Lisa Michalek

You get energy from the food you eat.

Directly or indirectly, almost all of the
energy in living systems needed for
metabolism comes from the sun.

Energy from the sun enters living systems

when plants, algae, and certain prokaryotes
absorb sunlight.
Some of the energy in sunlight is captured
and used to make macromolecule
compounds.
These macromolecules store chemical
energy and can serve as food for organisms.

Metabolism involves either using energy to

build molecules or breaking down
molecules in which energy is stored.
Photosynthesis is the process by which
light energy is converted to chemical
energy.
Organisms that use energy from sunlight or
from chemical bonds in nonliving
substances to make organic biomolecules
are called autotrophs.

Most autotrophs (usually plants) are

photosynthetic organisms.
Some autotrophs, including certain prokaryotes,
use chemical energy from inorganic (nonliving)
substances to make organic compounds.
Prokaryotes found near deep-sea volcanic vents
live in perpetual darkness.

Sunlight does not reach the bottom of the ocean.

These prokaryotes get energy from chemicals

flowing out of the vents.

Prokaryotes found
near deep-sea
volcanic vents live in
perpetual darkness.
Sunlight does not
reach the bottom of
the ocean.

These prokaryotes get energy from

chemicals flowing out of the vents.

The chemical energy in macromolecules can be

transferred to other macromolecules or to
organisms that consume food.
Organisms that must get energy
from food instead of directly
from sunlight or inorganic
substances are called heterotrophs.
Heterotrophs, including humans,
get energy from food through the process of
cellular respiration.

Cellular respiration is a metabolic process

similar to burning fuel.
While burning converts almost all of the energy
in a fuel to heat, cellular respiration releases
much of the energy
in food to make ATP.
ATP provides cells
with the energy
they need to carry
out the activities of life.

The word burn is often used to describe how

cells get energy from food.
The overall process is similar. However, the
burning of food in living cells differs from
the burning of a log in a campfire.
When a log burns, the energy stored in wood
is released quickly as heat and light.
In cells, chemical energy stored in food
molecules is released gradually in a series of
enzyme assisted chemical reactions.

As shown in the above diagram,

the product of one chemical reaction
becomes a reactant in the next reaction.

When cells break down food molecules, some of

the energy in the molecules is released as heat.
Much of the remaining energy is stored
temporarily in molecules of ATP.
ATP delivers energy wherever energy is needed
in a cell.
The energy released from ATP can be used to power
other chemical reactions, such as those that build
molecules.
Most chemical reactions require less energy than is
released from ATP.

ATP (adenosine triphosphate) is a nucleotide with

two extra energy-storing phosphate groups.
The three phosphate groups in ATP form a chain
that branches from a five-carbon sugar (ribose).

The phosphate tail is unstable

because the phosphate groups
are negatively charged
and repel each other.
The phosphate groups store
energy like a compressed spring.
The energy is released when
the bonds that hold the phosphate
groups together are broken.

Breaking the outer phosphate bond requires an input of

energy.

The removal of a phosphate

group from ATP produces ADP
(adenosine diphosphate).

However, much more energy is released, than is consumed by

the reaction.

This reaction releases

energy in a way that enables
cells to use the energy.

Cells use this energy released

by this reaction to power
metabolism.

Plants, algae, and some bacteria capture about

1% of the energy in the sunlight that reaches
the Earth and convert it to chemical energy
through the process of photosynthesis.
Photosynthesis is
the process that
provides energy
for almost all life.

Photosynthesis
occurs in the
chloroplasts of algae
and plant cells and in
the cell membrane of
certain prokaryotes.

Step 1
Step 2

Step 3

Energy is captured from sunlight.

Light energy is converted to
chemical energy, which is temporarily
stored in ATP and the energy carrier
molecule NADPH.
The chemical energy stored in ATP
and NADPH powers the formation of
organic compounds, using
carbon dioxide (CO2).

Can be summarized by the following equation:

6CO2 + 6H2O
Carbon
Dioxide

water

Light

C6H12O6 + 6O2
Sugars

Oxygen
Gas

8.1.A-What is ATP and what is its role in the cell?

