Documentos de Académico
Documentos de Profesional
Documentos de Cultura
I.
Abbreviations
1
first person
second person
third person
ABS
absolutive
ACC
acusative
ADJ
adjective
ART
article
COND
conditional
DEF
definite
DEM
demonstrative
DET
determiner
DIR
Directional
DL
dialectal
epenthetic
ERG
ergative
feminine
FRM
formal
FUT
future tense
LOC
locative
IM
inverse marking
IMPERF
imperfective
INF
infinitive
INFRM
informal
masculine
NEG
negation
NMZ
nominalizer
NOM
Nominative
PASS
passive
PL
plural
PREP
preposition
PRN
personal pronoun
1
II.
question marker
reduplication
REL
relative
SG
singular
VBZ
verbalizer
Orthography
Here there are the correspondences between the phonetic sound and the spelling used
in this sketch.
/b/ b
/c/ c
/d/ d
/f/ f
/g/ g
/h/ h
/j/ y
/k/ k
/l/ l
/m/ m
/n/ n
// ny
// ng
/p/ p
/r/ r
/s/ s
/t/ t
// x
// j
// tj
/w/ w
//
/a/ a
/e/ e
/i/ i
/o/ o
/u/ u
//
Contents
1.
2.
Phonology.................................................................................................................... 8
2.1. Minimal pairs........................................................................................................... 9
3.
2.2.
Allophones.......................................................................................................... 11
2.3.
Phonological rules............................................................................................... 12
2.4.
Stress.................................................................................................................. 13
2.5.
Diphthongs.......................................................................................................... 13
2.6.
Phonotactics........................................................................................................ 14
2.7.
Phonetic gemination........................................................................................... 17
Morphosyntax............................................................................................................ 17
3.1. Language typology................................................................................................ 17
4.
3.2.
Word classes....................................................................................................... 18
3.2.
Phrases............................................................................................................... 32
3.3.
Verb phrase......................................................................................................... 36
3.4.
Non-verbal phrase............................................................................................... 38
3.5.
Adpositional phrase............................................................................................. 38
3.6.
Sentence types................................................................................................... 39
3.7.
Negation............................................................................................................. 40
3.8.
Questions............................................................................................................ 40
3.9.
Passive................................................................................................................ 41
3.10.
Clauses............................................................................................................ 41
3.11.
Adverbial clauses............................................................................................. 42
3.12.
Coordination.................................................................................................... 42
3.13.
Reduplication................................................................................................... 43
Kinship terminology................................................................................................... 44
4.1. Historical kinship................................................................................................... 47
5.
Appendix................................................................................................................... 48
5.1. Transcription text................................................................................................... 48
5.2.
6.
Glossary.............................................................................................................. 50
References................................................................................................................. 69
Some of the alternate names of the language are De, Rappang Buginese, Ugi (SIL
International, 2013). The number of speakers according to Wikipedia and Ethnologue is
of 5 million speakers.
For this sketch the source of information has been a single consultant, Mr. Andi Ahmad
Yani, or just Yani, as he wishes to be called. Hes a 37 year old native Buginese studying
for one year in The Netherlands. He is able to speak Bugis, Bahasa Indonesia and
English.
Yani is a speaker of the Barru dialect, which is the one spoken in Soppeng, where hes
from. According to him, the language is not being passed down to the younger
generations. Yani declares himself as a self-conscious Bugis speaker, however he affirms
to be speaking Bahasa Indonesian to his daughter. He also admits that he has changed
this tendency, lately. The language of the school and government is Bahasa Indonesia,
even though that in recent times Bugis is been taught in schools as a subject, but it is
not the vehicular language of the school. As for now, Ethnologue (2014) states that
Bugis has a good health. Other languages spoken in the area are Makassar, Toraja,
Mandar, Enrekang and Luwu.
The data for this sketch was obtained during half an hour elicitations twice a week for
about 10 weeks.
1.1.
