NATIONAL LAW INSTITUTE UNIVERSITY, BHOPAL

In partial fulfilment of the requirement of the project on the subject of International Trade & Finance of B.A.,
L.L.B (Hons.), Third Trimester

DEVELOPING COUNTRIES IN THE WTO

Submitted to:
Mr. Rajesh Gautam
(Assistant Professor of Economics)

Submitted by:
Udyan Arya Shrivastava
(2014 BALLB 98)

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PREFACE

I feel great pleasure in presenting this project. I hope that readers will find the project interesting and that the
project in its present from shall be well received by all. The project contains a detailed study and analysis of the
position of developing countries in the WTO.
Every effort is made to keep the project error free. I would gratefully acknowledge any suggestions to improve
the project to make it more useful.

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

On completion of this Project it is my present privilege to acknowledge my profound gratitude and indebtedness
towards my teachers for their valuable suggestions and constructive criticism. Their precious guidance and
unrelenting support kept me on the right track throughout the project. I gratefully acknowledge my deepest sense
of gratitude to:
Prof. (Dr.) S.S. Singh, Director, National Law Institute University, Bhopal for providing us with the infrastructure
and the means to make this project;
Our Economics teacher, Mr. Rajesh Gautam who provided me this wonderful opportunity and guided me
throughout the project work;
Im also thankful to the library and computer staffs of the University for helping us find and select books from
the University library.
Finally, Im thankful to my family members and friends for the affection and encouragement with which doing
this project became a pleasure.

Udyan Arya Shrivastava

(2014 BALLB 98)

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

PREFACE......................................................................................................................................2
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS...............................................................................................................3
TABLE OF CONTENTS..................................................................................................................4
1. INTRODUCTION....................................................................................................................5
1.1. 1.1 WTO AS AN ORGANISATION...................................................................................5
1.2. 1.2 WTO AND DEVELOPING COUNTRIES......................................................................5
2. POSITION OF DEVELOPING COUNTRIES IN THE WTO......................................................8
2.1. 2.1 SPECIAL AND DIFFERENTIAL TREATMENT PROVISIONS............................................8
2.2. 2.2 ENABLING CLAUSE FOR DEVELOPING COUNTRIES.................................................9
2.3. 2.3 PROVISIONS ALLOWING LONGER TRANSITION PERIODS.......................................10
2.4. 2.4 OTHER PROVISIONS...............................................................................................11
2.5. 2.5 WAIVERS...............................................................................................................12
3. PARTICIPATION OF DEVELOPING COUNTRIES IN WTO NEGOTIATIONS.......................14
4. CONCLUSION: HOW WTO HAS FAILED DEVELOPING COUNTRIES...........................16
BIBLIOGRAPHY.........................................................................................................................20
BOOKS AND ARTICLES............................................................................................................20
WEB SOURCES........................................................................................................................20

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INTRODUCTION
1.1 WTO AS AN ORGANISATION
The World Trade Organization (WTO) is the only global international organization dealing with the rules of trade
between nations. At its heart are the WTO agreements, negotiated and signed by the bulk of the worlds trading
nations and ratified in their parliaments. The goal is to help producers of goods and services, exporters, and
importers conduct their business. Essentially, the WTO is a place where member governments go, to try to sort
out the trade problems they face with each other. But the WTO is not just about liberalizing trade, and in some
circumstances its rules support maintaining trade barriers for example to protect consumers, prevent the spread
of disease or protect the environment. The systems overriding purpose is to help trade flow as freely as possible
so long as there are no undesirable side-effects because this is important for economic development and
well-being. That partly means removing obstacles. It also means ensuring that individuals, companies and
governments know what the trade rules are around the world, and giving them the confidence that there will be
no sudden changes of policy. In other words, the rules have to be transparent and predictable.1
The WTO began life on 1 January 1995, but its trading system is half a century older. Since 1948, the General
Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) had provided the rules for the system. It did not take long for the
General Agreement to give birth to an unofficial, de facto international organization, also known informally as
GATT. Over the years GATT evolved through several rounds of negotiations. The last and largest GATT round,
was the Uruguay Round which lasted from 1986 to 1994 and led to the WTOs creation. Whereas GATT had
mainly dealt with trade in goods, the WTO and its agreements now cover trade in services, and in traded
inventions, creations and designs (intellectual property).2

