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GEOPHYSICAL
MONOGRAPH
SERIES
NUMBER
FUNDAMENTALS
SEISMIC
OF
TOMOGRAPHY
SOCIETY
OF EXPLORATION
GEOPHYSICISTS
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Fundamentals
of seismictomography/by Tien-whenLo and
Philip L. Inderwiesen.
p. cm. (Geophysicalmonographseries;no. 6)
Includesbibliographicalreferencesand index.
ISBN 978-1-56080-028-6:$22.00
Title.
III.
QE538.5.L6
Series.
1994
94-23818
CIP
Societyof ExplorationGeophysicists
P.O. Box 702740
Tulsa, OK 74170-2740
1994
Reprinted2000
Reprinted2004
Reprinted 2006
Reprinted2008
Printed in the United States of America
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Contents
Preface
I
vii
Introduction
1.2
Applications ...........................
5
6
2.1
Introduction
2.2
Transform
2.2.1
2.3
2.4
...........................
Methods
.......................
10
10
16
20
22
23
2.3.2
Kaczmarz'
26
2.3.3
ART
...................
.....................
33
............................
39
42
Seismic Diffraction
45
3.1
Summary
Method
and SIRT
Introduction
Tomography
...........................
45
3.2
46
47
51
52
56
58
59
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72
78
82
84
87
90
3
Case
95
Studies
4.1
Introduction
4.2
4.3
4.4
4.5
...........................
Traveltime
95
Parameter
Measurements
.........
99
108
111
125
125
4.3.2
.........
130
133
135
137
137
139
141
146
150
Traveltime
Parameter Measurements
95
96
Wavenumber
153
153
..........................
154
157
158
159
160
161
B.5
162
Green's
..................
Function
167
168
170
173
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INDEX
174
175
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Preface
articles
are filled-in
Sometimes
we deviate
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Philip L. Inderwiesen
Tien-when
Lo
EtP TechnologyDepartment
Texaco
Inc.
Houston, Texas
viii
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Chapter
Introduction
1.1
We definetomography
as an imagingtechniquewhichgeneratesa crosssectionalpicture (a tomogram)of an object by utilizing the object'sresponseto the nondestructive,probingenergyof an external source.Seismic
tomographymakesuseof sourcesthat generateseismicwaveswhich probe
a geologicaltarget of interest.
Figurel(a) is an exampleconfiguration
for crosswell
seismic
tomography. A seismicsourceis placedin one well and a seismicreceiversystem
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CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION
Crosswell
Seismic
Configuration
source
receiver
/'-waveVelocity
Tomogram
heavy oil
(a)
(b)
velocitytomogramreconstructed
from observedtraveltimedata. Different
shadesof gray correspond
to differentP-wavevelocities.
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1.2.
APPLICATIONS
Applications
characterization
over conventional
reservoir
characterization
tools. Figure 2(a) representsthe true geologybetweentwo wellsin a producing field where the producing formation is a tar sand layer overlaid by
tional well-log data. The well-log data will only show that the low permeability layer exists between 500 and 600 feet in well A and between 400 and
500 feet in well B. Based upon the relative formation dips in each well, the
engineermay decidethe low permeability layer is continuousand interpret
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CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION
interpre[ation
200 ft
4OO ft
600 ft
steam-'
8OO ff
(d) tomography
(e) _tomography
Interpretati__on
I logging
tool
I
source
D receiver
FIG.2. (a)Truegeology
wewishtoknow.(b)Welllogs
sample
onlyashort
distance
intothereservoir,
requiring
sometypeof interpolation
between
wells
asdepicted
in(c).(d)Crosswell
seismic
records
theearth's
response
toseismic
energy
between
wells
thereby
permitting
animage
reconstruction
of thegeology
asshownin (e).
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1.3.
RAY
V$.
DIFFRACTION
TOMOGRAPHY
occur.
interpretationliketheonein Figure2(e) mightbe obtained.Thus,the engineer will be aware of the small fault and can make the necessaryalterations
to the steam flood operation. Although just a cartoon, Figure 2 illustrates
how crosswellseismictomography is a more reliable tool for delineating the
reservoir between wells than any interpolation method between well logs.
However, crosswellseismictomography becomesan even more significant
tool for reservoir characterizationwhen used in conjunctionwith well-log
information and core data as is demonstrated in Chapter 4.
1.3
Tomography
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CHAPTER
1.
INTRODUCTION
centdevelopments,
whichwe list under "suggestions
for further reading"in
Chapter 3, are overcomingsomeof these restrictions. Our presentationof
seismicdiffractiontornographyin its simplestform shouldgive you a solid
foundationfor understandingand appreciatingthesedevelopments.
Severalcasestudiesare presentedin Chapter 4 to illustrate the application of theory to varioussituations. We emphasizethe need to assimilate
as much data as possiblefrom other sources,such as from well logs and
core samplesin the crosswelltomographyexamples. Only by integrating
all information availablewith the tomogram can one make an optimum
assessment
about
the reservoir.
' As a final note, we have crisply divided the application of seismictomographyinto ray and diffractiontomography,dependingupon the relative
sizesof the seismicwavelengthand target. However,in reality the probing
seismicwave is usually a broad-bandsignal consistingof a large range
of wavelengths,and the subsurfacecontainspotential targetswith relative
sizesranging from small to large. Thus, this suggestsa blend of seismicray
tornographyand seismicdiffractiontornographybe used to optirnallyimage all possibletargets. Although interesting,we pursuethis possibilityno
further as it is more of a researchmatter at this point in time. In this book
we will concentrateon presentingthe fundamentalsof seismictomography.
1.4
Anderson,D. L., and Dziewonski,A.M., 1984, Seismictomography: ScientificAmerican, October, 60-68. Popular arlicle
on seismic ray tomographyapplied to imaging the earth's
mantle.
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1.4.
SUGGESTIONS
FOR
FURTHER
READING
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Chapter
Introduction
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10
CHAPTER
2. SEISMIC
RAY TOMOGRAPttY
.---i'"" Ox-ray
transmitte
-
2.2
Transform
Methods
2.2.1
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2.2.
'fRANSFORM
METHODS
11
is
sin 0
cos 0
u]
(1)
P(u, o) =
[.'o-
0)l/o,
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12
CHAPTER
2.
SEISMIC
RAY
TOMOGRAPHY
x
X-RAY
SOURCES
P(., O)
sentnonuniformx-ray attenuation.The projectionP(u, t) is the decimalpercent drop in x-ray intensity measuredalong the rotated coordinateaxis,
u. The u-axis is perpendicularto the v-axiswhich alwaysparallelsthe x-ray
and is an unknown
which
must
be determined
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2.2.
TRANSFORM
METHODS
13
e(,,,
o)-
(2)
ay
0)- f::
z)a.
(a)
domain.
transform
M(z, z) is
117I(k,
k,.)- f;: ];: M(x,
z)e-J(kx
+k,.z)dxdz
' (4)
where k and kz are spatial frequenciesalong the x- and z-axes, respectively. Spatial frequency,or, wavenumber,is definedas k = 2r/A where
is wavelength. Figure 5 representsthe 2-D Fourier transform's amplitude
spectrum
ofa hypothetical
model
function
M(x, z). Notethatif (k,
2P(u, O)is a projection
in the ray tomoaphyproblem,but is ced a data]unction
in inve
theory tenology.
The,
we c
P to re.rid
for the
data e projections.
awe oy considerthe 5ne invse problem in ts book. Thus, the data fction
will waya be nely related to the model fction, even if approximation is reqred
to force the ne relatiop.
The amption
of am x-ray attenuation is reqred
for the x-ray tomoaphy problem.
the observed
since it is inrectly
obtned
data.
Althoughthe2-D Foier tryfore of themodelfction (x,z) h bothmptude d phe spectra,we representthe 2-D Foier tryafore M(kx,k) with oy the
mpftude spect
component,
desiated ](k,,
k,) I.
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14
CHAPTER
2.
SEISMIC
RAY
TOMOGRAPHY
K
FIG. 5. The essenceof the projection slice theorem is represented. The
sliceof [ J17/(ks,
k,) [ alongthefl-axisin theks- k, plane.
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2.2.
TRANSFORM
METHODS
15
M(x,z)
= 1fj: fj: 11'I(k
k,)eJ(kx
+k,Z)dkdk,
(5)
4r2
Nowlet5(f,0) represent
the1-DFourier
transform
ofthedatafunction
P(u, O) alongthe u-axis,shownin Figure4. The 1-D Fouriertransformis
written
0)- f/:
where f/ is spatial frequencyalongthe u-axis. Substitutingequation(3)
into equation(6) gives
- sin 0
cos 0
'
Usingequation(8) andreplacing
dvduwith dzdzin equation(7) weget,
5(f,
O)-- f:: f:: M(x,
z)e-Jf(
xcos
0+zsin
O)dxdz
= f:: f:: M(x,z)e-j[(fcosO)x
+(ftsinO)z]dx
' (9)
Comparingthe integrands
of equation(9) andequation(4) weseethat
equation(9) is simplythe 2-D Fouriertransform
of M(x, z) wherekx and
k, are restricted to the Q-axis by setting
k
cos0, and
k,
f/sin0.
(10)
5(fi,
O)- /:: /:: M(x,z)e-J(k:x
+k,Z)dxdz,
(11)
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16
CAPTER
2.
SEISMIC
RAY
TOMOGRAPHY
P(, O) -
A7/(k,,,
kz).
(12)
jectionrepresented
bythedatafunction
P(f],_0)isequalto onesliceofthe
2-D Fouriertransformof the modelfunctionM(kz, k) definedon the loci:
kz = f] cos0 and k, = f]sin 0. Equation(12) is calledthe projectionslice
theorem.
The projection slice theorem givesonly one slice of the model function
per projection as shown in Figure 5. We will now show how many projections at different angles of 0 are used to reconstruct the entire model
function via the projection slice theorem. The two techniquespresented
are the direct-transform ray tomography method and the backprojection
ray tomographymethod. In Chapter 3 we will define an analogoustheorem for the reconstructionmethods in diffraction tomography called the
generalizedprojectionslice theorem.
2.2.2
of a singleprojection
represented
bythedatafunction
/5(12,
0) determines
onlyonesliceofthemodel
function
A(k- 12cos0,k - f] sin0). Figure
5
illustrates such a slice through the model function. To recoverthe entire
model function, the target must be probed from many different directions.
Figure 6 showsthree directions along which x-rays probe the head of
our make-believepatient. The observeddata functionsfor thesethree pro-
jectionsare P(u, 0), P(u, 02), and P(u, 0a). After applyingthe projection
slice theorem to the 1-D Fourier transformsof these data functions,we
obtain the three slicesthrough the model function's amplitude spectrum
shownin Figure 7. Now the 2-D Fourier transform of the model function
M(k, k,) is better definedthan by the singlesliceshownin Figure5, but
is still inadequatefor imagereconstruction.We must probe the target with
x-rays from all directionsletting 0 range from 0 degreesto 180 degrees.
Only then will the k- kz plane in Figure 7 be completelycoveredby slices
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2.2.
TRANSFORM
METHODS
17
02
FXG. 6. The cranium of our make-believepatient is probed with x-rays in
three different directions: 0, 09.,and 03. Application of the projection slice
AT/(fcosO,
fsinO)in,r__ot.,
A(k,kz).
(13)
.l(k
k,)eJ(kz
4-kZ)dk,dk
' (14)
'
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18
CHAPTER
M(cosO
3, sin63
)1
sin61 )
Kz
F(. 7. Plot showing
slicesthroughthe unknownmodelfunction'samplitudespectrumI M(k=, k) I foundby applyingthe projectionslicetheorem
to the data functionsfoundfor the x-ray projectiondirections
01, 0, and
03 shownin Figure 6.
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2.2.
TRANSFORM
METHODS
19
P(n,
o)- f:: o)-J
Step 3: Use the projection slice theorem to obtain slicesof the
2-D
Fourier
transform
of the model
function.
Each slice is
defined by
cos0,iqsin0) -- J5(i2,0).
Step 4: Convert the 2-D Fourier transform of the model func-
47i-2
The direct-transformray tomographymethod would be quick to implement if it were not for the fourth step above requiring interpolation of the
model function in the frequency domain. In the next section we present
backprojectionray tomographywhich obviates the need for interpolation
resultingin a faster and more accuratealgorithm.
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CHAPTER
2.2.3
Backprojection
2.
SEISMIC
RAY
TOMOGRAPtIY
Ray Tomography
Backprojection
ray tomography
usesthe samedata acquisition
scheme
asthe direct-transform
ray tomography:recordthe data functionP(u, O)by
experimentallymeasuringthe line integral of the unknown mode] function
downthe2-D inverse
Fouriertransform
of themodelfunction(k, k,),
( ' z) = 42
( ' )j(+z)
(5)
M(x,z) = 42
M(cos0,sin0)
ej(xcosO
+ zsin
0)IlddO.
(1)
1
M(r,z) = 4=
( cos
0, sin
0)
ej(xcos
0+ zsin0) IlddO
+
'
[ o(0
+), in(0
+)]
j[ o(0+ ) + zin(0
+ )] I [0.
(17)
"bmjection"
jection d lve for the model fction. Here the projections e ten Mong raypat.
Section 3.4.2 the meed
projectio of scattered energy e described by the wave
equation d we e Mogo
te,
"backpropagation."
from
ce to presee the si
negative vMu.
the sk's
to goingfrom Ctesi
coorSnatesto pol
center.
The
absolute
vMue
of
is ten
in o
to te
on
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2.2.
TRANSFORM
21
METHODS
.g/[fcos(0
+ r),fsin(0
+ r)] = .tfl(-fcosO,-f sinO).
(18)
The secondsetof integralson the right-handsidein equation(17) is rewritten by replacingthe modelfunctionwith equation(18), applyingthe anglesum relationsusedin obtainingequation(18) to the exponential,setting
f - -f and dfl - -dfl, and reversingthe direction of integration with
respectto fl. With theseoperationsequation(17) is written,
M(x
z) = 421
,
(fl cos
0,flsin
0)
x ej(xcos
0+ zsin0)
cos, sin)
j( o i. ) I I .
Combiningthe integralswith respectto the variable we get,
'
'
d( o i. ) I I .
()
Usingthe projection
slicetheorem,wereplaceM( cos,sin ) in equastruction
formula
42
'
We cansummarizethe backprojection
ray tomographyreconstruction
method
in just three steps:
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22
CHAPTER
2.
SEISMIC
RAY
TOMOGRAPttY
P(fl,
O)- /:: P(u,
O)e-Jfl
udu.
Step 3: Use the backprojectionformulaequation(20) to compute the unknownmodelfunctionM(x, z), or
4.2
'
[ I
Unlike direct-transformray tomography,backprojectionray tomography does not require a 2-D interpolation in the wavenumberdomain, and
therefore,is in generalfaster and more accuratethan direct-transformray
tomography.
It shouldbe mentionedthat mostcommercialCAT (ComputerizedAxial Tomography)scannersuse the backprojectionray tomographyor its
modificationas their image reconstructionalgorithm.
2.3
restrictthe discussion
to a 2-D problemsothat the modelfunctionM(z, z)
is determined in a plane which cuts through the target and containsall of
the sources and receivers.
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2.3.
SERIES
EXPANSION
METHODS
23
projection slice theorem is to the transform methods. We exploit Kaczmarz' method in Section 2.3.3 to derive two seriesexpansionalgorithms:
the algebraicreconstruction
technique(ART) and the simultaneous
iterative reconstruction
technique(SIRT).
2.3.1
Pb(u,
O)-- i Mt"u(z'
z)dv'
ay
givensource-receiver
pair the line integralof the modelfunctionM(r) over
the raypath is
pobo
= f MtrU(r)dr,
ay
wherethe observed
projectiongivenby the datafunctionpolo represents
the measured
lineintegral(observed
tomography
data) and MtrUe(r) is the
true model function which remains to be determined. The last equation is
used to formulate the forward modeling by setting
P- i M(r)dr,
ay
(21)
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CHAPTER
24
2.