The Lontara script is a Brahmic script traditionally used for the Bugis, Makasarese, and
Mandar languages of Sulawesi in Indonesia. It is also known as the Buginese script, as
Lontara documents written in this language are the most numerous. It was largely
replaced by the Latin alphabet during the period of Dutch colonization, though it is still
used today to a limited extent (Wikipedia, 2014). The word Lontara is derived from the
Malay name for palmyra palm, lontar, whose leaves are traditionally used for
manuscripts. In Buginese, this script is called urupu sulapa eppa which means fourcornered letters, referencing the Bugis-Makasar belief of the four elements that shaped
the universe: fire, water, air, and earth (Wikipedia, 2014).
Although the Latin alphabet has largely replaced Lontara, it is still used to a limited
extent in Bugis and Makasar. In Bugis, its usage is limited to ceremonial purposes such
as wedding ceremonies. Lontara is also used extensively in printing traditional Buginese
literature. In Makasar, Lontara is additionally used for personal documents such as
5
letters and notes. Those who are skilled in writing the script are known as palontara, or
'writing specialists (Wikipedia, 2014).
Lontara is an abugida1 with 23 basic consonant and it is written from left to right.
Transliteration:
nako ngka taupasala. aja mupatalalowi pacalamu ritopasalae. pasitujuwimutowisa
asalana pacalamu. apa ikonatu nagili dewatea. nako baicumupi asalana tauwe.
muperajaisa. padatowi. nako pasalai tauwe. aja timucalai risitinajanaetosa asalana
(adapted from Wikipedias transliteration to orthography).
Translation:
If you deal with a person guilty of something, do not punish him too harshly. Always
make the punishment commensurable with the guilt, since God will be angry with you if
the person's guilt is not great and you are exaggerating it. Equally, if a person is guilty,
do not let him go without a punishment in accordance with his guilt (Wikipedia, 2014).
2. Phonology
The full inventory of Bugis phonemes are given in the following tables. The tables are
divided between consonants and vowels.
2.1.1. Bugis consonants
Figure 4. Bugis consonant.
Bilabial
Plosive
Nasal
Dental
b
m
Post
alveolar
t
n
r
Trill
Fricative
Alveolar
Palatal
Velar
Glottal
Affricate
Approximant
Lateral
approximant
Close
Close-mid
Open
front
i
e
Primary vowels
central
back
u
o
As it can be observed in the above tables, Bugis has a total of 19 consonant sounds, 2
semi consonants and 6 vowels. The [h] phoneme it only appears in loanwords from
Bahasa Indonesian.
There are the following long vowels:
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
[ata] slave
[ada] word
[aga] what
[aa] dont do it
/b/ voiced bilabial plosive [b] in intervocalic position and onset, free variation between
[b] and voiced bilabial fricative [].
/p/ voiceless bilabial stop [p], free variation with voiceless bilabial fricative [] or with
voiceless labiodental fricative [f].
10
The phoneme /p/ has free variation with [p], [f] and []. Roots with /p/ can be
pronounced with [], [f] or [p]. The position of the phoneme within the root (initial or
intervocalic) does not make any difference.
2.4. Stress
In Austronesian languages, the stress is usually non-distinctive and occurs on the
penultimate syllable. (Himmelmann & Adelaar, 2005, p. 116). In general terms, Bugis
has the stress in the penultimate syllable in words with three or more syllables. The
stress is expressed by loudness. Long vowels also express where the stress is: [tai la:so]
fuck, [te:gi] where, [ao:la] his/her heart; while long consonants do not always
express stress: [tl:u] three, [ut:u] knee.
In words of two syllables, the stress can be either at the first syllable or at the last.
Stress can be contrastive, that means that by changing the stress, the meaning can be
changed. For example, [asu] dog and [asu] to go. Therefore, in words of three or
more syllables stress is predictable, but in words of two syllables it is only predictable
when the word ends in an approximant, then the stress falls into it.
