Documentos de Académico
Documentos de Profesional
Documentos de Cultura
Sound
Blood
pressure
Touch
Smell
pH level in
blood
External
environment
Light
Internal
environment
Body
temperature
Taste
Sugar level in
blood
Pressure
Temperature
In Plant
Sensitive to presence of
female animal by the male
for reproduction
the effectors to produce homeostatic responses required for regulation of the body temperature and the
osmotic blood pressure.
6. Thus, hypothalamus helps to regulate body temperature and osmotic blood pressure through the pituitary
gland.
7. Hypothalamus also control centre of the endocrine system.
Thalamus
1. Located on the region of cerebrum , above the hypothalamus
2. The thalamus is responsible for sorting the incoming and outgoing
information in the cerebral cortex.
3. It also integrates the information from the sensory receptors to the
cerebrum by enhancing certain signals and blocking others.
4. Thalamus is also the integration centre for sensory impulses such as
sight and hearing to the various sensory areas of the cerebrum.
Pituitary gland
1. The pituitary gland secretes hormones that influence other glands and body functions.
2. The hypothalamus controls the release of several hormones from the pituitary gland and thereby serves as
an important link between the nervous and endocrine systems.
Cerebellum
1. The cerebellum is located below the cerebrum near the top of
the spinal cord. It has a folded surface. The cerebellum has two
hemispheres.
2. Functions of cerebellum :
a) Coordinates the contraction of muscles
b) Controls the posture and balance of the body.
Medula oblangota
1. Located in front of the cerebellum.
2. Medulla oblongata links the brain to the spinal cord.
3. Functions of medulla oblongata :
a) Controls and regulates involuntary actions such as
the rate of heartbeat, peristalsis, blood pressure,
breathing and the variation in the size of blood
vessels during vasodilatation or vasoconstriction.
b) Centre for certain reflex actions such as vomiting,
coughing, sneezing and swallowing.
Structure of a neuron
1. The cells that carry information through the nervous system are called neurons.
2. The message that a neuron carries is in the form of electrical signal called a nerve impulse.
3. A neuron contain:
a. A large cell body contain nucleus.
b. Dendrites are the threadlike extension from the cell body.
c. Axon is the long fibre from the cell body. It carry impulse away from the cell body.
d. Axon terminals are the branches of the axon.
e. Synaptic knobs is the swelling end of the axon terminals.
f. Axon is surrounded by an insulating membrane known as myelin sheath.
g. Myelin sheath has many gaps called node of Ranvier. It allows an impulse moves by jumping from one
node to the next and increase the speed.
Type of neurons
i.
ii.
Interneurones
Found within the brain and spinal cord.
Has a short dendrites and short axon.
The cell body is located in the grey matter of
the CNS.
Connects one neurone to another neurone
and frequently connects a sensory neurone
to a motor neurone.
iii.
Axons of many neurons are surrounded by Schwann cells. A large number of Schwann cells cover the axon
several times, forming a myelin sheath .These myelin sheaths contain lecithin, a type of phospholipids, which is an
electrical insulator. Its Enable fast transmission of impulses in the neuron. Nodes of Ranvier are region of the
axon not covered by myelin sheaths
Chapter 3: Response and Coordination MHMS www.cikguhafiz.com
Aspect compared
Voluntary action
Involuntary action
Type of action
Integrating centre
Cerebrum
Medulla oblongata
Stimulus
Receptor
Sensory organ
Transmission of
impulse
skeletal muscles
Effector and
response
10
Reflex Action
1. Reflex action is an involuntary action that occurs automatically and spontaneously without conscious control
towards a stimulus.
2. Reflex action is controlled by the spinal cord and does not involve the cerebrum.
3. It acts as a protection against injuries and dangerous situations, as well as an adaptation to any changes in the
environment.
4. Examples of reflex action are :
a) Knee jerk
b) Withdrawal of the hand from a hot object
c) Blinking of the eyes
d) Changes in the size of pupil in the eye
e) Balancing the body to prevent from slipping
Reflex Arc
1. Reflex arc is the pathway that a nerve impulse travels from the receptor to the effectors in a reflex action.
2. A reflex arc consists of the receptor, afferent neuron, and interneuron in the spinal cord, efferent neuron and
effectors.
3. The process of a reflex arc :
1. The receptor detects a stimulus and triggers the afferent neuron to send out nerve impulses
2. The nerve impulses are carried by the afferent neuron to the spinal cord
3. From the spinal cord, the nerve impulses travel along the efferent neuron to the effectors without
passing through the brain.