SEISMIC
RAY
MI
M2
M3
M4
M5
M7
M8
M9
M10 Mll
TOMOGRAPtIY
M6
M12
Thus, Mj represents
the averagevalueof M(r) within the jth cell.
Figure 9 depicts a single ray traveling through the discretizedmodel
function. Equation(21) is rewritten in discreteform, to describeray travel
through the discretemodel function, as
J
Pj=l
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2.3.
SERIES
EXPANSION
METHODS
25
.._1..
source
receiver
._..1.. 15 M16M17IV116
M19 M20 M21 M22 M23 M24
FIG. 9. Ray travel through a discretemodel function. The resulting data
function, determinedby the line integral through the discretemodel function, is definedby equation(22).
length of the ray within the jth cell, and J is the total number of cells in
the gridded target. The example in Figure 9 has J - 24 cells, but the ray
penetratesonly sevencells(j - 12, 11, 10, 16, 15, 14, and 13). To keep
equation(22) consistentwith equation(21) we set Sj - 0 for all cellsnot
penetratedby the ray. After all, the ray'spath lengthSj for the jth cell is
obviously zero if the ray did not traverse that cell.
Figure 9 shows17 cellsfor which we don't have information becausethe
singleraypath did not traversethem. By addingmore sourcesand receivers
around the unknowntarget region, differentrays samplethe 17 unsampled
cellsin addition to someof the cellsalready sampled. The addition of extra
rays is depicted in Figure 10. Now all of the cells are interrogatedby this
network of rays.
We must modify the index notationof equation(22) to includea projection value for every ray. If Pi representsthe projection, or line integral,
Pi = E Mj$ij,for/- 1,...,1,
(23)
whereI is the total numberof rays,$ij is the path lengthof the ith ray
throughthe jth cell, and, asbefore,Mj is the discreteestimateof the model
functionfor the jth cell and J is the total numberof cells.Equation(23) is
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26
CHAPTER
2.
SEISMIC
RAY
TOMOGRAPHY
source
ray I
receiver
ray 2
ray I
FIG. 10. Generally, a single ray does not provide information on all of
the model function's cells. However, by using more source and receiver
locations around the target all of the cells can eventually be sufficiently
interrogated. I rays were found sufficienthere.
Pi' = M]"'*Sii,
fori- 1,...,I.
(24)
j=l
Kaczmarz'
Method
equation
(24)forthetruemodelfunction
M]ru*,j = 1,..., J, whichisthe
tomogram. As stated in the previoussection,forward modelingis required
to determine the true model function. Thus, before proceedingwe will
reformulateequation(23) into a matrix form to simplifythe mathematical
discussion.Sinceequation(23) is discreteits elementsare easily put into
matrices.In matrix form equation(23) becomes,
SM,
(25)
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2.3.
SERIES
EXPANSION
METHODS
27
Pl
Ma
S.
S
...
...
S
S
Si
S2
-..
P.
po, = SM'.
(29)
Althoughwe will not directlysolveequation(29), we wouldwant to determinethe true modelvectorM truegivenpoband S. The problembecomes
oneof findinga generalized
inverseoperatorS-.9 Then wecouldapplythe
generalizedinverseoperatorS- to both sidesof equation(29) to determine
the true model vector, or
S-ap oh, =
m
S-aSM 'e
M true .
Theoretically the last equation is true, but in practice it is very often difficult to determine S-a for two reasons. First, S is usually quite large and
9We write
S-g
rather
than S -1
as in usual matrix
notation
since S-g
need not be
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28
CHAPTER
2.
SEISMIC
RAY
TOMOGRAPHY
estimateof the modelvectorM init is input to the iterativeloopof the algorithmandservesasthe first "currentestimate"M st of the true solution
M true. For now we assume that the initial model vector M init is known.
With the current estimate of the model vector M est known, the first
step is to usethe forwardmodelingproblemdefinedby equation(25) to
determinea predicteddata vectorppre. This stepis carriedout by applying
the linearoperatorS (determinedby someray tracingtechniqueof personal
choice)definedby equation(28) to the estimatedmodelvectorM s,
ppr = SMt.
(30)
In the second step the predicted data vector PPr is compared with
the observed
data vectorpob, by takingthe difference
betweenthe two. A
small differenceor good agreementbetweenthe predicted and observeddata
vectorsimpliesgood agreementbetweenthe estimated model vector M
and the true model vector M t". Thus, if the differenceis smaller than a
specifiedtolerance, then the current estimate of the model vector M t is
(31)
1,...,I,
Ill conditioned
meanssmallchanges
in S producelargechangesin the modelfunction
true or in S-g howeveryou wishto look at it
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2.3.
SERIES
EXPANSION
METHODS
29
Initial estimate
Minit
currenf
estimafe
est
Step
predicted
observed
data vector
data vector
Ppre
Step
Step
pObS
FIG. 11. Flow chart for Kaczmarz' method. M i"i' is the initial estimate
of the model vector; M e' is the current updated estimate of the model
vector; ppre is the predicted data vector from the forward modelinggiven
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CttAPTER
3O
2.
SEISMIC
RAY
TOMOGRAPttY
whereAiM represents
the incrementalupdate to the currentestimateof
the modelvectorand superscripti meansapplyingequation(31) whenthe
ith row of the pob and ppre vectorsare compared. The new estimate
M (new)et is then taken as the current estimate for the next iteration. As
'method.
(32)
AiMj
where
pi.b
s __piPre
(33)
Note that the summation in the numerator is just the predicted data vector
(34)
(35)
hyperplanes where a hyperplane has J - 1 dimensions. Note that we must have at least
I = J hyperplanesto solve equation (29) and generally I > J.
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2.3.
SERIES
M2
EXPANSION
METHODS
31
obs
M2= P1
o\ ,,....__/
S12
obs
12M2
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32
CHAPTER
2. SEISMIC
RAY TOMOGRAPItY
lines(hyperplanes)
intersect.
Sincethe solutionat point X with coordinates(M"'e,M"'e) is unknown, we must start with an initial estimate at point A given by the
coordinates
(M1A, MA). Thisinitialestimatebecomes
the currentestimate
as shownin the flow chart for Kaczmarz'methodin Figure 11. The geometricalstepin Figure 12 is to find the perpendicularprojectionof point A
ontothehyperplane
:defined
byequation
(34) at pointB. Mathematically
this step is given by,
s = M+AM,and
(36)
EF cos2 c
__GH
EF
'E:Z'
EF
A M2 = AB sinc= DF sinc
--GH
and
(38)
cos c sin c
EH
= EFG--- .
(39)
Our task now is to determineEF, GH/--, and EH/GE in equations (38) and (39).
S11M
A + S2MA - SM1 + S1:
(40)
(41)
laAlthoughequations(34) and (35) both representlines,we will continueto refer to
them as hyperplanes since that is what they are called when J > 3.
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2.3.
SERIES
EXPANSION
METHODS
33
(42)
Similarly, EH/GE
is givenby,
EH
P/Szz
+
S12 .
(43)
pb
I:p
re
i and
AiM1-- '!1_--'
S121
..S122
pbs IPr
- -
AiM2- $1$---+$
,
(44)
(45)
where,rre
_ SzzMi + $zM t Equations(44) and (45) are the sameas
a I
equation
(33) wheni = 1 andj = 1,2. Thus,weseethat equation
(33)
simplydeterminesthe projectionof a modelestimateonto oneof the hyperplanesdefinedby equation(29).
Carryingthisexampleonestepfurther,wecandeterminepoint I in Figure 12, the projectionof point B ontohyperplane2 definedby equation(35)
for the secondray usingthe indicesi - 2, j - 1, 2 in equation(33). If we
alternateprojectionsof the modelestimatesbetweenthe two hyperplanes,
then the updatedmodelestimates(step3 in Figure 11) must convergeon
point X as depictedin Figure 13. Thus, Kaczmarz'methodwill converge
to the solutionof equation(29).
2.3.3
ART
and
SIRT
The algebraicreconstruction
technique(ART) and the simultaneous
iterativereconstruction
technique(SIRT) are the two commonimplementations of Kaczmarz' method in seismicray tomography. This sectiondescribesthe basic features of both algorithms.
ART is a computational
algorithmfor solvingequation(29) that directly
uses Kaczmarz' method. Thus, the ART algorithm is comprisedof the
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34
CHAPTER
2.
SEISMIC
RAY
TOMOGRAPHY
M2
Hyperplane2
:-M I
Hyperplane
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2.3.
SERIES
EXPANSION
35
METHODS
j-
or Thenthe
1,...,I.
of slownesses,
thenthe predicteddata P'reare calculated
traveltimes
fromtheforwardmodeling
andp/oh,areobserved
traveltimes.
'
Step 3: Apply the correctionsto the model estimaterecommended by the ith ray to all orcells,
SIRT differsfrom ART in that all I rays are traced throughthe model
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36
Thenan average
of AiMj withrespect
to indexi is takenfor eachmodel
,j-1,...,J.
As
withART,themodel
estimates
M[t areupdated
untilthepredicted
data
Pfecompares
favorably
withtheobserved
datap/oh,,
i- 1,..., I.
After settingthe currentmodelfunctionestimateequalto the initial
model
function,
orMf t- M'.
i"itforj = I
J thefollowing
threesteps
Step1: Conductforwardmodeling
(ray tracing)usingequation (23)or equation(25),
Step 2: Findthecorrection
foreachcellbyexamining
therays
cut throughthat celland averaging
the corrections
recommendedby eachray. Thisoperation
is definedfor the jth
cell by,
I
= W,..=
1AiM
1
_
forj
BlObS
1 s,s
- EsS=
(46)
i=1
1,...,J.
Step 3: Determine
thenewmodelestimate
fromthe average
modelcorrections
AMj, or
M"ew)e"
= M;"+AM./,j - 1,...,J.
Figure14illustrates
howequation
(46)makes
SIRTdifferent
fromART.
Asin Figure
12weuseonlytworays(orI - 2 hyperplanes)
andtwomodel
cells(or J - 2 modelspace)
in orderto visualize
theproblem.TheART
algorithm
isshown
inFigure
14(a)andtheSIRTalgorithm
inFigure
14(b).
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2.3.
SERIES
EXPANSION
M2
37
M2
D
A
METHODS
C
B
Hyperplane I
(a)
(b)
averagecorrections
AMj in equation(46), are alongthe solidline defined
by points A, B, C, D, and E. Each estimated point is the average of
the same letter's primed and double primed projection points located on
hyperplanesI and 2, respectively.
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CHAPTER
38
2.
SEISMIC
RAY
TMGRAPHY
The ART algorithmin Figure 14(a) finds the solutionby alternatelyprojecting the current model estimate onto each hyperplane. The model estimate moves along the solid line from the initial model estimate at A to
B, to C, to D, and so on. On the other hand, the SIRT algorithm finds
point A's projections on both hyperplanes,points B t and B t, then moves
the initial estimate from point A to point B, the midpoint between B t and
Btt. For the next iteration the SIRT algorithm finds point B's projections
on both hyperplanes, points C t and C", then moves the current estimate
Take
for instance
a model
function
of slowness and
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2.4.
SUMMARY
39
2.4
Summary
1. Seismicray tomography attempts to solvethe inverseproblem formulated by the line integral equation,
p
__
.yM(r)dr,
taken over the raypath. P is called the data function and represents
the observeddata. M(r) is called the model function and representsthe spatial distribution of somephysicalproperty of the medium
tion/5(f,0) provides
a sliceof information
in thek - k, wavenumberplaneof themodelfunctionA74(k,kz)
defined
ontheloci'k =
f cos0 and k, - fsin 0 as shownin Figures4 and 5. Equation(12)
definesthe projection slice theorem as,
tomany
projections
ofthedatafunction/5(f,
0for0 degrees
_(0 _(
180 degrees.The resultis the modelfunctionM(fcosO, fsinO) definedon a polar grid. Interpolationof the modelon the polar grid onto
a rectangularks - k, grid is requiredto take the 2-D inverseFourier
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CHAPTER
40
2.
SEISMIC
RAY
TOMOGRAPHY
reconstruction
formulagivenby equation(20) is
M(x,z) = 4r
,
x ej(xcosO
+ zsin0)]]dC2da.
Backprojectionray tomographyor its modificationis usedas the image reconstructionalgorithm in computerizedaxial tomographybecause it is both accurate and fast.
6. Seriesexpansionmethods are the most frequently used seismictomographymethods. The model function is divided up into small cells
where each cell is assignedan averagevalue of the continuousmodel
function within that cell. Thus, the ith observation of the data function is related to the discretemodel function by the equation,
J
mineanestimated
modelfunction
M ' of thetruemodelfunction
M]ruegiven
theobserved
datafunction
Pis.
7. Kaczmarz' method iteratively solvesthe system of equations defined
for the seriesexpansionmethods for the estimated model function
Mf s. Theiterativepartof thealgorithm
consists
of threestepsas
shownin Figure11andaninitialestimateof themodelfunctionY init
must be input.
j=l
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2.4.
SUMMARY
41
Step2 compares
the predicteddata functionpfre with the observed
datafunctionPib.If theobserved
andpredicted
datafunctions
agree
to withina specified
error,thentheestimated
mode]
function
Mf
istakena.sa goodestimate
ofthetruemodelfunction
M]rue.
Step3 updates
thecurrent
estimate
ofthemodel
function
M if the
observedand predicteddata functionsdo not comparefavorably.The
updatecorrectionis determinedby projectingthe currentestimateof
the model function onto the hyperplane defined by the ith ray. The
correctionis given by,
pfbz__pfre
1
1,...,J.
Then,
theupdated
estimated
model
function
M"ew)e
becomes
the
current estimated model function back in step 1.
8. The arithmeticreconstruction
technique(APT) is a seriesexpansion
method which directly usesKaczmarz' algorithm.
i=1
forj
1,...,J.
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CHAPTER
42
2.
SEISMIC
RAY
TOMOGRAPHY
2.5
and SIRT.
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2.5.
SUGGESTIONS
FOR
FURTHER
READING
data.
Phillips, W. S., and Fehler, M. C., 1991, Traveltime tomography: A comparisonof popular methods: Geophysics,56,
1639-1649. Comparison of various linear inversion methods.
43
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Chapter
Seismic
Diffraction
Tomography
3.1
Introduction
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46
CHAPTER
3.
SEISMIC
DIFFRACTION
TOMOGRAPHY
in Section 3.3 which servesas the foundation for the image reconstruction
algorithms used in seismic diffraction tomography. Finally, two seismic
diffraction tomography image reconstruction algorithms are presented in
Section3.4' direct-transformdiffraction tomographyand backpropagation
diffraction tomography.
Before proceeding further one should have a good understanding of
3.2
1 O2P(r,t)
VP(r,t)C(r)
at _
- 0,
(47)
where r is a vector position within the model and t is time. The Laplacian
v -
+ 0
VaP(r,w)+ k(r,w)P(r,w) = 0.
(48)
k(r,w)= C(r)'
(49)
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3.2.
ACOUSTIC
WAVE
SCATTERING
47
equationdefinedby equation(48) arederivedin thissection.The LippmannSchwinger integral equation is one such solution which, because of its
prominencein quantum mechanicalscattering, is presentedby itself in
Section 3.2.1. The Lippmann-Schwinger equation nonlinearly relates the
3.2.1
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48
CHAPTER
3.
SEISMIC
DIFFRACTION
Receiver
TOMOGRAPIIY
Source
C(r) = Co
FIG. 15. Acousticwavescatteringproblem.The incidentwavePi(r) propagatesfrom the sourceat the constantbackgroundvelocityCo. The velocity
inhomogeneity,
depictedby the shadedarea, actsas a secondarysourceand
P(r) -
Pi(r) -[-P,(r).
(50)
[V' + k(r)]Pt(r) = O.
(51)
At thispointwereformulate
k2(r) in equation(51) asa perturbation
to a
constantko
for the homogeneous
background
mediumwherethe magnitude
of ko is given by
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3.2.
ACOUSTIC
WAVE
SCATTERING
49
We begin by writing
[k(r)1].