The stress is also predictable when the possessive is added at the end of the word. The
stress moves to the penultimate syllable, as it becomes, at least, a three syllable word.
For example, [bo.la] house becomes [bo.la:.t:a] your house. The stress also moves to
the final syllable when the definite e is added, [asu] [asue].
12
2.5. Diphthongs
Every time the definite article e is added at the end of a word and this one is preceded
by a semi consonant, a diphthong is formed.
2.6. Phonotactics
2.6.1. Syllable structure
In Austronesian languages the most common syllable structures are CV and CVC
(Himmelmann & Adelaar, 2005, p. 115). Bugis appears to share this syllable structure of
CV as a main feature. Its roots are mainly bisyllabic.
These are the syllable combinations with bisyllabic roots in Bugis:
CV [lo] want
CCV [ka] there is
CVV [dua] two
VCV [a.su] dog
VCVC [e.u] cloth
VCCV [am.ba] hit
VCCVC [am.bo] father
CVCV [me.ga] many
CVVC [da.i] older sibling
CVCCV [com.bi] vagina
13
(88) /p/ [apaa:tu] four hundrerd, [patapulo] forty. It appears at onset and
intervocalic position.
(89) /b/ [balawo] mouse, [kaeb] news. It appears at onset and intervocalic
position.
(90) /m/ [maidi] yellow, [umpu] smoke, [femo] again. It appears at onset,
coda and intervocalic position.
(91) /f/ [femo] again, [afi] fire. It appears at onset and intervocalic position.
(92) /s/ [sao], [assu]. It appears at onset and intervocalic position.
(93) /d/ [dua] world, [maidi] yelow, [ced:e] few. It appears at onset and
intervocalic position.
(94) /t/ [tabe] excuse me, [ata] slave. It appears at onset and intervocalic
position.
(95) /n/ [jasa] name, [unuu] age, [makunn rai] woman, [nadaa], [aln.n bo
lae] her house. It appears at onset and in nucleus position, as well as in
intervocalic position.
(96) /r/ [raba] Wednesday, [makunn rai] woman, [kartasa] paper. It appears at
onset and intervocalic position.
(100)
position.
// ['baa] duck. It appears at intervocalic position.
/j/ [jasa] name, [abjo] right hand, [ija] yes. It appears at onset,
(101)
(102)
(103)
(104)
intervocalic position.
(105)
// [as] name, [i] nose, [ka] there, [oko] mine. It appears
at coda and in nucleus position, as well as in intervocalic position.
/w/ [bwas] repeat, [dawa] ink, [wai] water. It appears at onset,
(106)
(107)
(108)
in an intervocalic position.
/l/ [bale] fish, [laso] penis. It appears at onset, intervocalic.
(109)
15
3. Morphosyntax
3.1. Language typology
According to Tryon (1995, p. 554), Bugis is an ergative-absolutive language and that is
the starting point of analysis for the following sections.
In Bugis word order is not rigid and different orders are found. For example, there are
some SVO constructions as it can be seen in the following examples:
(113) la dafi
na-w-nu
miong-e
Dafi
However, constructions of this kind are not widely found. The vast majority of given
sentences in Bugis, word order is VOS. This is the prototypical sentence in Bugis:
(115)
na-unu-w=i
oto-e
la
dafi
16
Article
17
Bugis has a definite article expressed by e which does not work all the time in the
same way as in many western languages do, for example as in English. Sometimes it
just translates as the or sometimes English does not require it as it is understood, while
Bugis still needs to use it, since it is also used as a focalizer. It goes attached at the end
of nouns and adjectives as a suffix, and it takes the stress. It never goes with personal
names.
(117)
[oto] [oto-e]
car
car-DEF
car
the car
In the following example, Bugis requires the definite article e, whereas English doesnt,
as it has enough definition with that, but at the same time it works as a focalizer for
house.