1.2 WTO AND DEVELOPING COUNTRIES

About two thirds of the WTOs around 150 members are developing countries. They play an increasingly
important and active role in the WTO because of their numbers, because they are becoming more important in the
global economy, and because they increasingly look to trade as a vital tool in their development efforts.
Developing countries are a highly diverse group often with very different views and concerns. The WTO deals
with the special needs of developing countries in three ways:
1 Retrieved from <http://www.wto.org/> on 4th April 2014 at 2:00 p.m.
2 Ibid
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The WTO agreements contain special provisions on developing countries.

The Committee on Trade and Development is the main body focusing on work in this area in the WTO,
with some others dealing with specific topics such as trade and debt, and technology transfer.

The WTO Secretariat provides technical assistance (mainly training of various kinds) for developing
countries.

The WTO agreements include numerous provisions giving developing and least-developed countries special
rights or extra leniency special and differential treatment. Among these are provisions that allow developed
countries to treat developing countries more favourably than other WTO members.
The General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT, which deals with trade in goods) has a special section (Part
4) on Trade and Development which includes provisions on the concept of non-reciprocity in trade negotiations
between developed and developing countries when developed countries grant trade concessions to developing
countries they should not expect the developing countries to make matching offers in return.
Both GATT and the General Agreement on Trade in Services (GATS) allow developing countries some
preferential treatment.
Other measures concerning developing countries in the WTO agreements include:

Extra time for developing countries to fulfil their commitments (in many of the WTO agreements)

Provisions designed to increase developing countries trading opportunities through greater market
access (e.g. in textiles, services, technical barriers to trade)

Provisions requiring WTO members to safeguard the interests of developing countries when adopting
some domestic or international measures (e.g. in anti-dumping, safeguards, technical barriers to trade)

Provisions for various means of helping developing countries (e.g. to deal with commitments on animal
and plant health standards, technical standards, and in strengthening their domestic telecommunications
sectors).

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The WTO Secretariat has special legal advisers for assisting developing countries in any WTO dispute
and for giving them legal counsel. The service is offered by the WTOs Training and Technical
Cooperation Institute. Developing countries regularly make use of it.3

Furthermore, in 2001, 32 WTO governments set up an Advisory Centre on WTO law. Its members consist of
countries contributing to the funding, and those receiving legal advice. All least-developed countries are
automatically eligible for advice. Other developing countries and transition economies have to be fee-paying
members in order to receive advice.
The project deals with various aspects of relationship between WTO and developing countries in the form of
different chapters
The next chapter deals with strategies and role of developing countries in WTO. The third chapter deals with the
role of India in WTO. It studies in detail the position of India in India in four different sectors- Agriculture,
Labour Standards, Textiles and Clothing and Environment. The third chapter presents a case study of SADC
Region in relation with WTO agreements and their implementation. The last chapter presents an overview of
what is the actual position of developing countries, their role, status, strategies and what it should be. It presents
an analysis of what are the effects of various WTO agreements on developing countries.

