to all J cells,

1,...,J.

Then,
theupdated
estimated
model
function
M"ew)e
becomes
the
current estimated model function back in step 1.

8. The arithmeticreconstruction
technique(APT) is a seriesexpansion
method which directly usesKaczmarz' algorithm.

9. The simultaneousiterative reconstructiontechnique(SIPT) usesa


modified Kaczmarz' method. Instead of updating the model after

tracing each ray in the forward modelingstep a.sis done in APT,


all raysare tracedthroughthe currentestimatedmodeland a model
correctionfound for eachray. Then the correctionsto eachmodel cell
are averagedaccordingto the equation,
I

i=1

forj

1,...,J.

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CHAPTER

42

2.

SEISMIC

RAY

TOMOGRAPHY

The weightWj is the numberof raysintersecting


the jth cellor some
other suitableray densityweightusedto obtain an averagecorrection

AM 1. The averagecorrectionis appliedto the currentestimated


model function to get an updated or new estimated model function.

2.5

Suggestions for Further Reading


Anderson, A. H., and Kak, A. C., 1982, Digital ray tracing in
two-dimensional refractive fields: J. Acoust. Soc. Am., 72,
1593-1606. Addressesray tracing througha griddedrefractiveindex model commonly used in ultrasound computerizedtomography.

Berryman,J. G., 1990,Stable iterative reconstructionalgorithm


for nonlinear traveltime tomography: Inverse Problems, 6,
21-42. Discussion of the nonlinear problem associatedwith
traveltime tomography.

Bishop,T. N., Bube, K. P., Cutler, R. T., Langan, R. T., Love,


P. L., Resnick, J. R., Shuey, R. T., Spintiler, D. A., and
Wyld, H. W., 1985, Tomographicdetermination of velocity
and depth in laterally varying media: Geophysics,50,903923. Traveltime tomographyapplied to reflection seisinology.
Chapman, C. H., and Pratt, R. G., 1992, Traveltime tomography in anisotropicmedia- I. Theory: Geophys. J. Int.,
109, 1-19. Expandstraveltime tornographyapplicationsfrom
isotropic media to anisotropic media, a subject which has
much current interest. A companionpaper immediately follows this paper on the applicationsof the theory.
Dines, K. A., and Lytle, R. J., 1979, Computerizedgeophysical
tomography: Proc. IEEE, 67, 1065-1073. First application
of ray tornographyto subsurfaceimaging. Discusses both
ART

and SIRT.

Langan, R. T., Lerche, I., and Cutler, R. T., 1985, Tracing


of rays through heterogeneousmedia: An accurate and efficient procedure: Geophysics,50, 1456-1465. We do not
elaborateon how to determine the raypath lengths through
a griddedvelocitymodelfor the matrix S. This referenceis
more than adequatein addressingthe problemas appliedto
direct arrivals in seismic ray tomography.

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2.5.

SUGGESTIONS

FOR

FURTHER

READING

Moser, T. J., 1991, Shortest path calculation of seismicrays:


Geophysics, 56, 59-67. Utilizes network theory to get raypaths and traveltimes of first arrivals. Very robustfor defining the matrix S, whether the first arrival is a direct arrival
or a head wave.

Peterson, J., Paulsson, B., and McEvilly, T., 1985, Application


of algebraic reconstruction techniquesto crossholeseismic
data: Geophysics,50, 1566-1580. ART applied to crosswell
seismic

data.

Phillips, W. S., and Fehler, M. C., 1991, Traveltime tomography: A comparisonof popular methods: Geophysics,56,
1639-1649. Comparison of various linear inversion methods.

Vidale, J. E., 1988, Finite-difference calculation of traveltimes:


Bull. Sets. Soc. Am., 78, 2062-2076. Approximates the
eikonal equation using finite differences to compute traveltimes for first arrivals.

43

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Chapter

Seismic

Diffraction

Tomography
3.1

Introduction

Seismicdiffractiontomographyis usefulfor reconstructingimagesof


subsurface
inhomogeneities
whichfall into two categories.The first categoryincludesinhomogeneities
that aresmallerin sizethanthe seismicwavelength and have a large velocitycontrastwith respectto the surrounding
medium.Imagingtheseinhomogeneities
with the seismicray tomography
methodspresentedin Chapter 2 is generallyout of the question.The second categoryincludesinhomogeneities
that are muchlargerin sizethan the
seismicwavelengthand have a very small velocity contrastwith the surroundingmedium. Although seismicray tomographyis valid for imaging
theseinhomogeneities,
it worksbest when the velocitycontrastsare large.
Note that both categories
of inhomogeneity
are capableof producingmeasurablescatteredwavefieldsof similar power. The large velocitycontrast of
the first categoryinhomogeneity
offsetsits smallsizewhilethe largesizeof
the secondcategoryinhomogeneity
makesup for its smallvelocitycontrast.
The outlinefor this chaptercloselyparallelsthat of Chapter 2. First, in
Section3.2 we review acousticwavescatteringtheory and derivetwo independentlinear relationshipsbetweendata functionsrepresenting
scattered
energyand the modelfunctionM(r). The modelfunctionM(r) usedin
this chapteris a measureof the velocityperturbationcausedby an inhomogeneityat vectorpositionr from a constantbackground
velocity.Second,
usingeither of the linear relationshipsbetweena data function and the
modelfunctionM(r), the generalized
projectionslicetheoremis derived
45

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46

CHAPTER

3.

SEISMIC

DIFFRACTION

TOMOGRAPHY

in Section 3.3 which servesas the foundation for the image reconstruction
algorithms used in seismic diffraction tomography. Finally, two seismic
diffraction tomography image reconstruction algorithms are presented in
Section3.4' direct-transformdiffraction tomographyand backpropagation
diffraction tomography.
Before proceeding further one should have a good understanding of

the followingmathematicalconcepts: frequencyand wavenumber(AppendixA); Fouriertransform(AppendixB); Dirac deltafunctionandGreen's


function (Appendix C). Also, sincewe presentseismicdiffractiontomography for inhomogeneitiesembedded in a constant velocity medium, the
implementation of diffraction tomography is actually very similar to the
transform methods for ray tomography. Thus, a review of Section 2.2 on
ray tomography'stransformmethodsmight be of somebenefit.

3.2

Acoustic Wave Scattering

The propagationof an acousticwavefieldP(r,t) through a medium


consistingof a variablevelocityC(r) and constantdensityis modeledby
the acoustic wave equation,

1 O2P(r,t)
VP(r,t)C(r)
at _
- 0,

(47)

where r is a vector position within the model and t is time. The Laplacian

operator X7 is definedin terms of the vector operator 7 which in the


Cartesian coordinatesystem is given by

v -

+ 0

where, j, and aremutuallyorthogonal


unitvectors.
We use the Helmholtz form of the acoustic wave equation to describe
acousticwave scattering. The Helmholtz acousticwave equation, found by

taking the temporalFouriertransformof equation(47), is

VaP(r,w)+ k(r,w)P(r,w) = 0.

(48)

The variablek(r, w) is the magnitudeof the wavenumberat positionr and


is defined by

k(r,w)= C(r)'

(49)

Notethat equation(48) dependsuponthe valuesetfor angularfrequencyw.


Henceforth,for the sakeof brevity,we will write both P(r,w) and k(r,w)

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3.2.

ACOUSTIC

WAVE

SCATTERING

47

as P(r) and k(r) with the understandingthat there is a dependenceon


angular frequency w.
Two nonlinear integral-equation solutionsfor the scalar Helmholtz wave

equationdefinedby equation(48) arederivedin thissection.The LippmannSchwinger integral equation is one such solution which, because of its
prominencein quantum mechanicalscattering, is presentedby itself in
Section 3.2.1. The Lippmann-Schwinger equation nonlinearly relates the

data function P0(r), calledthe scatteredwavefield,to the modelfunction


M(r). The Born approximationin Section3.2.2 linearizesthe LippmannSchwingerequation. Another nonlinear integral-equation solution is formulated in Section 3.2.3 using exponentials. Although the definition of
the model function M(r) remainsthe same, the data function is different from the scatteredwavefieldP0(r). The Rytov approximationis used
to linearize this nonlinear integral-equation solution. Except for the data
functions, both linearized integral-equationsolutionsare identical in form.
Section 3.2.4 provides a comparison between the Born and Rytov linear
integral solutions.Either solutionenablesus to derive the generalizedprojection slice theorem in Section 3.3 which serves as the foundation for the
diffraction tomographyimage reconstructionalgorithmsin Section3.4.

3.2.1

The Lippmann-Schwinger Equation

We begin the formulation of the acousticwave scatteringproblem with


Figure 15. The acousticwave velocity is representedby C(r), where r
is the vector position of a point within the model. The shaded region in
Figure 15 depictsan inhomogeneityimbeddedin an otherwisehomogeneous
medium. The acoustic velocity of the inhomogeneity varies spatially and
can be thought of as a velocity perturbation from the constantbackground
velocity Co of the homogeneousmedium.

An incidentwavefieldPi(r) is initiated by an acousticsourceand propagatesoutward in the homogeneous


medium. No scatteringof the incident
wavefield takes place until the inhomogeneityis reached. At that point
any velocity contrast as a result of the inhomogeneitycausesthe creation
of a secondwavefieldcalled the scatteredwavefieldP(r).
Each point
in the inhomogeneitymay be consideredas a secondarysourceof seismic
acousticenergy. Note that once acousticenergyis scatteredfrom one inhomogeneity,then that scatteredenergymay be scatteredagain from another
inhomogeneitywhich leads to higher order sourcesof seismicacousticenergy. As you will see, we ignore multiple scatterings in Section 3.2.2 to
linearize the Lippmann-Schwingerequation and assumethat the scattered

wavefieldP(r) arisesonlyfromscatteringthe incidentwavefieldP(r) from


the source as depicted in Figure 15. Therefore, for layered media we as-

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48

CHAPTER

3.

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Receiver

TOMOGRAPIIY

Source

C(r) = Co

FIG. 15. Acousticwavescatteringproblem.The incidentwavePi(r) propagatesfrom the sourceat the constantbackgroundvelocityCo. The velocity
inhomogeneity,
depictedby the shadedarea, actsas a secondarysourceand

scattersthe incidentwavefield.The scatteredwavefieldPj(r) travelsaway


from the inhomogeneous
regionat the backgroundvelocityCo whereit is
recordedby the receiver.

sume that multiple reflectionsare negligiblewhen comparedto primary


reflections.

The wavefield recorded by a receiver in the model consistsof both the

incidentwavefieldPi(r) and the scatteredwavefieldP,(r) whichwe call the


total wavefieldPt(r) , or

P(r) -

Pi(r) -[-P,(r).

(50)

For a constantdensitymodel,equation(48) describesthe propagationof


the total wavefieldPt(r) throughan inhomogeneous
medium,or

[V' + k(r)]Pt(r) = O.

(51)

At thispointwereformulate
k2(r) in equation(51) asa perturbation
to a
constantko
for the homogeneous
background
mediumwherethe magnitude
of ko is given by

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3.2.

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49

We begin by writing

[k(r)1].

(53)

Substitutingequations(49) and (52) into the bracketedterm on the righthand sideof equation(53) for k(r) and ko, respectively,
gives

ke(r)

C 1]
- ko
+k[C.(r)
= ko
2-ko
2[1 C2(r
;]
).

(54)

If we definethe modelfunctionM(r) asthe bracketedterm in equation(54),

thenwe get the desiredreformulation


of k2(r),

k2(r) -

k - koM(r),

(55)

whereM(r) is definedby

M(r)- 1 C(r
C).

(56)

The model function M(r) in equation(55) definesa perturbationto an

otherwiseconstantko
of the background
medium. When C(r) - Go in
equation(56), M(r) - 0 and thereis no perturbationof ko
(i.e., by equation (55), k(r)We now want to establish a relationship between the scattered wave-

field P,(r) and the modelfunctionM(r) usingequation(51). First, equations(50) and(55) aresubstituted
intoequation(51) for Pt(r) andk2(r),
respectively, giving

[7 + k- kM(r)][Pi(r)+ Po(r)] -

O.

(57)

We rearrangeequation(57) so that terms involvingsourcesof scattered


energyt are on the right-handside. Thus,

[V2+ ko2]Pi(r)+[V2+ ko]Po(r)-

ko2M(r)[Pi(r)+Po(r)]. (58)

Note that the term koM(r)[Pi(r) + P,(r)] is the sourceof the scattered
wavefieldP0(r) and, as previouslystated, dependsupon both the incident
1Termscontainingthe modelfunctionM(r) are sourcesof scatteredenergy.

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5O

CHAPTER

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wavefieldand scatteredwavefieldat r. The left-handsideof equation(58)


describes
the propagationof the incidentwavefieldPi(r) and the scattered
wavefieldP,(r) in the backgroundmedium, both of which travel at a constant velocity Co.

The incidentwavefieldPi(r) is generatedby a sourcein the homogeneousbackgroundand containsno scatteredenergy. Therefore, the incident
wavefieldtravelsthrough the model at the backgroundacousticvelocityCo
and contributesto the scattered wavefieldthrough the scatter sourceterm

in equation(58) when M(r) - 0. Thus, the Helmholtzacousticwave


equation for a constant velocity medium describesthe propagationof the
incidentwavefieldPi(r) and is givenby

[V'2+ko]Pi(r) -

O.

(59)

Equation(59) permitsus to reduceequation(58) to

[v +

(60)

Equation (60) describesthe propagationof the scatteredwavefieldat the


backgroundvelocity when inhomogeneitiesoccur which scatter both the

incidentwavefieldPi(r) and existingscatteredenergyPs(r). Note that


if no inhomogeneities
occur, then M(r) = 0 and the right-hand side of
equation(60) is zero,implyingthereis no sourcefor the scatteredwavefield
and P(r) = 0.
Solvingequation(60) directlyfor P,(r) is difficult. A simpleapproachis
to formulatean integralsolutionusingthe propertiesof the Green'sfunction
developedin Appendix C. For the Helmholtz equation the Green'sfunction
is the responseof the differential equation to a negative impulse source

function.
2 Thus,theGreen'sfunctionbecomes
thesolutionto equation(60)
if we replacethe sourceterm with a negativeimpulsesourcefunction-5(rr t) or

[V2+ ko]a(r[r')

-5(r - r').

(61)

The Green'sfunctionG(r Jr') givesthe solutionat positionr for a negative


impulse at r' which correspondsto the location of a point scatterer.

The solutionto equation(61) for a 2-D spacecontainingan infinite-line


scattererat r' and infinite-line receiverat r, where both lines are perpendicular to the plane containingr and r, is

a(rIr') -- j4 Ho(X)(ko
Ir- r' l)'

(6:2)

Traditionally the Green'sfunction solutionfor the Helmholtz equation is determined


for a negativesourcedensity on the right-haxtdside, or X72P + ksP = -p. In order for
the Dirac delta function to represent a source density impulse, the sign in front of the
Dirac delta function must also be negative.

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3.2.

ACOUSTIC

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51

where
Ho
() isthezero-order
Hankel
function
ofthefirstkind.In a 3-Dspace
containingpoint scatterersand field points, the solution to equation (61)
is

G(rlr')= 4rlr-r' I '

(63)

With the Green'sfunction for equation(61) known, the solution to


equation(60) is foundby multiplyingthe Green'sfunctionby the negative
of the sourceterm in equation(60) and integratingover all spacewhere

M(r ) - 0, or 3

P,(r)- -ko
/ G(r
[r')M(r')[P(r')
+P(r')]dr'.
(64)
Equation (64) is called the Lippmann-Schwinger
equation,which is the
desiredintegral solutionfor the acousticwave-scatteringproblem. We point
out in Appendix C that suchan integral is analogousto obtaining an output
from a filter systemwhenthe impulseresponse
of the filter (i.e., the Green's

function)and the input (i.e., sourceterm fromequation(60)) are known.


Equation(64) is just a convolutionintegral,whichis easilyseenif the
Green'sfunctionfrom either equation(62) or (63) are substitutedin for
I,?).
The Lippmann-Schwingerequationnonlinearlyrelatesthe model func-

tion M(r) to the data function(scatteredwavefield)P,(r). The nonlinearity is a result of the scatteredwavefieldP,(r) insidethe integrandof

equation(64) whosevaluedepends
on the modelfunctionM(r). Because
of this nonlinearity,it is difficult to use equation(64) to perform either
forwardmodeling(computeP,(r) from M(r)) withoutresortingto computationally extensiveapproachessuchas finite differencemethodsor to
derive diffractiontomographyimage reconstructionalgorithms(compute
M(r) from P,(r)). One way to get aroundthis problemis to linearize
equation(64) by makinga simplifyingapproximation
calledthe Born approximation.

3.2.2

The Born Approximation

The Born approximationlinearizesequation(64) by assumingthat the

scattered
wavefield
P,(r) is muchweakerthanthe incidentwavefield
Pi(r),
3In this book we use special integration notation which should not be confused with

a line integral. Equation(64) couldbe either an integrationovera plane (2-D space)


or a volme (3-D space)dependingupon which Green'sfunctionis used. Thus, to

remain
general,
if weareintegrating
overa plane,
thenf dr' f dx'dz';
andif weare
integrating
overa voltune,
thenf dr'::f dx'dy'dz'.

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52

CHAPTER

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or

P,(r) P(r).

(65)

If the conditiongivenby equation(65) is true, then the Born approximation


states that

Pi(r) + P,(r)

Pi(r).

(66)

The Lippmann-Schwinger
equationis linearizedby substitutingequation(66)
into equation(64),

P,(r)
-ko
2/ G(r
[r)M(r)Pi(r)dr
.
(67)
Note that the integrandno longercontainsthe scatteredwavefieldP(r)
and the data function P(r) and mode]function M(r) are now linearly
related. If the primary acoustic source is a negative impulse located at
vector position r,, then, by the definition of a Green's function, we can

directlyrepresentthe incidentwavefieldP(r') in equation(67) by a Green's


function,

Pi(r')

G(r' [ rs).

(68)

If a pressure-sensitive
receiver(e.g.,hydrophone)
is locatedat positionr =
rp, thenby substituting
equation(68) intoequation(67) for P(r') wefind,

P,(r,,rp)
--k
2/ M(r')G(r'
lr,)G(r
pIr')dr', (69)
whereP,(r,, rp) is the scattered
wavefield
observed
at positionrp whenthe
negativeimpulsesourceis located at positionr. Both Green'sfunctions
are definedby either equation(62) or (63).

Equation(69) is the Lippmann-Schwinger


equationlinearizedby the
Born approximation. This equation establishesthe linear relationship be-

tweenthe data function(scatteredwavefield)h(r,,rp) and the unknown


modelfunctionM(r) requiredby the diffractiontomographyproblem.Note
that sincewe exploitedthe Born approximationin derivingequation(69)
that the modelfunctionM(r) must be a weak scatterer. Only then will
the scattered

wavefield

be much weaker than the incident

wavefield

and the

conditionspecifiedby equation(65) be satisfied.

3.2.3

The Rytov Approximation

In this sectionwe derivea nonlinearintegral-equationsolutionto equa-

tion (48) usingexponentials.


Althoughthe modelfunctionM(r) is defined

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3.2.

ACOUSTIC

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53

the same as for the Lippmann-Schwingersolution, the data function representingthe observedscatteredwavefieldis different. The Rytov approximation establishesa linear relationship between the data function and the
model function. The resulting linearized integral solution strongly resemblesequation(69) for the Born approximation.
We begin the derivationby returning to equation(51) which describes
the propagationof the total wavefieldP(r) through a constantdensity,
variable-velocity
medium. Usingequation(55) andequation(56) asthe def-

initionsfor k2(r) andthemodelfunctionM(r), respectively,


equation(51)
is rewritten

as

Iv + - 4()]P,()

0.

(70)

Exceptfor settingPt(r) = Pi(r)+ P,(r), equation(70) is the sameas


equation(57). We deviatefrom the earlierderivationof the LippmannSchwingerequationby representingthe total wavefieldwith the exponential
equation,

P(r)-

e,(r),

(71)

whereb(r) is calledthe "complextotal phasefunction." Note that, as in


previous sections, variables which are a function of the position vector r

carryan impliedfrequencydependence.
We wish to substituteequation(71) into equation(70) to obtain a differentialequationin termsof ,(r). The Laplacianof P,(r) mustbe taken
to achieve the this result.

We start with

vP,()

= v. [vP,()].

Substitutingequation(71) in for Pt(r) and performingthe differentialoperationsgives,

vP,() =
=
=

v. b,()v,()],
e'()v-v,()+ Ve'().v,(),
,()v,() + ,()v,(). v,(),
e'(r)[v,(r)+V,(r).V,(r)].

(72)

Equations
(71) and(72) aresubstituted
intoequation(70)for V2P,(r) and
P,(r) giving,

,()[v,() + v,(). v,()]+ [ - ()1,()

- 0. (73)

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54

CHAPTER

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Dividing
through
byeqb'(r),
equation
(73)becomes,
V6 (r) + [V6t(r) V6t(r)]+ ko
koM(r)-

0,

(74)

whichis the desireddifferential


equationin termsof bt(r).
At this pointweintroducethe incidentwavefield
Pi(r) expressed

Pi(r)-

e0i(r),

(75)

where$(r) is calledthe "complex


incidentphe function."The complex
incidentphe functioni(r) is relatedto the complextotal phe function
t(r) throughthe "complex
phe difference
function,"definedby

0a(r) =

0t(r)- 0,(r).

(76)

Sincethetotalwavefield
P(r) variesfromthe incidentwavefield
P(r) only
whenscatteringoccurs,we can surmisethat the complexphe difference
function$a(r) is a meansof accounting
for scatteredenergy.

Wecontinue
thederivation
byreplacing
0,(r)in equation(74) by
a(r) definedby equation(76). Carryingthis operationout yieldsa
differentialequationin termsof 0,(r) and

V0i(r)+ V0(r) + [V0i(r). V0i(r)]+ 2[V0i(r).


+[V$(r). V&a(r)]+ k - kM(r) - 0.

(77)

The termsin equation(77) are rearrangedin a form whichwill proveconvenient later on,

(78)

The termsinsidethe squarebracketson the left-handsideof equation (78) are all relatedto the incidentwavefield
and havea sumequal
to zero. This is eily showntrue by usingequation(59) whichdescribes
the propagation
of the incidentwavefieldPi(r) throughthe background
medium.Equation(75) defining
Pi(r)is substituted
intoequation
(59)to
get the differentialequationin termsof i(r). Followingthe sameprocedurewhichgavethe Laplacianof Pt(r) in equation(72), the Laplacianof

VP(r)- e0(r)[v0(r)
+ V0(r).V0,(r)].

(79)

Substituting
equations
(79) and (75)into equation(59) for VP(r) and
P(r), respectively,
gives

ei(r)[v2i(r)
+ Vi(r)-Vi(r)]
+ kei(r)- O.

(80)

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3.2.

ACOUSTIC

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55

Dividing
equation
(80)byei(r)results
inanequation
which
demonstrates
that the bracketedterms in equation(78) havea zerosum,or

V2i(r) + Vi(r).Vi(r)

+ ko
-

O.

(81)

+ ().

(8)

By equation(81), equation(78)is rewritten

v,(). v()

+ v()

- -v().

v()

Equation(82) providesa crucialrelationshipwhichwe will uselater on


in this derivation. Now we turn our attention to the important product

P(r)(r)

which will becomethe data functionfor this derivationor a

meure of the scattered wavefield. For purposesof the derivation the


Laplacian is taken of this product. Performingthe differentiationwe have,

V[P,(),()]

- V. [,()VP,() + P,()V,()]
= ,()V()
+ V(). V,()
+P,(r)V2d(r).

(83)

Rearrangingthe termsin equation(83) and makinguseof the fact that

VP(r)-

-kP(r) by equation(59), weget the following,

2VP,(r). V(r)+

P,(r)V(r)

- V[Pi(r)(r)]- (r)VP,(r)
= V2[pi(r)d(r)]+ d(r)koP()
2
= [V + k]P,(r)d(r).
(84)

Switchingthe left- and right-handsidesof equation(84) and using the


definitionof P(r) givenby equation(75), we can write the following,

Iv + ]P,()o,()

v,(). v,() + P,()vo,()

= ()vo(). v,() + p()vo,()


= P,()v,(). v,() + P()v,()
= p,()[v,(). vo,() + Vd()].

(SS)

The quantity inside the square brackets on the right-hand side of equation (85) is definedby the earlier "crucial"relationshipgiven by equa-

tion (82). Substitutingequation(82) into equation(85) gives,

IV + ]P,()o,()

-P,()[v,().

vo,()-

()].

(86)

Just w donefor equation(60), equation(86) can be solvedfor


P(r)d(r) in termsof an integralequationby exploitingthe propertiesof
the Green'sfunction. The resultingsolutionis

P,()o,()
- f P,W)[vo,(').
v,(')(')]a(
I')d',(87)

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CHAPTER

56

3.