(118)
Dafi
puna yoro bola-e
David have that house-DEF
David has that house
Bugis has no determiner article.
(119)
aka asu
there dog
There is a dog
(120)
asu ye (also ye asu)
dog this
this is a dog
Proper names may have and i in front if it is for a woman or a la if it is for a man.
These are articles for gender marking. For example it would be:
(121)
la Yani
/ i Amanda
ART.M Yani / ART.F Amanda
These personal articles are also definers.
3.2.2.
Pronouns
18
I
you singular informal
you singular formal
He/she/it
We
You plural informal
You plural formal
They
iya
iko
iri
alena
idi maneng
iko maneng (lit. you all)
iri maneng (lit. you all)
alena maneng (lit.
he/she/it all)
Examples of use:
(122)
iya
ma-unu-w=i
yanu
PRN.1sg
VBZ-kill-E=3sgABS
someone
I want to kill someone.
(123)
iko
ma-unu-w=i
yanu
PRN.2sgINFRM VBZ-kill-E=3sgABS
someone
You want to kill someone.
(124)
iri
ma-unu-w=i
yanu
PRN.2sgFRM VBZ-kill-E=3sgABS
someone
You want to kill someone.
Example (124) is only an example of use; in real life probably it does not make sense to
treat in a formal and respectful way someone that is going to be killed.
The 3rd person alena is a lexicalization of ale body and na, 3rd person genitive, so
literally means his/her body.
My/mine
Your/yours formal
Your/yours informal
His/hers/their/its
our/ours
Genitive
-ku
-ta
-mu
-na
-ta
The reflexive pronouns are created with the word ale which means body where the
genitive is attached to it.
19
(125)
ale-ta
body-2sgGEN
yourself
What
Where
Who
When
How
Which
why
aga
teegi
iga
uppanna
maagai
yategi
magai
It is important to note that most of these pronouns have a similar root as marked in
black in the above. This g or ga derives from the question marker that is described in
chapter 3.8 as well as examples of use of the interrogative pronouns.
(129)
ye yasa
meong
DET called cat
This is called cat
3.2.3.
Nouns
bobo book
manumanu bird (manu chicken)
anaana children (ana son/daughter)
Bugis does not have any special morpheme to express gender. In the case of kinship, for
example, the word urane (man) and makunrai (woman) is added to distinguish
gender.
(142)
amure
uncle/aunt
(143)
amure
urane
uncle/aunt man
uncle
(144)
amure
makunrai
uncle/aunt woman
aunt
3.2.4.
Adjectives
When one wants to express an absolute value, it is used the word fom most:
(150)
ye oto-e
fom becu
this car-DEF most small
this car is the smallest
3.2.4.1. Colors
Some of the color names are the following:
Figure 9. Colors in Bugis
white
Black
Red
Green
Blue
Yellow
Brown
fute
bolong
cella
kudaa
gau
maridi
sikola
The word for brown is sikola chocolate which is a borrowing from Dutch.
When colors are placed in a sentence they are verbalized with the ma- prefix, so colors
are verbs and work as verbs.
(151)
sedi ma-bolong, dua ma-sikola
one
VBZ-black two VBZ-chocolate
one is black, two are brown
The literal translation for the example just seen would be: *one is blacking, two are
browning
3.2.4.2. Numerals
Bugis has a base ten numeral system:
One sedi
Two - dua
Three - tllu
Four pa
Five lima
Six - nng
Seven - feetu
Eight - arua
Nine - asera
Ten sepulo
23
3.2.5.
Adverbs
Time adverbs are placed at the end of the sentence, but they rarely can be found also at
the beginning of the sentence. Through time adverbs Bugis expresses tense.
(152)
ma-andre=ki
otti
onnaele-e
VBZ-eat=2sgFRM.ABS banana morning-DEF
You ate a banana this morning
(153)
ma-andre=ka
otti
batja
VBZ-eat=1sgABS
banana tomorrow
Tomorrow I will eat banana
24
As it is seen in the examples above, adverbs take enclitics as other words do. Here
another example:
(154)
biase=ki
usually=1plABS
We usually
Some other adverbs are: tappa (then) and femng (again).