3 Ibid
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POSITION OF DEVELOPING COUNTRIES IN THE WTO

The position, aspirations, influence and importance of developing countries in WTO negotiations has increased
over the years, perhaps best illustrated in the following passage:
[Developing] countries have become dramatically more active in trade negotiations in recent years,
as their policies and societies have become more dependent on trade. Even the smallest traders are
better organized and prepared than in the past. They were prominent players in WTO ministerial
conferences in Seattle in 1999, Doha in 2001, and Cancn in 2003. The results for the entire world
depend more than ever on how developing countries negotiate.4
The majority of members in the World Trade Organization (WTO) are developing countries, now amounting to
about two thirds of total membership.5 However, there are no official WTO definitions for developed and
developing countries, leading member countries to announce for themselves whether they are developed or
developing. Other members can, however, challenge the decision of a member to make use of provisions
available to developing countries. These include provisions in some WTO Agreements which provide developing
countries with longer transition periods before they are required to fully implement the agreement and developing
countries can receive technical assistance for trade and development activities.6

2.1 SPECIAL AND DIFFERENTIAL TREATMENT PROVISIONS

The WTO Agreements contain provisions which give developing countries special rights. These are called
special and differential treatment provisions.7 The Ministers in Doha, at the 4th WTO Ministerial Conference
mandated the Committee on Trade and Development to examine these special and differential treatment
provisions.
The special provisions include:
4John S. Odell, ed. Negotiating Trade: Developing Countries in the WTO and NAFTA. Cambridge University Press, 2000.
p. 1
5 Brunei Darussalam, Burkina Faso, and Cte dIvoire. WTO Members. World 11. 2006.
6 Retrieved from http://www.wto.org/english/tratop_e/devel_e/d1who_e.htm on 04.04.2014.
7 World Trade Organization. Committee on Trade and Development. Special and differential treatment provisions in WTO
Agreements and Decisions. Note by the Secretariat. WT/COMTD/W/196, 14 June 2013.
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longer time periods for implementing Agreements and commitments,

measures to increase trading opportunities for developing countries,

provisions requiring all WTO members to safeguard the trade interests of developing countries,

support to help developing countries build the capacity to carry out WTO work, handle disputes, and
implement technical standards, and

Provisions related to least-developed country (LDC) Members.8

In the Doha Declaration, specifically in the paragraph 44 of the declaration, member governments agreed that all
special and differential treatment provisions are an integral part of the WTO agreements, and that these
provisions should be reviewed with a view to strengthening them and making them more effective and
operational. More specifically, the declaration (together with the Decision on Implementation-Related Issues and
Concerns) mandates the Committee on Trade and Development (CTD) to identify which of those special and
differential treatment provisions are mandatory, and to consider the legal and practical implications of making
mandatory those which are currently non-binding. In addition, the Committee is to consider ways in which
developing countries, particularly the LDCs, may be assisted to make best use of special and differential
treatment. 9
The Bali Ministerial Conference in December 2013 established a mechanism to review and analyse the
implementation of special and differential treatment provisions. The mechanism will provide members with an
opportunity to analyse and review all aspects of the implementation of S&D provisions contained in multilateral
WTO agreements, Ministerial and General Council Decisions with the possibility to make recommendations
to the relevant WTO bodies aimed at either improving the implementation of reviewed provisions, or
improving the provisions themselves through re-negotiations.10

2.2 ENABLING CLAUSE FOR DEVELOPING COUNTRIES

8 Ibid
9 Doha, W. T. O. Ministerial 2001: Ministerial Declaration. 2000. Paragraph, 44
10 World Trade Organization. World Trade Report 2013. Factors Shaping the Future of World Trade. Geneva. WTO. 2013.
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The Enabling Clause officially called the Decision on Differential and More Favourable Treatment, Reciprocity
and Fuller Participation of Developing Countries, was adopted under GATT in 1979 11 and enables developed
members to give differential and more favourable treatment to developing countries.12
The Enabling Clause is the WTO legal basis for the Generalized System of Preferences (GSP). Under the GSP,
developed countries offer non-reciprocal preferential treatment (such as zero or low duties on imports) to
products originating in developing countries. Preference-giving countries unilaterally determine which countries
and which products are included in their schemes.
The Enabling Clause is also the legal basis for regional arrangements among developing countries and for the
Global System of Trade Preferences (GSTP), under which a number of developing countries exchange trade
concessions among themselves.