(53)
Substitutingequations(49) and (52) into the bracketedterm on the righthand sideof equation(53) for k(r) and ko, respectively,
gives
ke(r)
C 1]
- ko
+k[C.(r)
= ko
2-ko
2[1 C2(r
;]
).
(54)
k2(r) -
k - koM(r),
(55)
whereM(r) is definedby
M(r)- 1 C(r
C).
(56)
otherwiseconstantko
of the background
medium. When C(r) - Go in
equation(56), M(r) - 0 and thereis no perturbationof ko
(i.e., by equation (55), k(r)We now want to establish a relationship between the scattered wave-
field P,(r) and the modelfunctionM(r) usingequation(51). First, equations(50) and(55) aresubstituted
intoequation(51) for Pt(r) andk2(r),
respectively, giving
[7 + k- kM(r)][Pi(r)+ Po(r)] -
O.
(57)
ko2M(r)[Pi(r)+Po(r)]. (58)
Note that the term koM(r)[Pi(r) + P,(r)] is the sourceof the scattered
wavefieldP0(r) and, as previouslystated, dependsupon both the incident
1Termscontainingthe modelfunctionM(r) are sourcesof scatteredenergy.
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5O
CHAPTER
3.
SEISMIC
DIFFRACTION
TOMOGRAPItY
The incidentwavefieldPi(r) is generatedby a sourcein the homogeneousbackgroundand containsno scatteredenergy. Therefore, the incident
wavefieldtravelsthrough the model at the backgroundacousticvelocityCo
and contributesto the scattered wavefieldthrough the scatter sourceterm
[V'2+ko]Pi(r) -
O.
(59)
[v +
(60)
function.
2 Thus,theGreen'sfunctionbecomes
thesolutionto equation(60)
if we replacethe sourceterm with a negativeimpulsesourcefunction-5(rr t) or
[V2+ ko]a(r[r')
-5(r - r').
(61)
a(rIr') -- j4 Ho(X)(ko
Ir- r' l)'
(6:2)
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3.2.
ACOUSTIC
WAVE
SCATTERING
51
where
Ho
() isthezero-order
Hankel
function
ofthefirstkind.In a 3-Dspace
containingpoint scatterersand field points, the solution to equation (61)
is
(63)
M(r ) - 0, or 3
P,(r)- -ko
/ G(r
[r')M(r')[P(r')
+P(r')]dr'.
(64)
Equation (64) is called the Lippmann-Schwinger
equation,which is the
desiredintegral solutionfor the acousticwave-scatteringproblem. We point
out in Appendix C that suchan integral is analogousto obtaining an output
from a filter systemwhenthe impulseresponse
of the filter (i.e., the Green's
tion M(r) to the data function(scatteredwavefield)P,(r). The nonlinearity is a result of the scatteredwavefieldP,(r) insidethe integrandof
equation(64) whosevaluedepends
on the modelfunctionM(r). Because
of this nonlinearity,it is difficult to use equation(64) to perform either
forwardmodeling(computeP,(r) from M(r)) withoutresortingto computationally extensiveapproachessuchas finite differencemethodsor to
derive diffractiontomographyimage reconstructionalgorithms(compute
M(r) from P,(r)). One way to get aroundthis problemis to linearize
equation(64) by makinga simplifyingapproximation
calledthe Born approximation.
3.2.2
scattered
wavefield
P,(r) is muchweakerthanthe incidentwavefield
Pi(r),
3In this book we use special integration notation which should not be confused with
remain
general,
if weareintegrating
overa plane,
thenf dr' f dx'dz';
andif weare
integrating
overa voltune,
thenf dr'::f dx'dy'dz'.
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52
CHAPTER
3.
SEISMIC
DIFFRACTION
TOMOGRAPHY
or
P,(r) P(r).
(65)
Pi(r) + P,(r)
Pi(r).
(66)
The Lippmann-Schwinger
equationis linearizedby substitutingequation(66)
into equation(64),
P,(r)
-ko
2/ G(r
[r)M(r)Pi(r)dr
.
(67)
Note that the integrandno longercontainsthe scatteredwavefieldP(r)
and the data function P(r) and mode]function M(r) are now linearly
related. If the primary acoustic source is a negative impulse located at
vector position r,, then, by the definition of a Green's function, we can
Pi(r')
G(r' [ rs).
(68)
If a pressure-sensitive
receiver(e.g.,hydrophone)
is locatedat positionr =
rp, thenby substituting
equation(68) intoequation(67) for P(r') wefind,
P,(r,,rp)
--k
2/ M(r')G(r'
lr,)G(r
pIr')dr', (69)
whereP,(r,, rp) is the scattered
wavefield
observed
at positionrp whenthe
negativeimpulsesourceis located at positionr. Both Green'sfunctions
are definedby either equation(62) or (63).
wavefield
wavefield
and the
3.2.3
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3.2.
ACOUSTIC
WAVE
SCATTERING
53
the same as for the Lippmann-Schwingersolution, the data function representingthe observedscatteredwavefieldis different. The Rytov approximation establishesa linear relationship between the data function and the
model function. The resulting linearized integral solution strongly resemblesequation(69) for the Born approximation.
We begin the derivationby returning to equation(51) which describes
the propagationof the total wavefieldP(r) through a constantdensity,
variable-velocity
medium. Usingequation(55) andequation(56) asthe def-
as
Iv + - 4()]P,()
0.
(70)
P(r)-
e,(r),
(71)
carryan impliedfrequencydependence.
We wish to substituteequation(71) into equation(70) to obtain a differentialequationin termsof ,(r). The Laplacianof P,(r) mustbe taken
to achieve the this result.
We start with
vP,()
= v. [vP,()].
vP,() =
=
=
v. b,()v,()],
e'()v-v,()+ Ve'().v,(),
,()v,() + ,()v,(). v,(),
e'(r)[v,(r)+V,(r).V,(r)].
(72)
Equations
(71) and(72) aresubstituted
intoequation(70)for V2P,(r) and
P,(r) giving,
- 0. (73)
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54
CHAPTER
3. SEISMIC
DIFFRACTION
TOMOGRAPHY
Dividing
through
byeqb'(r),
equation
(73)becomes,
V6 (r) + [V6t(r) V6t(r)]+ ko
koM(r)-
0,
(74)
Pi(r)-
e0i(r),
(75)
0a(r) =
0t(r)- 0,(r).
(76)
Sincethetotalwavefield
P(r) variesfromthe incidentwavefield
P(r) only
whenscatteringoccurs,we can surmisethat the complexphe difference
function$a(r) is a meansof accounting
for scatteredenergy.
Wecontinue
thederivation
byreplacing
0,(r)in equation(74) by
a(r) definedby equation(76). Carryingthis operationout yieldsa
differentialequationin termsof 0,(r) and
(77)
The termsin equation(77) are rearrangedin a form whichwill proveconvenient later on,
(78)
The termsinsidethe squarebracketson the left-handsideof equation (78) are all relatedto the incidentwavefield
and havea sumequal
to zero. This is eily showntrue by usingequation(59) whichdescribes
the propagation
of the incidentwavefieldPi(r) throughthe background
medium.Equation(75) defining
Pi(r)is substituted
intoequation
(59)to
get the differentialequationin termsof i(r). Followingthe sameprocedurewhichgavethe Laplacianof Pt(r) in equation(72), the Laplacianof
VP(r)- e0(r)[v0(r)
+ V0(r).V0,(r)].
(79)
Substituting
equations
(79) and (75)into equation(59) for VP(r) and
P(r), respectively,
gives
ei(r)[v2i(r)
+ Vi(r)-Vi(r)]
+ kei(r)- O.
(80)
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3.2.
ACOUSTIC
WAVE
SCATTERING
55
Dividing
equation
(80)byei(r)results
inanequation
which
demonstrates
that the bracketedterms in equation(78) havea zerosum,or
V2i(r) + Vi(r).Vi(r)
+ ko
-
O.
(81)
+ ().
(8)
v,(). v()
+ v()
- -v().
v()
P(r)(r)
V[P,(),()]
- V. [,()VP,() + P,()V,()]
= ,()V()
+ V(). V,()
+P,(r)V2d(r).
(83)
VP(r)-
2VP,(r). V(r)+
P,(r)V(r)
- V[Pi(r)(r)]- (r)VP,(r)
= V2[pi(r)d(r)]+ d(r)koP()
2
= [V + k]P,(r)d(r).
(84)
Iv + ]P,()o,()
(SS)
The quantity inside the square brackets on the right-hand side of equation (85) is definedby the earlier "crucial"relationshipgiven by equa-
IV + ]P,()o,()
-P,()[v,().
vo,()-
()].
(86)
P,()o,()
- f P,W)[vo,(').
v,(')(')]a(
I')d',(87)
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CHAPTER
56
3.
SEISMIC
DIFFRACTION
TOMOGRAPHY
equation(87) by assuming
the conditionVa(r) <( 1. When Va(r)is
smallthe quantityX7a(r'). Va(r') in equation(87) canbe neglected
and
we write the approximation,
-f
(ss)
P(r') =
G(r'}r,),
(89)
P(r,rv)Sa(r,,rv)
-ko
f m(r')G(r'
lr,)O(r
vIr')dr'.
(90)
The Green'sfunctionsaresatisfiedby eitherequation(62) or equation(63).
However,to useequation(90) properly,the gradientof the phasedifference
functionVSa(r),mustbe smallas requiredby the Rytov approximation.
3.2.4
Schwinger
equationusingthe Bornapproximation
in equation(69) is identical to that of the Rytov approximationin equation(90). Herewe demonstrate that the data functionPi(r,,rr)Sa(r,,rr) associated
with the Rytov approximationreducesto the data function associatedwith the Born
approximation,
the scattered
wavefield
P(rs,rp), whenthe complex
phase
difference
functiond(rs,rr) issmall.Next,weshowthat forcing
to be smallis the sameasrequiringa weakscattered
wavefield
P,(r,,rr)
for the Born approximation.Finally, we state the limitationsfor applying
either the Born or Rytov approximation.
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3.2.
ACOUSTIC
First
WAVE
SCATTERING
57
Pi(r0,rr)ba(r0,rr)
P0(r0,rr),
(91)
expansion
ofe4a(r0,
r) which
isgiven
by,
3] +.... (92)
(,,)
(',)
- 1.
()
The approximationof the data function sociated with the Rytov approximation is found by multiplying equation (93) by the incident wavefield
P,(r,,rr)(r,,rr) Pi(r,rr)[e(r'rr)
- 1].
(94)
This approximation
is eily shownto be the scatteredwavefieldP(r, rr)
byusing
therelationships,
Pi(r,,rr)- ei(r,rr), P(r,rr)- e'(r,rr)
andP(r,, rr) - P(r, rr)-Pi(r,, rr) , fromequations
(75), (71), and(50),
respectively.Hence,equation(94) is rewritten:
,(,, r) _ ,(,,r)
,(r, ) - ,(r, r)
(r, r).
()
P(r)-
A,(r)eJb,(r),
(96)
Pi(r) - Ai(r)eJbi(r),
(97)
and
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58
CHAPTER
3. SEISMIC
DIFFRACTION
TOMOGRAPHY
respectively,
where;bt(r)and;b,(r)aretherealphases
andAt(r) andA,(r)
arethe amplitudes.Equation(76) givesthe definitionof the complexphase
difference
function
as
(98)
Solvingequations
(71) and(75) for dr(r) anddi(r), thensubstituting
the
resultsinto the last equationgives
(99)
da(r)- In[At(r)1
q-j[bt(r)bi(r)]
'
(100)
The complexphasedifference
functionrid(r) in equation(100)is small
whenIn ta,(r)/Z,(r)l << I and [;bt(r)- ;b(r)]<< 1. This is the comparableto requiringthat the difference
betweenPt(r) na g(r) be small
inhomogeneities
maybecome
an importantfactorto consider
whenusing
the Born approximation.
onlya smooth
modelfunction
andplaces
norestrictions
onthestrength
of the scatterersor their size. Thus, the Rytov approximationis a smooth
scatteringor smoothperturbationapproximation.
3.3
Genera'ized Projection
Slice Theorem
the sourceandreceiverprofilesandby takingthe 2-D spatialFouriertransform of the modelfunction. The result is the generalizedprojectionslice
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3.3.
GENERALIZED
PROJECTION
SLICE
THEOREM
foundation
59
function
foreitherP,(r,, rr) oftheBornapproximation
or Pi(rs,rr)b,(rs,rr)
of the Rytov approximation. Thus, the generic equation,
-}o
(xox)
functiondefinedby equation(62).
We find it instructive to derive the generalizedprojection slicetheorem
for three typical source-receiverconfigurations: the crosswellprofile, the
3.3.1
Crosswell Configuration
the source
locationr andreceiver
locationrr' canbe expressed
in terms
of their respective
coordinates
(d, z) and (dr, zr). Substitutingthesecoordinatesinto equation(101) for the positionvectorswe get,
i, equation(102)is chosento
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60
CHAPTER
3.
SEISMIC
DIFFRACTION
TOMOGRAPHY
..X
Source
Receiver
ds
dp
FIG. 16. Source-receivergeometry for the crosswelltomography experiment. The sourcelocations are representedby solid circles at the constant
horizontal location d,. The receivers are represented by open circles at the
for this problem. We rewrite the position vectors in the Green's function
G(x,z
Id,,z,)- Ho()(koV/(X
- d,)+ (z- z,)).
(103)
thezero-order
Hankelfunction
Ho
(). TheGreen's
function
represents
a
cylindricalwaveat the point (x, z) propagatingawayfrom a line sourceat
(d,, z,) with vectorwavenumber
ko. Fortunately,it turnsout that the zeroorder Hankel function can be mathematically thought of as the summation
1/_1eJ[kl(z-z,)+?llx-d,
I]dkl (104)
oo 7
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3.3.
GENERALIZED
PROJECTION
SLICE
THEOREM
61
absolute
valueof (x -ds) is required
because
71 - +v/ko
-k, whichis
alwaysgreaterthan zero. The absolutevalueofx-ds insures7(x-do) > O,
regardlessof the value of x.
7 - +v/ko2 -k.
The directionofpropagation
for planewave#1 is a = tan- (7/k). Plane
wave #2 is traveling in the +x directionwith vectorwavenumberko: and
components
(7 = ko,k = 0). Note that the summationof planewave#1
equation (103). This is achievedby substitutingthe plane wave decompositionof the zero-orderHankelfunctiondefinedby equation(104) into
equation(103) giving,
where the absolutevalue can be droppedby requiringz > ds. Note that
this Green's function is adequatefor the crosswellconfigurationshown in
Figure 16 since we are usingequation (102) to image only betweenthe
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62
CHAPTER
3.
SEISMIC
DIFFRACTION
TOMOGRAPHY
#2
#1
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3.3.
GENERALIZED
PROJECTION
SLICE
THEOREM
63
G(dr,
z[x,z) - 4----
fj l eJ[k(zr
- z)-l?(dr
- x)]dk
(106)
for x ( dr. Here a given plane wave has the wavenumbercomponents
k along the z-axis (parallel to the receiverline) and 7 alongthe x-axis
(perpendicularto the receiverline), analogousto the kx and 7 reference
directionswith respect to the sourceline. The direction of propagation
x e-jkze-Jkrzr
dzdzr
'
(107)
-k o
2
M(x,z)
G(x,z [ d,,zo)-Jk,
z,dzo
(os)
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64
between
thedatafunction
]5(d,,
k,;dr,kr)andthemodel
function
M(x,z).
Notethatwehavechanged
theorderof integration
in equation
(108).
Next,wesubstitute
theGreen's
functions
fromequations
(105)and(106)
intoequation
(108),regroup
termswithsimilarintegration
variables,
and
interchange
the orderof integration
for the twoinnermost
integrals
over
eachGreen'sfunction,givingthe equation,
5(d,
Iq,)
= k
' ko'
' d,,
4 1
M(x
' z}
(109)
{ 1eJ[-2z+'2(dp-z)]
-J(p-'2)Zpdzpd
The integralsin equation(109) with respectto the variablesz, and
zr areeasilyevaluated
in termsof Diracdeltafunctions
asshownin AppendixB. The followingare the integralsolutions:
5
:'
e-j(k
+k,)z,
dz,
(110)
e-j(k
,- ka)zp
dzp 2rS(kr- k,).