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TOMOGRAPHY

where G(r Ir') is a Green'sfunctiongivenby either equation(62) or


equation(63).
The data functionP(r)da(r) is nonlinearlyrelatedto the modelfunction m(r) sinceda(r) appearsinsidethe integrandof equation(87). Both
forward modeling(computingP(r)a(r) from M(r)) and image reconstruction(computingm(r) from P(r)&a(r)) are difficultbecauseof this
nonlinearity. At this point in the derivation the Rytov approximation is
formulated to remedy this situation. The Rytov approximation linearizes

equation(87) by assuming
the conditionVa(r) <( 1. When Va(r)is
smallthe quantityX7a(r'). Va(r') in equation(87) canbe neglected
and
we write the approximation,

-f

(ss)

As with the Born approximation,the incidentwavefieldPi(r') can be


representedby a Green's function,

P(r') =

G(r'}r,),

(89)

for a negativeimpulsesourceat vectorpositionrs. If a receiveris located

at positionr - rr, then by substituting


equation(89) into equation(88)
we have,

P(r,rv)Sa(r,,rv)
-ko
f m(r')G(r'
lr,)O(r
vIr')dr'.
(90)
The Green'sfunctionsaresatisfiedby eitherequation(62) or equation(63).
However,to useequation(90) properly,the gradientof the phasedifference
functionVSa(r),mustbe smallas requiredby the Rytov approximation.

3.2.4

Born vs. Rytov Approximation

Except for the data functions, the linearization of the Lippmann-

Schwinger
equationusingthe Bornapproximation
in equation(69) is identical to that of the Rytov approximationin equation(90). Herewe demonstrate that the data functionPi(r,,rr)Sa(r,,rr) associated
with the Rytov approximationreducesto the data function associatedwith the Born

approximation,
the scattered
wavefield
P(rs,rp), whenthe complex
phase
difference
functiond(rs,rr) issmall.Next,weshowthat forcing
to be smallis the sameasrequiringa weakscattered
wavefield
P,(r,,rr)
for the Born approximation.Finally, we state the limitationsfor applying
either the Born or Rytov approximation.

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3.2.

ACOUSTIC

First

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57

we wish to show that

Pi(r0,rr)ba(r0,rr)

P0(r0,rr),

(91)

when4a(r0,r) is small. This resultis achieved


by usingthe Taylorseries

expansion
ofe4a(r0,
r) which
isgiven
by,

*(0,)- 1+,(,')+ *](")


2] +

3] +.... (92)

When (r, r) 1, we canneglectthe secondand higherordertermsin


the Taylor seriesexpansionand write

(,,)

(',)

- 1.

()

The approximationof the data function sociated with the Rytov approximation is found by multiplying equation (93) by the incident wavefield

Pi(r, rp), giving,

P,(r,,rr)(r,,rr) Pi(r,rr)[e(r'rr)
- 1].

(94)

This approximation
is eily shownto be the scatteredwavefieldP(r, rr)

byusing
therelationships,
Pi(r,,rr)- ei(r,rr), P(r,rr)- e'(r,rr)
andP(r,, rr) - P(r, rr)-Pi(r,, rr) , fromequations
(75), (71), and(50),
respectively.Hence,equation(94) is rewritten:

,(. ),,(. ) ,(. )[,(. ) - 1]

,(,, r) _ ,(,,r)

,(r, ) - ,(r, r)
(r, r).

()

Thus,the data functionsfor equations(69) and (90) are approximately


the
samewhen(r, r r) is small.
Now we wishto showthat setting(r,rr) 1 is the same the
Bornapproximation
requirement
of a weakscatteredfield(i.e., P(r,, rr)
P(r, rr) ). We beginby explicitlywritingthe total and incidentwavefields

P(r)-

A,(r)eJb,(r),

(96)

Pi(r) - Ai(r)eJbi(r),

(97)

and

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58

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respectively,
where;bt(r)and;b,(r)aretherealphases
andAt(r) andA,(r)
arethe amplitudes.Equation(76) givesthe definitionof the complexphase
difference

function

as

4a(r) = 4,(r)- 4,(r).

(98)

Solvingequations
(71) and(75) for dr(r) anddi(r), thensubstituting
the
resultsinto the last equationgives

da(r) = lnPt(r) - lnP(r).

(99)

Usingthe explicitrelationsfor Pt(r) and Pi(r) givenby equations


(96)
and (97), equation(99) becomes,

da(r)- In[At(r)1
q-j[bt(r)bi(r)]
'

(100)

The complexphasedifference
functionrid(r) in equation(100)is small
whenIn ta,(r)/Z,(r)l << I and [;bt(r)- ;b(r)]<< 1. This is the comparableto requiringthat the difference
betweenPt(r) na g(r) be small

for the Bornapproximation.


The In ta,(r)/a,()l termin equation
(100)
demonstrates
that the Bornapproximation
is a weakscatteringapproximation. Also,the accumulative
phasedifference,
[;bt(r)- ;b(r)l, maybecome
significantif the regionwhere M(r) 0 is large relative to the seismic
wavelength.Thus, in addition to requiringweak scatterers,the size of the

inhomogeneities
maybecome
an importantfactorto consider
whenusing
the Born approximation.

On the otherhand,the Rytovapproximation


doesnot requirerid(r)
to be small,only that the gradientof rid(r) be small(i.e., the changeof
rid(r) withina wavelength
be small). The Rytovapproximation
requires

onlya smooth
modelfunction
andplaces
norestrictions
onthestrength
of the scatterersor their size. Thus, the Rytov approximationis a smooth
scatteringor smoothperturbationapproximation.
3.3

Genera'ized Projection

Slice Theorem

Either equation(69) or (90) in Section3.2 definea linearintegralrelationshipbetweena data functionrepresenting


scatteredenergyand the
modelfunctionM(r). In thissectionwe simplifythis linearintegralrelationshipby taking the spatial Fourier transform of the data functionover

the sourceandreceiverprofilesandby takingthe 2-D spatialFouriertransform of the modelfunction. The result is the generalizedprojectionslice

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3.3.

GENERALIZED

PROJECTION

SLICE

theorem which serves as the theoretical

THEOREM

foundation

59

for the seismic diffrac-

tion tomography image reconstruction algorithms presented in Section 3.4.

We let P(r,, rr) for the remainingpart of thischapterrepresent


the data

function
foreitherP,(r,, rr) oftheBornapproximation
or Pi(rs,rr)b,(rs,rr)
of the Rytov approximation. Thus, the generic equation,

-}o

(xox)

definesthe linear integral relationshipbetweenthe data function and model

functiongivenby eitherequation(69) or (90).. Also,sincemostsourceand


receivergeometriesare for 2-D problems,we will exclusivelyusethe Green's

functiondefinedby equation(62).
We find it instructive to derive the generalizedprojection slicetheorem
for three typical source-receiverconfigurations: the crosswellprofile, the

vertical seismicprofileor VSP, and the surfacereflectionprofile. One may


justify this approach by noting that the spatial Fourier transform of the

data functionP(r, rr) mustbe takenoverthe sourceand receiverprofiles.


However, by the end of this section the reader will find that the theorem is
actually independentof the source-receiverconfiguration.

3.3.1

Crosswell Configuration

We begin the derivation of the generalized projection slice theorem


for the crosswellconfiguration by replacing the position vectors in equation (101) with coordinatesfrom the x-z plane. Figure 16 showsa crosswell
configuration with sourcelocations representedby solid circlesand receiver
locations identified by open circles. We assume both source and receiver
wells are vertical

so that the x-coordinates

of all sources and receivers are

given by the constants,ds and dr, respectively.The z-coordinates


of the
sourceand receiverlocationsare z and zr. Thus, the positionvectorsfor

the source
locationr andreceiver
locationrr' canbe expressed
in terms
of their respective
coordinates
(d, z) and (dr, zr). Substitutingthesecoordinatesinto equation(101) for the positionvectorswe get,

x O(z, z I ds,zs)O(dv, zv [ z, z)dxdz, (102)


for the crosswellconfiguration.

The Green'sfunction G(z,z I a,,,)

i, equation(102)is chosento

representa cylindrical wave emitted from an infinite line sourcelocated a

the coordinates(d,, z,). Equation(62) is the appropriateGreen'sfunction

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60

CHAPTER

3.

SEISMIC

DIFFRACTION

TOMOGRAPHY

..X

Source
Receiver

ds

dp

FIG. 16. Source-receivergeometry for the crosswelltomography experiment. The sourcelocations are representedby solid circles at the constant
horizontal location d,. The receivers are represented by open circles at the

constanthorizontallocationdr . The orientationof the line sourcesand line


receiversis perpendicularto the page. We restrict our reconstructionof the

modelfunctionto d, < z < dr.

for this problem. We rewrite the position vectors in the Green's function

in termsof x-z coordinates


using(x, z) for r, (d,, %) for r', and I r - r ' I-

Vf(x-d) 2+ (z- %)2. Makingthesesubstitutions


in equation
(62)gives,
J

G(x,z
Id,,z,)- Ho()(koV/(X
- d,)+ (z- z,)).

(103)

The Green'sfunctionin equation(103) is awkwardto use becauseof

thezero-order
Hankelfunction
Ho
(). TheGreen's
function
represents
a
cylindricalwaveat the point (x, z) propagatingawayfrom a line sourceat
(d,, z,) with vectorwavenumber
ko. Fortunately,it turnsout that the zeroorder Hankel function can be mathematically thought of as the summation

(integration)at (x, z) of an infinitenumberof planewaveswhosewavefronts


are tangentto the cylindricalwavefront.This plane wavedecomposition
of
the cylindrical wave is defined by

1/_1eJ[kl(z-z,)+?llx-d,
I]dkl (104)

oo 7

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3.3.

GENERALIZED

PROJECTION

SLICE

THEOREM

61

wherethe wavenumberfor a givenplanewavefor the crosswellconfiguration

has the components


k alongthe z-axis and 7 alongthe x-axis.4 The

absolute
valueof (x -ds) is required
because
71 - +v/ko
-k, whichis
alwaysgreaterthan zero. The absolutevalueofx-ds insures7(x-do) > O,
regardlessof the value of x.

Figure17 illustratesthe conceptbehindequation(104). Planewave1


is perpendicularto the cylindricalwavefrontat (x,z). This plane wave
has the samevectorwavenumberko as the cylindricalwavefrontat (x, z)
and has the wavenumbercomponents(7,kl). As previouslymentioned
we require the componentfor all plane waves be positive, defined by

7 - +v/ko2 -k.

This definitionof 7 ensures


that all planewavesare

tangent to the cylindrical wavefront with a wavenumbermagnitude of ko.

The directionofpropagation
for planewave#1 is a = tan- (7/k). Plane
wave #2 is traveling in the +x directionwith vectorwavenumberko: and
components
(7 = ko,k = 0). Note that the summationof planewave#1

by equation(104) at (x,z) is at the onsetof the plane wavewhile the


summationof plane wave #2 at (x,z) occurslater on in its wave train.
The waveformof any planewavewill be summedby equation(104) at a
later point in its wave train if the plane waveis tangent to the cylindrical
wavefrontat a point other than (x, z).
Now we apply plane wave decompositionto the Green's function in

equation (103). This is achievedby substitutingthe plane wave decompositionof the zero-orderHankelfunctiondefinedby equation(104) into
equation(103) giving,

where the absolutevalue can be droppedby requiringz > ds. Note that
this Green's function is adequatefor the crosswellconfigurationshown in
Figure 16 since we are usingequation (102) to image only betweenthe

sourceline and receiverline or d0 < z < dv. We are effectivelysaying


M(z, z) = 0 outsideof the imagingarea.
The Green'sfunctionG(dv,zr [ z,z) in equation(102) is chosento
representa cylindricalwaverecordedat (dv,zv) scatteredby an infinite
line scattererlocatedat (z,z). As with the line source,equation(62) is
the appropriate Green's function for the line scatterer. After substituting
4In derivationsof the generalized
projectionslicetheoremfor differentsource-receiver
configurations, the kl component is always taken along the line of sourcesand -yl is
perpendic,,lar to k in a right-handed coordinate system sense. Here the sourceline just
happens to be along the z-axis. The reason for doing this will become clear in a few
pages.

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62

CHAPTER

3.

SEISMIC

DIFFRACTION

TOMOGRAPHY

#2

#1

FIG. 17. Plane wave decomposition


of a cylindricalwavefrontat (x,z).
Two plane waves, labeled #1 and 2 out of an infinite number of plane
waves tangent to the cylindrical wavefront, illustrate the concept behind
equation(104).

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3.3.

GENERALIZED

PROJECTION

SLICE

THEOREM

63

coordinatesfor positionvectorsin equation(62) and performinga plane


wave decompositionon the Green's function we get,

G(dr,
z[x,z) - 4----
fj l eJ[k(zr
- z)-l?(dr
- x)]dk
(106)
for x ( dr. Here a given plane wave has the wavenumbercomponents
k along the z-axis (parallel to the receiverline) and 7 alongthe x-axis
(perpendicularto the receiverline), analogousto the kx and 7 reference
directionswith respect to the sourceline. The direction of propagation

for the scatteredplanewaveis tan- (72/k2). As with equation(105),this


Green's function for the scattered wavefieldis adequate since the imaging

areahasthe limits d0 < x < dp.


One final relationship is required before we continuethe derivation. We
must write down the equation for taking the Fourier transform of the data

functionP(d,,zo; dr, zr) in equation(102) alongthe sourceline (z,) and


the receiverline (zr). This relationshipis foundby first takingthe Fourier
transformof P(d,, z,; dr, zr) with respectto z, followedby a secondFourier
transformwith respectto zr whichproducesthe doubleintegralFourier
transform,

x e-jkze-Jkrzr
dzdzr
'

(107)

wherek and kr are the wavenumbers


of the Fouriertransformsalongthe
sourceline and the receiverline, respectively.Note that the directionstaken
for kl and k2 in the two Grecn's functions are oriented the same as ks and

kr, a "lucky" coincidence


as far as the derivationis concerned.
Now we may resume the derivation of the generalized projection slice
theorem for the crosswellconfigurationby obtaining an integral relation-

ship betweenthe data functionPo(d,k;dr, kr) and the modelfunction


M(x, z). We beginby substitutingthe linearintegralrelationshipbetween
the data functionP(d, z; dr, zr) andthe modelfunctionM(x, z), defined
by equation(102) into equation(107). This substitutiongivesthe relationship,

-k o
2

M(x,z)

G(x,z [ d,,zo)-Jk,
z,dzo

(os)

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64

CHAPTER 3. SEISMIC DIFFRACTION TOMOGRAPttY

between
thedatafunction
]5(d,,
k,;dr,kr)andthemodel
function
M(x,z).
Notethatwehavechanged
theorderof integration
in equation
(108).
Next,wesubstitute
theGreen's
functions
fromequations
(105)and(106)
intoequation
(108),regroup
termswithsimilarintegration
variables,
and
interchange
the orderof integration
for the twoinnermost
integrals
over

eachGreen'sfunction,givingthe equation,

5(d,
Iq,)
= k
' ko'
' d,,
4 1

M(x
' z}

(109)

{ 1eJ[-2z+'2(dp-z)]
-J(p-'2)Zpdzpd
The integralsin equation(109) with respectto the variablesz, and

zr areeasilyevaluated
in termsof Diracdeltafunctions
asshownin AppendixB. The followingare the integralsolutions:
5

:'
e-j(k
+k,)z,
dz,

(110)

e-j(k
,- ka)zp
dzp 2rS(kr- k,).

(111)

and

Substituting
theintegral
solutions
givenbyequations
(110)and(111)
intoequation(109)andevaluating
theintegrals
withrespectto thevariables

k, andk=(remembering
that7 - ko
- k and7 - ko
- k) gives,
'

--

%%

M(z,z)

(112)
where

'rr- Vko
=-/%=

(113)

7,- 7ko
- k,
.

(114)

and

5Wechose
kl andksin thesamedirection
asksandkp,respectively,
sothatsimplifying relationships
llke equations(110) and (111) couldbe used.

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3.3.

GENERALIZED

PROJECTION

SLICE

THEOREM

65

Both7pand% arewavenumber
components
perpendicular
to the wavenumber componentskp and k0 which parallel the receiverand sourcelines,
respectively
6.

The doubleintegralin equation


(112_)
isjust a 2-D Fouriertransform
of the modelfunctionM(x, z) definingM(k:,, k,) alongcirculararcsin the

k - k, plane,the placement
of the arc depending
uponk0 andk?. At
this point we must make a brief digressionto further explain this concept.

Figure 18(a) showsfour down-holesourcepositionslabeled $, $2,


and $4 in one well and four down-hole receiver positions labeled R,

Rs, and R4 in another well. A line diffractorlies at the location (x, z). If

] represents
the directionof a planewavepropagating
froma sourceto the
point(x, z), thenby equation(105) the associated
wavenumber
components
(7, k) can be written,

koi -

7:+ k.,

(115)

where and . are unit vectors in the positive x-direction and z-direction,
respectively.Now, as a mathematicalabstraction,let point in the opposite
directionof a planewavetravelingawayfrom the sourceto the point (x, z),

or - -{. By equation
(115)andfromthefactthat kx- -ks and7 - 7:
by equation(110), we may write the components
of koas
(116)
Figure 18(a) showsthe unit vector g for eachof the four sourceslabeled
with subscriptsas gx, 2, a, and g4.
Now let ) representthe direction of a plane wave propagating from the

point(x, z) towardoneof the receivers


in Figure18(a). By equation(106)
and by the fact that equation(111) definesk. = kr and 72 = 7r, we may
write the componentsof ko) as

(117)

Figure 18(a) showsthe unit vector for eachof the four receiverslabeled
with subscriptsas )x, 2, )a, and 4.

Figure18(b) showsthe wavenumber


domainrepresentation
of the source
wavenumbervectorskox, ko.q2,ko.qa,and ko.,. Similarly,Figure 18(c)
showsthe wavenumberdomain representationof the plane wavestravel-

ing from the point (x,z) to the four receiversas the vectorskol, ko.,
6Refer back to equation (107) for the definitionsof kr axtdk.

7Equation(112) is analogousto equation(12) definingthe projectionslicetheorem


for ray tomography. Instead of arcs, the projection slice theorem defines straight lines
in the k: - k: plane as shown in Figure 5.

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66

CHAPTER 3. SEISMIC DIFFRACTION

TOMOGRAPtIY

s1

R1

Zs2^

^ R2

^2

S4

R4

(a)

Kz

Kz

(b)

(c)

FIG. 18. The wavenumber


components
(k,,%) and (kr,7r) in equation (112) dependuponthe sourceand receiver
locations,
respectively,
relativeto thelinediffractor
in themodel.(a) Foursources
(soliddots)
and four receivers(open dots) are shown. The unit vectorsradiatefrom
a line diffractorand point towardtheir respectivesourceor receiver.The
unit vectorsfor the sourcespoint oppositeto the unit vectorsof the incidentwaves. (b) The wavenumbervectorsfor eachsourceare shownon

the k - kz planeas terminatingalonga dashedcirclewith radiusko. If


sources
are deployed
from +oo to -oo in the boreholedirection,thenthe

entiredashed
circleterminus
is defined.Equation(116)defines
thecomponents(k, %) for thesewavenumber
vectors.(c) The wavenumber
vectors
for eachreceiver
areshown
onthe k- kz planeasterminating
alonga
dashedcirclewith radiusko. As for the source,the entire dashedcircle
terminusis definedif receiversare placedfrom +c to -c.

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3.3.

GENERALIZED

PROJECTION

SLICE

,ks

THEOREM

67

kP
K x

p,i-Kx

Kz
(a)

(b)

Fc. 19. Wavenumber vector componentsfor the crosswellconfiguration.


(a) The componentsof a sourcewavenumbervector kog are shownas pro-

jectionsontothe k-axis and kz-axisasdefinedby equation(116). (b) Similarly, the components of a receiver wavenumber vector kot5are shown as

definedby equation(117).

kof)3, and koO4. If the sourcescan be deployedfrom +c to -c along


the source well, then the wavenumber domain representation of the source
wavenumbervectors ko. are vectors pointing to the dashedsemicirclein

Figure 18(b). Likewise,if the receiverscan be deployedfrom +c to -c


in the receiver well, then the wavenumber domain representation of the
plane wavestraveling to these receiversare vectors pointing to the dashed

semicirclein Figure 18(c).


The components
of ko,and ko definedby equations(116) and (117)
are showngraphicallyin Figures 19(a) and 19(b), respectively.At this
point we add the two vectorskof,and koO which givesthe vector equation,

(7r -7s) + (kr + k)..

(118)

The dot productbetweenko(g+ ) and positionvectorr pointingto the


line diffractorat (x, z) in the modelis

ko( +

. ,: -

kz +

(7r - 70)x 4-(kr 4- ko)z.

(119)

At this point we note that equation(119) multipliedby -j formsthe terms

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68

CHAPTER

3. SEISMIC

DIFFRACTION

TOMOGRAPttY

for the exponentials


in the integrandof equation(112). Substituting
equation (119) intoequation(112) resultsin the moreinterpretable
equation,

tS(d,k;dp,kp)

(120)

where//(k,
kz)isthe2-DFourier
transform
ofthemodel
function
M(z,z),
or

+
+

(121)

Usingthe last result,equation(112) may be written morebrieflyas

P(do
ko
kp)-- --k2
eJ(7pdp
- %d,)
~ + f>)].
; dp,
M[ko(f,
'
4
%7p

(122)

The integrationlimits in eitherthis equationor in equation(120) must


obeythe spatiallimitationsset by equations(105) and (106). That is, the
imagingareais restrictedto ds< x < dp. We do thisby settingM(z, z) to
zeroin the integrandwhenthe integrationis outsideof the imagingarea,
whichis the sameasrestrictingthe integrationto only the imagingarea.

Equation
(122)establishes
a relationship
between
/5(ds,
ks;dp,
kr),the
doubleintegralFouriertransformof the data functionalongthe sourceand

receiver
profiles,
andg[ko(+ )], the2-D Fouriertransform
ofthemodel
function for the diffraction tomographyproblem. Considerthe crosswell

configuration
in Figure20(a). The unit vector pointstowardthe single
sourcefrom the linescattererlocatedat (x, z) whilereceiversdeployedfrom
+cx>to -cx>alongthe receiverwell causethe unit vector to havethe range
within the dashedsemicircle.The locusof the quantityko( + ) in the
wavenumberdomainis a semicirclewith radius ko centeredon the point
(-ko, 0), asshownin Figure20(b).
Note that the coverage
in the wavenumber
domainchanges
asthe source
is moved.For example,Figure20(c) showsthe unit vector for the source

at -cx>.Sincethe receivers
areat thesamelocations
asin Figure20(a)the
coverage
of remainsthe same.The locusof the quantityko(.q-) in the
wavenumberdomainis shownin Figure 20(d) as a semicirclewith radius

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3.3.

GENERALIZED

PROJECTION

SLICE

THEOREM

69

,.

ource
-

source

at

O0

',

,'

o
.ource

at

+oo

(a)

{e)

(c)

gx

gx

Kz

(b)

Kz

Kz

(d)

FI6. 20. Coverage


providedthe modelfunctionM(k=, k,) bythreedifferent
sourcelocationsrelative to the receiverboreholewith receiversranging in
depth from +cx>to -cx>. The wavenumbervector ko is shownin (a), (c),
and (e) for sourcesat the samedepth as the line scatterer,at -cxv, and
at +oo, respectively. The termini for the receiver wavenumbervectors are
shownas the dashed circles. For the fixed receiverlocations, the solid circle

arcsin (b), (d), and (f) are the coverages


providedof the modelfunction

37/(k=,
kz)bythesource
locations
in (a), (c),and(d),respectively.
Thesolid
arcsare a resultof the vectorsum, koi + kolS,as definedin equation(122)
on the right-hand side.

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70

CHAPTER

3.

SEISMIC

DIFFRACTION

TOMOGRAPItY

ko centeredon the point (0,-ko). Figure20(e) showsthe unit vector for


the sourceat -]-x)and the same receivercoverage. Now the locusof the
quantity ko( + ) in the wavenumberdomainis the semicirclecenteredon

(0, +ko) shownin Figure20(f).


We can use equation(122) in the diffractiontomographyproblemto
compute the Fourier transform of the unknown model function M on the

semicircular
locidefined
by ko(+ )in Figures
20(_b),
20(d),and20(f).
The loci definedby ko(O+ ) in the evaluationof M are calledthe slice
of the 2-D

Fourier

transform

of the model function.

The

data function

P(d,, z,; dr, zr) representing


the observed
scatteredwavefieldalongthe receiverline is alsocalledthe projection.Equation(122) links the slicesof
M with the projections, resulting in its name, the generalizedprojection

slicetheorem.
Thetheorem
states
that15,(d,,
k,;dr,kr), thedouble
integral Fourier transformof the data function along the sourceand receiver
lines, is equal to M[ko(g + ))], the 2-D Fourier transformof the model
function evaluated along the semicircularslice, multiplied by the quantity

k eJ(7pdr
We may extend the situation shown in Figure 20 by deployingmany

sources
from+xto -xin the sourcewellasshownin Figure21(a). Using
more sources results in more slices in the wavenumber

domain as illustrated

in Figure 21(b). The rangeof all possiblekois depictedby the dashed

line. We useequation
(122)to compute
the modelfunctionAYl[ko(
+
)] along the solid slicesin the k, - kz plane. For sucha multisourcemultireceiver configuration,the 2-D Fourier transform of the model function

can be recoveredonly within the portionsof the two disk-shapedregionsof


the k - kz plane coveredby the solid semicircles.