2.3 PROVISIONS ALLOWING LONGER TRANSITION PERIODS

The most explicit and widespread special and differential treatment provided to developing countries is the longer
transition periods allowed by many WTO agreements and by other developed countries entering into trade with
developing countries.
The Agreement on Agriculture provides that developing country Members have the flexibility to implement
reduction commitments over a period of up to ten years as against six years for developed country Members. The
least-developed country Members do not have to make any reduction commitments.13
The TRIMs Agreement requires developing country Members to eliminate all TRIMs notified under Article 5.1
within 5 years and the least developed country Members within 7 years as against 2 years for developed country
Members. There is provision also for extending the transition period for developing and least-developed country
Members.14
The Agreement on Customs Valuation permits developing country Members, not parties to the corresponding
Tokyo Round Agreement, to delay the application of the provisions of the Agreement for a period not exceeding
11 GATT. Decision of 28 November 1979. L/4903. 1979.
12Robert E. Hudec. "GATT and the Developing Countries." Colum. Bus. L. Rev. (1992): 67.
13 Alan Matthews. The Position of the Developing Countries in the WTO Negotiations on Agricultural Trade
Liberalization. Trinity Economic Papers Series. Trinity College. Dublin. 2001/03. F13, Q17. pp. 19-22
14 John S. Odell, ed. Negotiating Trade: Developing Countries in the WTO and NAFTA. Cambridge University Press,
2000. pp. 85-105
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five years. The Agreement also provides for sympathetic consideration of requests for extension of the
transitional period. It gives the possibility to developing country Members which currently value goods on the
basis of officially established minimum values to make a reservation to enable them to retain such values on a
limited and transitional basis under such terms and conditions as may be agreed.15
The Agreement on Subsidies and Countervailing Measures provides that a developing country which is not a
least-developed country or a country with per capita income of less than USD 1000 per annum shall have eight
years to phase out prohibited export subsidies. The Agreement also provides for a transitional period of five years
for all developing country Members and of seven years for the least-developed country Members during which
the prohibition of Article 3.1 (b) on subsidies contingent upon the use of domestic over imported goods does not
apply.16
The TRIPs Agreement entitles developing country Members to delay the application of the provisions of the
Agreement by five years from the date of entry into force as against one year for all Members.17
If in a developed country Member product patent production is not extended with respect to any areas of
technology (chemicals and pharmaceuticals, for example) on the date of general application of the Agreement,
the Member is entitled to delay the application of the provision on product patents to such areas of technology for
an additional period of five years.
Least-developed country Members are entitled to delay the application of the provisions of the TRIPs Agreement
(except those on national treatment and MFN treatment) for a period of 11 years from the date of entry into
force.18

2.4 OTHER PROVISIONS

In Article XXXVII of GATT 1994 the developed Members of WTO have committed themselves to accord high
priority to the reduction and elimination of barriers to products currently or potentially of particular export

15 Ibid
16 Ibid
17 Daniel J. Gervias, and Daniel J. Gervais. The TRIPS Agreement: Drafting History and Analysis. Vol. 2. London: Sweet
& Maxwell, 1998.
18 Ibid
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interest to developing countries, including customs duties and other restrictions which differentiate unreasonably
between such products in their primary and in their processed forms.19
Article IV of GATS stipulates that the increasing participation of developing country Members in world trade
shall be facilitated through the negotiation of specific commitments, relating to the strengthening of their
domestic service capacity and its efficiency and competitiveness through access to technology on a commercial
basis; the improvement of their access to distribution channels and information networks; and the liberalization of
market access in sectors and modes of supply of export interest to them.20
The Anti-Dumping Agreement provides that special regard must be given by the developed country Members to
the special situation of developing country Members when considering the application of anti-dumping measures.
The Agreement also stipulates that constructive remedies provided for by the Agreement must be explored before
applying anti-dumping duties where they would affect the essential interests of developing country Members.21
Many agreements provide for technical assistance to developing countries. In particular such provisions exist in
the Agreement on SPS Measures, the Agreement on TBT, the Agreement on Implementation of Article VII
(Customs Valuation) and the Agreement on TRIPs. Technical assistance may be given directly by developed
country Members or under the technical cooperation program of the WTO Secretariat.22