(111)
and
Substituting
theintegral
solutions
givenbyequations
(110)and(111)
intoequation(109)andevaluating
theintegrals
withrespectto thevariables
k, andk=(remembering
that7 - ko
- k and7 - ko
- k) gives,
'
--
%%
M(z,z)
(112)
where
'rr- Vko
=-/%=
(113)
7,- 7ko
- k,
.
(114)
and
5Wechose
kl andksin thesamedirection
asksandkp,respectively,
sothatsimplifying relationships
llke equations(110) and (111) couldbe used.
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3.3.
GENERALIZED
PROJECTION
SLICE
THEOREM
65
Both7pand% arewavenumber
components
perpendicular
to the wavenumber componentskp and k0 which parallel the receiverand sourcelines,
respectively
6.
k - k, plane,the placement
of the arc depending
uponk0 andk?. At
this point we must make a brief digressionto further explain this concept.
Rs, and R4 in another well. A line diffractorlies at the location (x, z). If
] represents
the directionof a planewavepropagating
froma sourceto the
point(x, z), thenby equation(105) the associated
wavenumber
components
(7, k) can be written,
koi -
7:+ k.,
(115)
where and . are unit vectors in the positive x-direction and z-direction,
respectively.Now, as a mathematicalabstraction,let point in the opposite
directionof a planewavetravelingawayfrom the sourceto the point (x, z),
or - -{. By equation
(115)andfromthefactthat kx- -ks and7 - 7:
by equation(110), we may write the components
of koas
(116)
Figure 18(a) showsthe unit vector g for eachof the four sourceslabeled
with subscriptsas gx, 2, a, and g4.
Now let ) representthe direction of a plane wave propagating from the
(117)
Figure 18(a) showsthe unit vector for eachof the four receiverslabeled
with subscriptsas )x, 2, )a, and 4.
ing from the point (x,z) to the four receiversas the vectorskol, ko.,
6Refer back to equation (107) for the definitionsof kr axtdk.
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66
TOMOGRAPtIY
s1
R1
Zs2^
^ R2
^2
S4
R4
(a)
Kz
Kz
(b)
(c)
entiredashed
circleterminus
is defined.Equation(116)defines
thecomponents(k, %) for thesewavenumber
vectors.(c) The wavenumber
vectors
for eachreceiver
areshown
onthe k- kz planeasterminating
alonga
dashedcirclewith radiusko. As for the source,the entire dashedcircle
terminusis definedif receiversare placedfrom +c to -c.
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3.3.
GENERALIZED
PROJECTION
SLICE
,ks
THEOREM
67
kP
K x
p,i-Kx
Kz
(a)
(b)
jectionsontothe k-axis and kz-axisasdefinedby equation(116). (b) Similarly, the components of a receiver wavenumber vector kot5are shown as
definedby equation(117).
(118)
ko( +
. ,: -
kz +
(119)
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68
CHAPTER
3. SEISMIC
DIFFRACTION
TOMOGRAPttY
tS(d,k;dp,kp)
(120)
where//(k,
kz)isthe2-DFourier
transform
ofthemodel
function
M(z,z),
or
+
+
(121)
P(do
ko
kp)-- --k2
eJ(7pdp
- %d,)
~ + f>)].
; dp,
M[ko(f,
'
4
%7p
(122)
Equation
(122)establishes
a relationship
between
/5(ds,
ks;dp,
kr),the
doubleintegralFouriertransformof the data functionalongthe sourceand
receiver
profiles,
andg[ko(+ )], the2-D Fouriertransform
ofthemodel
function for the diffraction tomographyproblem. Considerthe crosswell
configuration
in Figure20(a). The unit vector pointstowardthe single
sourcefrom the linescattererlocatedat (x, z) whilereceiversdeployedfrom
+cx>to -cx>alongthe receiverwell causethe unit vector to havethe range
within the dashedsemicircle.The locusof the quantityko( + ) in the
wavenumberdomainis a semicirclewith radius ko centeredon the point
(-ko, 0), asshownin Figure20(b).
Note that the coverage
in the wavenumber
domainchanges
asthe source
is moved.For example,Figure20(c) showsthe unit vector for the source
at -cx>.Sincethe receivers
areat thesamelocations
asin Figure20(a)the
coverage
of remainsthe same.The locusof the quantityko(.q-) in the
wavenumberdomainis shownin Figure 20(d) as a semicirclewith radius
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3.3.
GENERALIZED
PROJECTION
SLICE
THEOREM
69
,.
ource
-
source
at
O0
',
,'
o
.ource
at
+oo
(a)
{e)
(c)
gx
gx
Kz
(b)
Kz
Kz
(d)
37/(k=,
kz)bythesource
locations
in (a), (c),and(d),respectively.
Thesolid
arcsare a resultof the vectorsum, koi + kolS,as definedin equation(122)
on the right-hand side.
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70
CHAPTER
3.
SEISMIC
DIFFRACTION
TOMOGRAPItY
semicircular
locidefined
by ko(+ )in Figures
20(_b),
20(d),and20(f).
The loci definedby ko(O+ ) in the evaluationof M are calledthe slice
of the 2-D
Fourier
transform
The
data function
slicetheorem.
Thetheorem
states
that15,(d,,
k,;dr,kr), thedouble
integral Fourier transformof the data function along the sourceand receiver
lines, is equal to M[ko(g + ))], the 2-D Fourier transformof the model
function evaluated along the semicircularslice, multiplied by the quantity
k eJ(7pdr
We may extend the situation shown in Figure 20 by deployingmany
sources
from+xto -xin the sourcewellasshownin Figure21(a). Using
more sources results in more slices in the wavenumber
domain as illustrated
line. We useequation
(122)to compute
the modelfunctionAYl[ko(
+
)] along the solid slicesin the k, - kz plane. For sucha multisourcemultireceiver configuration,the 2-D Fourier transform of the model function
ily define
a modelspectrum
to "fill-in"theundefined
partsof/l/(k,k,).
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3.3.
GENERALIZED
PROJECTION
SLICE
THEOREM
71
()
()
()
()
)
8ource
locus of ko 8
receiver
o.. o o( + )
(a)
(b)
ko(q-I5).Nowthemodelfunction/f4(k=,
k,) iswelldefined
withinthetwo
circular regionsof solid line coverageusing the generalizedprojection slice
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72
CHAPTER
3.
SEISMIC
DIFFRACTION
TOMOGRAPttY
ds
dp
source
o receiver
We restrict
our reconstruction
of the modelfunctionto x < dr and z > d,.
3.3.2
rr canbe expressed
in termsof theirrespective
coordinates
(x,d) and
(dr,zr). Weshallassume
thatthedomainof themodelfunction
M(x, z) is
restrictedto x < dr andz > d. The derivationfor the VSP configuration
followscloselythe derivationof the crosswellconfigurationof the last section. In fact, we end up with the sameform of the generalizedprojection
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3.3.
GENERALIZED
PROJECTION
SLICE
THEOREM
73
P(zs,ds;dr,zr) -
-ko
M(z,z)
(123)
Again we chooseequation (62) to representthe Green'sfunctionsin a 2D medium so that the acoustic sourcesare infinite line sources,the diffractors in the model are infinite line diffractors, and the receiversare infinite
line receivers. Thus, we are once again dealing with cylindrical acoustic
waves in a 2-D medium.
The developmentof the Green's functions here closelyfollows the discussionof the previous section and will not be presented in detail. The
orderHankel
function
H) ofthefirstkind.Theresulting
integral
formof
the Green's function
is
Jff eJ[k(xx,)+7(z
- d,)]dk,
(124)
G(x,
zlx,d,) = 4
7
for z > ds. Note that, as before, the wavenumber component k is taken
along the sourceprofile which for the VSP geometryis in the direction of
the x-axis. The wavenumbercomponent7x is alongthe z-axis and is defined
as7 - v/ko
- k. A similardevelopment
oftheGreen's
function
G(dr,zr I
z, z) for an infinite line diffractorat (z, z) whoseenergyis recordedby a
receiverlocatedat (dr, zr) givesthe equation,
j f: 1eJ[k.(z
r_z)+
- z)lak2,
(125)
Finally, we must write down the equation for taking the Fourier trans-
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CHAPTER
74
3.
P(:, , d, ;ct,,
, :,,)
SEISMIC
DIFFRACTION
TOMOGRAPHY
/_:,o
/_P(z,,
d,;
dp,
zp)
x e-jk'x' e-jkpzp
dxsdzp,
(126)
5(k,
dp,
kp)
=k
1 /_
/_M(a:,
'd,;
4 (2a')'
oo
z)
{/_
(128)
d[-z+(d.- )]
The integrals
in equation
(128)withrespect
to the variables
x andzr
are easily evaluated in terms of Dirac delta functions as
'e-J(k
+k,)Xsdx
'
(129)
_=
e-J(k
p- k2)zp
dz
r
(130)
and
2r5(kp- k:).
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3.3.
GENERALIZED
PROJECTION
SLICE
THEOREM
75
'
'
--
77p
M(, )
-J(. +7)-J(-%)&,
(s)
:
=
:
(-i
- 7) + (7i + )
(.i- %) + (i + %)
(. +)i+(%-%)
k+k,
(3a)
o(a + ).
(i
+ ).
(a + )
k x + k z
(133)
Note that equation(133) multipliedby -j is just the term in the exponential of the integrandin equation(131). Substitutingequation(133) into
equation(131) resultsin the equation,
x e-J(kx + kz)dxdz
M(, )
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76
CHAPTER
3.
SEISMIC
DIFFRACTION
TOMOGRAPHY
kp
ks
:Kx
Kz
(a)
(b)
(134)
where37/(k,kz)isthe2-DFourier
transform
ofthemodelfunction
M(x, z)
takenoverthe imagearearestrictedto x < dr and z > d,. Notethat equation (a4) is the sameas equation(122) for the crosswell
configuration
exceptfor the directionsover which the doubleintegral Fourier transforms
of the data functionP(x,, z,; zr, zp) are taken.We requirethat the transforms be taken along the sourceand receiverprofiles,which for the VSP
configurationare differentfrom the crosswellconfiguration.
Equation(134) is the generalizedprojectionslicetheoremfor the VSP
configuration.
It statesthat P,(k,,d,;dp,kr), thedoubleintegralFourier
transformof the data function, taken along the sourceline and the receiver
%%
'
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3.3.
GENERALIZED
PROJECTION
SLICE
THEOREM
77
Kz
^
source
locus of ko 8
o receiver
locusof/ ( + I)
(a)
(b)
ko(+/3). Themodelfunction
iff(k,k,) is welldefined
withinthezone
of solidline coverageusingthe generalizedprojectionslicetheoremfor the
VSP configuration
definedby equation(134).
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78
CHAPTER
3.
SEISMIC
DIFFRACTION
TOMOGRAPIIY
.X
source
o receiver
We restrict
our reconstruction
for the
geometryshownhere to z dp.
3.3.3
The last source-receivergeometry we will derive the generalizedprojection slicetheoremfor is the surfacereflectionconfigurationin Figure 25.
The sources
(soliddots)aredeployed
alonga lineparallelto the x-axisat a
constantverticallocationz - d. Similarly,the receivers(open dots) are
deployedalong a line parallel to the x-axis at a constantvertical location
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3.3.
GENERALIZED
PROJECTION
79
SLICE THEOREM
zI
4, I
z)aaz.
We assume
a 2-D mediumandchoose
equation(62) to represent
theGreen's
functionsfor the infinite-lineacousticsources,infinite line diffractors,and
the infinite line receivers.Thus, all acousticwaveswill be cylindrical.
J/5 1eJ[k(xx)+?(zd)ldk,
(136)
for z > d,. The wavenumber
component
k is takenalongthe sourceprofile
which is in the direction of the x-axis. The wavenumber component 7 is
alongthez-axisandis defined
7 - V/ko
2 - k2.
Sincethe receivergeometryis similarto the sourcegeometryweusethe
same form of the Green's function as for the sourcesgiving
3__'/5
1eJ[k9.(x
r_x)-72(d
r- Z)]dk
2(137)
wherek2 is the wavenumbercomponentparallelto the receiverline and 72
Proceeding
with the derivation,
wewritedownthe equation
for taking
theFouriertransform
ofthedatafunction
P(x, d;xr, dr) in equation
(135)
alongthe sourceline(x) andreceiver
line(xr). The relationship
is found
by first takingthe Fouriertransform
of P(x, d;xr, dr) with respectto xs,
followed
by a second
Fouriertransformwith respectto xr whichproduces
the doubleintegral Fourier transform,
P(zo,d;zr,
x e-Jzkoe-Jxrkrdxdxr,
(138)
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CItAPTER
8O
3.
SEISMIC
DIFFRACTION
TOMOGRAPttY
P(k,,d,;kp,dr) -
-k
M(x,z)
(139)
(, I ., a.)-j''
6(:,,,4, [ :,z)-j'"
and (137) into equation(139), regrouptermswith similarintegrationvariables, and interchangethe order of integration for the two innermostintegralsovereachGreen'sfunction,yieldingthe equation,
15(k
'' d,;kr,
dr) = ko
1
4 (2r)'
x
M(z' z)
(140)
{f_1'It"
+''('
- ')1
j'_"-'('+t')' }
--
--
sdzsdk
e-j(kr - k=)zPdzrdk=
dzdz.
e-j(k
+k,)Z,dx
' 27rS(k+ k,),
(141)
j e-j(kp
- k:)%, 2rS(k,- k2).
(142)
and
ko
ej(-%dp
- -/,d,)oo
M(x,
z)
4
7,%
oo oo
(143)
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3.3.
GENERALIZED
PROJECTION
SLICE
THEOREM
ts':-Kx
81
tp Kx
:z
(a)
(b)
o( + )
(-
- 7.) + (. - 7..)
(0 - 0.) + ( - .)
=
=
(o + ) + (--r --r)
kx + kz,
(144)
o( + 0).,,
+ ,)-(
+ z)
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82
CHAPTER
3.
SEISMIC
DIFFRACTION
TOMOGRAPttY
kz + kzz
(145)
Notethat equation(145) multipliedby -j isjust the term in the exponential of the integrandin equation(143). Substitutingequation(145) into
equation(143) resultsin the equation,
_ ko
ej(-7rdr
- %d,)oo
M(x,
z)
4
%%0
oo
x e-J(kx + kz)dxdz
=
_
4
-4
- %d,)_
j(-dp - )
U[ko( + )],
(146)
where
217/(k,
k.) isthe2-DFourier
transform
ofthemodel
function
M(x, z)
takenoverthe imagearearestrictedto the greaterof z > d, or z >dp.
Equation(146) is the generalized
projectionslicetheoremfor the surface
reflection
configuration.
It states
that['(k,,d;kr,dp),thedouble
integral
Fourier transform of the data function, taken along the source line and
the receiver
line,is equalto 20[ko(S
+ iO)l,the 2-D Fouriertransform
of
the model function, evaluatedalong the semicircularslicemultiplied by the
quantity
--eJ(-7pdp
%%0- 7sds)
'
Figure 27(a)shows sourcesand receiversdeployedfrom
alongtheir respectiveprofilesfor the surfacereflectionconfiguration.The
rangeof all possibleko is depictedby the dashedline in Figure 27(b).
We useequation(14{5)to computeM[ko(g+ )] alongthe solidslicesin
the k: - kz plane. The surfacereflectionconfigurationprovidesa different
coverage
of M(kz, k,) than the crosswell
and VSP configurations
andtherefore we shouldexpect differentestimatedmodelsfrom each configuration.
Once again,each configurationprovidesa differentresolutionand degreeof
nonuniqueness
dependingupon how the configuration"fills-in" the model
spectrum and how much of the model spectrum the configurationleaves
undefined.
3.4
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3.4.
ACOUSTIC
DIFFRACTION
TOMOGRAPttY
83
source
receiver
........
locus of/ o s
locus of/ o (s + p)
(a)
(b)
resulting
vector
samko(g+I5).