(155)
uppanna mulesu
femng
when come back
again
When are you going to go back?
(156)
tappa akka
manu
then there is chicken pass
then a chicken passes by
3.2.6.
laalo
Verbs
In Bugis all verbs consist of stem which is completed with affixes and clitics.
As said, the basic order in a Bugis sentence is placing the verb at the beginning. The
verb may show one of the following combinations:
(157)
ma+verb+ABS
ma-andre=ka
VBZ-eat=1sgABS
I eat
(158)
verb+ABS
lo=ka
will=1sgABS
I will
(159)
ERG+Verb+ABS
mu=unu=ka
2sgERG=kill=1sgABS
He/she kills me
(160)
IMPRF+ma+verb+ABS
la-ma-kelong=i
IMPRF-VBZ-sing=3sgABS
was singing
(161)
PASS+verb+ABS
i-unu-w=i
PASS-kill-E=3sgABS
is killed
(162)
PASS+verb
i-anre
PASS-eat
25
be eaten
(163)
Verb alone
miong-e maate
cat-DEF die
the cat dies
The verb also may appear after the object in a SV order and only with transitive verbs:
(164)
iia
ma-unu-w=i
PRN.1sg VBZ-kill-E=3sgABS
I kill David
la Dafi
ART.M David
Ma- prefix
Bugis has verbal stems and non-verbal stems. Ma- is a verbalizer for non-verbal stems.
In English, what lexical category does book have? If we want it to be a verb we have to
add to. In Bugis, what lexical category does anre have? If we want it to be a verb we
must add ma-. This ma- may be omitted when we add an ergative proclitic to the stem
and therefore, we establish the relationship between agent and patient, then theres no
need to verbalize the stem, since the relationship between an agent and a patient can
only be established by a verb in this case.
When adding the ma- enclitic to a verb initial sentence, we are shifting the agent mark
from a proclitic position to an enclitic one. That is, since theres no ergative mark
because it is substituted by ma-, it is the absolutive mark which is in charge of
expressing the agent. This process is called inverse-marking.
Ma- is also used to establish the infinitive form ma-baca to read.
Ma- can also be applied to verbalize nouns.
(168)
ma-golo
VBZ-ball
play football
26
Intransitive verbs
(172)
tarasi-n=i
anana-e
sneeze-PAST=3sgABS children-DEF
The children sneezed
Intransitive verbs only take enclitics which express the agent.
3.2.6.2. Tense
Bugis has 3 tenses: past, present and future. As in many languages, tense it is mainly
expressed by temporal adverbs without the need of adding any tense marker in the
verb.
mate
As it can be seen n is a mark for the future tense, as well as it is a mark for past tense.
The difference in use is that when we want to use n as a past marker, it has to be
inserted in the verb, whereas if we want it to be a future marker it has to be inserted in
the auxiliary verb lo (to want).
3.2.6.2. Aspect
A clear example of an imperfective form is the following:
28
(181)
lamakelongngi
la-ma-kelo=i
la-ma-kelo=i
IMPERF-VBZ-sing=3sgABS
He/she was singing
The example above is the only one available where the apparent mark of la as
imperfective. The rest examples, we have verbs with the ma- prefix and where the
translations fluctuate between present tense, imperfective and present continuous, all
depending on context.
(182)
ma-roki suru-e
la Dafi
VBZ-write letter-DEF ART.M David
David is writing the letter or David writes the letter
(183)
ma-roki mufi la Dafi
VBZ-write still ART.M David
David is still writing.
Theres not a special mark for the perfect tense and it is made as described in 5.6.4.2,
although again, context and adverbs help with it.