Most multisource-multireceiverconfigurationsprovide only a partial


coverageof M(ka,,kz) leaving parts of the model uncertain. Information from sliceson the entire k- k plane is required to uniquely de-

termineM(x, z), whichis computedfrom the inverseFouriertransformof


M(k,, k). Most of the informationprovidedby the crosswell
configuration
in Figure 21 is in the directionof the vertical wavenumberkz. Only longer
wavelengthinformation(smallerwavenumbervalues)about the modelis
provided in the horizontal wavenumberdirection k. Thus, with the crosswell configurationwe expect good vertical resolution and poor horizontal
resolution. Also, the resultingmodel is nonuniquebecausewe may arbitrar-

ily define
a modelspectrum
to "fill-in"theundefined
partsof/l/(k,k,).

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3.3.

GENERALIZED

PROJECTION

SLICE

THEOREM

71

()

()

()

()
)

8ource

locus of ko 8

receiver

o.. o o( + )

(a)

(b)

Fla. 21. (a) The situationin Figure20 is expandedby placingsourcesin


depthfrom+oo to -oo. (b) The dashedcircleis the terminusof the vector
ko for the sourcesin (a). The solid circlesare the resultingvectorsum

ko(q-I5).Nowthemodelfunction/f4(k=,
k,) iswelldefined
withinthetwo
circular regionsof solid line coverageusing the generalizedprojection slice

theoremfor the crosswellconfigurationdefinedby equation(122).

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72

CHAPTER

3.

SEISMIC

DIFFRACTION

TOMOGRAPttY

ds

dp

source

o receiver

FIG. 22. Source-receivergeometry for the VSP experiment.

We restrict

our reconstruction
of the modelfunctionto x < dr and z > d,.

3.3.2

Vertical Seismic Profile Configuration

Now we derivethe generalizedprojectionslicetheoremfor the vertical


seismicprofile (VSP) source-receiver
configurationin Figure 22. Sources
(soliddots)are deployedalonga line parallelto the x-axis at a constant
vertical location z, = d,. Receivers(open dots) are deployedinsidea receiverwell parallelto the z-axisat a constanthorizontallocationxr = dr.
Thus, the positionvectorsfor the sourcelocation r and receiverlocation

rr canbe expressed
in termsof theirrespective
coordinates
(x,d) and
(dr,zr). Weshallassume
thatthedomainof themodelfunction
M(x, z) is
restrictedto x < dr andz > d. The derivationfor the VSP configuration
followscloselythe derivationof the crosswellconfigurationof the last section. In fact, we end up with the sameform of the generalizedprojection

slicetheoremgivenby equation(122), but with its applicationbasedon


the VSP geometry.

Substitutingthe VSP coordinatesinto equation(101) for the position

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3.3.

GENERALIZED

PROJECTION

SLICE

THEOREM

73

vectorsrs and r r gives

P(zs,ds;dr,zr) -

-ko

M(z,z)

(123)

Again we chooseequation (62) to representthe Green'sfunctionsin a 2D medium so that the acoustic sourcesare infinite line sources,the diffractors in the model are infinite line diffractors, and the receiversare infinite

line receivers. Thus, we are once again dealing with cylindrical acoustic
waves in a 2-D medium.

The developmentof the Green's functions here closelyfollows the discussionof the previous section and will not be presented in detail. The

Green'sfunctionG(z,z I z,,d,) for the infinite line sourceat (z,,d,)is


found by substitutingthe appropriatecoordinatesinto equation(62) for
position vectorsand performing a plane wave decompositionon the zer

orderHankel
function
H) ofthefirstkind.Theresulting
integral
formof
the Green's function

is

Jff eJ[k(xx,)+7(z
- d,)]dk,
(124)
G(x,
zlx,d,) = 4
7
for z > ds. Note that, as before, the wavenumber component k is taken

along the sourceprofile which for the VSP geometryis in the direction of
the x-axis. The wavenumbercomponent7x is alongthe z-axis and is defined

as7 - v/ko
- k. A similardevelopment
oftheGreen's
function
G(dr,zr I
z, z) for an infinite line diffractorat (z, z) whoseenergyis recordedby a
receiverlocatedat (dr, zr) givesthe equation,

j f: 1eJ[k.(z
r_z)+

- z)lak2,
(125)

for z < dr. Herethe wavenumber


componentkg.is takenalongthe receiver
profile which for the VSP geometryis in the direction of the positive z-axis.
The wavenumber79. is in the positive x-axis direction and is defined as

Finally, we must write down the equation for taking the Fourier trans-

formof the datafunctionP(xs, ds;dr, zs)in equation(123)alongthesource


line (xs) and the receiverline (zr). This relationship
is foundby first taking the Fouriertransformof P(xo,ds;dr, zs) with respectto zs followedby
a secondFouriertransformwith respectto zr whichproducesthe double
integral Fourier transform,

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CHAPTER

74

3.

P(:, , d, ;ct,,
, :,,)

SEISMIC

DIFFRACTION

TOMOGRAPHY

/_:,o
/_P(z,,
d,;
dp,
zp)
x e-jk'x' e-jkpzp
dxsdzp,

(126)

wherek, and kp are the wavenumbers


of the Fouriertransformalongthe
source line and the receiver line, respectively. Note that k is in the same

directionas k, and k= is in the samedirectionas


We continue the derivation of the generalized projection slice theo-

rem for the VSP configurationby substitutingequation(123) into equa-

tion(126)to geta relationship


between
thedatafunction
P(k,,d,;dr,
and the modelfunctionM(x, z). Carrying-outthis substitutiongivesthe
equation,

where we have changedthe order of integration.


Next we substitutethe Green'sfunctionsdefinedby equations(124)
and (125) into equation(127), regrouptermswith similar integrationvariables, and interchangethe order of integration for the two innermost integrals over each Green's function, yielding the equation,

5(k,
dp,
kp)
=k
1 /_
/_M(a:,
'd,;
4 (2a')'
oo
z)

{/_

(128)

d[-z+(d.- )]

-i( - )Zz.d ddz

The integrals
in equation
(128)withrespect
to the variables
x andzr
are easily evaluated in terms of Dirac delta functions as

'e-J(k
+k,)Xsdx
'

(129)

_=
e-J(k
p- k2)zp
dz
r

(130)

and

2r5(kp- k:).

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3.3.

GENERALIZED

PROJECTION

SLICE

THEOREM

75

Substitutingequations(129) and (130)into equation(128) and evaluating


the integralswith respect to the variableskl and k2 (rememberingthat
- o -i na - o -)
give,

'

'

--

77p

M(, )

-J(. +7)-J(-%)&,

(s)

where7, and7p are definedby equations(113) and (114). Rememberthat


the wavenumbercomponentsk, and kp parallel the sourceand receiver
profiles, respectively.
As we saw in the previoussection,the exponential terms in the integrand

of equation(131) may be rewritten the dot productof the vectorsum,


o( + )

:
=
:

(-i
- 7) + (7i + )
(.i- %) + (i + %)
(. +)i+(%-%)
k+k,

(3a)

with the positionvector r pointing to (x,z). The unit vector points in


the oppositedirectionof a plane wave traveling from a sourceto (x, z) and
the unit vector points in the direction of a plane wave propagating kom
(x, z) to a receiver.The components
of ko and ko are showngraphically
in Figures23(a) and 23(b), respectively.Sourcesare deployedkom + to
- alongthe sourceline parallel to the x-axis and receiversare deployed
kom + to - alongthe receiverline parallel to the z-axis. This geometry
resultsin vectorspointing to the dhed semicirclesin Figure 23.
Performingthe dot productbetweenequation(132) for the VSP configuration and the position vector r gives,

o(a + ).

(i

+ ).

(a + )

k x + k z

(k, + 7p)x+ (kp- 7,)z.

(133)

Note that equation(133) multipliedby -j is just the term in the exponential of the integrandin equation(131). Substitutingequation(133) into
equation(131) resultsin the equation,

x e-J(kx + kz)dxdz

M(, )

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76

CHAPTER

3.

SEISMIC

DIFFRACTION

TOMOGRAPHY

kp

ks

:Kx

Kz
(a)

(b)

FIG. 23. Wavenumber vector componentsfor the VSP configurationas de-

finedby equation(132). (a) The components


of a sourcewavenumber
vector
kogare shownas projectionsonto the k-axis and kz-axis;and likewise,(b)
the componentsof a receiverwavenumbervector koI3.

(134)

where37/(k,kz)isthe2-DFourier
transform
ofthemodelfunction
M(x, z)
takenoverthe imagearearestrictedto x < dr and z > d,. Notethat equation (a4) is the sameas equation(122) for the crosswell
configuration
exceptfor the directionsover which the doubleintegral Fourier transforms

of the data functionP(x,, z,; zr, zp) are taken.We requirethat the transforms be taken along the sourceand receiverprofiles,which for the VSP
configurationare differentfrom the crosswellconfiguration.
Equation(134) is the generalizedprojectionslicetheoremfor the VSP

configuration.
It statesthat P,(k,,d,;dp,kr), thedoubleintegralFourier
transformof the data function, taken along the sourceline and the receiver

line, is equal to M[ko(, + 15)],the 2-D Fouriertransformof the model


function, evaluatedalong the semicircularslicemultiplied by the quantity
-Y

%%

'

Figure 24(a) showssourcesand receiversdeployedfrom +oo to -oo


alongtheir respectiveprofilesfor the VSP configuration.Figure24(b) is
a representationof the model coverageprovidedby the VSP configuration

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3.3.

GENERALIZED

PROJECTION

SLICE

THEOREM

77

Kz
^

source

locus of ko 8

o receiver

locusof/ ( + I)

(a)

(b)

FIG. 24. (a) Sourcesand receiversare extendedfrom +cx>to -cx> along


their respectiveprofiles.(b) The dashedcircleis the terminusof the vector
ko for the sourcesin (a). The solidcirclesare the resultingvectorsum

ko(+/3). Themodelfunction
iff(k,k,) is welldefined
withinthezone
of solidline coverageusingthe generalizedprojectionslicetheoremfor the
VSP configuration
definedby equation(134).

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78

CHAPTER

3.

SEISMIC

DIFFRACTION

TOMOGRAPIIY

.X

source

o receiver

FIG. 25. Source-receivergeometry for the surfacereflection experiment,


where in the marine data acquisition case the depths are measured from
sea level.

We restrict

our reconstruction

of the model function

for the

geometryshownhere to z dp.

wherethe model reconstructiondefinedby equation(134) is restrictedto

pointsx dpandz d,. The rangeof all possible


ko is depictedby the
dashedline in Figure24(b). We useequation(134) to computethe model

function]l[ko(+ )] alongthe solidslicesin the k - kz plane.Note


that theVSPconfiguration
provides
a different
coverage
of ]17f(kx,
kz) than
the crosswellconfigurationin Figure 21. Thus, we shouldexpect different
estimatedmodel functionsM(x, z) from each configurationeven though
the true model is the same. As with the crosswellconfiguration, resolution

varieswith directionand the resultingmodel is nonunique.

3.3.3

Surface Reflection Configuration

The last source-receivergeometry we will derive the generalizedprojection slicetheoremfor is the surfacereflectionconfigurationin Figure 25.

The sources
(soliddots)aredeployed
alonga lineparallelto the x-axisat a
constantverticallocationz - d. Similarly,the receivers(open dots) are
deployedalong a line parallel to the x-axis at a constantvertical location

zp= dp. Thus,the positionvectorsfor the sourcelocationr andreceiver


locationrp canbe writtenin termsof theirrespective
coordinates
(xs,ds)
and(xp,dp).Weshallrestrictthedomainof themodelto depthsbelowthe
deeperof the two, d or dp. As with the previoustwo configurations,
the
derivationheregeneratesa similar form for the generalizedprojectionslice
theorem, but with its applicationbasedon the surfacereflectiongeometry.

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3.3.

GENERALIZED

PROJECTION

79

SLICE THEOREM

We beginby substitutingthe surfacereflectioncoordinates


for the positionvectorsr andrr intoequation(101)whichgives

zI

4, I

z)aaz.

We assume
a 2-D mediumandchoose
equation(62) to represent
theGreen's
functionsfor the infinite-lineacousticsources,infinite line diffractors,and
the infinite line receivers.Thus, all acousticwaveswill be cylindrical.

The Green'sfunctionG(x,z I x, d) for the sourceis the sameas the


VSP'sGreen'sfunctiondefinedin equation(124) sinceboth configurations
have the same sourcegeometry.Thus,

J/5 1eJ[k(xx)+?(zd)ldk,
(136)
for z > d,. The wavenumber
component
k is takenalongthe sourceprofile
which is in the direction of the x-axis. The wavenumber component 7 is

alongthez-axisandis defined
7 - V/ko
2 - k2.
Sincethe receivergeometryis similarto the sourcegeometryweusethe
same form of the Green's function as for the sourcesgiving

3__'/5
1eJ[k9.(x
r_x)-72(d
r- Z)]dk
2(137)
wherek2 is the wavenumbercomponentparallelto the receiverline and 72

is alongthe z-axis,where72 - V/ko


-k. Notethat -?2(dr - z) is used
sincewe removedthe absolutevalue in the plane wave decompositionof
the Hankel functionfor z > dr.

Proceeding
with the derivation,
wewritedownthe equation
for taking
theFouriertransform
ofthedatafunction
P(x, d;xr, dr) in equation
(135)
alongthe sourceline(x) andreceiver
line(xr). The relationship
is found
by first takingthe Fouriertransform
of P(x, d;xr, dr) with respectto xs,
followed
by a second
Fouriertransformwith respectto xr whichproduces
the doubleintegral Fourier transform,
P(zo,d;zr,

x e-Jzkoe-Jxrkrdxdxr,

(138)

wherek, andkr arethewavenumbers


of theFouriertransforms
alongthe
sourceline and the receiverline, respectively.As with previousconfigurations,k is in the samedirectionas k, and k2 is in the samedirectionas
kr

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CItAPTER

8O

3.

SEISMIC

DIFFRACTION

TOMOGRAPttY

Next, we substituteequation(135) into equation(138), giving

P(k,,d,;kp,dr) -

-k

M(x,z)

(139)

(, I ., a.)-j''

6(:,,,4, [ :,z)-j'"

where we have changedthe order of integration.


Next, we substitutethe Green'sfunctionsdefinedby equations(136)

and (137) into equation(139), regrouptermswith similarintegrationvariables, and interchangethe order of integration for the two innermostintegralsovereachGreen'sfunction,yieldingthe equation,

15(k
'' d,;kr,
dr) = ko
1
4 (2r)'
x

M(z' z)

(140)

{f_1'It"
+''('
- ')1
j'_"-'('+t')' }
--

--

sdzsdk

e-j(kr - k=)zPdzrdk=
dzdz.

The integralsin equation(140), with respectto the variablesx, and


are easily evaluated in terms of Dirac delta functions as

e-j(k
+k,)Z,dx
' 27rS(k+ k,),

(141)

j e-j(kp
- k:)%, 2rS(k,- k2).

(142)

and

Substitutingequations(141) and (142)into equation(140) andevaluating


the integralswith respectto the variablesk and k= (rememberingthat
7 - ko
-k and7 - ko
-k) gives,

ko
ej(-%dp
- -/,d,)oo
M(x,
z)
4
7,%
oo oo
(143)

where7, and 7p are perpendicular


to k, and kp.

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3.3.

GENERALIZED

PROJECTION

SLICE

THEOREM

ts':-Kx

81

tp Kx

:z

(a)

(b)

FIG. 26. Wavenumber vector componentsfor the surfacereflectionconfigu-

rationasdefinedby equation(144). The dashedsemicircles


arethe termini
of the wavenumber vectorsfor sourcesand receiverspositionedfrom -oo to

+cxalongthe x-axis. (a) The components


of a sourcewavenumber
vector
kogare shownas projectionsontothe kx-axisand kz-axis;and likewise,(b)
the componentsof a receiver wavenumber vector koP.

As we saw for the earlier configurations,the exponential terms in the

integrandof equation(143) may be rewritten as the dot productof the


vector sum,

o( + )

(-
- 7.) + (. - 7..)
(0 - 0.) + ( - .)

=
=

(o + ) + (--r --r)
kx + kz,

(144)

with the positionvectorr pointingto (x,z). The unit vector.qpointsin


the oppositedirectionof a planewavetravelingfrom a sourceto (x, z) and
the unit vector f) points in the directionof a plane wavepropagatingfrom
(x, z) to a receiver.The components
of koand ko)are showngraphically
in Figures26(a) and 26(b), respectively.Sourcesare deployedfrom +oo to
-c along the sourceline parallel to the x-axis and receiversare deployed
from +c to -oo along the receiverline also parallel to the x-axis. This
geometryresultsin vectorspointing to the dashedsemicirclesin Figure 26.
Performingthe dot product betweenequation(144) and the position
vector r gives,

o( + 0).,,

+ ,)-(

+ z)

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82

CHAPTER

3.

SEISMIC

DIFFRACTION

TOMOGRAPttY

kz + kzz

(k, + kr)z + (-7, -7r) z.

(145)

Notethat equation(145) multipliedby -j isjust the term in the exponential of the integrandin equation(143). Substitutingequation(145) into
equation(143) resultsin the equation,

_ ko
ej(-7rdr
- %d,)oo
M(x,
z)
4
%%0
oo
x e-J(kx + kz)dxdz
=

_
4

-4

- %d,)_

j(-dp - )

U[ko( + )],

(146)

where
217/(k,
k.) isthe2-DFourier
transform
ofthemodel
function
M(x, z)
takenoverthe imagearearestrictedto the greaterof z > d, or z >dp.
Equation(146) is the generalized
projectionslicetheoremfor the surface

reflection
configuration.
It states
that['(k,,d;kr,dp),thedouble
integral
Fourier transform of the data function, taken along the source line and

the receiver
line,is equalto 20[ko(S
+ iO)l,the 2-D Fouriertransform
of
the model function, evaluatedalong the semicircularslicemultiplied by the

quantity
--eJ(-7pdp
%%0- 7sds)
'
Figure 27(a)shows sourcesand receiversdeployedfrom
alongtheir respectiveprofilesfor the surfacereflectionconfiguration.The
rangeof all possibleko is depictedby the dashedline in Figure 27(b).
We useequation(14{5)to computeM[ko(g+ )] alongthe solidslicesin
the k: - kz plane. The surfacereflectionconfigurationprovidesa different
coverage
of M(kz, k,) than the crosswell
and VSP configurations
andtherefore we shouldexpect differentestimatedmodelsfrom each configuration.
Once again,each configurationprovidesa differentresolutionand degreeof
nonuniqueness
dependingupon how the configuration"fills-in" the model
spectrum and how much of the model spectrum the configurationleaves
undefined.

3.4

Acoustic Diffraction Tomography

The generalizedprojection slice theorem was derived in the previous


sectionfor the crosswell,VSP, and surfacereflection configurationswhich

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3.4.

ACOUSTIC

DIFFRACTION

TOMOGRAPttY

83

source

receiver

........

locus of/ o s

locus of/ o (s + p)

(a)

(b)

FG. 27. (a) Sourcesand receiversat the samedepth are extendedfrom


+c to -c in the directionof the x-axis. (b) The dashedcircle is the
terminusof the vectorkofor the sourcesin (a). The solidcirclesare the

resulting
vector
samko(g+I5).
Themodel
function
A7/(kx,
k,) iswelldefined
within the zoneof solid line coverageon the -k half plane.

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CHAPTER

$4

3.

SEISMIC

DIFFRACTION

TOMOGRAPtIY

correspond
to equations(122), (134), and (146), respectively.Foreachconfigurationthe theoremestablishesa relationshipbetweenthe doubleFourier
transformof the data functions takenalongthe sourceand receiverprofiles
and the 2-D spatial Fourier transform of the model function. Further analysisof the generalizedprojection slicetheorem showsthat each sourcelocation definesthe model function along a circular arc in the ks - k domain,
as depicted in Figures 21, 24, and 25 for each source-receiverconfiguration.
To obtain the model function M(x, z) we must take the inverseFourier

transform
of./[ko(+)] whichisnotreadilycarried-out
sinceAY/[ko(+)]
is defined by circular arcs. Thus, in this section we develop two image reconstructionalgorithmsto handle this problem called the direct-transform
diffraction tomography and the backpropagationdiffraction tomography.

Thedirecttransform
methodinvolves
estimating
thevalues
of [ko(,+ P)]
on the k- k coordinate plane, which is analogousto the direct-transform
ray tomography method presentedin Section 2.2.2. On the other hand,
the backpropagationmethod takes a more elegant mathematical approach
to achieve the same result. The backpropagation method presented here is
analogousto the backprojection ray tomography presentedin Section2.2.3.

3.4.1

Direct-Transform

Diffraction Tomography

The generalized projection slice theorem enables us to compute the


2-D Fouriertransformof the model function M[ko( + )] from stteea
wavefielddata. Therefore,the unknownmodel functionM(, z) can be ob-

tainedaslongaswecanperform
aninverse
Fourier
transform
onAYl[ko(
+
)]. However,most inverseFourier transformalgorithmsuse Cartesian
coordinates
which meansthey can handle the inverseFourier transform

from?lf(k,k)
to M(z,z), butnotfrom?lf[ko(
+ )j to M(z,z). Figure 28 illustratesthe differencebetweenthe loci of M[ko( + )l (solid

dot)nd thelociof (k,, k) (opendot)for a crosswell


configuration.
Clearlythe lociof the tworepresentations
of AY/do not coincide
andwe
cannot directly make use of the inverseFourier transform.

An obvious,brute forcesolutionis to estimatevaluesof M(k, k) on a

rectangular
kz - k gridfromvalues
of AY/[(
+ )] obtained
alongcircular
arcs using the generalizedprojection slice theorem. As mentionedin Section 2.2.2, one must exercise caution in performing an interpolation since
the operation may introduce error which can obscure the true solution.
However, once the values of M are found on a k - k rectangular grid,

we can find the unknownmodel function M(x, z) through a 2-D inverse


sKeep in mind that in diffraction tomographythe data functionconsistsof measured
projections of scattered energy.

Namely, (x,z) in the spacedomainand (k, k,) in the wavenumberdomain.

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3.4. ACOUSTIC DIFFRACTION TOMOGRAPHY

85

K,x
o

0 Iocu of (k,, k.) grid

FIG. 28. The generalizedprojectionslicetheoremdefinesthe modelfunc-

tionM(k,,kz) at thesoliddotsalongcircular
arcsin theks- kzplane.To
gettheestimated
modelfunctionM(x, z) the2-D inverse
Fouriertransform

mustbe takenof M(kr,k,) defined


at points(opendots)on a Cartesian
grid. Direct-transform
diffraction
tomography
definesthe opendotsfrom
the solid dots by interpolation.

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86

CHAPTER

3.

SEISMIC

DIFFRACTION

TOMOGRAPttY

Fourier transform. This is called direct-transform diffraction tomography


and can be summarized in five steps'
Step 1: Acquire tomography data by probing the target with
acoustic waves and record the scattered

wavefield

informa-

tion fromthe target, represented


by the data functionP(x, z).
Step 2: Take the double Fourier transform of the data function

P(x, z) along the sourceand receiverlines, which can be


representedby

,of_,o

't,+

'

(147)

Here is and ir are the distancesalongthe sourceand receiver lines, respectively. Equation (147) correspondsto
equation(107) for the crosswellconfigurationwhen is - zs
and ir = zr; to equation(126)for the VSP configuration
when I -- x and ir = zr; and to equation(138) for the
surfacereflectionconfiguration
whenl = x and lr - xr.
Step 3: Compute the 2-D Fourier transform of the unknown

modelfunction
A7l[ko(k
4-)] alongcircular
arcsusingthe
generalizedprojection slicetheorem,

lll[ko( -t-)] = 47o%,


pdp4-'y,d,)5(k,, kp).
k
e- j (:l:'y

(148)

Equation(148) corresponds
to equation(122) for the crosswellconfiguration,
equation(134) for the VSP configuration,
and equation(146) for the surfacereflectionconfiguration.
Step 4: Perform a 2-D interpolation on the values of M from

thegeneralized
projection
slicetheorem
to determine
AT/on
the rectangular k,-

kz grid,
(149)

Step 5: Take the 2-D inverseFouriertransformof M(k,kz)


to obtain M (x, z),

M(zz)= I

"

1171(k
k,)e
j(kz+k'Z)dkdk,
(150)

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3.4.

ACOUSTIC

3.4.2

DIFFRACTION

TOMOGRAPttY

87

Backpropagation Diffraction Tomography

We saw that direct-transformdiffractiontomographyestimatedvalues

ofthemodelfunction
[ko( + ))] ona rectangular
k, - k, gridenabling
usto taketh inverse
2-D Fouriertransform
of to getthe estimated
modelfunctionM(x, z). The interpolationsteprequiredis computationally
slow and the possibilityof introducingerrors into the interpolatedmodel
function is very real. In this section we introduce the more mathemat-

ically elegant method of backpropagationdiffraction tomography. With


this methodthe requiredcoordinatetransformationfrom M[ko( + )] definedon semicircles
to M(kx, k,) definedon a rectangulargrid is performed
while taking the 2-D inverseFourier transform thereby obviatingthe need
for interpolation.