Themodel
function
A7/(kx,
k,) iswelldefined
within the zoneof solid line coverageon the -k half plane.
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CHAPTER
$4
3.
SEISMIC
DIFFRACTION
TOMOGRAPtIY
correspond
to equations(122), (134), and (146), respectively.Foreachconfigurationthe theoremestablishesa relationshipbetweenthe doubleFourier
transformof the data functions takenalongthe sourceand receiverprofiles
and the 2-D spatial Fourier transform of the model function. Further analysisof the generalizedprojection slicetheorem showsthat each sourcelocation definesthe model function along a circular arc in the ks - k domain,
as depicted in Figures 21, 24, and 25 for each source-receiverconfiguration.
To obtain the model function M(x, z) we must take the inverseFourier
transform
of./[ko(+)] whichisnotreadilycarried-out
sinceAY/[ko(+)]
is defined by circular arcs. Thus, in this section we develop two image reconstructionalgorithmsto handle this problem called the direct-transform
diffraction tomography and the backpropagationdiffraction tomography.
Thedirecttransform
methodinvolves
estimating
thevalues
of [ko(,+ P)]
on the k- k coordinate plane, which is analogousto the direct-transform
ray tomography method presentedin Section 2.2.2. On the other hand,
the backpropagationmethod takes a more elegant mathematical approach
to achieve the same result. The backpropagation method presented here is
analogousto the backprojection ray tomography presentedin Section2.2.3.
3.4.1
Direct-Transform
Diffraction Tomography
tainedaslongaswecanperform
aninverse
Fourier
transform
onAYl[ko(
+
)]. However,most inverseFourier transformalgorithmsuse Cartesian
coordinates
which meansthey can handle the inverseFourier transform
from?lf(k,k)
to M(z,z), butnotfrom?lf[ko(
+ )j to M(z,z). Figure 28 illustratesthe differencebetweenthe loci of M[ko( + )l (solid
rectangular
kz - k gridfromvalues
of AY/[(
+ )] obtained
alongcircular
arcs using the generalizedprojection slice theorem. As mentionedin Section 2.2.2, one must exercise caution in performing an interpolation since
the operation may introduce error which can obscure the true solution.
However, once the values of M are found on a k - k rectangular grid,
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85
K,x
o
tionM(k,,kz) at thesoliddotsalongcircular
arcsin theks- kzplane.To
gettheestimated
modelfunctionM(x, z) the2-D inverse
Fouriertransform
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86
CHAPTER
3.
SEISMIC
DIFFRACTION
TOMOGRAPttY
wavefield
informa-
,of_,o
't,+
'
(147)
Here is and ir are the distancesalongthe sourceand receiver lines, respectively. Equation (147) correspondsto
equation(107) for the crosswellconfigurationwhen is - zs
and ir = zr; to equation(126)for the VSP configuration
when I -- x and ir = zr; and to equation(138) for the
surfacereflectionconfiguration
whenl = x and lr - xr.
Step 3: Compute the 2-D Fourier transform of the unknown
modelfunction
A7l[ko(k
4-)] alongcircular
arcsusingthe
generalizedprojection slicetheorem,
(148)
Equation(148) corresponds
to equation(122) for the crosswellconfiguration,
equation(134) for the VSP configuration,
and equation(146) for the surfacereflectionconfiguration.
Step 4: Perform a 2-D interpolation on the values of M from
thegeneralized
projection
slicetheorem
to determine
AT/on
the rectangular k,-
kz grid,
(149)
M(zz)= I
"
1171(k
k,)e
j(kz+k'Z)dkdk,
(150)
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3.4.
ACOUSTIC
3.4.2
DIFFRACTION
TOMOGRAPttY
87
ofthemodelfunction
[ko( + ))] ona rectangular
k, - k, gridenabling
usto taketh inverse
2-D Fouriertransform
of to getthe estimated
modelfunctionM(x, z). The interpolationsteprequiredis computationally
slow and the possibilityof introducingerrors into the interpolatedmodel
function is very real. In this section we introduce the more mathemat-
1 (k,k,)eJ(kz
+k,Z)dkdk,
M(x,z) = 4
. (151)
Since[ko( + )] is defined
in termsof thewavenumbers
(k, k), wewill
performa changeof variablesfrom (k, k,) to (k, kr) on the right-hand
sideof equation(151). This will permit us to directlytake the 2-D inverse
Fouriertransform
of the modelfunction[ko( + )] withouthavingto
perform an interpolation required by the direct-transform diffraction
tomography.Equation(151) in the form for this changeof variablesis
M(x
z) = 421
'
x I
[ko(
+)]eJ[k(k,
kr)z
+k,(ks,
kr)z
]
I
(152)
where[ko(i + )] is themodelfunction
fromthegeneralized
projection
slicetheorem,k(k,,kr) and k,(k,,kr) are the wavenumbers
expressed
in
termsof the variables(k, kr) , and J(kr, k, [ k, kr) is the JacobJan
relating dk,dkr with dkdk,. The JacobJan
can be expressed
in termsof the
determinant,
J(k
k,]k,,kr)
'
Ok:Ok,
OkOk:
= Ok:
Ok
r Ok
r Ok,'
(153)
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88
CHAPTER
3. SEISMIC DIFFRACTION
TOMOGRAPttY
complete
thechange
of variables
for thethreesource-receiver
configurations
presented
in the previous
section.The resultingequationfor eachconfiguration is in a form which permits use of a 2-D inverseFourier transform
.l17f[ko(
+f))]= 4%7r
r - %d)P(d
ko
e-j(%,d
,k;dr,kr)
. (154)
From equation (119) we see that the coordinatesystem transformation
Substituting
this coordinate
systemtransformation
into equation(153)
givesthe Jacobianfor the crosswellconfiguration,
J(k,kz
Ik,,kr)= k,%,+k,%.
(156)
Substituting
equations
(154),(155),and(156)intoequation(152)gives,
M(z
1/'/_
,z)= 4.2
'4%7r
-oe-j(7rdr_%d)
-
x [ks
7r+krYs
[dks
dkp,
and rearrangingtermsgivesthe equationfor backpropagation
diffraction
tomographyfor the crosswellconfiguration,
(157)
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3.4.
ACOUSTIC
DIFFRACTION
TOMOGRAPttY
89
[o(+)] = 4,0,
ko
e_j(, _,,,)p(,, ; ,) . (S8)
From equation (133) we see that the coordinatesystem transformation
k(k,, k) =
k, + 7
= +-,na
= kv- k- k.
(159)
M(x,
z) = 4 e
x [kk
v+%7v
]dkdkv,
and rearrangingterms gives the equationfor backpropagationdiffraction
tomographyfor the VSP configuration,
M(,) =
'
x eJ[(k,
+ 7v)x
+ (kv- 7,)z]ak,
akv.
(161)
[ko(
+P)] = 477
e-J(-7d
- 7d)p(k
d,'k,dp).
(162)
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CHAPTER
9O
3.
SEISMIC
DIFFRACTION
TOMOGRAPHY
--
-%
- 7r
(163)
Substitutingthis coordinatesystem transformationinto equation (153)
givesthe JacobJanfor the surfacereflectionconfiguration,
(164)
1f_/:I'r,-/,'
Ip(/
)
(165)
x eJ[(ks
+ kp)x
+ (-% - 7p)Z]dk,dk,
'
3.5
Summary
1. The model used for acousticwave scattering was the Helmholtz form
of the acousticwaveequationfor a constant-densitymedium of vari-
IV + :=(.)],(.) -
o,
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3.5.
SUMMARY
91
where Pt represents the total wavefield which contains both the incident wavefield from the source and scattered
mogeneitiesembeddedin a constant-velocitybackgroundmedium.
2. We treat the inhomogeneitiesas secondary sourcesand write the
acousticwaveequation as the inhomogeneous
differentialwaveequation,
IV +
I r')dr',
The
totalwavefield
Pt(r)bytheexponential
equation
eqSt(r),
where
the
complextotal phasefunctionqbt(r)was set equal to the sum of the
complexincidentphasefunctionq5i(r)and the complexphasedifference function qba(r). After lengthymanipulationsof thesephases,
formulating a Green's function solution to the resulting inhomoge-
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92
CHAPTER
3. SEISMIC DIFFRACTION
TOMOGRAPttY
P(r,,r)a(r,,r)
-ko
/M(r')G(r'
Ir,)G(r
Ir')dr'.
Herethe data functionis P(r,, r)qba(r,,r), insteadof P,(r), which
is linearlyrelated to the modelfunctionM(r).
5. The Born approximation is valid for weak scatterers of limited size
while the Rytov approximation requires only a smooth model function.
P(d,
k,dp,
kp)= --k
eJ(%dp7,d,)_
' '
4
Thisequationestablishes
a relationship
betweenP(d, k;d, kp),the
doubleintegralFouriertransformof the data functionalongthesource
andreceiverprofilesin the crosswell
configuration,
and M[ko( + )],
the 2-D Fouriertransformof the modelfunctionalongcurvesin the
k - k, plane. The curvesare definedby the sum of the vector ko
is
'
'
-4
8. The generalizedproection slice theorem found for the surMce reflection configuration is
P(k,
d,'kp,
dp)= k
eJ(-7p
- 7,d,)[ko(g
+)1.
4
7s7p
9. Thecoverage
of (kz, kz)in thekz- kzplaneisdependent
uponthe
sourcereceiverconfigurationand alwaysincompleteto somedegree.
This resultsin a nonuniquelyestimatedmodel M(x, z) that h inherentlypoor resolutionin directionssociated with the incomplete
coveragein the kz - k, plane.
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3.6.
SUGGESTIONS
FOR FURTHER
READING
93
variablesin the 2-D inverseFouriertransformby (k0,kr), the variablesusedin the generalizedprojectionslice theorem. The resulting
coordinatetransformationis dependentupon the source-receiverge-
3.6
Esmersoy,
C., Oristaglio,M. L., and Levy, B.C., 1985,MultidimensionalBorn velocityinversion'singlewidebandpoint
source: J. Acoust. Soc. Am., 78, 1052-1057. Reformulares the Born inversion problem so that the data function
becomes
the field extrapolatedthroughthe wave equation.A
variable backgroundvelocity is permitted.
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94
CHAPTER
3.
SEISMIC
DIFFRACTION
TOMOGRAPIIY
This paper includesthe formulation for simultaneouslyreconstructing both the velocity and density using the Born
approximation.
Pratt, R. G., and Worthington, M. H., 1990, Inversetheory applied to multi-source cross-holetomography. Part 1: Acoustic wave-equation method' Geophys. Prosp., 38, 287-310.
We have presenteddiffraction tomographyin terms of a homogeneousbackgroundmedium with velocityCo. This paper
presentsa nonlinear inversiontechniquein the frequencyspacedomain which essentiallypermits inhomogeneous
acoustic backgroundmedia. A companionpaper treats the same
subjectwith respectto elastic media.
Rajan, S. D., and Frisk, G. V., 1989, A comparisonbetweenthe
Born and Rytov approximationsfor the inversebackscattering problem: Geophysics,54, 864-871. Includes numerical
comparisonsof the two approximations.
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Chapter
Case
4.1
St udies
Introduction
Steam-Flood
EOR Operation
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96
CHAPTER
4.
CASE
STUDIES
seismicsurveyprovidesa P-wavevelocity tomogramwhich readily identifies the heated parts of the reservoirwhen comparedwith the "base-line"
tomogram. The productionengineermay alter the chosensteam injection
program if steam by-passesparts of the reservoir.
4.2.1
the surfaceand 184 ft at the TD of well TO2. The steam injector well is sit-
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4.2.
STEAM-FLOOD
EOR
OPERATION
97
TO2 183
283
- 0
ft
- 200
- 400
_ 600
- 800
Potter
1000
1200
Depth
A
B1
- 1400
-
1600
Antelope Shale -
1800
- 2000
<--
18411
Map View
TO2
99fti
TI
" 400
DIpIi
+ Steam
Injector
134R
18411"'-..
.
183
offset.
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98
CHAPTER4.
CASE STUDIES
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4.2.
STEAM-FLOOD
EOR
OPERATION
99
component of the VSP tool fixed at a depth of 1500 ft while the source
moved through its 40 stations. The P-wave first arrivals are easily identified and have a dominant frequency of approximately 200 Hz. The large
amplitude event immediately followingthe P-wavefirst arrival is the S-wave
first arrival.
Time
Traveltime
Parameter
Measurements
simultaneousiterative reconstructiontechnique(SIRT) describedin Section 2.3.3. A three-step recipe was given in that sectionfor reconstructing
tomographicimages using SiRT. Here we explain how the traveltime parameters usedin the SIRT recipe were measured,first for a P-wave velocity
tomogram and then for an S-wavevelocity tomogram.
The traveltime parameters required by SIRT are the sourceand receiver
locations and measured traveltimes. The first step in determining source
and receiver locations is to run a borehole survey. At Midway Sunset we
usedGyroData'stool to obtainthe surfacelocations(x-y positions)for variousdepths(z-positions)in both the T02 and 183 wells. With the borehole
geometriesknownall that remainsis to providegoodmeasureddepthvalues
to the sourceand receiver. Depth gaugeson the vehiclesusedto deploy the
sourceand receiver in the boreholesprovided the measureddepth values in
The most critical and tediousstep of ray tomography processingis selecting the traveltimesfrom the observeddata. The observeddata, given
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100
CHAPTER
4.
CASE
STUDIES
P -Wave
1500
100-
1600
1700
$ -Wave
2ooI:
Time (ms)
Tube Wave
300
-
I I.
.i ii i
'
,
400 -
F(. 31. Common-receivergather for the VSP tool at a depth of 1500 ft.
The 40 traces correspondto the sourcestations.
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4.2.
STEAM-FLOOD
Source
EOR
OPERATION
Well
101
Receiver
Well
Low Velocity
High Velocity
Hz.
Generally one selects first arrivals on crosswellseismic data when Pwave traveltimes are desired. That is, the first arrival catchesour eye as
being the first significant signal. However, in many casesthe first arrival
is not a direct arrival, but a head wave which travels along an interface as
shownby the solid raypath in Figure 32. The head-wavetraveltime pick
createsa problem when the forward modeling method used in step I of the
SIRT algorithm determinesonly direct arrival raypaths, such as the one
velocities.
The remedy for this dilemma can take two avenues. The avenuewith the
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102
CHAPTER
4.
CASE
STUDIES
potholes is to stick with the ray tracing schemewhich models only direct
arrivals. Here we are forced into trying to identify when the first arrival
is a head wave and then, whether we should attempt to pick a later, more
noisy,event as the direct arrival or to make no traveltime pick at all. This
can be a very frustrating processwhen the subsurfaceis prone to many
head waves.
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103
Receiver V
P-Wave
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104
CHAPTER
4.
CASE STUDIES
rize Figure 33, we must keep in mind that the polarity will changeon the
vertical component, but not on the radial component. Thus, its best to
cross-reference
one componentwith the other during traveltimepicking.
picksfor the selectedevent (direct arrival here) over the entire crosswell
data set. With surfaceseismicdata we tie the selectedevent around loops
definedby intersectingstrike and dip lines. An analogoustechniquemay
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4.2.
STEAM-FLOOD
EOR
OPERATION
105
Sl/-Wave
Receiver V
FIG. 34. This cartoon depicts the $V-wave radiation pattern with the upgoing $V-waves exhibiting a positive polarity on the first half-cycle while
the downgoing
SV-wavesexhibita negativepolarity.The vertically(V) and
radially (R) recordedfirst half-cyclesare shownon the right as flagswith
the expectedpolarities and signalstrengthsrepresented.The vertical component changespolarity with receiver depth while the radial component's
polarity remainsnegative. No S-wavesignalis receiveddirectly acrossfrom
the sourcesince the radiation pattern is zero horizontally.
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106
CHAPTER
Cross-section
4.
CASE STUDIES
SOURCE
RRCEIVER
WELL
WELL
Commor-Receiver
Receiver Deptl
RI
RI
R2 R.3 R4 RS R6
S1-
Gather
$2.