B-Explain, How does the structure of ATP make it an ideal source of energy for the cell?
C-Explain how ADP and ATP are each like a battery. Which one is Partially charged and which one is
Fully charged? Why?
2.A-What is the ultimate source of energy for plants?
B-How do heterotrophs obtain energy? How is this different from how autotrophs obtain energy?
C-Infer, Why are decomposers such as mushrooms, considered heterotrophs and not autotrophs?
3. Recall that energy flows and that nutrients cycle how does the process of photosynthesis impact
both the flow of energy and the cycling of nutrients?
8.2 A-Why are pigments such as chlorophyll needed for photosynthesis?
B-How well would a plant grow under pure yellow light? Explain your answer.
2.A-What is the function of NADPH?
B-How is light energy converted into chemical energy during photosynthesis?
C-How would photosynthesis be affected if there were a shortage of NADP+ in the cells of plants?
3.a Describe the overall process of photosynthesis, including the reactants and products.
B. (Figure 8-7) Into which set of reactions- light dependent or light
Independent- does each reactant of photosynthesis enter? From which set of reactions is each
product of photosynthesis generated?
4. Create your own labeled diagram of chlorophyll. (Figure8-5) Draw and label the thylakoids, grana,
and stroma. Indicate on your drawing where the two sets of photosynthesis reactions take place.
5.Draw two leaves- one green and one orange. Using colored pencils, markers or pens, show which
colors of visible might are absorbed and reflected by each leaf.

Can be summarized by the following equation:

6CO2 + 6H2O
Carbon
Dioxide

water

Light

C6H12O6 + 6O2
Sugars

Oxygen
Gas

The first two steps of photosynthesis are

called light reactions, or
light dependent reactions.

Both need light to occur.

Light energy is used to

make energy storing
compounds:

ATP & NADPH.

The structures containing light-absorbing

substances are called pigments.
Pigments absorb capture energy from sunlight.
Chlorophyll, absorbs mostly
Absorbs blue & red light
Reflects green & yellow light.
Reflection of green and yellow light makes many
plants, especially their leaves, look green.

Plant Chloroplast have two chlorophyll types,

chlorophyll a & b.
Other colored pigments are called carotenoids.
Fall leaf colors
Fruit & Vegetable colors

Pigments involved in plant photosynthesis are

located in the chloroplasts of leaf cells.
Clusters of pigments are embedded in the
membranes of disk-shaped structures called
thylakoids.

When light strikes a thylakoid in a chloroplast,

energy is transferred to electrons in chlorophyll.
This energy transfer causes the electrons to jump
to a higher energy level.
Electrons with extra
energy are said to be
excited!
They jump from
chlorophyll to other
molecules

The excited electrons

that leave chlorophyll
molecules must be
replaced by other
electrons.
Plants get these
replacement electrons
from water molecules,
H2O.
Splitting water apart
and releasing O2 gas.

Excited electrons that leave chlorophyll

molecules are used to produce new molecules,
including ATP and NADPH, that temporarily store
chemical energy.
The electron is passed through the electron
transport chains in the thylakoid membrane.

As hydrogen ions pass through transport proteins,

the protein acts like an enzyme and adds a
phosphate group to a molecule of ADP, making
ATP.

In addition to ATP, another set of proteins in

the thylakoid membrane provides energy to
make NADPH.

NADPH- energy for the third step

photosynthesis.

Chlorophyll pigment molecules in the chloroplasts

absorb light energy.
Electrons are excited by light and move through
electron transport chains in thylakoid membranes.
These electrons are replaced by electrons from water
molecules, which are split by an enzyme protein.
Oxygen atoms from water molecules combine to form
oxygen gas.
The energy molecules of ATP and NADPH are formed.

In this final stage of photosynthesis, carbon

atoms from carbon dioxide in the atmosphere
are used to make organic compounds in which
chemical energy is stored.
The transfer of carbon dioxide to organic
compounds is called carbon dioxide fixation.
The reactions that fix carbon dioxide are
sometimes called dark reactions, or lightindependent reactions.

The most common

method of carbon
dioxide fixation is
the Calvin Cycle.
The Calvin cycle
is a series of
enzyme-assisted
chemical reactions
that produces a
three-carbon sugar.

A total of three carbon dioxide molecules must

enter the Calvin cycle to produce each threecarbon sugar that will be used to make other
organic compounds.
These organic compounds provide the organism
with energy for growth and metabolism.
The energy used in the Calvin cycle is supplied
by ATP and NADPH made during the second step
of photosynthesis.