The derivation begins with the 2-D inverseFourier transform of the


modelfunctionM(k, k) givenby

1 (k,k,)eJ(kz
+k,Z)dkdk,
M(x,z) = 4
. (151)
Since[ko( + )] is defined
in termsof thewavenumbers
(k, k), wewill
performa changeof variablesfrom (k, k,) to (k, kr) on the right-hand
sideof equation(151). This will permit us to directlytake the 2-D inverse

Fouriertransform
of the modelfunction[ko( + )] withouthavingto
perform an interpolation required by the direct-transform diffraction
tomography.Equation(151) in the form for this changeof variablesis

M(x
z) = 421
'
x I

[ko(
+)]eJ[k(k,
kr)z
+k,(ks,
kr)z
]
I

(152)

where[ko(i + )] is themodelfunction
fromthegeneralized
projection
slicetheorem,k(k,,kr) and k,(k,,kr) are the wavenumbers
expressed
in
termsof the variables(k, kr) , and J(kr, k, [ k, kr) is the JacobJan
relating dk,dkr with dkdk,. The JacobJan
can be expressed
in termsof the
determinant,

J(k
k,]k,,kr)
'
Ok:Ok,

OkOk:

= Ok:
Ok
r Ok
r Ok,'

(153)

The form of equation(152) is far we can go without selectinga particular source-receiver


configuration.In the followingderivationswe shall

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88

CHAPTER

3. SEISMIC DIFFRACTION

TOMOGRAPttY

complete
thechange
of variables
for thethreesource-receiver
configurations
presented
in the previous
section.The resultingequationfor eachconfiguration is in a form which permits use of a 2-D inverseFourier transform

algorithmandthe resultis backpropagation


diffraction
tomography.
Crosswell
Configuration.--The
modelfunctionfor the crosswell
configurationisdefined
bythegeneralized
projection
slicetheoremin equation
(122)
which may be rewritten as

.l17f[ko(
+f))]= 4%7r
r - %d)P(d
ko
e-j(%,d
,k;dr,kr)
. (154)
From equation (119) we see that the coordinatesystem transformation

between(k, kz) and (ks,kr)is givenby

Substituting
this coordinate
systemtransformation
into equation(153)
givesthe Jacobianfor the crosswellconfiguration,

J(k,kz
Ik,,kr)= k,%,+k,%.

(156)

Substituting
equations
(154),(155),and(156)intoequation(152)gives,

M(z
1/'/_
,z)= 4.2
'4%7r
-oe-j(7rdr_%d)
-

x [ks
7r+krYs
[dks
dkp,
and rearrangingtermsgivesthe equationfor backpropagation
diffraction
tomographyfor the crosswellconfiguration,

(157)

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3.4.

ACOUSTIC

DIFFRACTION

TOMOGRAPttY

89

VSP Configuration.-- The model function for the vertical seismicprofile


configurationis definedby the generalizedprojectionslicetheoremin equation (134) which may be rewritten as

[o(+)] = 4,0,
ko
e_j(, _,,,)p(,, ; ,) . (S8)
From equation (133) we see that the coordinatesystem transformation

between(k, k) and (k, kv)is givenby

k(k,, k) =

k, + 7

= +-,na
= kv- k- k.

(159)

Substitutingthis coordinatesystemtransformationinto equation(153)


givesthe Jacobianfor the VSP configuration,

Substitutingequations(158), (159) and (160)into equation(152) gives,

M(x,
z) = 4 e
x [kk
v+%7v
]dkdkv,
and rearrangingterms gives the equationfor backpropagationdiffraction
tomographyfor the VSP configuration,

M(,) =

'

x eJ[(k,
+ 7v)x
+ (kv- 7,)z]ak,
akv.

(161)

Surface Reflection Configuration.-- The model function for the surface


fiection configurationis definedby the generalizedprojection slice theorem
in equation(146) whichmay be rewritten

[ko(
+P)] = 477
e-J(-7d
- 7d)p(k
d,'k,dp).
(162)

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CHAPTER

9O

3.

SEISMIC

DIFFRACTION

TOMOGRAPHY

From equation (144) we see that the coordinatesystem transformation


between(k, kz) and (ks,kp) is givenby

--

ks+ kr, and

-%

- 7r

(163)
Substitutingthis coordinatesystem transformationinto equation (153)
givesthe JacobJanfor the surfacereflectionconfiguration,

s(, I k,) = kr'


- k'r.

(164)

Substitutingequations(162), (163) and (164)into equation(152) gives,

and upon rearrangingterms we get the equationfor performingbackpropagationdiffractiontomographyfor a surfacereflectionconfiguration,

1f_/:I'r,-/,'
Ip(/
)
(165)
x eJ[(ks
+ kp)x
+ (-% - 7p)Z]dk,dk,
'

Equations(157), (161), and (165) are usedin backpropagation


diffraction tomographyimage reconstructionalgorithmsfor the crosswell,VSP,
and surfacereflectionconfigurations,respectively.

3.5

Summary

1. The model used for acousticwave scattering was the Helmholtz form
of the acousticwaveequationfor a constant-densitymedium of vari-

able velocityC(r) givenby

IV + :=(.)],(.) -

o,

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3.5.

SUMMARY

91

where Pt represents the total wavefield which contains both the incident wavefield from the source and scattered

wavefields from inho-

mogeneitiesembeddedin a constant-velocitybackgroundmedium.
2. We treat the inhomogeneitiesas secondary sourcesand write the
acousticwaveequation as the inhomogeneous
differentialwaveequation,

IV +

where ko is the constant wavenumbermagnitude of the background

mediumand M(r) is the modelfunctionfor diffractiontomography


defined as a perturbation from the constant backgroundvelocity Co
given by,

We found two integral equation solutions to our formulation of the


acousticwave scattering problem. The first was found by letting the

total wavefieldPt(r) be the sum of the incidentwavefieldPi(r) and


scatteredwavefieldP,(r). We formulateda Green'sfunctionintegral
solution to the inhomogeneousdifferential wave equation in terms
of the scattered wavefield P, resulting in the nonlinear LippmannSchwingerequation. We linearizedthe Lippmann-Schwingerequation

by assumingthe Born Approximation(i.e., P(r) << Pi(r)) resulting


in a linearrelationshipbetweenthe data functionPs(r) and the model
functionM (r),

I r')dr',

whereP.(r.,rp) becomesthe data functionobservedat positionrp


when the negative impulse sourceis located at position r.

The

Green'sfunctionsare definedby eitherequation(62) or (63).


4. The secondintegral equation solution was found by representingthe

totalwavefield
Pt(r)bytheexponential
equation
eqSt(r),
where
the
complextotal phasefunctionqbt(r)was set equal to the sum of the
complexincidentphasefunctionq5i(r)and the complexphasedifference function qba(r). After lengthymanipulationsof thesephases,
formulating a Green's function solution to the resulting inhomoge-

neouswaveequationwhichoperatedon the quantity Pi(r)c)a(r), and

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92

CHAPTER

3. SEISMIC DIFFRACTION

TOMOGRAPttY

applyingthe Rytov approximation


(i.e., Vdd(r) << 1), we found,

P(r,,r)a(r,,r)
-ko
/M(r')G(r'
Ir,)G(r
Ir')dr'.
Herethe data functionis P(r,, r)qba(r,,r), insteadof P,(r), which
is linearlyrelated to the modelfunctionM(r).
5. The Born approximation is valid for weak scatterers of limited size
while the Rytov approximation requires only a smooth model function.

6. Letting P(r,,r) representthe data functionfor either the Born or


Rytov approximationintegralsolutions,we simplifiedthe integral
equationsolutionsto the generalizedprojection slicetheoremfor three
sourcereceiverconfigurations.The generalizedprojection slice the
rem for the crosswellconfigurationis

P(d,
k,dp,
kp)= --k
eJ(%dp7,d,)_
' '
4
Thisequationestablishes
a relationship
betweenP(d, k;d, kp),the
doubleintegralFouriertransformof the data functionalongthesource
andreceiverprofilesin the crosswell
configuration,
and M[ko( + )],
the 2-D Fouriertransformof the modelfunctionalongcurvesin the
k - k, plane. The curvesare definedby the sum of the vector ko

whichpointsfrom the point (, z) in the modelto the sourceandthe


terminusof the vectorko whichpointsfrom (, z) to eachreceiver.
7. The generalizedprojectionslicetheoremfoundfor the VSP configuration

is

'

'

-4

8. The generalizedproection slice theorem found for the surMce reflection configuration is

P(k,
d,'kp,
dp)= k
eJ(-7p
- 7,d,)[ko(g
+)1.

4
7s7p
9. Thecoverage
of (kz, kz)in thekz- kzplaneisdependent
uponthe
sourcereceiverconfigurationand alwaysincompleteto somedegree.
This resultsin a nonuniquelyestimatedmodel M(x, z) that h inherentlypoor resolutionin directionssociated with the incomplete
coveragein the kz - k, plane.

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3.6.

SUGGESTIONS

FOR FURTHER

READING

93

10. In Section3.4 the generalized


projectionslicetheoremcouldnot be
directlyappliedto estimatingM(z,z). This occursbecausethe 2D Fourier transformrequiresdata points on a rectangulargrid in the
kx- k; plane and the generalizedprojectionslice theorem defines
the data points on semicircles.The direct-transformdiffraction tomographyjust performsan interpolationto solvethe grid differences,
or

before taking the inverse2-D Fourier transform to get the image

M(x, z). However,the potentialfor interpolationerrorshowingup in


M(x, z) is very real.
11. The backpropagationdiffractiontomographymethod accomplishes
thesameresultasthedirect-transform
methodby replacingthe (kx, k,)

variablesin the 2-D inverseFouriertransformby (k0,kr), the variablesusedin the generalizedprojectionslice theorem. The resulting
coordinatetransformationis dependentupon the source-receiverge-

ometry,but wecanfind M(z, z) directlythrougha 2-D inverseFourier


transform without the need for interpolation.

3.6

Suggestions for Further Reading


Devaney,A. J., 1984,Geophysicaldiffractiontomography:IEEE
trans., ClE-22, 3-13. First proposalof seismicdiffractiontomography.

Esmersoy,
C., Oristaglio,M. L., and Levy, B.C., 1985,MultidimensionalBorn velocityinversion'singlewidebandpoint
source: J. Acoust. Soc. Am., 78, 1052-1057. Reformulares the Born inversion problem so that the data function
becomes
the field extrapolatedthroughthe wave equation.A
variable backgroundvelocity is permitted.

Morse, P.M., and Feshbach,H., 1953, Methods of theoretical


physics:McGraw-Hill. We just throw equation(10), the
plane-wave decompositionof a cylindrical wave, right at you
withoutproof. Section 7.2 of this referencederivesthe equation in detail with the resultingequationfound on page 83.

zbeck,A., and Levy,B.C., 1991,Simultaneous


linearized
inversion of velocity and density profiles for multidimensional acoustic media: J. Acoust. Soc. Am., 89, 1737-1748.

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94

CHAPTER

3.

SEISMIC

DIFFRACTION

TOMOGRAPIIY

This paper includesthe formulation for simultaneouslyreconstructing both the velocity and density using the Born
approximation.
Pratt, R. G., and Worthington, M. H., 1990, Inversetheory applied to multi-source cross-holetomography. Part 1: Acoustic wave-equation method' Geophys. Prosp., 38, 287-310.
We have presenteddiffraction tomographyin terms of a homogeneousbackgroundmedium with velocityCo. This paper
presentsa nonlinear inversiontechniquein the frequencyspacedomain which essentiallypermits inhomogeneous
acoustic backgroundmedia. A companionpaper treats the same
subjectwith respectto elastic media.
Rajan, S. D., and Frisk, G. V., 1989, A comparisonbetweenthe
Born and Rytov approximationsfor the inversebackscattering problem: Geophysics,54, 864-871. Includes numerical
comparisonsof the two approximations.

Wu, R. S., and ToksSz,M. N., 1987, Diffraction tomographyand


multi-sourceholography applied to seismic imaging: Geophysics, 52, 11-25. Modified Devaney's plane wave seismic diffractiontomographyusingline sourcesandformulated
the backpropagationreconstructionalgorithmsfor crosswell,
VSP, and surface seismic geometries.

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Chapter

Case
4.1

St udies

Introduction

The purposeof this chapter is two-fold. First, through casestudies,we


illustrate the proceduresfor implementingthe theory presentedin Chapters 2 and 3. Second,the casestudieshighlight some of the benefits of
using seismictomographyin the oil industry.
The first two casestudiesutilize crosswellseismicdata in conjunction

with the simultaneous


iterativereconstruction
technique(SIPT)presented
in Chapter 2 on seismicray tomography. The first casestudy addresses
the production problem of monitoring the progressof a steam-floodenhancedoil recovery(EOR) program.The secondcasestudy involvesmore
of a developmentproblemin which the structural interpretationof a faultcontrolledreservoirmust be better understoodfor in-fill drilling. The third
casestudy usesthe seismicdiffractiontomographypresentedin Chapter 3
to image two salt sills using marine surface seismicdata. We selected this
problemto illustratethe seismicdiffractiontomographymethodologyand
limitations rather than to solvean exploration problem.
4.2

Steam-Flood

EOR Operation

Somereservoirsencounteredby the oil industry containpetroleumresemblinga heavy,tar-like substancerather than a low-viscosity


fluid. To
produce such reservoirs,steam is injected into the reservoirwith the intent of heating-upthe petroleummaking it lessviscousso that it may
flow. A steam-floodenhancedoil recovery(EOR) operationis expensive
and may be adverselyaffectedby reservoirinhomogeneities
whichchannel
95

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96

CHAPTER

4.

CASE

STUDIES

steam away from parts of the reservoirthe production engineerwishesto


heat. This casestudy demonstrateshow crosswellseismicray tomography
can identify reservoirinhomogeneitiesbefore initiating steam flooding and
monitor the EOR operation during steam injection.
The Potter B1 tar-sand reservoir in the Midway Sunset Field, California,
producesheavy oil using steam-flood EOR operations. We conductedtwo
crosswellseismicexperimentsat a steam injection site in the Midway Sunset
Field with the intent of aiding decisionmaking by the productionengineers
on the steam-flood EOR operation. A presteam injection crosswellseismic
survey was run to tomographically image reservoir inhomogeneitieswhich

might affect the operation and to provide a "base-line"P-wave velocity


tomogram for comparisonwith a later poststeam injection P-wave tomogram. The P-wave velocity in this tar-sand reservoirdrops dramatically
when the reservoiris heated. Thus, a secondpoststeam injection crosswell

seismicsurveyprovidesa P-wavevelocity tomogramwhich readily identifies the heated parts of the reservoirwhen comparedwith the "base-line"
tomogram. The productionengineermay alter the chosensteam injection
program if steam by-passesparts of the reservoir.

4.2.1

Crosswell Seismic Data Acquisition

The data acquisitiongeometryis depictedby the cross-section


and map
view in Figure 29. The seismicsourcewas located in the temperature observation well T02 which is deviated 99 ft to the south. The production
well 183 served as the receiver well and is offset 283 ft from the TO2 well at

the surfaceand 184 ft at the TD of well TO2. The steam injector well is sit-

uateddowndipfrom the TO2-183 profile(dip directionis to the NNE) and


the steam is expected to travel updip where it will intersect the crosswell
profile.
Bolt TechnologyCorporation's downholeair gun shownin Figure 30 was
used as the seismicsourcein this experiment. The air gun has an 80 cubic
inch chamber and is pressurizedto 2000 psi above the ambient pressurein
the borehole. Geosource'sthree-componentgeophoneVSP tool was usedto
detect the seismicenergy. A DSS-10 systemrecordedthe seismicsignalsat
a sample interval of 0.5 ms with a one secondrecord length. The downhole
air gun was fired at 40 depth stations from 1360 ft to 1750 ft at 10 ft
intervals, while the VSP tool was set at fixed station depths. The source
wasfired four timesat eachstation so that better signal-to-noiseratio could
be attained in the stackedsignal. The 40 sourcestationswere repeatedfor
each of the 40 receiverstations,which ranged from 1630 ft to 1240 ft at
10 ft intervals, giving a total of 1600 unique source-receiverpair locations.
The common-receiver
gather in Figure 31 was recordedby the vertical

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4.2.

STEAM-FLOOD

EOR

OPERATION

97

Midway Sunset Crosswell Experiment


Cross-section

TO2 183

283

- 0

ft

- 200

- 400
_ 600
- 800

Potter

1000

1200

Depth

A
B1

- 1400
-

1600

Antelope Shale -

1800

- 2000

<--

18411

Map View
TO2

99fti
TI

" 400
DIpIi

+ Steam
Injector
134R

18411"'-..
.

183

FIG. 29. Well configurationfor the Midway Sunset crosswellexperiment


shownin cross-sectionand map view. Solid circlesin the map view indicate
well surface locations. The air gun source was placed in the temperature
observationwell TO2 which is deviated 99 ft along the dashed line. A
three-componentVSP tool was located in the vertically drilled production
well 183. The dotted line indicates the profile defined by connectingthe

total depth (TD) positionsof the two wellswhich corresponds


to a 184 ft
horizontal

offset.

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98

CHAPTER4.

CASE STUDIES

FIG. 30. Bolt employeesare shownpreparing an 80 cubic inch air gun at


the TO2 well. The umbilical to the air gun containsa pressureline and a
wireline. Photo courtesy of Don Howlett, Texaco.

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4.2.

STEAM-FLOOD

EOR

OPERATION

99

component of the VSP tool fixed at a depth of 1500 ft while the source
moved through its 40 stations. The P-wave first arrivals are easily identified and have a dominant frequency of approximately 200 Hz. The large
amplitude event immediately followingthe P-wavefirst arrival is the S-wave
first arrival.

Time

zero occurs at 60 ms on the record which was monitored

by a pressuresensormountednear the air gun. The large amplitude events


trailing the S-wavearrival are from upward traveling tube waves.
Steam injection commenced shortly after completion of the presteam
injection crosswellseismicsurvey. The steam flood operation continuedfor
approximatelyone year beforewe ran the poststeaminjection crosswellseismic survey. The secondsurvey was acquired along the sameTO2-183 profile
with data acquisition parameters similar to the first survey. Tomographic
imageswere processedusingtraveltime ray tomographyfor both data sets
in an attempt to provide the productionengineerswith information on the
performance of the steam flood operation.
4.2.2

Traveltime

Parameter

Measurements

The crosswellseismicdata in this casestudy were processedusing the

simultaneousiterative reconstructiontechnique(SIRT) describedin Section 2.3.3. A three-step recipe was given in that sectionfor reconstructing
tomographicimages using SiRT. Here we explain how the traveltime parameters usedin the SIRT recipe were measured,first for a P-wave velocity
tomogram and then for an S-wavevelocity tomogram.
The traveltime parameters required by SIRT are the sourceand receiver
locations and measured traveltimes. The first step in determining source
and receiver locations is to run a borehole survey. At Midway Sunset we

usedGyroData'stool to obtainthe surfacelocations(x-y positions)for variousdepths(z-positions)in both the T02 and 183 wells. With the borehole
geometriesknownall that remainsis to providegoodmeasureddepthvalues
to the sourceand receiver. Depth gaugeson the vehiclesusedto deploy the
sourceand receiver in the boreholesprovided the measureddepth values in

this experiment. The starting positionof the sourcewas recalibratedeach


time a sourcepasswas completed. We havesinceattached collar locatorsto
the sourceand receiver to calibrate the measureddepth estimates. Gamma
ray loggingtools can be usedin place of collar locatorsto achievesimilar
calibrations.

The most critical and tediousstep of ray tomography processingis selecting the traveltimesfrom the observeddata. The observeddata, given

by p/obforthe ith source-receiver


pairin equation(46),shouldbeselected
from data preprocessed
for maximum signal-to-noiseratio. To provide this
optimum environmentfor pickingP-wave traveltimes,the Midway Sunset

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100

CHAPTER

4.

CASE

STUDIES

Common-Receiver Gather (1500 ft)


Source Depth (ft)
1400

P -Wave

1500

100-

1600

1700

$ -Wave

2ooI:

Time (ms)

Tube Wave

300
-

I I.

.i ii i

'

,
400 -

F(. 31. Common-receivergather for the VSP tool at a depth of 1500 ft.
The 40 traces correspondto the sourcestations.

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4.2.

STEAM-FLOOD

Source

EOR

OPERATION

Well

101

Receiver

Well

Low Velocity

High Velocity

Direct arrlval's ray path ....

Head wave's ray path


FIc. 32. This cartoon depicts the raypaths for a direct arrival with traveltime Td and a head wave with traveltime Th Td.

data required only a minimum-phasetrapezoidal bandpassfrequencyfilter


of 50-100-200-300

Hz.

Generally one selects first arrivals on crosswellseismic data when Pwave traveltimes are desired. That is, the first arrival catchesour eye as
being the first significant signal. However, in many casesthe first arrival
is not a direct arrival, but a head wave which travels along an interface as
shownby the solid raypath in Figure 32. The head-wavetraveltime pick
createsa problem when the forward modeling method used in step I of the
SIRT algorithm determinesonly direct arrival raypaths, such as the one

depictedin Figure 32. Obviously,a computedraypath giving the predicted

traveltimepre in equation(46) whichis not consistent


with the event's
observed
traveltimep/oh,will causewrongcellsin themodelto beupdated
at incorrect

velocities.

The remedy for this dilemma can take two avenues. The avenuewith the

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102

CHAPTER

4.

CASE

STUDIES

potholes is to stick with the ray tracing schemewhich models only direct
arrivals. Here we are forced into trying to identify when the first arrival
is a head wave and then, whether we should attempt to pick a later, more
noisy,event as the direct arrival or to make no traveltime pick at all. This
can be a very frustrating processwhen the subsurfaceis prone to many
head waves.

The secondavenueis to use a ray tracing schemewhich modelsthe first


arrival's raypath, whether it be a direct arrival or head wave. Some of
these schemesare referencedat the end of Chapter 2. A possibleproblem
with these schemesis that a raypath may be found which gives a first
arrival correspondingto an event with negligible amplitude. Thus, we end
up selecting the wrong observedtraveltime once again. Our experience
showsthat when head wavesare prevalent, this secondavenueseemsto be
the more successfulof the two and the least frustrating. However, for the
Midway Sunset data we ray traced for predicted direct-arrival traveltimes
since head waveswere not a problem.
The direct arrival versusfirst arrival problem is an important consideration in selectingmeasuredtraveltimes. However, another concernjust as
important is the radiation patterns of the source and receivers,sincethese
determinewhich polarity one shouldpick. The air gun is an explosive-type

sourcewith a positive(outwards)particle motion in the first half-cycleof


the signalwith greateststrengthdirectedhorizontallyas shownby the radiation pattern in Figure 33. For a constant velocity medium the rays
betweensourceand receiversare straight. Figure33 showsthe vertical(V)
and radial (R) geophonecomponents.For a positive particle motion the
vertical componentproducesa positivekick whenthe wavestrikesthe geophone from above, and the horizontal componentproducesa positive kick
as long as the wave is traveling radially outwards.
The vertical componentof the geophoneremains fixed along the borehole axis so that any changeof polarity in the signal can be attributed to
the up or down propagation of the P-wave. If the radial componentwere
indeedfixed at all receiverlevels,then the polarity would alwaysbe positive
except for under very extreme subsurfacegeologicconditions. However,the
two horizontalcomponentsin a VSP tool are not fixed and rotate randomly

throughoutthe survey.The goodnewsis that the P-wave'sfirst half-cycle


should always be positive on the radial component. Thus, we can numerically rotate the horizontal componentsso that we always have a positive
first kick on the radial component. The even better news is that with the
air gun sourcethe receiverremainsfixed over each sourcepass(common-

receivergather). This meanswe needto determinethe numericalrotation


only once per receiver level. For the Midway Sunset survey we only were
required to determine40 rotation anglesfor the entire survey! To summa-

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4.2. STEAM-FLOOD EOR OPERATION

103

Air gun Source/ Geophone Receiver


Source

Receiver V

P-Wave

FIG. 33. Thiscartoondepicts


theP-waveradiationpatternwitha positive
polarityduringthefirsthalf-cycle
of motion(explosive
source).
Thevertically(V) andradially(R) recorded
firsthalf-cycles
areshown
ontheright
asflagswith the expectedpolaritiesandsignalstrengths
represented.
The
verticalcomponent
changes
polaritywith receiverdepthwhilethe radial
component'spolarity remains positive.

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104

CHAPTER

4.

CASE STUDIES

rize Figure 33, we must keep in mind that the polarity will changeon the
vertical component, but not on the radial component. Thus, its best to
cross-reference
one componentwith the other during traveltimepicking.

The Bolt air gun alsoemitsan SV-wave(verticallypolarizedS-wave).


The radiation pattern for the SV-wave is shownin Figure 34 and resembles
a four-leaf clover. The particle motion polarities of the first half-cycleare
shownas small arrowsperpendicularto the raypaths. For the rays shown,
positive polarity correspondsto an arrow pointing in the counter-clockwise
direction and negative polarity correspondsto an arrow pointing in the
clockwisedirection. The resulting first half-cyclesof the S-wave are shown

as flagsfor the vertically (V) and radially (R) recordedsignals. Similar


to the P-wave, the $V-wave exhibits a phase reversal on the vertical com-

ponent as the receiverchangesdepth from above the sourceto below the


source. The radial component does not change polarity. Thus, we must
be cautiousin selectingtraveltimesfor the S-wavearrivals,making sureto
pick the correct polarity. Again, selectingthe correct polarity is best done
by viewingboth componentswhile traveltime picking.
The next step in obtainingquality traveltime picksis to insureconsistent

picksfor the selectedevent (direct arrival here) over the entire crosswell
data set. With surfaceseismicdata we tie the selectedevent around loops
definedby intersectingstrike and dip lines. An analogoustechniquemay

be applied to crosswelldata providedthat the same sourceand receiver


stations are used throughoutthe survey,or at least over large portionsof
the survey.