I
I
Depths $4,
I
$5,
R6
Cross-section
SOURCE
Common-Source
:'_'____:.
s4
' CC .. -.-
RI
Sl
R2
S2.
R.3
83
R4
85.
R6
86.
WELL
(c)
Receiver Dept!
WELL
Gommon-Off
Gather
_-, R
S2
R2
S5
R.3
S4
R4
S6
Deptlm 84
R5
Cross-section
SOURCK
SI
RECEIVER
WELL
Sl
(b)
$6
SI-
Dept! S4-
R5
85-
R6
S6-
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4.2.
STEAM-FLOOD
EOR
OPERATION
107
souac
Rccclvcr Dcptlu
WELL
S1
S2
RI
WELL
R2 R3 R4 R
R6
R1
.........
R2
!
S3
R3
S4
R4
S6
R6
S3
I
Depths
S6
I <-
FIo. 36. The sourcesand receivers within the range of the box of the
cross-sectionare used to tie traveltime picks around the loop shown in the
source-receiverdepth plane. Two sourcegathers and two receivergathers
are required to complete one loop.
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108
CHAPTER4.
CASE
STUDIES
4.2.3
With
Image Reconstruction
the P-wave
direct
arrival
traveltimes
gridded
modelwhichrepresents
theinitialmodelfunction
Mj"it, where
j = 1,..., J and J is the total number of cells in the gridded model. We
chosesquare cells 5 ft on a side giving 42 cells horizontally and 84 cells
interpolated
to 1] ft square
cellsfordisplay.
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4.2.
STEAM-FLOOD
EOR OPERATION
Initial
TO2
200
109
Guess
183
Offset (ft)
150
100
50
Velocity
(fUs)
1400
..':..... 6650
...
..........6900
1450
.!::?:ii:ii::?:i!ii[
6970
'::;;:;:::::.::;
'::;:::*
7015
1500
-:::.>:+-'..::
:;? 7070
Depth
(ft)
i':J-'-"';::
7120
;/i=iii
7176
1550
.::::::::::'./.::.:
724O
7350
1600
7550
8100
1650
'['
FIG. 37. Two-layermodel usedas the initial estimatein the SIlT algorithm.
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11o
CHAPTER
4.
CASE STUDIES
ure37isthereciprocal
2 oftheinitialmodel
function
Mj'i' which
becomes
thefirstmodelestimate
Mf t in theSIRTalgorithm.
Step I of the SIRT algorithm is to perform ray tracing through the
estimated
modelMf stforeachsource-receiver
pairwithanobserved
traveltime,Pi's.As mentioned
earlier,we usea "Snell'sLaw" type of ray
tracing for this data set, which modelsonly direct arrivals. Thus, sincewe
selected1600 observedtraveltimes, we end up with 1600 predicted direct-
arrivaltraveltimesp,re,wherethe subscripti is theindexfor the ith sourcereceiverpair. Besidesgiving the predicteddirect-arrivaltraveltimes,the ray
tracing also providesthe raypath length through each cell as required by
equation(46) in step 2 of the SIRT algorithm. The raypath length for the
corrections
AM1 totheestimated
modelMf st.Thepredicted
direct-arrival
traveltimes
p,reandraypathlengths$ij fromstep1 alongwith the associatedobserved
traveltimesPi'sare usedto computeeachterm in the
summationin equation(46). The weightI/V1 for the jth cell is simplythe
number of rays which intersect the jth cell, frequently called the ray density. Ray densityis easily determinedduring ray tracing when computing
the raypathlength
Oncethe corrections
AM 1 for all J = 3528modelcellshavebeendetermined in step 2, we apply thosecorrectionsto the estimated model function
M[stinstep
3,giving
anew
estimated
model
function
MJnew)est.
However,
estimate
Mnw)tasthecurrent
estimated
model
Mfst.Thesteps
are
:ZRemember
that the SIRT algorithmusesslowness
for themodelfunctionMj instead
of velocityVj, wherefor the jth cell, the two are relatedby Mj = 1/Vj. We displayVj
because most people are more familiar looking at velocity rather than slowness.
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4.2.
STEAM-FLOOD
EOR
OPERATION
111
residual decreases
traveltimes
However, because the S-waves are imbedded in other arrivals we could select
4.2.4
Tomogram Interpretation
The presteam injection P-wave tomogram in Figure 42 is usedto delineate reservoirinhomogeneities.We made the lithology/porosityinterpretation shownin Figure 46 assuminga direct correlationbetweenthe P-wave
velocity and lithology/porositydeterminedfrom cores.The Potter A sand,
Potter B1 sand, and Antelope shale are delineated. The Potter B1 sand
is the reservoirin which steam was to be injected. Using core information
we interpreted the high and low velocity zones within the Potter B1 sand
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112
CHAPTER 4. CASESTUDIES
Iteration
TO2
200
1400
Offset (ft)
150
100
183
50
Velocity
(ft/s)
6650
.
1450
:':..... soo
............
'6970
::.:::
7015
1500
!-'-'...:i:
7070
.:.>:.:.-.'.-:::
Depth
(ft)
:[:-..:i
7120
1550
:....:......:.:
7176
.:::::::-...-:
7240
1600
7350
7550
8100
1650
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4.2.
STEAM-FLOOD
EOR OPERATION
Iteration
TO2
200
113
5
183
Offset (ft)
150
100
50
Velocity
(fUs)
1400
:?:iiiiii::.':
6650
1450
:':':"!!
7015
1500
!:..._..
7070
!-"'i!=i
'i 7120
Depth
(ft)
7176
1550
7240
7350
1600
7550
8100
1650
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114
CHAPTER4.
Iteration
TO2
200
1400
10
Offset (ft)
150
100
CASESTUDIES
183
50
Velocity
(fUs)
.i.:!i!i::::iiii::
6650
. :.....:.: :.:..
':............
'6900
1450
'.:::::::::::::::;:
.':::::::::::::.:
.........
'::..::::.':::::.:
:iiiiii?:?:?:ii?:ii
6970
1500
Depth
...........
7OlS
?//.7070
::.:;...
-. 7120
(ft)
1550
i!
':':
7176
7240
1600
7350
7550
8100
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4.2.
STEAM-FLOOD
EOR OPERATION
Iteration
,i'O2
200
1400
115
20
Offset (ft)
150
100
183
5O
Velocity
(fus)
.::i:'!::!:...
6650
..::::::i::
.... 6900
1450
.........
.........
...................
6970
:.::::.'::::::::;:;:
.:.:.:.:.:.:..-.:.:
.................
7015
1500
:...:.:
7070
?::.: 7120
Depth
(ft)
1550
-:i::::::.-.''..-:-'::
724O
1600
7350
7550
8100
1650
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116
CHAPTER
Iteration
TO2
2OO
44
Offset (ft)
150
lOO
4. CASE STUDIES
183
50
1400
Velocity
(fUs)
1450
'i:!:i:i:i:i:i:!:!:
:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:
..........
ii.! 7015
:: /::
1500
:-.;.:..'
7070
Depth
."-'."";
7120
(ft)
i!ii!':."i.?iL::::?,:.i!:!..
''
:i::::'::,
7176
..
7240
1600
735O
7550
8100
1650
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4.2.
STEAM-FLOOD
EOR
OPERATION
117
Iteration
10
2O
3O
4O
Traveltime
Residual
(xl(
4 s2)
Traveltime
FIG.
Residual
=i=
,i:iire
'Piobs
)
residuals as a function
of iteration
for P-wave
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118
CHAPTER
Iteration
TO2
200
1400
50
Offset (ft)
150
100
4. CASE STUDIES
183
50
Velocity
(fUs)
......
2634
:'.i-'!!:'
:':*"":
3041
1450
iiiiii!1111!111i
3113
1500
:' '3242
, .......
Depth
(ft)
i.11:...i::.
32
....:.:..-..-.:..-.
1550
3385
3508
3645
1600
3898
4300
1650
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4.2.
STEAM-FLOOD
EOR
OPERATION
200
Offset (ft)
150
100
183
5)
i
119
1400
::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::.:.:..'.::
-:i::i::?..-:..
.......!...,..:
...........
:.............
2o0
!
Off#t (ft)
so
!
oQ
I
183
so
i
1450 :::::::::::::::::::::::::
::::::::::::::::::::::!.:::!:::!::
:::.:.;,:.:.:.:..
1550 _
' .....
. :..
6293
i.:..'..i::!:!i!i!ii:i::..'
......"
i:i:::i:i:i". S705
1500 :i .".:?.!:!:i:i
..... .......... ::....... .:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.>;.:.6936
..]i.!ii:i:i:i:i:i:i:[3":'
_
1550
-.-.-,.-,.,.L...-.'-'.'-'.
::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::
:::::::::::::::::::::::,:
..::::::::::::::::::::::::::
:.::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::':".--.
:-:-:-:-:-:.:'
=============================================
'.:.:
?'::!:i:i:i:i:!:i:!:i:!:i:i:i:!:.
:.:-.!i::::::'
::!:::!:!:i::::':":"!":'"'
:":'::i:i:!:!:!.'.:.':
.i:;.:=.?.i.,..%...;:!:!;:!ii::.;..!...
' .... .....
04
:....,..,x.;:::::::,,:.:.::::.::::::..:
.
:.:..,?.,..
..........
..
1500
.::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::
=====================
Velocity
ix.!ii:i:!:i:i.. ".......:-:.:.:.:....
.....!:::i.i:i:i.i:i:i:!:!:i:i:.
::.`:!:i:!:!:!:;::i::::i:::;:i:!:;:!:i:i.!!:i::i:::::i::i:i:!:::;:i:i:i::
7200
:.:.',,.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.;.:.:.:.;...;.:.;.:.:.:.:.;.:.:.:...:.:
;.:.:.:.:.;.:.::.',-.:
':::.':.;:.:
::::.
=================================================
-1..:.:..:::::..-..
'":::
-:::,'-
..........
'.........
::.'.-.-'..:.:
......
:.,.,.:,:::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::
:2::::.:i:.,x.'
:-.:,-.:.
-:.-.-...:.:..............-.-.-.-.-.-.-.-.-.-.-.-.-.-.-.-.-.-.-.....-..S;
'.-.x.4::....
790I
!::..'i.';:.>-."-!'-::!:!:!:!:!:!:::
:':....... "::!:i:!:!:!:::i..x%.i:-.:..:!.
::::::::::::::::::::::::::
.....
:::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::
6000
is healed.
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120
CHAPTER
4.
CASE STUDIES
Lithology/Porosity Interpretation
TO2
200
1400
Offset (ft)
150
100
183
50
Velocity
(rt/s)
6650
6900
1450
.....
::i.!:i:i:!.i:!:
1500
ii."a'.:i11
7070
Depth
(ft)
1550
'-':li..*.."
7120
.i!!
7176
7240
735O
lSOO
',i',i',i',i',iii',i?,
7sso
8100
1650
FIG. 46. Lithology/porosityinterpretationof the presteaminjection Pwave tomogram. The Potter A sand, Potter B1 sand, and Antelope shale
are shown. Core data showedthat high and low velocity zoneswithin the
Potter B1 sand correspondto low and high porosities,respectively.
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4.2.
STEAM-FLOOD
EOR
OPERATION
121
and 125C, under confiningpressuresof 500 psi, 1000 psi, 1500 psi, and
2000 psi. Clearly, we will expect the P-wave velocity to decreaseas the
temperature of the reservoir increasesas a result of steam injection.
The core results provide us with the temperature-velocity relationship
required to interpret the presteam and poststeam injection tomograms in
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122
CHAPTER
4.
CASE STUDIES
Porosity Tomogram
TO2
200
Offset (ft)
150
100
183
50
Porosity
20
..:::.-:
1400
:..-:.:
25
30
1450
33
35
38
41
Depth
(ft)
45
1550
.,.
1600
1650
FIG. 47. Porosity tomogram determined from the P-wave velocity totoogram in Figure 42 and Wyllie's time-average equation. The lithology]porosityinterpretationfrom Figure 46 is superimposedfor comparison.
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4.2.
STEAM-FLOOD
EOR OPERATION
Fwave
123
8500
8000
75OO
Velocity
7OOO
2000 psi
15o0 psi
6500
1000 psi
500 psi
6000
20
40
60
80
100
120
Temperature (deg C)
FIc. 48. Measured P-wave velocitiesfor a Potter B1 sand core at temperatures of 25C, 55C, 90C, and 125C, under confiningpressuresof 500 psi,
1000 psi, 1500 psi, and 2000 psi.
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124
CHAPTER
4.
CASE STUDIES
Tomogram-Sonic Log
Comparison
1400
400
1500
5O0
-Smoothed
Sonic
Log
Depth
(ft)
P-wave Tomogram
1600
600
6000
7500
10000
Velocity (if/s)
12500
7000
7500
8000
8500
Velocity (if/s)
FI(. 49. The original soniclog from the TO2 well is shownon the left. On
the right, a smoothedversionof the soniclog is comparedwith a tomogram
profile parallel to and offset 15 ft from the TO2 well in Figure 42.
Figure 45. The seismicP-wave velocity over parts of the Potter B1 tar
sand dropped by 15 percent to 20 percent after one year of steam injection.
We alsoseethat the clay stringersin the upper Potter B1 sand restrict the
steam flood to the Potter B1 down dip. However, further up dip the clay
stringersare breachedby the steam and somesteam is lost to the Potter A
sand, which exhibits a similar velocity-temperature relationship as the Potter B1 tar sand reservoir. Figure 45 indicatesthat the Potter B1 sand was
not uniformly heated and gave the production engineersinformation for
modifying the steam injection project at this site.
Finally, we checkedthe reliability of the presteam injection tomogram
by comparinga tomogram profile taken about 15 ft in and parallel to the
TO2 well in Figure 42 with the soniclog in the TO2 well. Figure 49 shows
the original soniclog velocity on the left and providesa comparisonof the
smoothedsonic velocity log with the tomogram profile on the right. The
sonic log and tomogram profile are in good agreementas to overall trend.
Velocity differencescorrespondingto the clay stringersmay be attributed
to averaging-outof the high velocitiesby the tomographyinversion. The
Potter B1 reservoir,correspondingto depths below 1500 ft, show the sonic
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4.3.
IMAGING
A FAULT
SYSTEM
125
We make the following conclusionsregarding crosswellseismictomography basedupon this casestudy' 1) Crosswelltomographyas a reservoir
characterizationtool is usefulfor determiningreservoirlithologyand porosity inhomogeneitieswhich is not possiblewith only well log information;
and 2) Crosswelltomographyis usefulfor monitoringnonuniformheating
of reservoirrock betweenwells as a result of steam flooding.
4.3
Imaging
a Fault System
with
zones.
the reservoir
desaturated
Potter
4.3.1
of the saturated
and
sand.
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126
CHAPTER
4.
CASE
STUDIES
well
8O6
429
Oft
315
ff
20O ft
D!atomite
McKIttrlck
..
_ 40Oft
_
60Oft
8OO ft
1 ooo ft
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4.3.
IMAGING
A FAULT
SYSTEM
127
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128
CHAPTER
4.
CASE STUDIES
806
well
429
Oft
315 ft
.___ Shallowest
Receiver
--
Source
2O0 ft
40O ff
--
$00ft
Deepest
Receiver
--
80Oft
provides air pressureto the clamp for its activation and deactivation. The
other small line is a wire line which both supportsthe tool and provideselec-
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4.3.
IMAGING
A FAULT
SYSTEM
129
(ms)
1100
900
800
700
600
500
400
300
200
5O
lOO
150
200
events.
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CHAPTER
130
4.3.2
Traveltime
Parameter
4.
CASE STUDIES
Measurements
andradiM(R) components.
s Theclamped
vibratorisessentially
a vertically
directed dipole which has P-wave motion directed towardsthe sourcein the
lower lobe while, at the same instant, the P-wave motion in the upper lobe
is way from the source.For a homogeneous
mediumthis radiation pattern
results in no polarity changeon the vertical geophonecomponentwhile
polarity changeson the radial component.Theoretically,no P-waveenergy
should be observedat the same depth as the clamped-vibrator sourcein a
homogeneousmedium.