2.5 WAIVERS
Going beyond legal provisions stated explicitly in WTO agreements, actions in favor of developing countries,
individually or as a group have also been taken under waivers from the main WTO rules. These waivers are
granted by the General Council according to procedures set out in Article IX: 3 of the Agreement Establishing the
WTO.23

19 Raj Bhala. Modern GATT Law: A Treatise on the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade. Sweet & Maxwell, 2005. p.
16
20 WTO. General Agreement on Trade in Services (GATS). Marrakesh. 15/04/1994.
21 Aradhna Aggarwal. "The Anti-Dumping Agreement and Developing Countries: An Introduction." OUP Catalogue.
2007. p. 1
22 Retrieved from http://www.wto.org/english/tratop_e/devel_e/teccop_e/s_and_d_eg_e.htm on 05.04.2014.
23 WTO. Agreement Establishing the World Trade Organization. 1994.
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The June 1999 General Council Decision on Waiver regarding Preferential Tariff Treatment for Least-Developed
Countries24 allows developing country members to provide preferential tariff treatment to products of least
developed countries. The waiver was extended until 30 June 2019 in a decision 25 adopted in 2009. The WTO
Ministerial Conference in December 2011 adopted a waiver to enable developing and developed-country
members to provide preferential treatment to services and service suppliers of least-developed countries
(LDCs).26 The Bali Ministerial Conference further instructed members to put the waiver into operation.27

24 WTO. Preferential Treatment for Least-Developed Countries. Decision of 15 June 1999. WT/L/304. 1999. para 5
25 WTO. Preferential Tariff Treatment for Least-Developed Countries. Decision on Extension of Waiver, WT/L/759. May
29, 2009.
26 WTO. Preferential Treatment Services and Service Suppliers of Least-Developed Countries. Decision of 17 December
2012. WT/L/847. Dec. 19, 2012.
27 WTO. Ministerial Declaration. Bali. WT/L/918. 2013.
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PARTICIPATION OF DEVELOPING COUNTRIES IN WTO NEGOTIATIONS

Beginning with the Uruguay Round of multilateral trade negotiations in the mid-1980s, developing
countries' attitude towards participation in the GATT and, subsequently, in the WTO changed
significantly: Many developing countries played a very active role in the Uruguay Round
negotiations; and a large number decided to become members of WTO. This attitude change reflects a
number of complex and inter-related developments: Developing countries, in general, have become
more effectively integrated in the international trading system, and several have become major
exporters of manufactures. Trade policies in many countries have been liberalized, favouring an
outward orientation and lower protection. And, there has been a growing appreciation of the
importance of observing international rules in the conduct of trade as well as the need to safeguard
trading interests through effective participation in the activities of the new organization.28
All this has had considerable impact on trade and development in developing countries. The trade policy of
various developing nations has been liberalized overtime and there is a trend even in socialist and communist
states to liberalize sections of the economy. One visible development is the fact that several countries in East Asia
have become major trading powers and have moved from being developing to developed countries. The policies
adopted for rapid growth and development in these Asian countries, often dubbed the Asian Tigers, has become
the blue print for growth and development through trade in developing countries.
The participation of developing countries in the WTO has certainly increased in comparison to their earlier
participation in the GATT. However, barring a few high income and middle income developing countries, a
majority of developing countries still feel dissatisfied in pursuing their trade interests. Many factors, including
rivalry among similarly placed developing countries themselves, are responsible for this. Still a vast majority of
developing countries are united in their disagreement with the scope and content of negotiations proposed by
developed countries, accusing them of being self-interested. Failure to address these concerns is one the main
reasons for the failure many WTO negotiations and conferences.29