The Midway Sunsetdata acquisitionprogram calledfor common-receiver

gathersas depictedby the cross-section


in Figure 35(a). The sourcewas
movedthroughits set of fixedstationsasthe receiverremainedfixed. These
locationsplot on a vertical line at receiverdepth R4 in the source-receiver
depth plane on the right in Figure 35(a). Locationsof other commonreceivergathers are representedby vertical lines correspondingto other
fixed receiverstations. If we keep the same sourcestations for each receiver

(whichwe did), thenthe data canbe sortedinto common-source


gathersas
shownin Figure35(b). The source-receiver
depth locationsplot alonghorizontal lines for common-sourcegathers, such as the one at sourcedepth S3.

Finally, Figure 35(c) showsthat common-offset


gathersare alsopossible
where the offset is a depth differencebetween sourceand receiver.

Figure 36 indicateshowthe common-receiver


and common-source
gathers are used to tie time picks around loops. The sourcesand receivers
correspondingto straight rays within the box in the cross-section
on the
left definea squareloop in the source-receiverdepth plane on the right. We

beginwith the common-source


gather at station S2 and selecttraveltimes
from receiverstations R2 to R5. Next we take the common-receivergather

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4.2.

STEAM-FLOOD

EOR

OPERATION

105

Air gun Source ! Geophone Receiver


Source

Sl/-Wave

Receiver V

FIG. 34. This cartoon depicts the $V-wave radiation pattern with the upgoing $V-waves exhibiting a positive polarity on the first half-cycle while

the downgoing
SV-wavesexhibita negativepolarity.The vertically(V) and
radially (R) recordedfirst half-cyclesare shownon the right as flagswith
the expectedpolarities and signalstrengthsrepresented.The vertical component changespolarity with receiver depth while the radial component's
polarity remainsnegative. No S-wavesignalis receiveddirectly acrossfrom
the sourcesince the radiation pattern is zero horizontally.

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106

CHAPTER

Cross-section

4.

CASE STUDIES

Source/ ReceiverDepth Plane

SOURCE

RRCEIVER

WELL

WELL

Commor-Receiver

Receiver Deptl

RI
RI

R2 R.3 R4 RS R6

S1-

Gather

$2.
I
I

Depths $4,
I

$5,

R6

Cross-section
SOURCE

Source/ ReceiverDepth Plane


WELL

Common-Source

:'_'____:.
s4

' CC .. -.-

RI

Sl

R2

S2.

R.3

83

R4

85.

R6

86.

Source/ ReceiverDepth Plane


RECEIVER

WELL

(c)

Receiver Dept!

WELL

Gommon-Off

Gather

_-, R

S2

R2

S5

R.3

S4

R4

S6

Deptlm 84

R5

Cross-section
SOURCK

SI

RECEIVER

WELL

Sl

(b)

$6

SI-

Dept! S4-

R5

85-

R6

S6-

FIG. 35. Possiblecrosswellseismicgathersshownby raypath correlations

on the left andin the source-receiver


depthplaneon the right for: (a) receiver,(b)source,and (c) offsetgathers.

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4.2.

STEAM-FLOOD

EOR

OPERATION

107

Tying Data Using Source / Receiver Gathers


Cross-section

Source / Receiver Depth Plane

souac

Rccclvcr Dcptlu

WELL
S1

S2

RI

WELL

R2 R3 R4 R

R6

R1

.........

R2
!

S3

R3

S4

R4

S6

R6

S3
I

Depths

S6

I <-

FIo. 36. The sourcesand receivers within the range of the box of the
cross-sectionare used to tie traveltime picks around the loop shown in the
source-receiverdepth plane. Two sourcegathers and two receivergathers
are required to complete one loop.

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108

CHAPTER4.

CASE

STUDIES

at R5 and pick traveltimesoff of tracescorrespondingto sourcestationsS2


to S5. Then the common-sourcegather at S5 is used and time picks taken
from receiverstations R5 to R2. Finally, the loop is completedby picking
times for tracesS5 to S2 on the common-receivergather at R2. Sincethe S2
trace on common-receivergather R2 is the same trace R2 on common-source
gather S2, the traveltime picksmust be the same. If the picksappear to be
different, then a mispick must have been made somewherealong the loop
and should be rectified before you continue. All picks in the data set can
and should be tied in this manner to provide consistency. Generally, on
the first pass, loops are made as large as the data quality will allow with
in-fill loops checkedlater. Besidesproviding consistentpicks, this method
also lets one identify poor data regions in the source-receiverdepth plane
and to developstrategiesfor tying time picks around "not useable" data
regions.
Finally, a recommendedpractice is to plot the computed traveltimes
from the convergedimage reconstructionon the data recordswith the observedtraveltime picks. Since the image reconstructionis basedupon both
good and bad picks,many times the bad pickswill "stand out" when compared with the computed traveltimes; assumingmost of your traveltime
picks are good. Also, traveltime picksleft out of the inversionprocessbecauseof uncertainty are more clearly identified by the computed traveltimes
permitting you to add them to the inversionprocess.

4.2.3
With

Image Reconstruction
the P-wave

direct

arrival

traveltimes

selected and the associ-

ated source/receiverlocationsdetermined,we proceedby establishingthe

gridded
modelwhichrepresents
theinitialmodelfunction
Mj"it, where
j = 1,..., J and J is the total number of cells in the gridded model. We
chosesquare cells 5 ft on a side giving 42 cells horizontally and 84 cells

verticallyfor a total of J = 3528 cellsin the model.


Figure 37 showsthe initial estimate of the P-wave velocity profile between wells TO2 and 183. We chose a two-layer initial model since the
velocity contrast between the Potter B1 tar-sand and Antelope shale in

Figure 29 wassignificantand the averagelayer velocitiesand interfacedip


were known from well logs in the TO2 and 183 wells. The model in Fig1We originallystarted with 10 ft squarecellsbecausethe sourceand receiverspacings
were 10 ft. Five foot square cells worked just a.s well, but with more resolution. Lesser
size cells did not work well. Note that all of the tomograms shown in this section are

interpolated
to 1] ft square
cellsfordisplay.

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4.2.

STEAM-FLOOD

EOR OPERATION

Initial
TO2
200

109

Guess
183

Offset (ft)
150

100

50

Velocity
(fUs)

1400

..':..... 6650
...

..........6900
1450

.!::?:ii:ii::?:i!ii[
6970
'::;;:;:::::.::;
'::;:::*
7015
1500

-:::.>:+-'..::

:;? 7070

Depth
(ft)

i':J-'-"';::
7120

;/i=iii
7176

1550

.::::::::::'./.::.:

724O

7350

1600

7550
8100

1650

'['

FIG. 37. Two-layermodel usedas the initial estimatein the SIlT algorithm.

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11o

CHAPTER

4.

CASE STUDIES

ure37isthereciprocal
2 oftheinitialmodel
function
Mj'i' which
becomes
thefirstmodelestimate
Mf t in theSIRTalgorithm.
Step I of the SIRT algorithm is to perform ray tracing through the

estimated
modelMf stforeachsource-receiver
pairwithanobserved
traveltime,Pi's.As mentioned
earlier,we usea "Snell'sLaw" type of ray
tracing for this data set, which modelsonly direct arrivals. Thus, sincewe
selected1600 observedtraveltimes, we end up with 1600 predicted direct-

arrivaltraveltimesp,re,wherethe subscripti is theindexfor the ith sourcereceiverpair. Besidesgiving the predicteddirect-arrivaltraveltimes,the ray
tracing also providesthe raypath length through each cell as required by
equation(46) in step 2 of the SIRT algorithm. The raypath length for the

ith ray in the jth modelcell is represented


by the variable
Step 2 of the SIRT algorithmusesequation(46) to determinethe model

corrections
AM1 totheestimated
modelMf st.Thepredicted
direct-arrival
traveltimes
p,reandraypathlengths$ij fromstep1 alongwith the associatedobserved
traveltimesPi'sare usedto computeeachterm in the
summationin equation(46). The weightI/V1 for the jth cell is simplythe
number of rays which intersect the jth cell, frequently called the ray density. Ray densityis easily determinedduring ray tracing when computing
the raypathlength
Oncethe corrections
AM 1 for all J = 3528modelcellshavebeendetermined in step 2, we apply thosecorrectionsto the estimated model function

M[stinstep
3,giving
anew
estimated
model
function
MJnew)est.
However,

becauseof the nonlinearnature of seismicray tomographywe apply only a


fractionof the updategivenby equation(46), say60 percent. This prevents
instabilities and is most important during the first few iterations when the
correctionscan be quite large. The model updates are also smoothedwith
a small spatial filter before they are applied to help reduce instabilities.
These extra stepsare necessarybecausein seismicray tomographySIRT is
a linear inversion scheme used in an iterative

manner to solve a nonlinear

problem, as discussedin Chapter 2.


Steps I through 3 are repeatedusingthe previousiteration's new model

estimate
Mnw)tasthecurrent
estimated
model
Mfst.Thesteps
are

iterated until we are satisfiedthat the estimated model has convergedto


an acceptablesolution. Figures 38 through 42 show the estimated P-wave
models in terms of velocity for the 1st, 5th, 10th, 20th, and 44th iterations
of the SIRT algorithm, respectively.The first 10 iterations showthe development of large scalefeatures in the P-wave tomograrnssuch as the high

:ZRemember
that the SIRT algorithmusesslowness
for themodelfunctionMj instead
of velocityVj, wherefor the jth cell, the two are relatedby Mj = 1/Vj. We displayVj
because most people are more familiar looking at velocity rather than slowness.

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4.2.

STEAM-FLOOD

EOR

OPERATION

111

velocityfeature at 1475ft and low velocityfeature at 1550ft near the TO2


well. After 10 iterations,onlysmall-scale
adjustmentsaremadeto the large
features defined in the early iterations.
There is not a lot of difference between the 20th iteration

and the 44th

iteration P-wave tomograms. A natural questionto ask is, "When do we


stop the iterations?" One method used to answerthis questioninvolves
plotting traveltime residualsas a function of iteration, as shownin Figure 43 for the P-wave data.

We see that the traveltime

residual decreases

significantlyduring the first 10 iterations in which large-scalefeatureson


the P-wave tomogram are determined. After the 10th iteration the traveltime residual curve begins to toe-out as small-scalefeatures are added
to the large-scalefeatures. By the 44th iteration the traveltime residual
curvehad approachedthe horizontal,implying further iterationscould not
improvethe convergence
and the P-wavetomogramin Figure42 is the best
possibleestimate of the true velocity profile. This method assumesthat as
the computed traveltimes approachthe observedtraveltimes, the estimated
model approachesthe true model.
Observed

traveltimes

for shear wave direct arrivals were also selected.

However, because the S-waves are imbedded in other arrivals we could select

only 745 of the 1600possibleS-wavearrivals. Utilizing a similarprocedure


as for the P-wavetomogram,we constructedthe S-wavetomogramin Figure 44. The noisy appearanceof the S-wavetomogramis a direct result of
the small number of rays utilized by the SIRT method.
Approximately one year after the presteam injection crosswellseismic
experiment we ran a poststeam injection experiment to evaluate the successof the EOR steam flood program. We processedthe secondcrosswell

seismicdata set for a poststeaminjectionP-wavetomogramusingthe same


processingproceduresas for the presteaminjection P-wave tomogram in
Figure 42. Figure 45 comparesthe poststeaminjection tomogramwith the
presteaminjection tomogram, both sharingthe samevelocityscale. Heated
parts of the reservoir resulted in a reduced P-wave velocity as expected
based upon core study results.

4.2.4

Tomogram Interpretation

The presteam injection P-wave tomogram in Figure 42 is usedto delineate reservoirinhomogeneities.We made the lithology/porosityinterpretation shownin Figure 46 assuminga direct correlationbetweenthe P-wave
velocity and lithology/porositydeterminedfrom cores.The Potter A sand,
Potter B1 sand, and Antelope shale are delineated. The Potter B1 sand
is the reservoirin which steam was to be injected. Using core information
we interpreted the high and low velocity zones within the Potter B1 sand

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112

CHAPTER 4. CASESTUDIES

Iteration
TO2
200

1400

Offset (ft)
150

100

183
50

Velocity
(ft/s)
6650
.

1450

:':..... soo
............
'6970

::.:::
7015
1500

!-'-'...:i:
7070
.:.>:.:.-.'.-:::

Depth
(ft)

:[:-..:i
7120
1550

:....:......:.:
7176
.:::::::-...-:

7240
1600

7350

7550
8100
1650

FIG. 38. P-wavevelocitytomogramafter 1st iteration.

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4.2.

STEAM-FLOOD

EOR OPERATION

Iteration
TO2
200

113

5
183

Offset (ft)
150

100

50

Velocity
(fUs)

1400

:?:iiiiii::.':
6650
1450

:':':"!!
7015
1500

!:..._..
7070
!-"'i!=i
'i 7120

Depth
(ft)

7176

1550

7240
7350

1600

7550
8100
1650

FIC. 39. P-wave velocity tomogram after 5th iteration.

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114

CHAPTER4.

Iteration
TO2
200

1400

10

Offset (ft)
150

100

CASESTUDIES

183
50

Velocity
(fUs)

.i.:!i!i::::iiii::
6650

. :.....:.: :.:..

':............
'6900
1450

'.:::::::::::::::;:
.':::::::::::::.:
.........

'::..::::.':::::.:

:iiiiii?:?:?:ii?:ii
6970

1500

Depth

...........
7OlS
?//.7070
::.:;...
-. 7120

(ft)
1550

i!
':':
7176
7240

1600

7350
7550

8100

FIG. 40. P-wave velocity tomogram after 10th iteration.

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4.2.

STEAM-FLOOD

EOR OPERATION

Iteration
,i'O2
200
1400

115

20

Offset (ft)
150

100

183

5O

Velocity
(fus)
.::i:'!::!:...
6650
..::::::i::
.... 6900

1450
.........
.........

...................
6970
:.::::.'::::::::;:;:
.:.:.:.:.:.:..-.:.:

.................
7015
1500

:...:.:
7070
?::.: 7120

Depth
(ft)
1550

-:i::::::.-.''..-:-'::
724O

1600

7350

7550
8100
1650

FIG. 41. P-wave velocity tomogram after 20th iteration.

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116

CHAPTER

Iteration
TO2
2OO

44

Offset (ft)
150

lOO

4. CASE STUDIES

183
50

1400

Velocity
(fUs)

1450

'i:!:i:i:i:i:i:!:!:
:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:
..........

ii.! 7015

:: /::

1500

:-.;.:..'
7070

Depth

."-'."";
7120

(ft)

i!ii!':."i.?iL::::?,:.i!:!..
''

:i::::'::,
7176

..

7240
1600

735O

7550
8100
1650

FIG. 42. P-wave velocity tomogram after 44th iteration.

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4.2.

STEAM-FLOOD

EOR

OPERATION

117

Iteration

10

2O

3O

4O

Traveltime
Residual

(xl(
4 s2)

Traveltime

FIG.

Residual

43. Plot of traveltime

=i=
,i:iire
'Piobs
)

residuals as a function

of iteration

for P-wave

velocity tomograms. Traveltime residual is defined as the sum of the


squaresof all differencesbetweenpredicted and observedtraveltimes.

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118

CHAPTER

Iteration
TO2
200

1400

50

Offset (ft)
150

100

4. CASE STUDIES

183

50

Velocity
(fUs)
......

2634

:'.i-'!!:'

:':*"":
3041
1450

iiiiii!1111!111i
3113
1500

:' '3242
, .......

Depth
(ft)

i.11:...i::.
32
....:.:..-..-.:..-.

1550

3385
3508

3645
1600
3898

4300

1650

FIG. 44. S-wave tomogram processedin a similar fashion as the P-wave


tomogram in Figure 42.

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4.2.

STEAM-FLOOD

EOR

OPERATION

Presteam Injection Tomogram


Oeih TO2
(ft)

200

Offset (ft)
150

100

183
5)
i

119

Poststeam Injection Tomogram


Deih TO2

1400

::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::.:.:..'.::

-:i::i::?..-:..
.......!...,..:
...........
:.............

2o0
!

Off#t (ft)
so
!

oQ
I

183
so
i

1450 :::::::::::::::::::::::::
::::::::::::::::::::::!.:::!:::!::
:::.:.;,:.:.:.:..

1550 _

' .....

. :..

6293

i.:..'..i::!:!i!i!ii:i::..'
......"
i:i:::i:i:i". S705
1500 :i .".:?.!:!:i:i
..... .......... ::....... .:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.>;.:.6936

..]i.!ii:i:i:i:i:i:i:[3":'
_
1550
-.-.-,.-,.,.L...-.'-'.'-'.

::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::
:::::::::::::::::::::::,:
..::::::::::::::::::::::::::
:.::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::':".--.
:-:-:-:-:-:.:'
=============================================
'.:.:
?'::!:i:i:i:i:!:i:!:i:!:i:i:i:!:.
:.:-.!i::::::'
::!:::!:!:i::::':":"!":'"'
:":'::i:i:!:!:!.'.:.':

.i:;.:=.?.i.,..%...;:!:!;:!ii::.;..!...
' .... .....
04
:....,..,x.;:::::::,,:.:.::::.::::::..:
.

:.:..,?.,..
..........
..

1500

.::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::
=====================
Velocity

ix.!ii:i:!:i:i.. ".......:-:.:.:.:....
.....!:::i.i:i:i.i:i:i:!:!:i:i:.
::.`:!:i:!:!:!:;::i::::i:::;:i:!:;:!:i:i.!!:i::i:::::i::i:i:!:::;:i:i:i::
7200
:.:.',,.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.;.:.:.:.;...;.:.;.:.:.:.:.;.:.:.:...:.:
;.:.:.:.:.;.:.::.',-.:
':::.':.;:.:
::::.
=================================================
-1..:.:..:::::..-..
'":::
-:::,'-
..........
'.........
::.'.-.-'..:.:
......
:.,.,.:,:::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::
:2::::.:i:.,x.'

:-.:,-.:.
-:.-.-...:.:..............-.-.-.-.-.-.-.-.-.-.-.-.-.-.-.-.-.-.-.....-..S;
'.-.x.4::....
790I
!::..'i.';:.>-."-!'-::!:!:!:!:!:!:::
:':....... "::!:i:!:!:!:::i..x%.i:-.:..:!.

::::::::::::::::::::::::::
.....
:::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::
6000

F](. 45. 'he presLeeLm


injecLionP-weLve
LomogreLm
on LhelefL forms Lhe
baseline LomogreLm
for observingreservoir changesas eLresulLof sLeeLm
injecLion. The posLs[eeLm
injection P-wave [omogreLm
on the right Laken
one year leLterindirectly indiceLtes
a significeLnt
portion of the reservoirwas
healed. P-wave velociLin LheheeLv
oil reservoirrock is reducedwhen Lhe
reservoir

is healed.

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120

CHAPTER

4.

CASE STUDIES

Lithology/Porosity Interpretation
TO2
200
1400

Offset (ft)
150

100

183
50

Velocity
(rt/s)
6650
6900

1450

.....

::i.!:i:i:!.i:!:

1500

ii."a'.:i11
7070

Depth

(ft)

1550

'-':li..*.."
7120
.i!!
7176
7240
735O

lSOO

',i',i',i',i',iii',i?,
7sso
8100

1650

FIG. 46. Lithology/porosityinterpretationof the presteaminjection Pwave tomogram. The Potter A sand, Potter B1 sand, and Antelope shale
are shown. Core data showedthat high and low velocity zoneswithin the
Potter B1 sand correspondto low and high porosities,respectively.

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4.2.

STEAM-FLOOD

EOR

OPERATION

121

as low and high porosities, respectively. Thus, the reservoir is certainly


not homogeneousas far as porosity is concerned. At the top of the Potter B1 sand are high velocityclay stringers.The productionengineersrely
on these clay stringers to confinesteam to the Potter B1 sand. However,
the clay stringers do not appear continuous,and actually drop in velocity
towards the center of the tomogram indicating a possiblebreach through
which steam may flow acrossinto the Potter A sand. Thus, the production
engineer might anticipate some steam lossinto the Potter A sand.
We can also estimate a porosity tomogram of the Potter B1 tar sand
reservoirusing the P-wave velocity tomogram and Wyllie's time-average
equation in the form,

whereV! is the fluid velocity,V, is the matrix velocity,and V is the P-wave


tomogram velocity. The measuredaveragematrix velocity and pore-fluid
velocityfor the Potter B1 sandare Vm = 10000ft/s and VI = 4500 ft/s,
respectively.The P-wave tomogramin Figure 42 providesthe valuesfor V,
giving the porosity tomogram shownin Figure 47. This porosity tomogram
is valid only for the Potter B1 tar sand for which the averagevaluesof Vm

and V! weredetermined.The porosityvaluesfor the Potter B1 sandrange


from 33 percent to 44 percent accordingto the porosity tomogram. These
porosity valuesare higher than the porositiesdeterminedfrom coresamples
which have high values of 32 percent. This discrepancyimplies that the
Wyllie's time-average equation does not take into account all petrophysical
properties which affect the P-wave velocity, such as clay content. However,
we do believe that the relative porosity information for the Potter B1 sand
is meaningful. Such porosity information is helpful to engineerswho need
to model the production of a reservoir.
The secondobjective of the Midway Sunset field tomography project
was to monitor the EOR steam-injection project. To monitor the steam
flood progressin the Potter B1 reservoir using seismictomography, we
must know the effect of heated Potter B1 reservoirrock on seismicvelocity.
Coresfrom a well located 300 ft east of the 183 well provided Potter B1 sand
samplesfor which P-wave velocitiescould be measuredin the laboratory at
various temperatures. Figure 48 displays the laboratory measured P-wave
velocities for a Potter B1 sand core at temperatures of 25C, 55C, 90C,

and 125C, under confiningpressuresof 500 psi, 1000 psi, 1500 psi, and
2000 psi. Clearly, we will expect the P-wave velocity to decreaseas the
temperature of the reservoir increasesas a result of steam injection.
The core results provide us with the temperature-velocity relationship
required to interpret the presteam and poststeam injection tomograms in

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122

CHAPTER

4.

CASE STUDIES

Porosity Tomogram
TO2
200

Offset (ft)
150

100

183
50

Porosity
20

..:::.-:

1400

:..-:.:

25
30

1450

33
35
38
41

Depth
(ft)

45

1550

.,.

1600

1650

FIG. 47. Porosity tomogram determined from the P-wave velocity totoogram in Figure 42 and Wyllie's time-average equation. The lithology]porosityinterpretationfrom Figure 46 is superimposedfor comparison.

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4.2.

STEAM-FLOOD

EOR OPERATION

Fwave

123

Velocity vs. Temperature

8500

8000

75OO

Velocity

7OOO

2000 psi
15o0 psi
6500

1000 psi
500 psi
6000

20

40

60

80

100

120

Temperature (deg C)

FIc. 48. Measured P-wave velocitiesfor a Potter B1 sand core at temperatures of 25C, 55C, 90C, and 125C, under confiningpressuresof 500 psi,
1000 psi, 1500 psi, and 2000 psi.

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124

CHAPTER

Sonic Log at TO2 Well

4.

CASE STUDIES

Tomogram-Sonic Log
Comparison

1400

400

1500

5O0

-Smoothed
Sonic
Log

Depth
(ft)

P-wave Tomogram
1600

600

6000

7500

10000

Velocity (if/s)

12500

7000

7500

8000

8500

Velocity (if/s)

FI(. 49. The original soniclog from the TO2 well is shownon the left. On
the right, a smoothedversionof the soniclog is comparedwith a tomogram
profile parallel to and offset 15 ft from the TO2 well in Figure 42.

Figure 45. The seismicP-wave velocity over parts of the Potter B1 tar
sand dropped by 15 percent to 20 percent after one year of steam injection.
We alsoseethat the clay stringersin the upper Potter B1 sand restrict the
steam flood to the Potter B1 down dip. However, further up dip the clay
stringersare breachedby the steam and somesteam is lost to the Potter A
sand, which exhibits a similar velocity-temperature relationship as the Potter B1 tar sand reservoir. Figure 45 indicatesthat the Potter B1 sand was
not uniformly heated and gave the production engineersinformation for
modifying the steam injection project at this site.
Finally, we checkedthe reliability of the presteam injection tomogram
by comparinga tomogram profile taken about 15 ft in and parallel to the
TO2 well in Figure 42 with the soniclog in the TO2 well. Figure 49 shows
the original soniclog velocity on the left and providesa comparisonof the
smoothedsonic velocity log with the tomogram profile on the right. The
sonic log and tomogram profile are in good agreementas to overall trend.
Velocity differencescorrespondingto the clay stringersmay be attributed
to averaging-outof the high velocitiesby the tomographyinversion. The
Potter B1 reservoir,correspondingto depths below 1500 ft, show the sonic

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4.3.

IMAGING

A FAULT

SYSTEM

125

log and tomogram profile agree to within 5 percent. Thus, analysis of


the tomogramsin this portion of the Potter B1 tar sand are made with
some justified confidence. Since similar data acquisition and processing
techniques were applied for the poststeam injection tomogram, we also
assumethis reliability analysisextends to the poststeam injection results
as well.