Figure 55 depictsthe S-waveradiation patern for he clampedvibrator which may be compared with the S-wve rdiafion pattern for the air
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4.3.
IMAGING
A FAULT
SYSTEM
131
Receiver
'
P-Wave
-I-
FIG. 54. This cartoon depicts the clamped vibrator's P-wave radiation
pattern where particle motion in the upper lobe is away from the source
while in the lower lobe the particle motion is towards the source at the
sameinstant (dipolesource).The vertically(V) and radially (R) recorded
signalsare shownon the right as flags with the expectedpolarities and
signalstrengthsrepresented.The verticalcomponentremainsnegativewith
receiverdepth while the radial component'spolarity changessign.
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132
CHAPTER
4.
CASE
STUDIES
Receiver
S-Wave
FIG. 55. This cartoon depicts the qV-wave radiation pattern for the
clamped vibrator with all $Vowaves exhibiting the same polarity as indi-
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4.3.
IMAGING
A FAULT
SYSTEM
133
Also, since the clamped vibrator required common-sourcedata acquisition, every source-receiverpair in the survey required a unique rotation
analysis to orient the horizontal components. A common-receiverdata
acquisitiontechniqueis more desirableif an orientation deviceis not available. Then, one only needs to perform one rotation analysis per receiver
level since the receiver remains fixed for all source levels as was done with
4.3.3
Image Reconstruction
waySunset
datain theprevious
section.
Theinitialmodel
function
Mjni
had square cells 10 ft on a side which is half of the source-to-sourceand
receiver-to-receiverspacings. Ten-foot square cells required 32 horizontal
cells and 60 vertical
The
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!4
CHAPTER
4. CASE STUDIES
Offset (ft)
100
Well 429
200
300
300 ..........................
I..........................
I......
Velocity (ft/s)
4000
:i:::":?:i::':'
.,'.:: 5546
i-.....
.."..:.
-.-.'...
::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::
................
5794
.::i:i::i:i:i::.:.'.::.:i::
'" ============================================================
::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::
:i:i:i:i:i.'i:i:i:i:!:i::.i;.;:."
-.'"":':':':':':':':':':':':':::'!:i:!:i:i:i:M'
.........6500
:::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::
'-.
=================
"':' 7206
9000
.......:-'..:.'-.:-:."-:i:i:i.'!:i:''
:':':'
....'....
L:':..... :i::::::i.%-'.:.':..s::'.!..?.:'.
.............
..;....:.
........
..:.::..::..!:-...:.;::.:.
700 . Saturated
Potter
"--..............
' "-..':
.!?,!'
FIG. 56.
.'.
.....
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4.3.
IMAGING
A FAULT
SYSTEM
135
not very useful for displaying the results for which the tomographic data
were acquired. Instead, one should highlight the tomogram's features for
4.3.4
Tomogram Interpretation
Potter
sand.
Such information
which determines
and ver-
4Even though the tomogram in Figure 56 was resstapledto 2.5 ft square cells for
display, the image remains "sharp" because only seven gray levels were used in the
display.
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136
CHAPTER
4.
CASE STUDIES
Tomogram-Based Interpretation
well
806
well
429
Oft
315
ft
Dlatomlte
Tulare
200 ft
Sand
McKIttrlck
Thrust
400 ft
600 ft
800 ft
1000 ft
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4.4.
IMAGING
SALT
SILLS
137
4.4.1
This casestudy usesa marine seismicdata set collectedover two shallow salt sills as depicted in Figure 58. Application of the seismicdiffraction
tomography methodologyusing the Born approximation in Chapter 3 requiresmaking someassumptionsand preprocessingthe data.
We require the object under investigationto have a finite extent. Fig-
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138
CHAPTER
Salt
Sill
4.
CASE
STUDIES
Problem
Surface
5000 ft/s
4000 It
Water
Bottom
.........
-.......
.....
.:.....:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:
FIG. 58. The two salt sills and surroundingsedimentary layers form the
finite-extentobjectwhichhavevelocitiesrepresented
by C(r). The velocity
ofthewaterlayeris(7- 5000ft/s.
comprisedof scatterersquite removedfrom the constantbackgroundwater
layer. The accumulative phase differencebetween the total and incident
Besidesthe assumptions
stated above,we also assume:(1) constant
densityin all media,(2) 2-D wavepropagation,and (3) multiple freedata.
We know beforehandthat none of our assumptionsis one-hundredpercent
valid. However, we continue so that we may see the result and learn.
The wavefield recorded by a source-receiverpair in a marine seismic
recordrepresents
the total wavefieldPt(r), whichconsistsof the incident
wavefieldPi(r) and scatteredwavefieldP(r) as definedin equation(50).
Figure 59 showsa source-receiver
pair for the marine seismicdata case.The
recordedincident wavefieldtravels directly betweenthe sourceand receiver
while the recordedscattered wavefieldtravels over a considerablylonger
raypath to get to the receiver. Thus, the scatteredwavefield arriveslater
than the incident wavefieldbecauseof the large water bottom depth.
seismic records.
in this case
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4.4.
IMAGING
SALT
SILLS
139
Receiver
%,
,/'
Surface
Scattered
Wave
CO= 5000IVs
4000It
o.o.
..............
:i:i:::i:i*i:i:iiiiiiiii?:iii!i::iiiiiii::i?:ii::i:!::iii::iiii:-:i!i::i::i:::i::ii::ii::!::::::?:?::::::::::::
............... ?:i::iiii?
................
'"'!::11"'i?:,
------- -
FIc. 59.. The raypath for the incident wavefieldwill always be much shorter
than any raypath for the scattered wavefieldbecauseof the large water layer
thickness.
source-receiveroffset is a large 1.6 seconds. Thus, the data function is simply determined by muting the incident wavefield from the total wavefield
for each marine
seismic record.
4.4.2
Data Acquisition
The data for this casestudy came from a preexisting2-D marine seismic
survey. The experimental geometry in Figure 60 showsthe marine streamer
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140
CHAPTER
4.
CASE STUDIES
vets
824
120
;[
246;[
Next
Source
Receivers
................_V V V
I
V
120
function
P(rs,rp) alongthesource
andreceiver
profiles
to get/5(k,,kp).
Since we require that the spatial frequency content for the receiver profile
be the same as the source profile, only every third hydrophonetrace was
used. Thus, the effective receiverspacingwas the same as the sourcespacing of 246 ft. We used 271 sourcesout of the survey line to provide an
adequateaperture for imaging the salt sills.
Five representative
sourcerecordstaken at equalsourcepoint (SP) intervalsfrom alongthe marine seismicsurveyare shownin Figure 61. Source
records$P 823 and $P 995 are taken from over the smaller and larger salt
sills, respectively.Sourcerecord $P 1081 lies at the edgeof the larger salt
sill. Several events of interest can be identified on source record $P 995
at the near offsets.
The water bottom reflection is found at 1.80 sec-
onds while the top-of-salt and bottom-of-salt reflections lie at 2.36 seconds
and 2.92 seconds,respectively. Most of the reflectionsbetween 3.60 seconds
and 5.30 secondsare identified as multiples and even more multiples are
found beyond 5.80 seconds.
Figure 27 showsthe hypothetical coverageof a model function in the
k= - kz plane for the surfacereflectionconfigurationif sourcesand receivers
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4.4.
IMAGING
SALT
Time (s)
SILLS
Marine
/ SP1167
081
141
Seismic
SP 995
Records
SP 909
SP 823
F.....
!'
, 't'.
'
:I!,i:... '".
' !1tl..'...' .-' >
F ,' .-'.
:'1,i:....>.-
....
,,.>-.';..
. .
..,./:,.:,,-..
.' .
,...-._..-...-.!>-.-<-";''--:.-I-'"'/':-:-'.-.-"'"--:
: "- -" -'
4 '":"'.:
' '
.... ..
. :: ._ ,:-.":,>
. ....:'.
-
.-..
'"' 2- 'i"!i'.'-.ff--:"
1::::'/'"-.:L?-':
':'
.;.. ....
......
.....-:...
Fo. 61. Five marine seismicrecordsextracted at equal sourcepoint intervals from the marine survey.
4.4.3
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142
CHAPTER
sourcs
streamer
4.
CASE STUDIES
cable
locus of k o s
locus
of ko( s +' )
Fc. 62. Coveragein the k= - k plane for the model function at 8000 ft
depth using the sourceand streamer cable configurationfrom this study.
The solid arcs represent the coverage.
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4.4.
IMAGING
SALT
SILLS
143
Mute
direct
arrivals
Ps(x
s, Xp,t)
Step 2
Step 3
Step 4
s andXp
(x,z)
FIG. 63. Flow chart for implementing backpropagationdiffraction tomography in the salt sill case study.
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144
CHAPTER
4.
CASE
STUDIES
source
X'
receivers
FIG. 64. Cartesian coordinate system for the salt sill case study. The
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4.4.
IMAGING
SALT
SILLS
145
Ps(Xs, Xp, t)
x
,I
esxs'xp'
Space-frequency domain representation
Single frequency
scattered
wavefield
data
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146
CHAPTER
4.
CASE STUDIES
functionor scatteredwavefield,P(k, kp,w). Equation(165) is numerically evaluatedat eachpoint on the x - z plane to get the modelfunction
quency.Thewavenumbers
k andkprangefrom-koto ko. Foreach(k,
pair, the corresponding
verticalwavenumbers,
% and7p,are computed
by
7- V/ko
- k]and
'rp- y/ko
- kp
,respectively.
We obtaineda sequence
of modelfunctionsM(x, z) by applyingequation (165) at frequencies
from 12 Hz to 26 Hz. Thesemodelfunctionswere
then stackedto form one multifrequencymodel function. The model function was then convertedto velocityC(x, z) usingequation(56) and the
resultingdiffractiontomogramis shownin Figure 66.
4.4.4
Tomogram Interpretation
andthe presence
of twosalt sillsalongthe surveyline. The largersaltsill
is about 31,800 ft wide while the smaller salt sill is about 8,860 ft wide.
An apparent 20 percent velocity variation exists within each salt sill. The
For comparison
sake,the samedata set wasprestackdepth migrated,
with the resultsshownin Figure 67. The velocitymodel for the depth
Equation (165) doesnot showan explicit frequencydependence.That is because
we stopped writing the angular frequency dependence of the acoustic wavefield and
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4.4.
IMAGING
SALT
SILLS
147
1219
' ,,, t ............
1119
I ............
1019
.............
919
............
819
t ............
Water Layer
719
-
...::-;.;.:.;.;.:::.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:-L-'-'-'..-'.-'.;.-'.',;..
:.:..'.......:.:-:-:-;.:.:-:-:.:.:.:.":;::::-.'-:.:.:
.-" :. ...:.:..-:-:.:.:?:;::..'::-:-:-:.:
'..;-:-;.:-:..'.:-.''.... .: ;.:-:.:.:.;.:.:-:-:-:-:.:-:..'.:-:,
......
::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::
.....................
::........
:................
:::
.......
::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::.....`
-.'....'i
".- --.'-:-.'-.'-'.
- :::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::
i:!:i:!:i:i:!:i:!:!:!:!:!:!:!:i:.)k.%i:..::$:::::.:.:.....:::!:i:!:!:!:!:!:!:!:i:!:!:!:i:!:!:!:!.i:i:::!:i:!:::!:!:!:!:!:!::!:::..i:!:!:i:i.:.:i::.:::2i:
:"-,....'-::...........'..:..-:.'c'::::i:i:!:!:
:':'..'::
i:i:!:i:!:!:!:i:!:!:!:!:i
:!:!:!:!:i:!:!:!:i:!:!:!:!:!:!:::.:..'.
:.!:!:!:!:!:!:!:!:!'.--,:::':i::;:''
..:...::!:!:!....:::!:.:i:::::.::..:::.::...::..:::..::.::.::.:::::!:!:i:!:!:!:::!.:!...!:!
..:::::::::)'
=======================
::i:!::
:i:!
:i::::
::::::
::i:::::i:
i:i:!:
i:i:i:::::!:i:i
:!:i:i:!:!:i:::::::
i.:'..%....:'.'!:!:!:!:!
:!:!:!:
i:::::::::!:!:i
:i:!:::!:!:!
:i:i:!:i:::!
:!:!:!:
i:::!:i:::i
:i:::!:'.-'.':'.!:i:i::
:::i:i
:!:!::::::
:::::::::::::::i:i:
::i:i:
::i:::!
:::i::
:i:i:i:::i::.".":::
".'::i
::::::
::::::::::::::::::::::::::::-':.'"
.
Depth
(kft)
Velocity Scale
5000
8198
10000
ft
11347
12271
12649
(ft/s)
13027
13992
15000
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148
CHAPTER
4.
CASE
STUDIES
0---
1119
.........
-.
.......
Depth()
.............
1019
919
819
SALT SlLL..,..:".-'
"' "'-' ' ' '"' -."';'-"-'-'
..... '- ....
, ........ ......
.-
719
....-
--:'
10000ft
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4.4.
IMAGING
SALT
SILLS
149
migration was derived using an interactive prestack migration focusinganalysis approach. The salt sills are labeled and their boundariescorrespond to the strong reflectionevents surroundingthe labels. The water
bottom is also clearly visible.
The water bottoms defined in both the diffraction tomogram and the
depth-migrated section are in good agreement as to location and shape.
The salt sill tops, which are visible on the seismic section, are not well
interface
is horizontal.
This
Second, given the set-up from the last paragraph we must evaluate
the other parameterswhichgo into equation(146). For vertical raypaths
Figure 26 indicates that the sourcewavenumbervector has components
(7, = ko, ko = 0) and the receiverwavenumbervectorhas components
equation(146).
Third, we substitute the model function for the selectedscattereralong
with the informationderivedin the previousparagraphinto equation(146)
and integrate. The result is
- - o,o;t,,,
e(t,o
- o,o) - I
(2),
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150
CHAPTER
4.
CASE STUDIES
- o.o; - o.0)
lej(2zo/C'o
)
background
velocity.
4.5
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4.5.
SUGGESTIONS
FOR FURTHER
READING
151
The volu-
metric sourceis the only sourcewhich doesnot have a nonlinear frequencydependentradiation pattern.
Meredith, J. A., ToksSz, M. N., and Cheng, C. H., 1993, Secondary shear wavesfrom sourceboreholes:Geophys. Prosp.,
41,287-312. Borehole sourcessubmergedwithin a liquid can
create tube waves. When the tube wave velocity is greater
than the formarion'sS-wave velocity,a reach wave (convertedS-wave)is generatedby the tubewavewhichmay interfere with other events recordedin the receiver well.
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Appendix
Frequency
and
Wave
er
numb
A.1
Frequency
f = ,
(A-l)
where the appropriate unit is hertz, abbreviated "Hz", which stands for
"cycles per second."
Many times we will representa sinusoidalsignal in terms of the projection of a rotating vector onto some axis. Thus, we might represent the
B(t)-[B[sin(-t-b), (A-2)
153
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154
APPENDIX
I B(t)
L*
whereI B I is the magnitudeof the rotating vectorB(t) and bis the phaseof
co- - = 2'f.
(A-3)
decompose
an actualsignalinto its angularfrequencycomponents
I B(w) I
and b(w).
A.2
Wavenumber
When we definedangularfrequencycothe observationpoint of the signal waskept fixed in space(at the sourcein Figure A.1) and we studied
the signal'spropertiesin time. In this sectionwe arrive at similar conceptsby observingthe signalthroughoutspaceat a fixed time. Figure A.2
showsa sinusoidalsignal traveling in either the +X of-X direction with
a wavelength,,, the distancerequired for the waveformto repeat itself.
1The phaseof the signal in Figure A.1 is zero at time t = 0.
2Both w and f are commonlyreferredto as "frequency."The contextof the equation
will tell you which type of frequency.
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A.2.
WAVENUMBER
155
I B(x)
I
k - +--.