28 Constantine Michalopoulos. The Participation of Developing Countries in the WTO, The World Economy, 22.1 (1999):
117-143.
29 Ibid
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CONCLUSION:
HOW WTO HAS FAILED DEVELOPING COUNTRIES

For more than half a century developing countries have made enormous progress in integrating their economies
into the international trading system. Growth in their international trade has exceeded growth in output, the
product composition of their exports has shifted dramatically in favour of manufactures and away from primary
commodities and since the early 1990. Trade in some developing countries has grown exceptionally quickly and
far more than trade in developed countries.
The position, aspirations, influence and importance of developing countries in WTO negotiations has increased
over the years. They have become dramatically more active in trade negotiations in recent years, as their policies
and societies have become more dependent on trade. Even the smallest traders are better organized and prepared
than in the past. The results for the entire world depend more than ever on how developing countries
negotiate.30
Yet for other developing countries and groups- most prominently the Least Developed Countries (LDCs), very
limited progress has been evident. The output of these countries is growing less rapidly than those of other
developing countries, and they continue to rely overwhelmingly on exports of few primary commodities with
unstable prices and subject to long-term deteriorating terms of conditions.
Beginning with the Uruguay Round of multilateral trade negotiations in the mid-1980s, developing countries'
attitude towards participation in the GATT and, subsequently, in the WTO changed significantly: Many
developing countries played a very active role in the Uruguay Round negotiations; and a large number decided to
become members of WTO. This attitude change reflects a number of complex and inter-related developments:
Developing countries, in general, have become more effectively integrated in the international trading system,
and several have become major exporters of manufactures. Trade policies in many countries have been
liberalized, favouring an outward orientation and lower protection. And, there has been a growing appreciation of
the importance of observing international rules in the conduct of trade as well as the need to safeguard trading
interests through effective participation in the activities of the new organization.31

30John S. Odell, ed. Negotiating Trade: Developing Countries in the WTO and NAFTA. Cambridge University Press, 2000.
p. 1
31 Constantine Michalopoulos. The Participation of Developing Countries in the WTO, The World Economy, 22.1 (1999):
117-143.
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All this has had considerable impact on trade and development in developing countries. The trade policy of
various developing nations has been liberalized overtime and there is a trend even in socialist and communist
states to liberalize sections of the economy. One visible development is the fact that several countries in East Asia
have become major trading powers and have moved from being developing to developed countries. The policies
adopted for rapid growth and development in these Asian countries, often dubbed the Asian Tigers, has become
the blue print for growth and development through trade in developing countries.
The participation of developing countries in the WTO has certainly increased in comparison to their earlier
participation in the GATT. However, barring a few high income and middle income developing countries, a
majority of developing countries still feel dissatisfied in pursuing their trade interests. Many factors, including
rivalry among similarly placed developing countries themselves, are responsible for this. Still a vast majority of
developing countries are united in their disagreement with the scope and content of negotiations proposed by
developed countries, accusing them of being self-interested. Failure to address these concerns is one the main
reasons for the failure many WTO negotiations and conferences.32
According to the Guardian33, here are 10 examples of how the WTO has failed the poor:
1. Cotton: the Fair trade Foundation revealed last year how the $47bn in subsidies paid to rich-country
producers in the past 10 years has created barriers for the 15 million cotton farmers across west Africa
trying to trade their way out of poverty, and how 5 million of the world's poorest farming families have
been forced out of business and into deeper poverty because of those subsidies.
2. Agricultural subsidies: beyond cotton, WTO members have failed even to agree how to reduce the huge
subsidies paid to rich world farmers, whose overproduction continues to threaten the livelihoods of
developing world farmers.
3. Trade agreements: the WTO has also failed to clarify the deliberately ambiguous rules on concluding
trade agreements that allow the poorest countries to be manipulated by the rich states. In Africa, in
negotiations with the EU, countries have been forced to eliminate tariffs on up to 90% of their trade
because no clear rules exist to protect them.
4. Special treatment: the rules for developing countries, called "special and differential treatment" rules,
were meant to be reviewed to make them more precise, effective and operational. But the WTO has failed
to work through the 88 proposals that would fill the legal vacuum.