We make the following conclusionsregarding crosswellseismictomography basedupon this casestudy' 1) Crosswelltomographyas a reservoir
characterizationtool is usefulfor determiningreservoirlithologyand porosity inhomogeneitieswhich is not possiblewith only well log information;
and 2) Crosswelltomographyis usefulfor monitoringnonuniformheating
of reservoirrock betweenwells as a result of steam flooding.

4.3

Imaging

a Fault System

The McKittrick Field in California is located near the Midway Sunset


Field and produces from the Potter sand, a massive unconsolidated conglomeratewith permeabilitiesranging from 1 to 10 darcys. Figure 50 shows

the well-logbasedreservoirgeologyinterpretationprior to runningcrosswell


seismictomography betweenthe 806 and 429 wells. The McKittrick Thrust
placed Miocene age diatomite over PleistoceneTulare sand. A subthrust
fault developedsubsequentto the McKittrick Thrust which intersectsthe
806 well at a depth of 800 ft.
The Potter sandreservoircontainsa heavyoil whichis subjectto gravity
drainage. Basedon data from the 806 well, the subthrust is believedto act
as a sealingfault which preventsfurther downwardmigration of the heavy
oil. The well data show that the Potter sand above 800 ft is saturated

with

up to 50 percent oil while the Potter sand below 800 ft is desaturatedwith


lessthan 30 percent oil. The subthrust lies at the boundary betweenthese
two

zones.

The estimated oil reservesin this reservoir and optimum development


of the field depend upon proper positioningof the subthrust. Thus, the
objective of this crosswelltomography study is to image the faults associated with

the reservoir

desaturated

Potter

4.3.1

and define the boundaries

of the saturated

and

sand.

Crosswell Seismic Data Acquisition

The clamped-vibratorsourceshown in Figure 51 was provided by


Chevron for this experiment. The sourceis coupled to the borehole wall
through the clamp located at the top of the tool. One of the smaller lines

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126

CHAPTER

4.

CASE

STUDIES

Well-log Based Interpretation


wel

well

8O6

429
Oft

315

ff

20O ft

D!atomite

McKIttrlck

..

_ 40Oft
_

60Oft

8OO ft

1 ooo ft

FIG. 50. The reservoir geologyinterpretation before the crosswellseismic


survey was run between the 806 and 429 wells. The interpretation was
basedmainly upon well-log data and somesurfacegeology.

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4.3.

IMAGING

A FAULT

SYSTEM

127

FIG. 51. Chevron'sclamped-vibratorsourcein preparation for deployment.


The primary componentsfrom top to bottom are the clamp for source-toboreholecoupling, the hydraulic servovalveand actuator module, and the
reaction mass. Photo courtesyof Don Howlett, Texaco.

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128

CHAPTER

4.

CASE STUDIES

Data Acquisition Geometry


well

806

well

429
Oft

315 ft

.___ Shallowest
Receiver
--

Source

2O0 ft

40O ff

--

$00ft

Deepest
Receiver
--

80Oft

FIG. 52. Data acquisitiongeometry involved keepinga 90-degreereceiver


aperture bisectedby the horizontal through the source. The aperture was
formed using thirty-three receiver levels spaced at 20 ft intervals about
each sourcelocation. The shallowestand deepestreceiver positionsfor the
sourceat a depth of 400 ft is depicted.

provides air pressureto the clamp for its activation and deactivation. The
other small line is a wire line which both supportsthe tool and provideselec-

tricity to the hydraulicservovalveand actuator which controlthe sweeping


action of the vibrator. A pump at the surface pressurizedhydraulic fluid
which flows to and from the sourcethrough the two larger diameter hoses.
This pressuredrives a hydraulic cylinder which is attached to a 50 pound
reaction masslocated at the bottom of the tool. An axial driving motion
imparts a vertical stresson the boreholewall at the clamp which introduces
the seismicenergy into the formation.
Figure 52 showsthe data acquisitiongeometry. The clamped vibrator
was deployed in the 806 well while a three-componentgeophonereceiver

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4.3.

IMAGING

A FAULT

SYSTEM

129

Common-Source Gather (660 ft)


Time

(ms)
1100

Receiver Depth (ft)


1000

900

800

700

600

500

400

300

200

5O

lOO

150

200

FIG. 53. A common-sourcegather from the radial componentfor a source


depth of 660 ft and receiver depths ranging from 160 ft to 1150 ft at 10 ft
intervals.

was deployed in the 429 well. Thirty-seven common-sourcegathers were


collectedwith the sourcerangingin depth from 200 ft to 920 ft at 20 ft
intervals. Common-sourcegathers were collected, rather than commonreceivergathers,becauseof the unwieldynature of the four linesattached
to the sourcewhich had to be clampedtogether at regular intervalsas the
source was lowered into the well. For most source levels 33 receiver levels

were recorded at 20 ft intervals in such a manner that a 90-degree angle


receiveraperture bisectedby the horizontalat the sourcewas acquired,as
shown in Figure 52.

A linear sweepwas applied to the vibrator from 10 Hz to 360 Hz with


a sweeplength of 14 s and a listen time of 2 s. Four sweepsper source
level were requiredto get a goodsignal-to-noise
ratio. Figure 53 showsa
common-sourcerecord for the clamped vibrator at a depth of 660 ft and
receiverstationsrangingfrom 160 ft to 1150ft at 10 ft intervals. The record
is from the radial componentand showsboth first-arrival and reflected Pwave

events.

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CHAPTER

130

4.3.2

Traveltime

Parameter

4.

CASE STUDIES

Measurements

The trove]time prmeter measurementsfollow procedure similar to


the one for the Midway Sunset Field. Chevron provided desweptdata with
the horizontal componentsdecomposedinto rdial and transversecomponents. We applied a zero-phasebandpassfrequencyfilter to further increase
the signal-to-noiseratio for optimum traveltime picking. Becauseof the
"blocky" nature of the subsurfacewe chose to select direct-arrivM P-wave
trveltimes, similar to wht we did with the Midway Sunset dat.
The only exceptionMdifferencehas to do with what polarity to chosefor
the direct-arrival traveltime. The clamped vibrator sourcehas a radiation
pattern significantlydifferent from the air gun. Figure 54 showsthe Pwve rdition pattern for the clamped vibrator sourcein a homogeneous

mediumwith the signalrecordedby geophonereceiverswith vertical(V)

andradiM(R) components.
s Theclamped
vibratorisessentially
a vertically
directed dipole which has P-wave motion directed towardsthe sourcein the
lower lobe while, at the same instant, the P-wave motion in the upper lobe
is way from the source.For a homogeneous
mediumthis radiation pattern
results in no polarity changeon the vertical geophonecomponentwhile
polarity changeson the radial component.Theoretically,no P-waveenergy
should be observedat the same depth as the clamped-vibrator sourcein a
homogeneousmedium.

Figure 55 depictsthe S-waveradiation patern for he clampedvibrator which may be compared with the S-wve rdiafion pattern for the air

gun sourcein Figure 34. The clampedvibrator shouldproduceexcellent


S-wves for use in crosswelltomography since the S-wave radiation pattern's maximum strength is directed horizontally. As with Figure 54, in a
homogeneous
medium we expect no polarity changeof the direct arrival on
the vertical componentwhile a polarity change is expected on the radial
component.

At first glance the dipole nature of the damped vibrator appears to


produce recordswhich should be easy to interpret. After all, there are
no polarity reversalsseen on the verticM componentfor either P-wave or
S-wavedirect arrivalsin Figures54 or 55, respectively.However,now introduce velocityfield suchthat a P-waveraypath initially traveling upwards
gets refracted so that it is downgoingray at the receiver. The P-wave
event you are selectingappears to shift cycle on the vertical component.
Thus, youmustmakea decision:1) to pickon the reversedpolaritybecause

you suspectthe ray turnedup-to-down(or down-to-up),or 2) to pickthe


same polarity at the shifted time becauseyou suspecta velocity change.
For complicatedsubsurfacevelocities this decisionprocessis tedious and
3CompaxeFigure54 for the clampedvibrator with Figure33 for the ir gun.

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4.3.

IMAGING

A FAULT

SYSTEM

131

Clamped Vibrator Source ! Geophone Receiver


Source

Receiver

'

P-Wave

-I-

FIG. 54. This cartoon depicts the clamped vibrator's P-wave radiation
pattern where particle motion in the upper lobe is away from the source
while in the lower lobe the particle motion is towards the source at the
sameinstant (dipolesource).The vertically(V) and radially (R) recorded
signalsare shownon the right as flags with the expectedpolarities and
signalstrengthsrepresented.The verticalcomponentremainsnegativewith
receiverdepth while the radial component'spolarity changessign.

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132

CHAPTER

4.

CASE

STUDIES

Clamped Vibrator Source / Geophone Receiver


Source

Receiver

S-Wave

FIG. 55. This cartoon depicts the qV-wave radiation pattern for the
clamped vibrator with all $Vowaves exhibiting the same polarity as indi-

catedby the smallarrowsperpendicularto the raypaths. The vertically(V)


and radially (R) recordedsignalsare shownon the right as flagswith the
expectedpolarities and signalstrengthsrepresented.

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4.3.

IMAGING

A FAULT

SYSTEM

133

requires the use of properly oriented horizontal components.


The horizontal geophonecomponentsare free to take on random directions when the receiver tool is moved from level to level. Frequently the
relative amplitudes on the horizontal components are used for numerical

rotation to get the radial and transversecomponentsdesiredin traveltime


picking. However, the polarity of the incoming P-wave or S-wavemust be
assumedto selectthe proper rotation. Figures54 and 55 showthat both Pwaveand S-wavepolarities changeon the horizontal componentwith depth,
thus complicatingthe rotation analysisprocess.Add a complexsubsurface
and the processof orienting horizontal componentsbased on relative amplitudes becomesnontrivial. The best bet is to run an orientation device
with the receiverpackagewhen using a clamped-vibratorsource. Properly
oriented horizontal componentsare a definite help in picking both P-wave
and S-wave arrivals from a dipole sourcewhich travel through a complex
medium.

Also, since the clamped vibrator required common-sourcedata acquisition, every source-receiverpair in the survey required a unique rotation
analysis to orient the horizontal components. A common-receiverdata
acquisitiontechniqueis more desirableif an orientation deviceis not available. Then, one only needs to perform one rotation analysis per receiver
level since the receiver remains fixed for all source levels as was done with

the Midway Sunset data.

4.3.3

Image Reconstruction

We used the same image reconstructionmethod here as for the Mid-

waySunset
datain theprevious
section.
Theinitialmodel
function
Mjni
had square cells 10 ft on a side which is half of the source-to-sourceand
receiver-to-receiverspacings. Ten-foot square cells required 32 horizontal
cells and 60 vertical

cells for a total of J = 1920 cells in the model.

The

initial model function valueswere given a constantvelocityof 5300 ft/s.


Just as with the Midway Sunset image reconstruction,step i of the
SIRT algorithm utilized a "Snell's Law" type of ray tracing to model the
direct arrivals for both raypath and computed traveltime. Fifty iterations
were requiredfor the estimatedmodel to convergeto the true model. The
resulting P-wave velocity tomogram is shown in Figure 56, resampledto
2.5 ft square cellsfor display.
One part of the image reconstructionmethodologynot mentionedin
the previoussectionis how to selecta color(or gray) scale. One school
of thought is to use fixed intervals of velocity by assigningmany colors
(gray levels)at one time whichhighlightall featuresincludingartifacts.
Although this techniquemay be great for quality control purposes,it is

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!4

CHAPTER

4. CASE STUDIES

/'-Wave Velocity Tomogram


Well 806

Offset (ft)

100

Well 429

200

300

300 ..........................
I..........................
I......

Velocity (ft/s)
4000
:i:::":?:i::':'

.,'.:: 5546
i-.....

.."..:.
-.-.'...
::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::

................
5794

.::i:i::i:i:i::.:.'.::.:i::
'" ============================================================
::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::

:i:i:i:i:i.'i:i:i:i:!:i::.i;.;:."
-.'"":':':':':':':':':':':':':::'!:i:!:i:i:i:M'

.........6500

:::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::
'-.
=================
"':' 7206
9000
.......:-'..:.'-.:-:."-:i:i:i.'!:i:''
:':':'
....'....
L:':..... :i::::::i.%-'.:.':..s::'.!..?.:'.
.............

..;....:.
........
..:.::..::..!:-...:.;::.:.

700 . Saturated
Potter
"--..............
' "-..':

.!?,!'

FIG. 56.

.'.

.....

P-wave velocity tomogramreconstructionof the McKittrick

Thrust and subthrust.

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4.3.

IMAGING

A FAULT

SYSTEM

135

not very useful for displaying the results for which the tomographic data
were acquired. Instead, one should highlight the tomogram's features for

which we have an interest. This generallyrequiresthat the persondoing


the image reconstructioneither possess,or work with another personwho
possesses,
some interpretation skills.
With this study we knew that the diatomite, Tulare sand, saturated Potter sand, and desaturatedPotter sand were targets of interest. Well data
provided the information that the McKittrick Thrust lies at the boundary
of the diatomite and Tulare sand while the subthrust at a depth of 800 ft
in the 806 well separates the saturated Potter sand from the unsaturated
Potter sand. Using this combination of well information with what the P-

wave velocity tomogramwas telling us, we chosea gray scaleto highlight


the desiredfeatures. Only sevenshadesof gray were neededto fulfill the
objectivesfor which this tomogramwas run. The resultingtomogramdisplay is in reality a lateral extensionof the well-loginformation obtained at
the 806-well. If a velocity scale at fixed intervals had been used, the well
information correlationwith the tomogramwould not be apparent and the
resulting tomogram would be lessof a benefit to the end user, or maybe
evenconfusing.
4

4.3.4

Tomogram Interpretation

The important objective of this tomogram was to image the saturated


Potter sand sealed-offfrom further gravity drainageby the subthrustintersecting well 806 at 800 ft. Figure 57 is our interpretation of the tomogram
in Figure 56, which when comparedwith the well-log based interpretation
in Figure 50, showsthat the lateral extent of the saturated Potter sand is
muchlongerthan previouslythought and doesnot extend as far in the vertical direction. This interpretation is basedupon the correlationthat, for the
Potter sand, seismic P-wave velocity increasesas oil saturation increases.
The tomogram in Figure 56 delineatesthe McKittrick Thrust which
placed the Miocene age diatomite above the Pleistoceneage Tulare. The
tomogram alsosuggeststhe presenceof two smaller scalesubthrustswhich
penetrated the McKittrick Thrust fault plane after it was in place. The
two subthrusts appear to have throws as small as 40 ft.
Overall, the crosswellseismic tomogram showed a more complex fault
systemthan previouslythought and substantiallyredefinedthe boundaries
of the saturated

Potter

sand.

Such information

which determines

and ver-

4Even though the tomogram in Figure 56 was resstapledto 2.5 ft square cells for
display, the image remains "sharp" because only seven gray levels were used in the
display.

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136

CHAPTER

4.

CASE STUDIES

Tomogram-Based Interpretation
well

806

well

429
Oft

315

ft

Dlatomlte
Tulare

200 ft

Sand

McKIttrlck
Thrust

400 ft

600 ft

800 ft

1000 ft

FIG. 57. Our interpretationof the P-wavevelocitytomogramin Figure56.

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4.4.

IMAGING

SALT

SILLS

137

ifies the reservoirconfigurationenablesthe developmentengineersto optimally develop the field.


4.4

Imaging Salt Sills

We chosea shallow salt sill problem to illustrate the seismicdiffraction


tomography imaging techniqueusing the Born approximation presentedin

Chapter 3.5 The imagingtechniquerequiresa constantvelocitymedium


with imbedded objects of finite extent which scatter seismicenergy. This
requirement,along with other simplifications,is only partially honoredby
the salt sill problem. Thus, the resulting tomogram is instructive as to
the limitations of the method as presented in this book. Extensions of the
methodologyto complexsituationsare discussedin referenceslisted at the
end of Chapter 3.

4.4.1

Assumptions and Preprocessing

This casestudy usesa marine seismicdata set collectedover two shallow salt sills as depicted in Figure 58. Application of the seismicdiffraction
tomography methodologyusing the Born approximation in Chapter 3 requiresmaking someassumptionsand preprocessingthe data.
We require the object under investigationto have a finite extent. Fig-

ure 15 showsa finite-extentobject whichhas a velocityperturbationC(r)


confinedwithin the gray area. The regionsurroundingthe gray area is the
backgroundmedium with constantvelocityCo. The finite-extent object in
this casestudy consistsof the shallowsalt sills and the surroundingsedimentary layers. The overlying sea water is taken as the constant velocity
backgroundmedium.
Collectively, the salt sills and surroundingsedimentsdo not satisfy the
assumptionsof the Born approximation asstated at the end of Section3.2.4.
However, the scatterers comprisingthe water bottom do meet the requirements of the Born approximation and shouldimage properly. The velocity
contrast between the salt and sedimentsprobably violate the weak scattering approximation. The salt sill tops are closeenough to the water layer
that they can be consideredpart of a "finite-extent" object and, with the
exception of possiblyviolating the weak scattering approximation, should
image properly. The salt sill bases,especiallythe large salt sill base, are
SFindingthe data functionPi(r)qbd(r)for the Rytov approximation(Section3.2.3)
is considerablymore involved than determiningthe data function Ps(r) for the Born
approximation (Section 3.2.2). Thus, we use only the Born approximationin this caae
study.

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138

CHAPTER

Salt

Sill

4.

CASE

STUDIES

Problem
Surface

5000 ft/s

4000 It

Water
Bottom

.........

-.......
.....

.:.....:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:

FIG. 58. The two salt sills and surroundingsedimentary layers form the

finite-extentobjectwhichhavevelocitiesrepresented
by C(r). The velocity

ofthewaterlayeris(7- 5000ft/s.
comprisedof scatterersquite removedfrom the constantbackgroundwater
layer. The accumulative phase differencebetween the total and incident

wavefields(seeSection3.2.4) is likely to be quite large for thesescatterers


and a proper velocity image for the salt sill basesis unlikely.

Besidesthe assumptions
stated above,we also assume:(1) constant
densityin all media,(2) 2-D wavepropagation,and (3) multiple freedata.
We know beforehandthat none of our assumptionsis one-hundredpercent
valid. However, we continue so that we may see the result and learn.
The wavefield recorded by a source-receiverpair in a marine seismic

recordrepresents
the total wavefieldPt(r), whichconsistsof the incident
wavefieldPi(r) and scatteredwavefieldP(r) as definedin equation(50).
Figure 59 showsa source-receiver
pair for the marine seismicdata case.The
recordedincident wavefieldtravels directly betweenthe sourceand receiver
while the recordedscattered wavefieldtravels over a considerablylonger
raypath to get to the receiver. Thus, the scatteredwavefield arriveslater
than the incident wavefieldbecauseof the large water bottom depth.

The scatteredwavefieldP,(rs, rp) is the data functionusedin diffraction tomographywhenequation(101) is represented


throughthe Bornapproximation. Thus, a required preprocessingis to extract the scattered
wavefield from the marine

seismic records.

The water bottom

in this case

study is at a depth of 4000 ft or greater. The time lag betweenthe recorded


incident wave and the wavefield scattered from the water bottom at the near

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4.4.

IMAGING

SALT

SILLS

139

Incident Wavefield vs. Scattered Wavefield Raypath


Source

Receiver

%,

,/'

Surface

Scattered

Wave

CO= 5000IVs

4000It

o.o.
..............

:i:i:::i:i*i:i:iiiiiiiii?:iii!i::iiiiiii::i?:ii::i:!::iii::iiii:-:i!i::i::i:::i::ii::ii::!::::::?:?::::::::::::
............... ?:i::iiii?
................
'"'!::11"'i?:,
------- -

FIc. 59.. The raypath for the incident wavefieldwill always be much shorter
than any raypath for the scattered wavefieldbecauseof the large water layer
thickness.

source-receiveroffset is a large 1.6 seconds. Thus, the data function is simply determined by muting the incident wavefield from the total wavefield
for each marine

seismic record.

The diffraction tomographymethod alsoutilizes infinite-linesourcesand


scatterersas definedby the Green'sfunction in equation(62). Infinite-line
sourceshave a cylindrical divergence in which amplitude decreasesin a

constantvelocitymediaby r-, wherer is distancetraveled.However,


the observed data are acquired in a 3-D medium with point sourcesand
scattererswhich have a sphericaldivergencein which amplitude decreases

by r -1. Thus, to makethe observeddata "mimic"a cylindricaldivergence

wemultiplythe dataoneachtraceby r = (Cot)(Cois theconstant


backgroundvelocity) beforeperformingthe tomographicprocessing.As
an alternative we could have applied diffraction tomography using the 3-D

Green'sfunctionin equation(63) in a 3-D modelwhichhasa 2-D geometry.


Thus, the sourcesand scatterers would exhibit spherical divergencein our
calculations, but at the cost of significantly greater computation time.

4.4.2

Data Acquisition

The data for this casestudy came from a preexisting2-D marine seismic
survey. The experimental geometry in Figure 60 showsthe marine streamer

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140

CHAPTER

4.

CASE STUDIES

Data Acquisition Geometry


Re.

vets

824

120

;[

246;[
Next

Source

Receivers

................_V V V
I

V
120

FI,_q.60. Experimental geometry for the marine seismicsurvey.

cable with 120 hydrophones spaced at 82 ft intervals with a near offset


of 824 ft. The air gun sourcewas fired at 246 ft intervals.
We chosebackpropagation diffraction tomography for the surface reflection configurationgiven in Section 3.4.2 to do the image reconstruction.

Equation (165) showsthat we must take the Fouriertransformof the data

function
P(rs,rp) alongthesource
andreceiver
profiles
to get/5(k,,kp).
Since we require that the spatial frequency content for the receiver profile
be the same as the source profile, only every third hydrophonetrace was
used. Thus, the effective receiverspacingwas the same as the sourcespacing of 246 ft. We used 271 sourcesout of the survey line to provide an
adequateaperture for imaging the salt sills.

Five representative
sourcerecordstaken at equalsourcepoint (SP) intervalsfrom alongthe marine seismicsurveyare shownin Figure 61. Source
records$P 823 and $P 995 are taken from over the smaller and larger salt
sills, respectively.Sourcerecord $P 1081 lies at the edgeof the larger salt
sill. Several events of interest can be identified on source record $P 995
at the near offsets.
The water bottom reflection is found at 1.80 sec-

onds while the top-of-salt and bottom-of-salt reflections lie at 2.36 seconds
and 2.92 seconds,respectively. Most of the reflectionsbetween 3.60 seconds
and 5.30 secondsare identified as multiples and even more multiples are
found beyond 5.80 seconds.
Figure 27 showsthe hypothetical coverageof a model function in the
k= - kz plane for the surfacereflectionconfigurationif sourcesand receivers

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4.4.

IMAGING

SALT

Time (s)

SILLS

Marine

/ SP1167

081

141

Seismic
SP 995

Records
SP 909

SP 823

F.....
!'

, 't'.

'

:I!,i:... '".
' !1tl..'...' .-' >

F ,' .-'.
:'1,i:....>.-

....

,,.>-.';..
. .

..,./:,.:,,-..
.' .
,...-._..-...-.!>-.-<-";''--:.-I-'"'/':-:-'.-.-"'"--:
: "- -" -'

4 '":"'.:
' '
.... ..

. :: ._ ,:-.":,>

. ....:'.
-
.-..

'"' 2- 'i"!i'.'-.ff--:"

1::::'/'"-.:L?-':
':'

.;.. ....

......

.....-:...

Fo. 61. Five marine seismicrecordsextracted at equal sourcepoint intervals from the marine survey.

couldbe placedalongthe surfacein both directionsout to infinity. In this


study we are limited to a streamer cable towed to one side of the seismic

sourceas shownat the top of Figure 62. The resultingcoverageof the


model function in the kx - kz plane for scattererslocated at a depth of
8000 ft is shownas solid arcs. Each solid arc corresponds
to a separate
sourceand streamerlocation. The dashedline representsthe locusof ko.q.
The associateddotted radial lines point to the sourcelocationsused to
constructthe coverage.Obviouslywe can expectlessresolutionand more
nonuniqueness
for the imagedmodelfunctionusinga streamercablethan
from the ideal situationin Figure 27.

4.4.3

Diffraction Tomography Processing

Figure 63 illustratesthe flow chart for implementingbackpropagation


diffractiontomographyfor a surfacereflectionconfiguration
as givenby

equation(165). The total wavefield


P(xo,xr,t) wasrecorded
on the field
records,
wheret istraveltime,andx andxr arethedistances
froma fixed
referenceto the sourceand receiveras illustratedin Figure 64. The 2D Cartesiancoordinate
systemin Figure64 hasits originat sealevelwith

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142

CHAPTER

sourcs

streamer

4.

CASE STUDIES

cable

locus of k o s

locus
of ko( s +' )
Fc. 62. Coveragein the k= - k plane for the model function at 8000 ft
depth using the sourceand streamer cable configurationfrom this study.
The solid arcs represent the coverage.

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4.4.

IMAGING

SALT

SILLS

143

Diffraction Tomography Procedure


Pt(Xs,Xp,
t)
Step I

Mute

direct

arrivals

Ps(x
s, Xp,t)
Step 2

Step 3

Step 4

Fourier transform along time axis, t

Fourier transform along x

s andXp

Backpropagation, equation (3.119)

(x,z)
FIG. 63. Flow chart for implementing backpropagationdiffraction tomography in the salt sill case study.