(A-q)
order dimensions
of spaceequation(A-4) must be written as a vector,
27r,,
k = Tg,
(A-5)
where is a unit vector pointing in the direction of propagation. Figure A.3(a) showsa sinusoidalwavepropagatingalongthe , directionin a
2-D spacewith wavelengthX. We plot the wavenumberfor this wave in the
kog - k,i+k,i,
(A-6)
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156
APPENDIX
(a)
(b)
where the valuesof k', and kz have signs determined by the direction of
= Ikl =
(A-7)
V = Ok,,
:+ '
(A-S)
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Appendix
The
Fourier
Transform
FT[h(t)] : (w),
(B-i)
FT[g(x)]
(k),
(B-3)
rT-[O(k=)]
Most of the time the nes
ened to just frequency d
g(x).
temporM frequencyd
wavenmber,
respectively.
157
(B-4)
wavenber e short-
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158
APPENDIX
B.
THE FOURIER
TRANSFORM
Beforepresentingthe actual Fouriertransformequationsusedto compute the operationsimpliedby the aboveequations,we give a short review
of the Fourierseriesand exponentialFourierseriesto providea transition;
sincemost everyoneis familiar with the Fourierseries. Then, the Fourier
transformof continuousfunctionsis discussed
followedby the Fouriertransform of sampledfunctions.The last sectiongivessomespecialtransforms
used in this book.
Fourier
B.1
Series
1/_L
ao = -L ;f(x)dx,
1/_
(B-6)
(B-7)
and,
fix)sin
(--/dx
(B-8)
respectively.
Equation(B-6) showsthat ao/2 is just the averagevalueof
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B.2.
EXPONENTIAL
FOURIER
159
SERIES
f(x) - --+
anosknx+bnsinknx
(In -
cos
(B-10)
f(x)sinknxdx.
(B-11)
Exponential
Fourier Series
and,
B.2
eJknx= cosknx
+jsinknx,
(B-12)
sinknx =
ejknx + e-jkn x
2
-, and
ejknx _ e-jkn x
(B-13)
, respectively.
(B-14)
Substitutingequations(B-13) and (B-14) into equation(B-9) and regroupingthe terms with respectto the signof the exponentialgives,
-jknx (B- 15)
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160
APPENDIX
B.
THE
FOURIER
TRANSFORM
Equations(B-10) and (B-11) showthat a, - a_, and b, - -b_,, respectively. Applying theserelationshipsto the secondserieson the right-hand
sidein equation(B-15) and redefiningthe summationfrom n - -1 to -c
givesthe exponentialFourier series,
f(x) - Z c,eJk,-,x,
(n-16)
C --
for n - 0,1,2,
B.3
3,...,
Lf(z)e-Jkxdz,
(B-17)
c.
Fourier Transform-
Continuous f(x)
I-L, L] asdefined
fortheexponential
Fourierseries.However,
equations
(B16) and (B-17) can be utilized in extendingz to infinite limits. First, we
substituteequation(B-17)into equation(B-16) resultingin,
or
.(k,)eJk'
x__1
where
2L'
f(:rt)e
_t,
_jk,.,
X,dx
.
L
Ak k+k (n+1) r r
We rewrite this equation in a convenientform,
1
Ak
2L
2r
(B-18)
(B-19)
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161
lim
(L)- dk
--,oo
271'
(B-21)
tions(B-18) and (B-19) as L - oo and usingthe resultfrom equation(B21) yields the Fourier transformequationsfor a nonperiodiccontinuous
function,
f(:) -
I(k)eJkzdk
oo
'
(B-22)
f(x)e-Jkxdx.
(B-2a)
and
i>(k) -
Equations(B-22) and (B-23) enableusto computeoneof the Fouriertransform pairsgiventhe other. Equation(B-22) is the inverseFouriertransform
operationrepresented
by equation(B-4) and equation(B-23) is the Fourier
transformoperationrepresented
by equation(B-3).
B.4
Fourier Transform-
Sampled f(x)
knyq= Az'
(B-24)
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162
APPENDIX
B.
THE FOURIER
TRANSFORM
f(x)- 1 , p(k)eJkXdk
,
(B-25)
P(k) -
(B-26)
and
f(x)e-Jkx
dz,
computations
we usuallydo not useequations(B-25) and (B-26) directly.
Instead, the Fast FourierTransform(FFT) method is utilized.
B.5
Uses
of Fourier
Transforms
FromequaLion
(B-26) weseethat F(k) is generallya complexvalued
function, called the complex spectrum, which may be written as,
P(k) -
Re{P(k)}
+ jlm{P(k)},
(B-27)
P() - Ip()leJ(),
(s-28)
]#()] - V/ee{#()}
+t,{#()},
4Mary times geophysicists
changethe sign in the exponentialof the forward and
inverse Fourier transforms
involves time.
stay consistentwith the physics, that is, a wave traveling in the +x direction is described
byA(w,kx)eJ(kxxwt)andnotA(w,kx)eJ(
kxx+ wt).
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B.5.
USES OF FOURIER
TRANSFORMS
163
Complex Plane
Im
{F(k)}l
(Re
{.(k)}
,lm
{(k)}
)
>
Re {F(k)}
FIG. B.1.
(Re{17'(k)},Im{17'(k)}).
Thepointin polarcoordinates
is represented
by
the magnitudeI F(k) I definedby equation(B-29) and the phase(I)(k) definedby equation(B-30). The magnitudeis calledthe amplitudespectrum
and the phaseis called the phasespectrumwhen eachis plotted separately
as a function
of k.
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164
APPENDIX
B.
THE
FOURIER
TRANSFORM
(I)(k)- tan
-1 Im{F(k)}
(B-30)
andthe Fouriertransform
of eJkox.
Supposewe wish to take the Fourier transform of a function f(x,z)
with respect to the spatial variables x and z. This operation is called a
2-D Fouriertransform. We beginby taking the Fouriertransformof jr(x, z)
with respect to x, or
P(k,z) -
f(z,z)e-Jkzdz,
(B-31)
(k,,,kz) -
(k,:,z)e-JkzZdz,
(B-32)
(k,k,) -
f(x,z)e-J(kx
+ kZ)dxdz
' (B-33)
f(x,z)
/_o
/_(k,
k)eJ(kx
+kZ)dkdk
' (B-34)
471-2
= 1
f'(w)e-Jwt
dw,
(B-35)
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B.5.
USES OF FOURIER
TRANSFORMS
165
= - /_o
j.()
_
dt
a,
-Jt
= FT-[-jP()].
(B-36)
dt 2
(B-37)
Thus, an nth order derivative is defined,
rr-[(-i)-p()].
dtn
(B-38)
WesimplymultiplyP(w) bytheappropriate
factor
s (-jw)" andtakethe
inverse Fourier
transform.
ThelastitemtonoteistheFourier
transform
oftheexponential
e-Jkox,
which comesup many timesin diffractiontomography.We determinethis in
a roundabout way. We use the Dirac delta function defined in Appendix C
in thisderivation.
Taketheinverse
Fouriertransform
of .b(k)- 5(k- ko),
wherethe Diracdeltafunctionis locatedat wavenumber
koin the spatial
frequencydomain. By equation(B-22) we find that,
f(x)
= -2r
5(k- ko)eJkxdk,
= l,jo.
2r
Thus,
theFourier
transform
ofeJkoxmust
be2rS(k-ko).
(B-39)
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Appendix
Greens
Function
Iv + o],() -
oU()[,()+ ,()1.
(C-l)
?o(,,)
- - f (,,I")(,?)[?,(,?)
+0(')]a'.
(c-)
G(rl rt) is the Green'sfunctionand the integralis takenovera planein
2-D space or a volume in 3-D space.
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168
APPENDIX
C.
GREEN'S
FUNCTION
Gt
LINEAR
OPERATOR
(1) its easyto see, and (2) many of you are alreadyfamiliar with filter
theory,especiallythe conceptof convolution.We will look at the discretely
sampledcasefirst and then extrapolate to the analogcase.
C.1
Filter Theory
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C. 1.
FILTER
THEORY
'
169
fog t.o
-1 o
o
OPERATOI.
(a)
1Gt.1
11
LINEAR
OPERATOI
)
+
-1/22
f2 Gt.2
LINEAR
OPFATO
(c)
01--1
ft
llU-
LINEA
OPFATOI
!i
Pt
(d)
ft -- j050-}'f151
-}'j252,wherefo = -1 in (a), fl ----1 in (b), and/2 = -1/2
in (c). The resultingoutput to f is the sum of the responses
in (a), (b),
and (c): P - foG,-o 4-fxG,_x + f2G,-: shownin (d). This is just an
example of convolutionof an input signal ft with an impulseresponseof a
linear filter
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APPENDIX
170
C.
GREEN'S
FUNCTION
ft -- foo
q-fll q-f22-- (-1)50
+ (1)51
q-(-1)5:.
(C-3)
= (-1)G,_0
q-(1)G,_l
q-(-
(c-4)
Generalizingequation(C-4) we have,
P(t)- f(t')G(t
- t')dt',
(C-6)
C.2
thelinearoperatorin filtertheory.Thesourceterm,koM(r)[Pi(r)+P,(r)],
is analogousto the input to the linear operator. The linear operator is the
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C.2.
PDE'S
AS LINEAR
-6 (r-r')
OPERATORS
171
2+k2 ] G(rlr'
oI
)
- -5(r-r')
[2+k2o] G(rlr')
FIG. C.3. The Green's function is the impulse responseof a linear differential equationoperatorto a sourceterm (input) givenby a negativeDirac
delta function. Comparethis with the impulseresponsein filter theory
depictedin Figure C.1.
r ) for
the impulsiveinput and the Green'sfunctionG(r- r ) for the impulseresponseto the negative Dirac delta function. Thus, using the analogiesin
the previousparagraph,equation(C-1) is rewritten as,
IV2+ kolG(r
I r') -
-5(r-r'),
(C-7)
r').
Note that the space vector r is the independent variable here instead oftime used in the previoussectionon filter theory. Figure C.3 summarizes
the analogy made between the differential equation operator and the filter
theory operator in Figure C.1.
width, infiniteheight,and an
area
equal
toone
atx = 0. It isdefined
asf_+S(x)dx
= 1. When
combined
with
another
function,
f_+!(z)a(z-Xo)= l(Zo),where
theDirac
delta
function
islocated
at 3 '-' 3o.
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172
APPENDIX
C.
GREEN'S
FUNCTION
: - fr,
(c-s)
becomesthe sourceterm (input to the linear operator) in equation(C8) and we get the integralsolutiongivenby equation(C-2). Thus, the
integralsolutionto equation(C-l) isjust the negativeof the convolution
of
the sourceterm (input) f(r) with the Green'sfunction(impulseresponse),
analogousto filter theory. The r- r part of the Green'sfunction(see
equations(C-9) and (C-10) below)givesthe "lag"in the impulseresponse
as a result of the weightednegativeDirac delta function being located at a
position other than r = 0. This is a space-invariantproperty equivalentto
the time-invariant property of the linear operator in the previous section
on filter theory.
Chapter 3 on seismic diffraction tomography makes extensiveuse of
Green's functions. However, closeinspection reveals that only two Green's
[r - r' I),
a(rl') - JHo(1)(ko
whereHo
(1)is thezero-order
Hankelfunction
of thefirstkind. Herethe
negative Dirac delta function representsan infinite-line seismicsourceor
an infinite-line scatterer at r' which causesa cylindrically shaped seismic
disturbance
that is determined
at an infinite-line
field location
r. Both the
ejkolr-r'l
G(rlr')= 4rlr-r']'
(C-10)
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C. 3.
GREEN'S
FUNCTION
EXAMPLE
173
C.3
[d-a2]p(x)
- f(x),
for
-cx>
<x<cx>. (C-11)
The first step is to find the impulseresponse,or Green'sfunction,G(z) to
a negative Dirac delta function sourceterm located at x - 0. The above
equationis rewritten,a
dx - aV']G(x)
- -5(x).
(C-12)
[(jk)2 - aV']0(k) -
-1,
(C-13)
+1
(C-14)
G(x) -
2a
(C-15)
If the negative Dirac delta function werelocated at x - x', then the Green's
function would be written with a spatial lag,
G(xI x') =
2a
'
(C-16)
3Assumeno lag, x t = O, in the Dirac delta function at this point, and introduce
the lag when doing the convolution(sum of weightedoutput from the linear operator)
betweenf(x) and G(x).
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174
APPENDIX
C.
p(x)
= -/-+2
f(x')G(z
Ix')dz
',
(C-17)
2a
dx'.
(C-18)
detail.
Arfken, G., 1970, Mathematical methodsfor physicists,2nd edition: Academic Press, Inc.
Courant, R., and Hilbert, D., 1953, Methods of mathematical
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Index
acoustic wave equation 46
Helmholtz
acoustic
form
wave field
data acquisition
crosswell configuration 2
46
data
46
function
11
observed pobs
ari thmeticreconstructiontechnique(see
Aa)
predicted P or prre
related
to true
model
function
M true 23
related
to estimated
model
func-
tion M or M est 23
ART 33, 41
compared with SIRT 37
nonlinear aspect 38
vector
DC
shift
form
27
158
diffraction tomography 5
background velocity C'o 48
backprojection ray tomography 20, 40
CAT
formula
function
50
function
51
data
21
function
sununary 21
genericdata/model relationship59
87
illustrated
crosswell configuration 88
Jacobian
87
scatteredwavefieldPs(r) 47
total
wavefield
Born approximation 48
Rytov approximation 53
use with ray tomography 6
wavelength consideration 5
56
when
Dirac
delta
to use 45
function
171
85
137
incident wavefieldPi(r) 47
crosswell
Green's
Green's
scan 22
reconstruction
2-D
3-D
form
170
seismic
EOR
benefit
estimated
model vector
Euler's formula
159
of 3
95
28
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176
first
INDEX
arrival
101
advantages of 28
forward modeling
defined
direct
flow chart
arrival
102
discrete formulation
first as'rival 102
formulated
25
in a continuous
domain
23
matrix
form
26
time invariance
in terms of wavenumber
Fourier transform
2-D 164
159
of e-J kx 165
operation symbols 157
representation 161
164
crosswellconfiguration68
statement
of 70
171
168
Lippmann-Schwinger equation 51
Born approximation 51
linearized
52
nonlinearity 51
lithology interpretation
of P-wave tomogram 120
magnitude 154
McKittrick
Field
125
medical tomography
configuration 10
data function
11
diffraction tomography45, 49
discrete
24
estimated
M or M est
23
incremental
updateAiM' 30
initial estimate 28, 108, 109
new estimate M(new) est 28
related
to observed
tion pobs 23
101
vector
form
27
nonunique 70
image function 11
impulse response 168
wavefield
28
.true M true
hyperplane 30
incident
matrix
principle of superposition170
scaling 168
series 158
Green's
27
linear system
need for 23
time
Laplacian operator 46
linear inverse problem 13
generalized inverse operator
ill-conditioned
raypath lengths 27
Fourier
29
24
47
integration notation 51
Jacobian
87
crosswellconfiguration 88
surface reflection configuration 90
vsp configuration 89
Kaczmarz' method 26, 40
data
func-
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INDEX
177
ray 5
simultaneous
direct-transform
method
17
wavelength 9
wavelength consideration5
with diffraction tomography 6
ray tracing
direct arrival 102
first arrival 102
information
traveltime
slowness
136
70
Rytov approximation 56
Born approximation comparison 56
P-wave
function
137
observed
seismic
119
52
seismic
total
true model
surface
seismic
diffraction
function
26
tomography 1
data
seismicray tomography 39
seismic tomography 1
134
thrust
meaning of colors 1
porosity estimation 122
presteam vs. poststeam injection
wavefield
117
scattered
residual
11
air gun 98
downhole clamped vibrator 127
on data
tech-
source
110
note
reconstruction
receiver
formation
iterative
nique (seeSIRT)
resolution
26
16
essence of 14
SIRT
method
observeddata function,pobs23
141
wavefield
Born approximation 48
Rytov approximation 53
transform methods 9, 39
traveltime parameters 99
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178
INDEX
107
mispick 108
poor data 108
surface seismic data 104
traveltime picking 99
direct m'rival 102
first arrival 102
polarity change
vector
28
velocity perturbation 47
wavelength 154
wavenumber 13, 155
angular 155
vector components
155
well logging
disadvantages3