(184)
ma-anre=ka
oti
onnaele-e
VBZ-eat=1sgABS banana morning-DEF
I will eat a banana in the morning
3.2.6.2. Mood
Indicative is the non-marked mood:
(185)
ma-anre=ka
oti
VBZ-eat=1sgABS banana
I eat a banana
(186)
idi
PRN.1sg all
We kill David
maneng mu=unu-w=i
la Dafi
2sgERG=kill-E=3sgABS ART.M David
luttu kiase=na
over=3sgABS tree
And to end this mood section, here it is how the imperative is formed:
(188)
unu-w=i
la Dafi
kill-E=3sgABS ART.M David
Kill David!
(189)
tulung=i
la Dafi
help=3sgABS ART.M David
29
Help David!
The formation of the imperative is with the stem with no proclitic and the absolutive
enclitic.
The prohibitive is formed from with the imperative works in the following way:
(190)
atja mu=anre
manngi roti-e
NEG 2sgABS=eat whole
bread-DEF
do not eat the whole bread!
atja is a negation adverb for the imperative.
3.2.7.
Prepositions
(192)
pole popong-e
from tree-DEF
from the tree
(193)
ku bulu-e (ki in some dialects)
on hill-DEF
on the hill
Some other prepositions are: sibawa (with), jawana (under), munri (behind), siwali
(beside), jasena (on), etc.
The most interesting feature in prepositions is that ku can take enclitics as well.
(194)
ku=ka
bola-ku
at=1sgABS house-1sgGEN
Im at my home
3.2. Phrases
3.2.1. Noun phrase
The noun phrase in Bugis may be made of the following elements:
(195)
Noun
manu
chicken
(196)
Adjective+noun
30
becu kampong
small village
(197)
Noun+adjective
ceiba
fute
monkey white
white monkey
(198)
Noun+Adjective+DEF
risi bolong-e
line black-DEF
the black line
(199)
Noun+DEF
asu-e
dog-DEF
The dog
(200)
Noun+GEN
bola-na
la
Daf
house-3sgGEN ART.M David
Davids house
(201)
Noun+ABS
bola=ka
house=1sgABS
My house
(202)
Numeral+noun
tllu bola
three house
three houses
3.2.6.
A pragmatic issue that plays a significant role in the encoding of noun is identifiability
and referentiality. Certain noun phrases refer to entities that the speaker judges should
be identifiable by the addressee. In English, the article the is one means of expressing
identifiability. In Bugis, as said on chapter 3.2.1, it is the definite article in the suffix form
of e.
(203)
joka anan-e
ku
sikola-e
go
children-DEF PREP school-DEF
The children go to the school
The use of e in example (203) instructs the addressee that there are some specific
children that go to a specific school, which the speaker is referring to. Furthermore, if
this were a real communication situation, the speaker would probably assume that the
addressee knows who these children are and what school we are talking about. That is,
31
the speaker treats the participants in question as identifiable given the information the
speaker assumes the addressee has available. If we dont use the definite article e, we
assume that we are just talking about any children that go to just any school. Bugis has
a more extensive use of the article than English, marking the direct object, as well as
used probably due to prosodic or pragmatic reasons, for example to focalize. Therefore
there are many instances where the Bugis speaker feels the need of defining a noun,
whereas in English it is not required.
(204)
u-foy=i
ye tryang-e
1sgERG-like=2sgABS this dance-e
I like this dance
Example (204) English has enough defining dance with the demonstrative this,
therefore theres no need for an extra identifiable particle such as the, whereas Bugis
still requires the definite article to specify that we are talking about a known and
particular dance.
One added feature of e is that when added to a verb, it nominalizes it by defining it.
(205)
ma-safeda-e
VBZ-bike-DEF
the biker
The example above is quite curious; as we take a noun, we verbalize it with ma-, and
then we nominalize it back again with e to express the person who is doing the action.
As seen, Bugis has demonstrative pronouns, which are free forms. They precede the
noun. Demonstratives imply pointing to or demonstrating the object they refer to.