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144

CHAPTER

4.

CASE

STUDIES

Cartesian Coordinate System

source

X'

receivers

FIG. 64. Cartesian coordinate system for the salt sill case study. The

sourceand receiveroffsets,x and xp, are measuredfrom a commonorigin.

the z-direction positive downwards. Both sourceand receiverdepthswere


set to sealevel for implementationof backpropagationdiffractiontomography.

StepI (in Figure63) is the preprocessing


stepdiscussed
in the previous
sectionin which the recordedincidentwavefieldPi(xs,xr,t ) was muted
from the total wavefield. Thus, after step 1 the seismicrecordsare assumed

to containonly the scatteredwavefieldP(xs,xp,t), whichis the desired


data function for the Born approximation.
In Step 2 we take a 1-D Fourier transform of each trace of the scattered

wavefieldP(x,xp,t) with respectto time, t. Thus, we transformthe


datafunctionfromits space-time
domainrepresentation
P(x, xp,t) to the
space-frequency
domainrepresentation
P(x,xp,w), wherew represents
the angular frequency.

Figure 65 showsthe data volumesbefore and after this 1-D Fourier


transform. Beforethe Fouriertransformthe x-axis, xr-axis, and /-axis
span the data volume. After the 1-D Fourier transform the data volumeis

spannedby the x-axis, xp-axis,andthew-axis. We haveeffectivelyreduced


the original scatteredwavefieldinto many single-frequencyscatteredwavefield data sets as depictedin Figure 65. We seethat each single-frequency
scattered wavefielddata set is representedby a plane perpendicularto the

w-axiswithinthe P(x,xp,w) data volume.The backpropagation


diffraction tomographyformulain equation(165) can be appliedto oneor all of

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4.4.

IMAGING

SALT

SILLS

145

Ps(Xs, Xp, t)
x

Space-time domain representation

,I

Fourier transform along

esxs'xp'
Space-frequency domain representation

Single frequency
scattered

wavefield

data

FI(. 65. The Fouriertransformof the scatteredwavefieldPo(zo,zr,l ) is


taken with respect to time t resulting in single-frequencyscattered wavefield

data Po(z,, zr, ).

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146

CHAPTER

4.

CASE STUDIES

thesesinglefrequencydata setsin reconstructing


an image.
Step 3 is to apply a 2-D Fouriertransformto P(x, xp,w) alongthe
xj-axis and the xp-axis. This operationtransformsthe scatteredwavefieldPj(x,cp,w)in the space-frequency
domainto the scatteredwavefield
Po(ko,kp,w)in the wavenumber-frequency
domain,whichis requiredby

equation(165). The 2-D Fouriertransformis expressed


by equation(138)
whichdefinesk and kpasthe wavenumbers
of the Fouriertransformalong
the sourceline and receiverline, respectively.Note that the depthvaluesof

the sourced andreceiverdr areset to zeroin equation(138) asindicated


in Figure64. We applyequation(138) to P(x,xp,w) onefrequency
w at
a time.

Step 4 is to actually apply equation (165) to the transformeddata

functionor scatteredwavefield,P(k, kp,w). Equation(165) is numerically evaluatedat eachpoint on the x - z plane to get the modelfunction

M(x, z). A separatemodelfunctionM(x, z)is determined


eachtimeequation (165) is appliedto a differentangularfrequencyw. Again,both d and
dp are set to zero. The wavenumberko in the backgroundmediumis set
equalto w/Co, whereCo is the water velocity(5000ft/s) and w is the fre-

quency.Thewavenumbers
k andkprangefrom-koto ko. Foreach(k,
pair, the corresponding
verticalwavenumbers,
% and7p,are computed
by

7- V/ko
- k]and
'rp- y/ko
- kp
,respectively.
We obtaineda sequence
of modelfunctionsM(x, z) by applyingequation (165) at frequencies
from 12 Hz to 26 Hz. Thesemodelfunctionswere
then stackedto form one multifrequencymodel function. The model function was then convertedto velocityC(x, z) usingequation(56) and the
resultingdiffractiontomogramis shownin Figure 66.

4.4.4

Tomogram Interpretation

The velocity tomogram in Figure 66 clearly depicts the water bottom

andthe presence
of twosalt sillsalongthe surveyline. The largersaltsill
is about 31,800 ft wide while the smaller salt sill is about 8,860 ft wide.
An apparent 20 percent velocity variation exists within each salt sill. The

layer boundariesof the sedimentarylayers surroundingthe salt sills are


not resolvedand the gray scalewas selectedto emphasizethe salt sills and
water bottom for analysis.

For comparison
sake,the samedata set wasprestackdepth migrated,
with the resultsshownin Figure 67. The velocitymodel for the depth
Equation (165) doesnot showan explicit frequencydependence.That is because
we stopped writing the angular frequency dependence of the acoustic wavefield and

wavenumberafter equation (49) in Chapter 3 for the "sakeof brevity."

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4.4.

IMAGING

SALT

SILLS

147

Salt Sill Diffraction Tomogram


Surface Location (S. P.)
0

1219
' ,,, t ............

1119
I ............

1019
.............

919
............

819
t ............

Water Layer

719
-

...::-;.;.:.;.;.:::.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:-L-'-'-'..-'.-'.;.-'.',;..
:.:..'.......:.:-:-:-;.:.:-:-:.:.:.:.":;::::-.'-:.:.:
.-" :. ...:.:..-:-:.:.:?:;::..'::-:-:-:.:
'..;-:-;.:-:..'.:-.''.... .: ;.:-:.:.:.;.:.:-:-:-:-:.:-:..'.:-:,
......
::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::
.....................
::........
:................
:::
.......
::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::.....`
-.'....'i
".- --.'-:-.'-.'-'.
- :::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::

i:!:i:!:i:i:!:i:!:!:!:!:!:!:!:i:.)k.%i:..::$:::::.:.:.....:::!:i:!:!:!:!:!:!:!:i:!:!:!:i:!:!:!:!.i:i:::!:i:!:::!:!:!:!:!:!::!:::..i:!:!:i:i.:.:i::.:::2i:
:"-,....'-::...........'..:..-:.'c'::::i:i:!:!:
:':'..'::
i:i:!:i:!:!:!:i:!:!:!:!:i

:!:!:!:!:i:!:!:!:i:!:!:!:!:!:!:::.:..'.
:.!:!:!:!:!:!:!:!:!'.--,:::':i::;:''
..:...::!:!:!....:::!:.:i:::::.::..:::.::...::..:::..::.::.::.:::::!:!:i:!:!:!:::!.:!...!:!
..:::::::::)'
=======================
::i:!::
:i:!
:i::::
::::::
::i:::::i:
i:i:!:
i:i:i:::::!:i:i
:!:i:i:!:!:i:::::::
i.:'..%....:'.'!:!:!:!:!
:!:!:!:
i:::::::::!:!:i
:i:!:::!:!:!
:i:i:!:i:::!
:!:!:!:
i:::!:i:::i
:i:::!:'.-'.':'.!:i:i::
:::i:i
:!:!::::::
:::::::::::::::i:i:
::i:i:
::i:::!
:::i::
:i:i:i:::i::.".":::
".'::i
::::::
::::::::::::::::::::::::::::-':.'"
.

Depth

(kft)

Velocity Scale
5000

8198

10000

ft

11347

12271
12649

(ft/s)

13027
13992
15000

Fio. 66. The diffraction tomogramshowingvelocitiesfor the water bottom


and salt sills along the survey line.

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148

CHAPTER

4.

CASE

STUDIES

Prestack Depth Migrated Section


Surface Location (S. P.)
1219

0---

1119

.........

-.
.......

Depth()

"' ' ....

.............

1019

919

819

SALT SlLL..,..:".-'
"' "'-' ' ' '"' -."';'-"-'-'
..... '- ....

, ........ ......
.-

719

....-

--:'

10000ft

FIG. 67. The prestackdepth migrated sectioncorrespondingto the velocity


tomogram in Figure 66. Processingand display courtesyof Guy Purnell,
Texaco.

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4.4.

IMAGING

SALT

SILLS

149

migration was derived using an interactive prestack migration focusinganalysis approach. The salt sills are labeled and their boundariescorrespond to the strong reflectionevents surroundingthe labels. The water
bottom is also clearly visible.
The water bottoms defined in both the diffraction tomogram and the
depth-migrated section are in good agreement as to location and shape.
The salt sill tops, which are visible on the seismic section, are not well

definedin the tomogram. This is possiblybecauseof the low frequencies


(12 to 26 Hz) usedto constructthe tomogram,whichmay not providethe
needed resolution. However, the widths of the salt sills are comparable.
The shapesof the salt sill basesare in very poor agreement. Obviously
the depth-migratedsectionportrays a more correctpicture than the tomogram for the salt sill bases.The invalid assumptionof a finite-extentobject
for the deeper salt sill basesis causing their images to be both mispositioned and degradedon the tomogram. This can be shownusingthe first
line of equation(146) in a simplecomputation.
First, we focus our attention on an infinitesimally small part of the
base of salt reflector

where the salt-sediment

interface

is horizontal.

This

isolatesa singlescattererof the incidentwavefieldat location(zo, zo), which


we definein termsof a modelfunctionas M(z, z) = 6(z- zo)6(z - zo),
where the deltas are Dirac delta functions. Next we place the source and

receiverdirectly abovethe scattererwith the coordinates(x0 = Xo,do= O)

and (ze = zo, de = 0), respectively.


In doingso we haveinsuredthat the
scatteredenergyfrom the selectedscattererand the specularreflectionfrom
the horizontal interfaceapproximatelyshare the samevertical raypath and
traveltime.

Second, given the set-up from the last paragraph we must evaluate
the other parameterswhichgo into equation(146). For vertical raypaths
Figure 26 indicates that the sourcewavenumbervector has components
(7, = ko, ko = 0) and the receiverwavenumbervectorhas components

(7e - ko, ke = 0). Substitutingthesecomponents


into equation(144)
gives the wavenumber componentskr = 0 and k = -2ko required by

equation(146).
Third, we substitute the model function for the selectedscattereralong
with the informationderivedin the previousparagraphinto equation(146)
and integrate. The result is

- - o,o;t,,,
e(t,o
- o,o) - I

(2),

where 2Zois the round-trip raypath length betweenthe selectedscatterer


and the zero-offsetsource-receiverpair. We restate the last equation by

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150

CHAPTER

4.

CASE STUDIES

substitutingin equation(52) for k0 whichgives,

- o.o; - o.0)

lej(2zo/C'o
)

Here2zo/Coisjust the traveltimeto of the associated


diffractionevent(or
specularreflectionevent) on the seismictrace, or to = 2zo/Co. It states
that the incident energy travels to the selectedscatterer and the scattered
energytravelsto the receiverat the constantbackgroundvelocity Co. For
a finite-extent object this propagation model holds, but the salt sill bases
obviouslycannotbe consideredas part of a finite-extentobject sincethey

are so distantfrom the water layer (our constantvelocitybackground).


Replacingthe propagationvelocityof salt with that of water cannotyield
a properly imaged model function as we will now demonstrate.
SP 995 in Figure 61 showsthe specular reflection from the base of the
largesalt sill at time to = 2.92 seconds.Even thoughFigure 67 showssome
reflectordip at SP 995, we will assumethe scatteredenergy'straveltimeand
the specular reflection's traveltime are so close as to be the same and that

the raypathsare nearlyvertical. Usingto = 2.92 s and Co = 5000 ft/s we


get an imagedepthon the tomogramof Zo= 7300ft. The depth-migrated
sectionin Figure 67 showsthe largesalt sill's baseat SP 995 at a depth of
10000ft, a 2700 ft differencewhich is easily greater than can be accounted

for by reflectordip. The diffractiontomogramin Figure66 showsa high


velocity anomalynear zo = 7300 ft which is probably the image locationof
the large salt sill's base. Thus, this example demonstratesthat scatterers
outsideof an acceptablefinite-extent object are mispositionedand result
in a deteriorated image.
Finally, we ask, "What can be done to get a correcttomographicimage?" The immediate answeris to use a variablebackgroundvelocityinstead of the constant velocity assumedin Chapter 3. We would want a
variablebackgroundvelocity which doesn'tscatter a significantamountof
energy and is capableof properly imaging the model function in space.
Then the higherfrequencyperturbationsto the variablebackgroundvelocity wouldbe smallerin sizeand magnitudethan for a constantbackground
velocity, making the Born approximation more acceptable. Several of the
referencesat the end of Chapter 3 address the application of a variable

background
velocity.
4.5

Suggestions for Further Reading


Gibson, Jr., R. L., 1994, Radiation from seismicsourcesin cased
and cemented boreholes: Geophysics, 59, 518-533. Theo-

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4.5.

SUGGESTIONS

FOR FURTHER

READING

151

retical investigationinto the radiated energy by volumetric

(air gun), radial stress,and axial stress(clampedvibrator)


sources located in cased and cemented boreholes.

The volu-

metric sourceis the only sourcewhich doesnot have a nonlinear frequencydependentradiation pattern.

Howlett, D. L., 1991, Comparison of borehole seismicsources


under consistent field conditions: Expanded Abstracts for
the Society of Exploration Geophysicists'Sixty-first Annual
International Meeting and Exposition, Nov. 10-14, Houston,
Texas. Comparesdata from explosive,clamped-vibrator,air
glun,and cylindrical-bender-crgstalsourcestaken at Tezaco's
geophysicaltest facility in Humble, Texas.

Meredith, J. A., ToksSz, M. N., and Cheng, C. H., 1993, Secondary shear wavesfrom sourceboreholes:Geophys. Prosp.,
41,287-312. Borehole sourcessubmergedwithin a liquid can
create tube waves. When the tube wave velocity is greater

than the formarion'sS-wave velocity,a reach wave (convertedS-wave)is generatedby the tubewavewhichmay interfere with other events recordedin the receiver well.

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This page has been intentionally left blank

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Appendix

Frequency

and

Wave

er

numb

Frequencyand wavenumberare two basicterms usedextensivelyin this


book to describewave propagation. This appendix is intended to clarify
their definitions.

A.1

Frequency

Assumea sourceemits the sinusoidalsignal in Figure A.1. The particle

displacementB(t) of the mediumat the sourceis shownas a function of


time, t. The signal repeatsitself every 4 ms with the sameamplitude after
a lapseof time T calledthe "period." Another measureof the signal'scycle
is the frequencyf whichgivesthe numberof cyclesthe signalgoesthrough
per unit time, or
1

f = ,

(A-l)

where the appropriate unit is hertz, abbreviated "Hz", which stands for
"cycles per second."

Many times we will representa sinusoidalsignal in terms of the projection of a rotating vector onto some axis. Thus, we might represent the

particle displacementin Figure A.1 by the equation,

B(t)-[B[sin(-t-b), (A-2)
153

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154

APPENDIX

A. FREQUENCY AND WAVENUMBER

I B(t)

L*

FIG. A.1. Particledisplacement


B(t) is plottedas a functionof time,t, for
a sinusoidalsignal with a period T- 4 ms. The associatedfrequencyis,
f - 1/T- 250 Hz. Angularfrequencyis definedasco- 2rf - 2r/T.

whereI B I is the magnitudeof the rotating vectorB(t) and bis the phaseof

thesignalat timet - 0. Sincethe vectorB(t) rotatesthrough2rradians


everyperiodT, we call 2r/T in equation(A-2) the "angularfrequency"
which is written as2

co- - = 2'f.

(A-3)

In Appendix B you will see that actual signalscan be thought of as a


sum of many sinusoidalsignalsof differentfrequency,where each can have
a different magnitude and initial phase. The Fourier transform is usedto

decompose
an actualsignalinto its angularfrequencycomponents
I B(w) I
and b(w).
A.2

Wavenumber

When we definedangularfrequencycothe observationpoint of the signal waskept fixed in space(at the sourcein Figure A.1) and we studied
the signal'spropertiesin time. In this sectionwe arrive at similar conceptsby observingthe signalthroughoutspaceat a fixed time. Figure A.2
showsa sinusoidalsignal traveling in either the +X of-X direction with
a wavelength,,, the distancerequired for the waveformto repeat itself.
1The phaseof the signal in Figure A.1 is zero at time t = 0.
2Both w and f are commonlyreferredto as "frequency."The contextof the equation
will tell you which type of frequency.

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A.2.

WAVENUMBER

155

I B(x)
I

FIG. A.2. Particle displacementB(x) is plotted as a functionof location,


x, for a sinusoidalsignal traveling either in the +X or -X direction with

a wavelengthof A = 4 m. The associated


wavenumberis, 1/A - .25/m.
The angularwavenumberis definedas k -- -l-2r/Awherethe signchosen
is decidedby the direction of wave propagation.

Wavenumberis analogousto frequencyf, but is definedin terms of the pe-

riodicdistanceof the signalA asq-1/A. The signchosenfor the wavenumber


is decidedby the directionof wave propagation. Most of the time we work
with angular wavenumber,
2r

k - +--.

(A-q)

We generallyrefer to the angular wavenumberasjust the wavenumberand


let the context of the equation define the type of wavenumber.
Unlike time, wave propagation in spacecan be in many directions and
actually must be defined in terms of a vector instead of a scalar. In higher

order dimensions
of spaceequation(A-4) must be written as a vector,
27r,,

k = Tg,

(A-5)

where is a unit vector pointing in the direction of propagation. Figure A.3(a) showsa sinusoidalwavepropagatingalongthe , directionin a
2-D spacewith wavelengthX. We plot the wavenumberfor this wave in the

k - k, planein FigureA.3(b). If ko = 2r/A represents


the magnitudeof
the wave'swavenumber,then k in equation(A-5) can be decomposed
into
its vector components,

kog - k,i+k,i,

(A-6)

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156

APPENDIX

A. FREQUENCY AND WAVENUMBER

(a)

(b)

FI. A.3. (a) A sinusoidalwavepropagatesalongthe ; directionin a 2D spacewith wavelength


A. (b) The wavenumber
of the propagatingwave
in FigureA.3(a)is k = (2r/A);. The components
of the wavenumber
are
k and k, both of positive value in this case.

where the valuesof k', and kz have signs determined by the direction of

wavepropagation;both positivein FigureA.3(b).


Lastly,a singlefrequencywavewill travel onewavelengthin oneperiod.
We may determinea specialvelocityof propagationfor this wavecalledthe
"phasevelocity" defined by,

= Ikl =

(A-7)

Note that the phasevelocityis definedfor a singlefrequency.If a signal


is composedof sinusoids
of many differentfrequencies,
then the velocityof
propagationof that signalmay not be the sameas the phasevelocity,but
a different velocity called the group velocity, definedas

V = Ok,,
:+ '

(A-S)

In this book we useo.,- Ck so that V - C and we assumeno dispersion.

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Appendix
The

Fourier

Transform

Seismictomographyfrequently utilizes Fourier transformsof functions.


Therefore, an understandingof the conceptis important to understandthe
material presentedin this book. This appendix is intended to refreshyour
memory of the Fourier transform. You might want to review Appendix A
since we make use of the concepts of frequency and wavenumber in our
discussion.

If h(t) is a function of time, then we representits temporal Fourier


transform by,

FT[h(t)] : (w),

(B-i)

where w is the temporal frequency.The inverseFourier transform is represented by,

We refer to h(t) and h(w) as a Fourier-transform


pair. Similarly,we may
take a spatial Fourier transformof a function g(x), where x is a spatial
coordinate, and represent the operation by,

FT[g(x)]

(k),

(B-3)

where k is the spatial frequency,or angularwavenumber


, alongthe xdirection. As before, the inverseFourier transform operation is represented
by,

rT-[O(k=)]
Most of the time the nes
ened to just frequency d

g(x).

temporM frequencyd

wavenmber,

respectively.
157

(B-4)
wavenber e short-

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158

APPENDIX

B.

THE FOURIER

TRANSFORM

Beforepresentingthe actual Fouriertransformequationsusedto compute the operationsimpliedby the aboveequations,we give a short review
of the Fourierseriesand exponentialFourierseriesto providea transition;
sincemost everyoneis familiar with the Fourierseries. Then, the Fourier
transformof continuousfunctionsis discussed
followedby the Fouriertransform of sampledfunctions.The last sectiongivessomespecialtransforms
used in this book.

Fourier

B.1

Series

A periodicfunctionf(x) of length2L canbe writtenin termsof a series


of cosinesand sinesprovided it contains a finite number of discontinuities
and a finite number of maximum and minimum values. The series is called

a Fourier seriesand is representedby,

The seriescoefficientsao, an, and b are given by,

1/_L

ao = -L ;f(x)dx,

1/_

a, = --L Lf(z) cos\ L dx'

(B-6)

(B-7)

and,

fix)sin
(--/dx

(B-8)

respectively.
Equation(B-6) showsthat ao/2 is just the averagevalueof

f(x) overtheintervalI-L, L], commonly


calledtheDCshift. Equation
(B7) givesthesamedefinition
asequation(B-6)for aowhenn = 0 andwill
be usedhenceforth.
Also,equation(B-8) requires
bo= 0 for anyf(x).
For our purposes,
equations(B-5), (B-7), and (B-8) are best rewritten in terms of spatial frequency,or wavenumber
2, definedas 2r radians

per wavelength.The longestwavelength


for f(x) is 2L; determinedby
2Notethat wecouldequallyas well presentthis discussion
in termsof a time coordinate t and its frequency w .

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B.2.

EXPONENTIAL

FOURIER

159

SERIES

settingn = 1 in equation(B-5). The corresponding


wavenumber
or fundamentalfrequencyis 7r/L. Higher valuedwavenumbers
(shorterwavelengths)are foundby multiplyingthe fundamentalfrequencyby n where
n = 1, 2, 3, ...;,n = i givesthe fundamentalfrequency.Thus, we now write
the wavenumberalongthe x-axis as kn-- n7r/L and the Fourierseriesin
terms of wavenumber as,

f(x) - --+

anosknx+bnsinknx

where the seriescoefficientsanand bn are defined by,

(In -

cos

(B-10)

f(x)sinknxdx.

(B-11)

Exponential

Fourier Series

and,

B.2

Here we rewrite the Fourier seriesof the previous section in terms of

exponentials,thusgettingusonestepcloserto the Fouriertransformwhich


also usesexponentials. The key equation permitting this step is Euler's
formula,

eJknx= cosknx
+jsinknx,

(B-12)

wherej - x/Z-1. We recognize


that the cosineis an evenfunctionand the
sineis an odd functionand useequation(B-12) to write,
cosknx =

sinknx =

ejknx + e-jkn x
2

-, and

ejknx _ e-jkn x

(B-13)

, respectively.

(B-14)

Substitutingequations(B-13) and (B-14) into equation(B-9) and regroupingthe terms with respectto the signof the exponentialgives,
-jknx (B- 15)

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160

APPENDIX

B.

THE

FOURIER

TRANSFORM

Equations(B-10) and (B-11) showthat a, - a_, and b, - -b_,, respectively. Applying theserelationshipsto the secondserieson the right-hand
sidein equation(B-15) and redefiningthe summationfrom n - -1 to -c
givesthe exponentialFourier series,

f(x) - Z c,eJk,-,x,

(n-16)

wherec,.,- (a- jb)/2 and k - n/L. Substitutingequations


(B10) and (B-11) for a and b in the definitionof c, alongwith using
equation(B-12), givesthe integralequationfor the seriescoecientsca,

C --
for n - 0,1,2,

B.3

3,...,

Lf(z)e-Jkxdz,

(B-17)

c.

Fourier Transform-

Continuous f(x)

The Fourier transform is intended to operate on nonperiodic functions

over an infinite range. Thus, we can no longerrestrict x to the range

I-L, L] asdefined
fortheexponential
Fourierseries.However,
equations
(B16) and (B-17) can be utilized in extendingz to infinite limits. First, we
substituteequation(B-17)into equation(B-16) resultingin,

or

.(k,)eJk'
x__1
where
2L'

f(:rt)e
_t,
_jk,.,
X,dx
.
L

The frequencyinterval betweensuccessive


k is given by,

Ak k+k (n+1) r r
We rewrite this equation in a convenientform,
1

Ak

2L

2r

(B-18)
(B-19)

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B.4. FOURIER TRANSFORM- SAMPLED F(X)

161

Taking the limit of equation(B-20) as L-- c allowsus to write,

lim
(L)- dk

--,oo

271'

(B-21)

and to write kn as a continuousvariable k. Now, taking the limits of equa-

tions(B-18) and (B-19) as L - oo and usingthe resultfrom equation(B21) yields the Fourier transformequationsfor a nonperiodiccontinuous
function,

f(:) -

I(k)eJkzdk
oo
'

(B-22)

f(x)e-Jkxdx.

(B-2a)

and

i>(k) -

Equations(B-22) and (B-23) enableusto computeoneof the Fouriertransform pairsgiventhe other. Equation(B-22) is the inverseFouriertransform
operationrepresented
by equation(B-4) and equation(B-23) is the Fourier
transformoperationrepresented
by equation(B-3).
B.4

Fourier Transform-

Sampled f(x)

The use of digital computersto carry out computationsrequiresthat


we samplethe continuousfunctionf(x). We may take a samplefrom the
continuousfunction f(x) at intervalsof Ax giving the discretesamples:
.., f-2, f- , f0, f, f2,. ., where the subscriptsindicate the sample number. If the sample number is n, then the positionof the sampleis x - nAx.