4. The effector receives the information and produces an automatic response towards the stimulus.
Knee jerk
11
12
13
14
15
Thyroxine
Thymosin
Aldosterone
Adrenaline and
noradrenaline
Insulin
Glucagon
Oestrogen
Progesterone
Androgen
(testosterone)
Thyroid gland
Increases the metabolic rates of most body cells
Increases body temperature
Regulates growth and development
Thymus gland
Stimulates the formation of T-cells which help defend the body from pathogens.
Adrenal cortex
Increases the reabsorption of mineral salts in the kidneys
Increases the levels of sugar and fatty acids in the blood
Increases heart activity, and the rate and depth of breathing
Increases the metabolic rate and constrict some blood vessels
Pancreas gland
Decreases blood glucose levels and promotes the conversion of glucose to glycogen
Increases blood glucose levels and promotes the conversion of glycogen to glucose
Ovary
Stimulates the development of the female secondary sexual characteristics and maturation
of the ova.
Promotes the repair of the uterine lining
Stimulates the development of the uterine lining and the formation f the placenta
Inhibits ovulation
Testis
Stimulates the development of male secondary sexual characteristics and spermatogenesis
16
1. When faced with stimuli that are threatening, dangerous or exciting, our body goes through a series of changes
that prepares us to either fight or to flee.
2. The fight-or-flight strategy is a safety measure that prepares the body to respond to the situation.
3. The fight or flight response involves a coordinated effort of both the nervous and the endocrine systems.
A. The nervous system in the fight or flight response
1. When a threatening stimulus is received, the hypothalamus activates the nervous system (the sympathetic
nervous system) to send impulses to the adrenal medulla to release adrenaline (and noradrenaline) into the
bloodstream.
2. Adrenaline is called the "fight or flight" hormone or the "stress hormone" because it prepares the body for
action.
3. Adrenaline causes:
i.
more glycogen to be converted into glucose in the liver
ii.
increased metabolic rate
iii.
deeper and rapid breathing
iv.
a faster heartbeat and a raised blood pressure
v.
blood to be diverted from the surface areas of the body and the gut to the muscles
B. The endocrine system in the fight or flight response
1. At the same time, the hypothalamus stimulates the anterior pituitary gland to secrete the adrenocorticotrophic
hormone (ACTH) to activate the adrenal-cortical system.
Chapter 3: Response and Coordination MHMS www.cikguhafiz.com
17
2. ACTH moves through the bloodstream to the adrenal cortex, where it activates the secretion of corticoid
hormones (approximately 30 different hormones) which will prepare the body to deal with the stress.( raises
blood glucose level by stimulating the conversion of lipids and protein to glucose )
3. The corticoid hormones are slow-acting and have lasting effects.
In fight and flight situation, The heart contracts more vigorously to pump a larger amount of oxygen and
glucose to the brain and skeletal muscles.
o The brain needs to be highly alert to mobilise the various parts of the body into immediate action.
o The skeletal muscles become more energised and enable a person to fight off an attacker or flee
immediately from danger.
When a person is in a stressful situation, the nervous and endocrine system both work together to bring about
immediate responses to cope with the imminent threat.
Once these mechanisms successfully counteract the danger, the bodily changes that occurred return to normal.
Hormone
Function
Thyroid
Thyroxine
contains
iodine
important in
growth
Speeds up cell
metabolic rate
Stimulates normal
physical growth and
mental development
18
a)
b)
c)
d)
Adrenal cortex
(produces
corticoid
hormones)
Cortisol
Adrenal cortex
(produces
corticoid
hormones)
Aldosterone
Adrenal medulla
Adrenaline
Excessive adrenaline:
raises blood pressure
raises the blood glucose level
causes glucose to be present in the urine
Posterior
pituitary gland
Antidiuretic
hormone (ADH)
Pancreas
Insulin
(is secreted by
the -cells)
Glucagon
(is secreted by
the -cells)
20
21
Formation of Urine
1. The formation of urine involves three main processes :
a) Ultrafiltration
b) Reabsorption
c) Secretion
Ultrafiltration process (Bowmans capsule and glomerulus)
1. Blood enters the glomerulus through the afferent arteriole and
leaves through the efferent arteriole.
2. The blood pressure in the afferent arteriole is high because it is
derived from the renal artery which branches from the aorta. The
diameter of the efferent arteriole is also smaller than the afferent
arteriole.
As a result, there is a high resistance in the blood flow.
This produces a high hydrostatic blood pressure in the
glomerulus.
3. The high hydrostatic pressure in the blood of the glomerulus causes most of the constituents of the plasma to
be filtered out of the glomerulus (through the thin capillary walls with pores) into the cavity of the Bowman's
capsule.