32 Ibid
33 Retrieved from http://www.guardian.co.uk/global-development/poverty-matters/2011/nov/14/wto-failsdevelopingcountries on 8th April 2014 at 5:00 PM
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5. Medicine: the poorest in developing countries are unable to access affordable medicine because members
have failed to clarify ambiguities between the need for governments to protect public health on one hand
and on the other to protect the intellectual property rights of pharmaceutical companies.
6. Legal costs: the WTO pledged to improve access to its expensive and complex legal system, but has
failed. In 15 years of dispute settlement under the WTO, 400 cases have been initiated. No African
country has acted as a complainant and only one least developed country has ever filed a claim.
7. Protectionist economic policies: one of the WTO's five core functions agreed at its inception in 1995 was
to achieve more coherence in global economic policy-making. Yet the WTO failed to curb the speedy
increase in the number of protectionist measures applied by G20 countries in response to the global
economic crisis over the past two years despite G20 leaders' repeated affirmations of their
"unwavering" commitment to resist all forms of protectionist measures.
8. Natural disaster: the WTO fails to alleviate suffering when it has the opportunity to do so. In the case of
natural disaster, the membership will have taken almost two years to agree and implement temporary
trade concessions for Pakistan, where severe flooding displaced 20 million people in 2010 and caused
$10bn of damage. Those measures, according to the International Centre for Trade and Sustainable
Development, would have boosted Pakistan's exports to the EU by at least 100m this year.
9. Decision-making: the WTO makes most of its decisions by consensus and achieving consensus between
153 countries is nearly impossible. But this shows another failure of the WTO: to break the link between
market size and political weight that would give small and poor countries a voice in the trade
negotiations.
10. Fair trade: 10 years after the start of the Doha Development Round, governments have failed to make
trade fair. As long as small and poor countries remain without a voice, the role of campaigning
organizations, such as Tradecraft and Fair Trade Foundation, which are working together to eliminate
cotton subsidies, will remain critical.

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BIBLIOGRAPHY
BOOKS AND ARTICLES
Darussalam, Brunei. Burkina Faso, and Cte dIvoire. WTO Members. World 11. 2006.
Hudec, Robert E. "GATT and the Developing Countries." Columbia Business Law Review (1992): 67.
Matthews, Alan. The Position of the Developing Countries in the WTO Negotiations on Agricultural Trade
Liberalization. Trinity Economic Papers Series. Trinity College. Dublin. 2001/03. F13, Q17. pp. 19-22
Michalopoulos, Constantine. The Participation of Developing Countries in the WTO, The World Economy, 22.1
(1999): 117-143.
Odell, John S. (ed.) Negotiating Trade: Developing Countries in the WTO and NAFTA. Cambridge University
Press, 2000.
Srinivasan, T.N. (1999), WTO and Developing Countries, Journal of Social and Economic Development,
Vol.II, No.1, January-june.

WEB SOURCES
http://www.guardian.co.uk/global-development/poverty-matters/2011/nov/14/wto-failsdeveloping-countries
http://www.nsi-ins.ca/wp-content/uploads/2012/10/2002-The-Reality-of-Trade-the-Uruguay-Round-andDeveloping-Countries.pdf
http://www.nsi-ins.ca/wp-content/uploads/2012/10/2002-The-Reality-of-Trade-the-Uruguay-Round-andDeveloping-Countries.pdf
http://www.wto.org
http://www.wto.org/english/tratop_e/devel_e/d1who_e.htm
http://www.wto.org/english/tratop_e/devel_e/teccop_e/s_and_d_eg_e.htm

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