However,a sampledfunctioncan no longercontainwavenumbers


(or
frequencies)out to 4-00 as demonstratedby the integrallimits for the continuousfunction f(x) in equation(B-22). The shortestwavelengthrepresented by a sampled function is 2Ax which gives the highest possible
wavenumber(or frequency),

knyq= Az'

(B-24)

referredto as the Nyquistfrequency.


a Note that this alsoappliesto temporally sampled functions.
aThe Nyquist frequencyhas a wavelengthor period which is sampled by two points;
or we may state that the shortest wavelength or period in a sampled signal must contain
at least two sample points.

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162

APPENDIX

B.

THE FOURIER

TRANSFORM

In sectionsof this book where we are referring to a sampledfunction,


you will see the limits on the inverse Fourier transform equationswritten

as :t:r. Equation (B-24) showsthat thesefrequencylimits correspondto a


unit sample interval, Az = 1. A unit sample interval is commonly usedin

digital computationsto avoidmultiplyingby Az, whichbecomesnothing


more than a scalefactor. Thus, you will seethe Fourier transformequations
written as 4

f(x)- 1 , p(k)eJkXdk
,

(B-25)

P(k) -

(B-26)

and

f(x)e-Jkx
dz,

whenf(x) and(k) aresampled


functions.
Again,theclueto f(x) being
sampledis the noninfinite frequencylimits. Of course,in actual computer

computations
we usuallydo not useequations(B-25) and (B-26) directly.
Instead, the Fast FourierTransform(FFT) method is utilized.
B.5

Uses

of Fourier

Transforms

FromequaLion
(B-26) weseethat F(k) is generallya complexvalued
function, called the complex spectrum, which may be written as,

P(k) -

Re{P(k)}
+ jlm{P(k)},

(B-27)

whereRe and Im designatesthe operationof taking the real and imaginary

partsof P(k), respectively.


FigureB.1shows
thelocation
of onepointof
the complexspectrumin the complexplane;so calledbecausethe real part
of the complexfunctionis plottedon oneaxisand the associatedimaginary
part on the other axis. The figure demonstratesthat the complexspectrum
can be also describedin terms of polar coordinates.In polar form we can
write the complexspectrum as,

P() - Ip()leJ(),

(s-28)

whereI P() I iscalledtheamplitude


spectrum
givenby,

]#()] - V/ee{#()}
+t,{#()},
4Mary times geophysicists
changethe sign in the exponentialof the forward and
inverse Fourier transforms

when the transform

involves time.

This is done so that we

stay consistentwith the physics, that is, a wave traveling in the +x direction is described

byA(w,kx)eJ(kxxwt)andnotA(w,kx)eJ(
kxx+ wt).

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B.5.

USES OF FOURIER

TRANSFORMS

163

Complex Plane

Im
{F(k)}l
(Re
{.(k)}
,lm
{(k)}
)
>
Re {F(k)}

FIG. B.1.

Complex plane with an arrow directed to the point

(Re{17'(k)},Im{17'(k)}).
Thepointin polarcoordinates
is represented
by
the magnitudeI F(k) I definedby equation(B-29) and the phase(I)(k) definedby equation(B-30). The magnitudeis calledthe amplitudespectrum
and the phaseis called the phasespectrumwhen eachis plotted separately
as a function

of k.

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164

APPENDIX

B.

THE

FOURIER

TRANSFORM

and (I)(k) is calledthe phasespectrumgivenby,

(I)(k)- tan
-1 Im{F(k)}

(B-30)

The amplitude spectrumgivesthe magnitudeof a particular sinusoidat


frequencyk while the phasespectrumgivesits shift in spaceor time. Most
often we are interested in the frequency content of a signal and a plot of
the amplitude spectrum servesthis purpose.
Throughout this book we work in tle Fourier domain when it simplifies
derivations. In addition to the above concepts of amplitude and phase

spectra, we encounterthree other applicationsof the Fourier transform'


the 2-D Fourier transform, the Fourier transform of the time derivative,

andthe Fouriertransform
of eJkox.
Supposewe wish to take the Fourier transform of a function f(x,z)
with respect to the spatial variables x and z. This operation is called a
2-D Fouriertransform. We beginby taking the Fouriertransformof jr(x, z)
with respect to x, or

P(k,z) -

f(z,z)e-Jkzdz,

(B-31)

wherethe wavenumberalongthe x-axis is denotedby ks. Next we apply a


Fouriertransformto equation(B-31) with respectto z, or

(k,,,kz) -

(k,:,z)e-JkzZdz,

(B-32)

where the wavenumberalong the z-axis is denoted by kz. Substituting

equation(B-31) into equation(B-32) givesthe definitionof a 2-D Fourier


transform,

(k,k,) -

f(x,z)e-J(kx
+ kZ)dxdz
' (B-33)

Similarly, the inverse2-D Fourier transform may be definedas,

f(x,z)

/_o
/_(k,
k)eJ(kx
+kZ)dkdk
' (B-34)

471-2

Time derivativesare simpler in the Fourier domain which is one reason


many differentialequationsare solvedin the frequencydomain. Look at
the inverse Fourier transform,

= 1

f'(w)e-Jwt
dw,

(B-35)

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B.5.

USES OF FOURIER

TRANSFORMS

165

wheret is time andw is frequency.The first time derivativeof equation(B35) is,


ef(t)

= - /_o
j.()
_

dt

a,
-Jt

= FT-[-jP()].

(B-36)

A second-orderderivative is found by taking a time derivative of equation (B-36) or,

dt 2

(B-37)
Thus, an nth order derivative is defined,

rr-[(-i)-p()].

dtn

(B-38)

WesimplymultiplyP(w) bytheappropriate
factor
s (-jw)" andtakethe
inverse Fourier

transform.

ThelastitemtonoteistheFourier
transform
oftheexponential
e-Jkox,
which comesup many timesin diffractiontomography.We determinethis in
a roundabout way. We use the Dirac delta function defined in Appendix C

in thisderivation.
Taketheinverse
Fouriertransform
of .b(k)- 5(k- ko),
wherethe Diracdeltafunctionis locatedat wavenumber
koin the spatial
frequencydomain. By equation(B-22) we find that,
f(x)

= -2r

5(k- ko)eJkxdk,

= l,jo.
2r

Thus,
theFourier
transform
ofeJkoxmust
be2rS(k-ko).

SUse(+jkx) n and (+jk,) n for spatialderivatives.

(B-39)

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Appendix

Greens

Function

Equation(60) in Chapter3 on seismicdiffractiontomographydescribes


the propagationof the scatteredwavefieldP0(r) at a constantbackground
velocitywhen inhomogeneities
scatter both the incidentwavefieldPi(r)
and existingscatteredenergyP0(r). We rewrite equation(60) here for
your reference as

Iv + o],() -

oU()[,()+ ,()1.

(C-l)

Through the use of Green'sfunctionswe end up with an integral solution


to thisequationgivenby equation(64), the Lippmann-Schwinger
equation,
which we rewrite here for your referenceas,

?o(,,)
- - f (,,I")(,?)[?,(,?)
+0(')]a'.
(c-)
G(rl rt) is the Green'sfunctionand the integralis takenovera planein
2-D space or a volume in 3-D space.

The intent of this appendixis to provideyou with an intuitive feelingfor


Green's functions. With this understandingyou will know how to immediately write down an integral solution to any inhomogeneousdifferential
equation with constant coefficients,such as the solution to the partial dif-

ferentialequation(C-l) givenby the integralequation(C-2). We do NOT


go overtechniques
for determiningthe Green'sfunctionG(r I r) whichare
readily found in many texts with chaptersdevoted to the subject, such as
referencedat the end of this appendix. However, an example problem is

workedlater on to giveyousomeideaof howonemay solvefor G(r I r) .


The approachwe take for conveyingthe ideas of Green's functions is
throughthe conceptsinvolvedwith filter theory. We do this for two reasons:
167

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168

APPENDIX

C.

GREEN'S

FUNCTION

Gt
LINEAR
OPERATOR

FIG. C.1. Gt is the impulseresponseof the linear operator giventhe input


discrete impulse 50 at time sample t - 0.

(1) its easyto see, and (2) many of you are alreadyfamiliar with filter
theory,especiallythe conceptof convolution.We will look at the discretely
sampledcasefirst and then extrapolate to the analogcase.

C.1

Filter Theory

In filter theory we can input a discrete impulse 5 of unit height at


samplet into a linear operator or systemwhich givesan output, calledthe
impulse responseGr. Figure C.1 showsa plausibleimpulse responseof a
linear operatorwhen a unit impulse5o is input at sample! - 0. A linear
systemis time invariant when the impulse responseG is found at the same
time lag relative to the time sample of the input impulse. For example,
Figure C.1 showsan input impulse50 with an impulseresponseGt starting
at time sample0. If we had usedan impulse5, then the impulseresponse
G would have begun at time sample5 which may be written as Gt-.
The impulseresponseG in Figure C.1 can also be scaled. We may
multiply the unit impulseinput 5oby a scalarf0 whichresultsin the impulse
response
G-0 beingscaledby f0 asshownin FigureC.2(a). The t-0 in the
subscript of G-0 indicates the delay of the impulse responseGt because
of a delay in the input. Here no delay occurs and the output foG is the
responseto the input fo5o, where f0 ---1.
We can scale the impulse input 51 by a scalar fl - 1 which results in the
linear operatorresponseflG-i - G-i in Figure C.2(b). The subscript
t-

I indicates that G is delayed by one time unit in accordancewith the

time invarianceprinciplestatedearlier.Similarly,FigureC.2(c) showsthe


impulseinput 52 scaledby f2 - -1/2 resultsin a linear operatorresponse
1We assumea unit interval, At = 1, betweensamples.

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C. 1.

FILTER

THEORY

'

169

fog t.o

-1 o
o
OPERATOI.

(a)

1Gt.1

11
LINEAR

OPERATOI

)
+

-1/22

f2 Gt.2
LINEAR
OPFATO

(c)

01--1
ft
llU-

LINEA
OPFATOI

!i

Pt

(d)

FIG. C.2. Illustration of the principle of superpositionfor a linear operator.


The input consistsof a seriesof scaled, time-shifted impulsesgiven by

ft -- j050-}'f151
-}'j252,wherefo = -1 in (a), fl ----1 in (b), and/2 = -1/2
in (c). The resultingoutput to f is the sum of the responses
in (a), (b),
and (c): P - foG,-o 4-fxG,_x + f2G,-: shownin (d). This is just an
example of convolutionof an input signal ft with an impulseresponseof a
linear filter

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APPENDIX

170

C.

GREEN'S

FUNCTION

FigureC.2(d)is thesumof the inputsandoutputsfromFiguresC.2(ac). The discretizedinput is thoughtof as a sum of scaledimpulsesgiven


by,

ft -- foo
q-fll q-f22-- (-1)50
+ (1)51
q-(-1)5:.

(C-3)

The linear operator'sresponseto the input function ft is given by,


---- foGt-o q- flGt-1 q- f2Gt-2

= (-1)G,_0
q-(1)G,_l
q-(-

(c-4)

Equations(C-3) and (CL4)combinedillustratethe principleofsuperposition


for a linear operator. That is, the same output results whether a linear

operatoractson the entire input as depictedin Figure C.2(d), or on each


individual componentof the input as shownin Figures C.2(a-c) and the
results summed.

Generalizingequation(C-4) we have,

This equationis the well-knownconvolutionequationfor two discretized


signals. Here the convolutionis between the input function .It and the
impulse responseof the linear operator Gt which givesthe responseof the
linear operator Pt. If the above functions are continuous,then the sum in
equation(C-5) becomesan integralor

P(t)- f(t')G(t
- t')dt',

(C-6)

wheredr' is explicitlywritten in placeof At' in equation(C-5) whichwas


assumedequal to one.

C.2

PDE's as Linear Operators


The partial differentialequation(C-l) can be cast in the samelight as

thelinearoperatorin filtertheory.Thesourceterm,koM(r)[Pi(r)+P,(r)],
is analogousto the input to the linear operator. The linear operator is the

bracketedpart of the functionon the left-handside,IX72+ ko], and the


solutionto the differentialequation,P,(r), canbe thoughtof asthe output
from the linear operator.

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C.2.

PDE'S

AS LINEAR

-6 (r-r')

OPERATORS

171

2+k2 ] G(rlr'
oI
)

- -5(r-r')
[2+k2o] G(rlr')
FIG. C.3. The Green's function is the impulse responseof a linear differential equationoperatorto a sourceterm (input) givenby a negativeDirac
delta function. Comparethis with the impulseresponsein filter theory
depictedin Figure C.1.

As in the previous section, the first step is to determine the impulse


responseof the linear operator to an impulsive input. For the partial dif-

ferentialequationwe usea negativeDirac deltafunction


2 -5(r-

r ) for

the impulsiveinput and the Green'sfunctionG(r- r ) for the impulseresponseto the negative Dirac delta function. Thus, using the analogiesin
the previousparagraph,equation(C-1) is rewritten as,

IV2+ kolG(r
I r') -

-5(r-r'),

to get the impulseresponse,or Green'sfunction,G(r I r') = (r-

(C-7)
r').

Note that the space vector r is the independent variable here instead oftime used in the previoussectionon filter theory. Figure C.3 summarizes
the analogy made between the differential equation operator and the filter
theory operator in Figure C.1.

The Green'sfunctionsolutionG(r I r ) to equation(C-7) is the impulse


responseto the negative Dirac delta function. Just as with filter theory,

we may weight the negativeDirac delta function,say -f(r')5(rr'), on


the right-handsideof equation(C-7) whichresultsin the solution(output)
f(r')G(r Jr'). Using the principleof superpositionshownin Figure C.2,
the resultingresponse
isjust the integration(sum) overall outputresponse
2The Dirac delta function6(x) has axinfiaitesi

width, infiniteheight,and an

area
equal
toone
atx = 0. It isdefined
asf_+S(x)dx
= 1. When
combined
with
another
function,
f_+!(z)a(z-Xo)= l(Zo),where
theDirac
delta
function
islocated
at 3 '-' 3o.

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172

APPENDIX

C.

GREEN'S

FUNCTION

componentsfrom the linear operator, or

: - fr,

(c-s)

wherethe negativesignin front of the integralis presentbecausethe Green's


function is the impulse responseto a negative Dirac delta function. Equa-

tion (C-8) is similarto equation(C-6) exceptfor the negativesignandthe


independent variable.

Settingf(r') in equation(C-8) to the right-handsideof equation(C-l),

becomesthe sourceterm (input to the linear operator) in equation(C8) and we get the integralsolutiongivenby equation(C-2). Thus, the
integralsolutionto equation(C-l) isjust the negativeof the convolution
of
the sourceterm (input) f(r) with the Green'sfunction(impulseresponse),
analogousto filter theory. The r- r part of the Green'sfunction(see
equations(C-9) and (C-10) below)givesthe "lag"in the impulseresponse
as a result of the weightednegativeDirac delta function being located at a
position other than r = 0. This is a space-invariantproperty equivalentto
the time-invariant property of the linear operator in the previous section
on filter theory.
Chapter 3 on seismic diffraction tomography makes extensiveuse of
Green's functions. However, closeinspection reveals that only two Green's

functionsare actuallyevermentioned,both aresolutionsto equation(C-7).


The 2-D solutionto equation(C-7) is exclusivelyusedin Chapter 3 and is
given by,

[r - r' I),
a(rl') - JHo(1)(ko
whereHo
(1)is thezero-order
Hankelfunction
of thefirstkind. Herethe
negative Dirac delta function representsan infinite-line seismicsourceor
an infinite-line scatterer at r' which causesa cylindrically shaped seismic
disturbance

that is determined

at an infinite-line

field location

r. Both the

infinite-line source and infinite-line field location are perpendicular to the

plane representingthe 2-D space.


A 3-D spacesolutionto equation(C-7) is givenby,

ejkolr-r'l

G(rlr')= 4rlr-r']'

(C-10)

This equation is not usedin Chapter 3 sincemost data acquisitionschemes,


suchas crosswellseismic,are gearedto 2-D spaceor cross-sectional
studies

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C. 3.

GREEN'S

FUNCTION

EXAMPLE

173

rather than volumetric investigations.The 3-D spacesolution represents


point seismicsourcesor point scatterersat r t which causea sphericalseismic
disturbancethat is determined at a point field location r.

C.3

Green's Function Example

In this section we find the integral solution of a simple 1-D differential


equation to reinforcethe ideas presentedin the last section. The method of
determining the Green's function here is just one example of many and we
refer you to the referencesat the end of this appendix for other methods.
The differential equation is,

[d-a2]p(x)
- f(x),
for
-cx>
<x<cx>. (C-11)
The first step is to find the impulseresponse,or Green'sfunction,G(z) to
a negative Dirac delta function sourceterm located at x - 0. The above
equationis rewritten,a

dx - aV']G(x)
- -5(x).

(C-12)

We solvefor G(x) by taking the Fouriertransformof eachterm in equation (C-12) as discussed


in Appendix B which gives,

[(jk)2 - aV']0(k) -

-1,

(C-13)

wherek is the wavenumber


andj - v/Z'-. Solvingfor ((k) givesthe
Green's function in the wavenumberdomain,

+1

(C-14)

Taking the inverseFourier transformof the last equation givesthe Green's


function for a negative impulsive sourceterm at x - 0,

G(x) -

2a

(C-15)

If the negative Dirac delta function werelocated at x - x', then the Green's
function would be written with a spatial lag,

G(xI x') =

2a

'

(C-16)

3Assumeno lag, x t = O, in the Dirac delta function at this point, and introduce
the lag when doing the convolution(sum of weightedoutput from the linear operator)
betweenf(x) and G(x).

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174

APPENDIX

C.

GREEN 'S FUNCTION

whichis usedin the integralsolutionin equation(C-17).


We knowthe integralsolutionto equation(C-12) isjust the negativeof
the convolution
betweenthe Green'sfunctionG(x) and the sourcefunction
f(x) or,

p(x)
= -/-+2
f(x')G(z
Ix')dz
',

(C-17)

wherethe x - x' in the Green'sfunctionis just the spatial lag as a result


of the weightednegative Dirac delta function being located at x = x'.
Substitutingequation(C-16) intoequation(C-17) givesthe integralsolution
to our example,

2a

dx'.

(C-18)

We can now solvefor p(x) by integratingequation(C-18) oncethe source


term f(z) is definedin equation((3-11). As a quick checktry a negative
impulsivesourcelocatedat x'= 0 givenby f(x')= -5(x). Your solution
shouldbe equation(C-15).
C.4

Suggestions for Further Reading


The following referencescover the computation of Green's functionsin

detail.

Arfken, G., 1970, Mathematical methodsfor physicists,2nd edition: Academic Press, Inc.
Courant, R., and Hilbert, D., 1953, Methods of mathematical

physics:JohnWiley and Sons(Interscience).


Morse, P.M., and Feshbach,H., 1953, Methods of theoretical
physics: McGraw-Hill.

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Index
acoustic wave equation 46
Helmholtz
acoustic

form

wave field

data acquisition
crosswell configuration 2

46

data

46

function

11

algebraic reconstruction technique 33


amplitude spectrum 162
angular frequency 154

observed pobs

ari thmeticreconstructiontechnique(see
Aa)

predicted P or prre

related

to true

model

function

M true 23
related

to estimated

model

func-

tion M or M est 23

ART 33, 41
compared with SIRT 37
nonlinear aspect 38

vector
DC

shift

form

27

158

diffraction tomography 5
background velocity C'o 48
backprojection ray tomography 20, 40
CAT

formula

function

50

function

51

data

21

function

Born approximation 52, 138


Rytov approximation 56

sununary 21

backpropagatlon diffraction tomography

genericdata/model relationship59

87

illustrated

crosswell configuration 88
Jacobian

87

model function 45, 49

scatteredwavefieldPs(r) 47

surface reflection configuration 90


vsp configuration 89
borehole survey 99
Born Approximation 51
Rytov approximation comparison

total

wavefield

Born approximation 48
Rytov approximation 53
use with ray tomography 6
wavelength consideration 5

56

when
Dirac

cell size 108

delta

to use 45
function

171

direct arrival 101, 101


direct-traxmform diffraction tomography

color scale 133

85

complex spectrum 162


polar form 162
computerized axial tomography 22
convolution equation 170
continuous

137

incident wavefieldPi(r) 47

procedure for 143

crosswell

Green's

Green's

constant density assumed 48

scan 22

reconstruction

2-D

3-D

form

steps for implementing 86


direct-transform ray tomography 16, 17,
39

170

seismic

Enhanced oil recovery 95

advantage over well logs 4

EOR

benefit

estimated
model vector
Euler's formula
159

of 3

crosswellseismic gathers 106


175

95
28

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176
first

INDEX
arrival

101

advantages of 28

forward modeling
defined
direct

flow chart

arrival

102

discrete formulation
first as'rival 102

formulated

25

in a continuous

domain

23

matrix

form

26

time invariance

in terms of wavenumber
Fourier transform
2-D 164

159

nonperiodic continuous functions


161

of e-J kx 165
operation symbols 157
representation 161

sampled function 162


derivatives

164

transform pairs 157


frequency 153
generalized projection slice theorem 58

crosswellconfiguration68
statement

of 70

surface reflection configuration 82


vsp configuration 76
gray scale 133
function

171

2-D solution to wave equation 172


3-D solution to wave equation 172
example 173
group velocity 156
head wave
hertz 153

168

Lippmann-Schwinger equation 51
Born approximation 51
linearized

52

nonlinearity 51
lithology interpretation
of P-wave tomogram 120
magnitude 154
McKittrick

Field

125

medical tomography
configuration 10
data function

11

Midway Sunset Field 96


model function 11, 49
cell size 108

diffraction tomography45, 49
discrete

24

estimated

M or M est

related to predicted data function P or ppre

23

incremental
updateAiM' 30
initial estimate 28, 108, 109
new estimate M(new) est 28
related

to observed

tion pobs 23

101

vector

form

27

nonunique 70

image function 11
impulse response 168
wavefield

28

.true M true

hyperplane 30

incident

matrix

principle of superposition170
scaling 168

series 158

exponential form 160

Green's

27

linear system

need for 23

time

Laplacian operator 46
linear inverse problem 13
generalized inverse operator
ill-conditioned

raypath lengths 27
Fourier

29

24

47

Nyquist frequency 161


object function 11

integration notation 51

observed data vector 28

Jacobian

partial differential equation


linear operator 170
period 153
phase 154
phase spectrum 164
phase velocity 156

87

crosswellconfiguration 88
surface reflection configuration 90
vsp configuration 89
Kaczmarz' method 26, 40

data

func-

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INDEX

177

plane wave decomposition 60


porosity tomograrn 122
predicted data vector 28, 28
projection 13
projection data '1
projection slice theorem
defined

ray 5

series expansion method 9, 22, 40


estimated model function, M st23
forward modeling 26
Kaczmarz'

simultaneous

direct-transform

method

17

wavelength 9
wavelength consideration5
with diffraction tomography 6
ray tracing
direct arrival 102
first arrival 102
information

traveltime
slowness

136

70

Rytov approximation 56
Born approximation comparison 56

complex incident phase function

P-wave

air gun 103


clamped vibrator 131
S-wave

air gun 105


clamped vibrator 132
spatial frequency 13
steam flood enhanced oil recovery 95
tomogram 1
base line 96

lithology interpretation 120


McKittrick

function

137

observed
seismic

119

52

seismic

total

downhole air gun 100


downhole clamped vibrator 129
marine

true model

surface

seismic

diffraction

function

26

tomography 1

data

seismicray tomography 39
seismic tomography 1

134

core study 121,123


reliability check 124
selecting a scale 133

salt sill problem 137


diffraction tomograxn 147
prestack depth migrated section 148
47

thrust

meaning of colors 1
porosity estimation 122
presteam vs. poststeam injection

complex total phase function 53


Rytov-data function 55

wavefield

117

source radiation pattern

complex phase difference function

scattered

residual

11

air gun 98
downhole clamped vibrator 127

based on well logs 126

on data

tech-

source

110

orienting horizontal components


air gun source 102
clamped vibrator 133
reservoir interpatation
based on tomogram aad well in-

note

reconstruction

SIRT 35, 41, 99


compared with ART 37
example 110
handling nonlinear aspect 110
nonlinear aspect 38
ray density weight 36, 42
terminating iterations 111

receiver

formation

iterative

nique (seeSIRT)

ray density 110


ray tomography 5
assumptions 9
backprojection 21

resolution

26

predicted data function, prr 23


true model function, M true 23

16

essence of 14

SIRT

method

observeddata function,pobs23

141

wavefield

Born approximation 48
Rytov approximation 53
transform methods 9, 39
traveltime parameters 99

Downloaded 05/05/14 to 192.159.106.200. Redistribution subject to SEG license or copyright; see Terms of Use at http://library.seg.org/

178

INDEX

traveltime pick consistency


crosswell seismic data

107

mispick 108
poor data 108
surface seismic data 104

traveltime picking 99
direct m'rival 102
first arrival 102

polarity change

air gun (P-wave)103


air gun (S-wave)105
claxnped
vibrator (P-wave)131
clampedvibrator (S-wave)132
radiation pattern 102
tying crosswell data 107
using computed traveltimes 108
traveltime residual 111, 117
true model

vector

28

velocity perturbation 47

wavelength 154
wavenumber 13, 155
angular 155
vector components

155

well logging
disadvantages3

Wyllie's time averageequation 121

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