Used

Produced

Step 1

Light, Water

Oxygen, Hydrogen Ions

Step 2

Electrons,
Hydrogen Ions

ATP, NADPH

Step 3

ATP, NADPH,
Carbon Dioxide

Glucose and other

macromolecules

In carbon dioxide fixation, carbon dioxide

(CO2) is joined together to form glucose,
powered by the energy of ATP & NADPH.

CO2 is pieced
together
ATP energy is used
NADPH energy is
used
The Carbohydrate
Monomer, Glucose
is made from the
pieces of CO2

Photosynthesis is directly affected by environmental factors.

The most obvious factor is light.

The carbon dioxide concentration also affects the rate of

photosynthesis.

In general, the rate of photosynthesis increase as light intensity

increases until all the pigments are being used.
At this saturation point, the reactions of the Calvin cycle cannot
proceed any faster.
The overall rate of photosynthesis is limited by the slowest step,
which occurs in the Calvin cycle.

Once a certain concentration of carbon dioxide is present,

photosynthesis cannot proceed any faster.

Photosynthesis is most efficient within a certain range of

temperatures.

Photosynthesis involves many enzyme-assisted chemical reactions

and unfavorable temperatures may inactivate certain enzymes.

Moodle- 1)Factors that affect

Photosynthesis
2) Virtually experiment with what affects
photosynthesis
Distance from light
Color of light

Most of the foods we eat contain usable energy.

Much of the energy is stored in proteins,

carbohydrates, and fats.

Cells transfer energy in organic compounds to

ATP through a process called cellular respiration.

With Oxygen, cells can make much more ATP.

Cellular respiration is the process cells use to

produce the energy in organic compounds.
Cellular respiration can be summarized by the
following equation:
enzymes

C6H12O6 + 6O2
glucose

oxygen
gas

6CO2 + 6H2O + energy

carbon
dioxide

water

ATP

In the Cytoplasm
Glucose Sugar is Broken in Half.

In Mitochondria
The Enzyme
Acetyl-CoA helps
start the Krebs
cycle, making
NADH & FADH
energy
molecules.
Carbon Dioxide
released & 2 ATP
are formed.

In the Mitochondria
Water & a lot of ATP made (34 ATP).

Used

Produced

Step 1
Glycolysis

Glucose

2 ATP, 2NADH, Sugar Spit

in Half (2 Pyruvate)

Step 2
Krebs Cycle

Oxygen, Half
(3C) Sugar &
Acetyl CoA
Enzyme
Oxygen, NADH,
Hydrogens from
sugar,

2 ATP, 8 NADH, CO2 is

released.

Step 3
Electron
Transport
Chain

34 ATP (Lots of ATP!),

Water

Aerobic processes require

oxygen (aerobic=air).
Anaerobic processes do not
require oxygen
(anaerobic=without air).
Aerobic
Anaerobic

Requires Oxygen

No Oxygen Required

Produces Water & Carbon

Dioxide

Produces Acids such as

Lactic Acids (Sore Muscles)

Cytoplasm & Mitochondria

Cytoplasm Only

Quiz Next Period!

Study your notes!

The slides below were not included in the

lessons.

When oxygen is present, pyruvate produced

during glycolysis enters a mitochondrion and
is converted to a two-carbon compound.
This reaction produces one carbon dioxide
molecule, one NADH molecule, and one
two-carbon acetyl group.
The acetyl group is attached to a molecule
called coenzyme A (CoA), forming a
compound called acetyl-CoA.

Cellular respiration occurs in two steps.

Step 1 Called Glycolysis (Glycolysis=SugarBreak) Glucose is converted to pyruvate,
producing a small amount of ATP and NADH.
Step 2 When oxygen is present, pyruvate and
NADH are used to make large amounts of ATP
(aerobic respiration). Aerobic respiration
occurs in the mitochondria of all cells. When
oxygen is not present, pyruvate is converted to
either lactate or ethanol and carbon dioxide.

The primary fuel for cellular respiration is glucose,

which is formed when carbohydrates such as
starch and sucrose are broken down.
If too few carbohydrates are available to meet an
organisms glucose needs, other molecules, such
as fats, can be broken down to make ATP.

One gram of fat contains more energy than two grams

of carbohydrates.

Proteins and nucleic acids can also be used to

make ATP, but they are usually used for building
important cell parts.