4. The process where all the constituents of blood plasma are filtered under high hydrostatic pressure into the
Bowman's capsule is known as ultrafiltration.
5. The fluid filtered into the Bowman's capsule is called glomerular filtrate.
6. The filtrate in the Bowman's capsule consists of all the constituents of the blood plasma in the afferent
arteriole except (which are too large to pass through the capillary walls of the glomerulus)
erythrocytes,
leucocytes,
platelets and
plasma proteins
7. The glomerular filtrate consists of mainly dissolved small molecules such as
inorganic ions, especially sodium ions,
glucose,
amino acids and
urea.
Reabsorption process
1. From the Bowman's capsule, the glomerular filtrate flows into the uriniferous tubule.
2. The reabsorption process occurs along the whole uriniferous tubule. Essential solutes and water in the filtrate
are reabsorbed into the blood capillaries that surround the tubule.
3. At the proximal convoluted tubule :
i.
About 75% - 80% of water is reabsorbed back into the blood capillaries by osmosis. This occurs because
the glomerular filtrate is hypotonic to the blood plasma.
ii.
All glucose, amino acids and some mineral ions like sodium ions ( Na+ ) and chloride ions ( Cl- ) in the
tubule are reabsorbed into the bloodstream by active transport.
22
23
Secretion
1. Secretion is the process where unwanted substances like urea, uric acid, ammonia, drugs, alcohol, excess salts
and water in the blood are actively transported from the capillaries surrounding the nephron into the kidney
tubule (especially at the distal convoluted tubule).
2. This process helps to remove the toxic and unwanted substances from the bloodstream.
3. Secretion process also helps to regulate the pH level of the blood. For example, when the blood is too acidic,
the hydrogen ions, H+, are secreted into the filtrate whereas if the blood is too alkaline, the hydrogen
carbonate ions, HCO- are secreted into the filtrate.
4. Secretion plays an important role in adjusting the urine composition as it passes through the kidney tubule.
Osmoregulation
1. Osmoregulation is the process of regulating the blood osmotic pressure by regulating the water content and
the concentration of salts in the body.
2. Osmoregulation is an example of homeostasis which is brought about by the negative feedback system.
3. The negative feedback system is a corrective mechanism to restore the deviated osmotic pressure in the blood
to its normal level.
4. The kidneys carry out osmoregulation by coordinating the rate of reabsorption of water and salts (especially
sodium and chloride ions) during the formation of urine.
5. The amount of water and salts in the blood will determine the osmotic pressure of the blood.
6. Reabsorption of water is controlled by the antidiuretic hormone (ADH) which is released by the posterior
pituitary gland.
7. Reabsorption of salts is controlled by the aldosterone hormone which is produced by the adrenal cortex gland.
24
25
4. Insulin converts the excess glucose in the blood to glycogen which is stored as granules in the cytoplasm of the
liver cells and the muscle cells. The conversion of glucose to glycogen lowers the blood glucose concentration
to its optimum level.
5. In liver cells, the excess glucose in the blood will be converted to lipids. Meanwhile, the cells will also use up the
glucose in respiration.
6. Glucagon converts the stored glycogen in the liver (and muscles) to glucose. The glucose then diffuse out of the
liver cells into the blood. Glucagon also increases the conversion of glucose from amino acids and fatty acids in
the liver cells. This increases the blood glucose concentration to its optimum level.
26
7. Thermoreceptors detect the stimulus and are stimulated. Then, nerve impulses are transmitted along the
afferent nerve to the hypothalamus.
8. The hypothalamus acts as the thermoregulatory centre (coordination centre) which transmits nerve impulses
to various effectors such as
the sweat glands,
hair erector muscles,
skeletal muscles and
endocrine glands.
These effectors produce corrective responses by negative feedback mechanism to return the body
temperature to the normal level.
9. Thermoregulatory effector response is accomplished through the changes in metabolic heat production
and physical heat loss regulation.
The action of the effectors in regulating the body temperature
By physical method ( involving skin to regulate heat loss )
Action of effectors
In a warm environment
In a cold environment
1. Action of sweat
glands
2. Action of blood
capillaries in skin
Vasodilation process
Vasodilation occurs. Blood capillaries
dilate and increase their diameter.
Thus, more blood flows near the body
surface.
Excess heat in the body is lost through
conduction and radiation to the
environment
Vasoconstriction process
Vasoconstriction occurs. Blood
capillaries constrict and decrease their
diameter. Thus, less blood flows near
the body surface.
Most blood is diverted further from
the body surface. Hence, heat loss
through conduction and radiation is
reduced.
3. Action of hair
erector muscles
27
28