(206)
ye bola-e
this house-DEF
This house
(207)
yoro bola-e
that house-DEF
That house
In addition to exhibiting the features common to the pronoun system of the language
(number, gender, etc.), demonstratives often express distance with respect to the
speaker or to the hearer, this is the case of Bugis which has two degrees of distance as
seen on examples (206) and (207). Some languages make a distinction between items
close to the hearer, items close to the speaker, and items distant from both. That does
not seem to be the case of Bugis.
3.2.7.
Numerals
(208)
tllu bola
three house
three houses
When theres an adjective, the order is numeral + adjective + noun:
(209)
dua tanru-na
bembe-e
two horn-3sgGEN goat-DEF
the goats two horns
To indicate the number of people who is doing the action, we must place the numeral
after the personal pronoun, and then the agent is attached to the numeral.
(210)
idi
dua=ki
PRN.1pl two=2sgABS
(the) two of us
The numeral acts as a definite article, therefore theres no need for the definite article e.
A sentence can start by a numeral, being this one the subject of a sentence.
(211)
tllu=i
na-unu
meong-e
four=3sgABS 3sgERG-kill cat-DEF
The four of us kill the cat
In (211) the numeral takes an enclitic.
3.2.8.
Possession
(216)
anure-ku
niece-1sgGEN
My niece
(217)
silo-ku
friend-1sgGEN
my friend
Bugis has no inherence in possession.
3.2.9.
Relative clauses
34
As can be appreciated throughout the text, these are treated as clitics due to the fact
that are found in more than one lexical category: verbs, adverbs and prepositions.
Figure 10. Clitics in Bugis.
I
You/you all formal
You/you all informal
She/he/it
We/us
Ergative
ku-/utamunaki-
Absolutive
-ka
-ki
-ko
-i
-ki
(220)
lo=i
ma-nari
want=he/she VBZ-dance
he/she wants to dance
(221)
lo=ka
ma-nari
want=I VBZ-dance
I want to dance
(222)
tabena=i pire pole popong-e
fall=it
pear PREP tree-DEF
it fall a pear from the tree
In many occasions instead of having i for the 3sg absolutive, theres a wi. Theres no
difference in meaning at all. Looking at the examples it can be seen that wi always may
appear after just any vowel. This [w] is an epenthetic sound because it is only found
after a vowel, but not after a consonant, therefore it cant be an allomorph of i, as
otherwise it would appear just after any sound. So, this [w] is an epenthetic sound that
sometimes appears after a vowel and it is also used to emphasize the agent or the
patient. This epenthetic [w] also appears in front of the verb:
(223)
u-w-anre
PRN.1sgERG-E-eat
I eat
Lets take a look at the ambiguity of the following constructions, which are translated to
English with the same meaning:
(224)
na-unu-w=i
oto-e
la Dafi
3sgERG-kill-E=3sgABS car-DEF ART.M David
David kills the car
(225)
na-unu-w=i
la Dafi
oto-e
3sgERG-kill=3sgABS ART.M David car-DEF
*David kills the car
35
In an ergative language, the absolutive in a transitive verb establishes the object, and
the ergative the subject. Therefore we have na-unu-w=i
ergative-kill=absolutive or
S-kill=O.
It is important to point out the ambiguity of a no contextualized form such as:
(226)
na=unu-w=i
he/she/it=kill-E=he/she/it
The ambiguity is due to fact that these clitics give information on agent, patient, and on
person, but not on gender or if it is human or not as in the case of the example 36.
Thats why that depending on the context, examples (35) and (35) may have the same
meaning and translation. However, taking the canonical order for Bugis example (224) is
well translated and example (225) must say The car kills David.
Bugis allows generating sentences without any verb at all. On type of these sentences
are the ones which in many languages require a copulative verb, such as in English. In
this case, Bugis has no copulative verb, so the sentences are generated with no verb.