In the first step of cellular respiration, glucose is

broken down in the cytoplasm during a process
called glycolysis.
Glycolysis is an enzyme-assisted anaerobic
process that breaks down one six-carbon
molecule of glucose to two three-carbon
pyruvate ions.

Pyruvate is the ion of a three-carbon organic acid

called pyruvic acid.

The pyruvate produced during glycolysis still

contains some of the energy that was stored in
the glucose molecule.

As glucose is broken down, some of its

hydrogen atoms are transferred to an
electron acceptor called NAD+.
This forms an electron carrier called NADH.
The electrons carried by NADH are eventually
donated to other organic compounds.
This recycles NAD+, making it available to
accept more electrons.

Glycolysis uses two ATP molecules but

produces four ATP molecules, yielding a
net gain of two ATP molecules.
Glycolysis is followed by another set of
reactions that use the energy
temporarily stored in NADH to make
more ATP.

After the Krebs cycle, NADH and FADH2

now contain much of the energy that was
previously stored in glucose and pyruvate.
When the Krebs cycle is completed, the
four-carbon compound that began the cycle
has been recycled, and acetyl-CoA can
enter the cycle again.

In aerobic respiration, electrons donated by

NADH and FADH2 pass through an electron
transport chain.
In eukaryotic cells, the electron transport
chain is located in the inner membranes of
mitochondria.
The energy of these electrons is used to
pump hydrogen ions out of the inner
mitochondrial compartment.

Hydrogen ions accumulate in the outer

compartment, producing a concentration
gradient across the inner membrane.
Hydrogen ions diffuse back into the inner
compartment through a carrier protein that
adds a phosphate group to ADP, making ATP.
At the end of the electron transport chain,
hydrogen ions and spent electrons combine
with oxygen molecules, O2, forming water
molecules, H2O.

What happens when there is not enough

oxygen for aerobic respiration to occur?
The electron transport chain does not function
because oxygen is not available to serve as the
final electron acceptor.
Electrons are not transferred from NADH, and
NAD+ therefore they cannot be recycled.
When Oxygen is not present, NAD+ is recycled
in another way.

Under anaerobic conditions, electrons carried by NADH

are transferred to pyruvate produced during glycolysis.
This process recycles NAD+ needed to continue making
ATP through glycolysis.
The recycling of NAD+ using an organic hydrogen
acceptor is called fermentation.

Prokaryotes carry out more than a dozen kinds of fermentation

all using some form of organic hydrogen acceptor to recycle
NAD+.

Two important forms of fermentation are lactic acid

fermentation and alcoholic fermentation.

Lactic acid fermentation by some prokaryotes and fungi is used

in the production of foods such as yogurt and some cheeses.

In some organisms, a three-carbon pyruvate is converted

to a three-carbon lactate through lactic acid
fermentation.

Lactate is the ion of an organic acid called lactic acid.

During vigorous exercise, pyruvate in muscles is

converted to lactate when muscle cells must operate
without enough oxygen.
Fermentation enables glycolysis to continue producing
ATP in muscles as long as the glucose supply lasts.
Blood removes excess lactate from muscles.

Lactate can build up in muscle cells if it is not removed

quickly enough, sometimes causing muscle soreness.

In other organisms, the three-carbon pyruvate is

broken down to ethanol, a two-carbon compound,
through alcoholic fermentation.
Carbon dioxide is released during the process.
First, pyruvate is converted to a two-carbon compound,
releasing carbon dioxide.
Second, electrons are transferred from a molecule of
NADH to the two-carbon compound, producing
ethanol.
As in lactic acid fermentation, NAD+ is recycled, and
glycolysis can continue to produce ATP.

Alcoholic fermentation by yeast, a fungus, has been

used in the preparation of many foods and beverages.
Wine and beer contain ethanol made during alcoholic
fermentation by yeast.
Carbon dioxide released by the yeast causes the rising
of bread dough and the carbonation of some alcoholic
beverages, such as beer.
Ethanol is actually toxic to yeast.

At a concentration of about 12 percent ethanol kills yeast.

Therefore, naturally fermented wine contains about 12% ethanol.

The total amount of ATP that a cell is able

to harvest from each glucose molecule that
enters glycolysis depends on the presence
or absence of oxygen.
When Oxygen is present, aerobic respiration
occurs.
When Oxygen is absent, fermentation occurs.