We have already seen examples (165), (166) and (167) on chapter 3.2.6
Another way of generating sentences with no verbs is with the existential adverb ngka,
which it is translated as there.
(227)
ngka anana
there children
There are children
common
structure
for
declarative
sentences
with
transitive
verbs
is
Agent=verb=Patient. The proclitic is the ergative that agrees in person with the agent,
and the absolutive agrees in person with the patient.
(234)
Dafi na-anre-w=i
manumanu
David 3sgERG-eat-E=3sgABS chicken
David eats chicken
Bugis is a split ergative-absolutive language, which means that it has a double behavior.
This double behavior can be seen in the declarative sentences.
The declarative ergative-absolutive structure goes as follows:
(235)
ma-anre=ka oti=
VBZ-eat=1sgABS banana=ABS
I eat a banana
Nominative-absolutive structures:
(236)
meong ma-unu=ka
cat.NOM VBZ-kill=1sgABS
The cat kills me
37
(237)
iya
ma-unu=i
la Dafi
PRN.1sg VBZ-kill=3pABS ART.M David
In intransitive verbs theres only the enclitic, the absolutive which agrees in person with
the agent.
(238)
ma-ore-w=i
la Dafi
VBZ-cough-E=3sgABS ART.M David
David coughs
3.7. Negation
Negation is expressed by the particle de followed by the ergative.
(239)
de=u
yoka ku
bola-ku
NEG=PRN.1sgERG go
PREP house-PRN.1sg.GEN
I dont go to my house
(240)
yoro guru
de=na
ma-baca bobo
that teacher NEG=PRN.3sgERG
VBZ-read book
That teacher does not read a book
3.8. Questions
There are several ways of forming questions in Bugis. One of them is, as with many
languages, formed by a change of intonation when speaking.
Besides intonation, there are two ways of constructing questions. The first way is with an
interrogative pronoun:
(241)
yategi oto-mu?
which car-PRN.2sg.GEN
Which is your car?
(242)
teegi asu-e?
where dog-DEF
where is the dog?
And the second way is with the particle ga for yes-no questions.
(243)
asu ga ye?
dog Q this
Is this a dog?
(244)
yoro ga bola-nu?
That Q house-PRN.2sgGEN
Is that your house?
When negating a yes-no question, the question particle is reduplicated and attached as
a suffix to the negation particle.
38
(245)
de-ga ga na=joka
anana-e
ki
sikola-e
NEG-Q Q 3plERG=go children-DEF PREP school-DEF
Dont the children go to the school?
3.9. Passive
The passive voice is constructed by adding an i- at the verbal stem. Lets take a look at
some examples:
(246)
aga i-anre
what PASS-eat
what will be eaten
(247)
i-unu-w=i
la Dafi
ku
oto-e
PASS-kill-E=3sgABS ART.M David PREP car-DEF
David is killed by the car
On example (247) we can observe how the agent is placed at the end, so we have a VOS
order and there must be the absolutive mark.
Another way of forming the passive is with the prefix ri- which occurs before the
transitive and intransitive verbs:
(248)
(249)
(250)
3.10.
riasuro to be ordered
ritiwi to be taken
riagelli to be angry (in Bugis this is an intransitive verb)
Clauses
Koert
39
Example (252) is an object complement clause where the constituents have the
following roles:
[loi manrewi rotie la Koert] main clause
[manrewi rotie] complement clause
3.11.
Adverbial clauses
(253)
pas
ma-jame i
Amanda ujian-e
tappa bosi
ADV VBZ-do ART.F Amanda exam-DEF then rain
Amanda was doing the exam when it started to rain
In the previous example we have a simultaneous clause. If we compare it with English,
we see that pas is the equivalent of the English when, which is the particle that allows
the simultaneity. In Bugis it goes at the beginning of the clause.
(254)
ma-jame i
Amanda ujian-e
na la-ma-kelong=i
la Yani
VBZ-do ART.F Amanda exam-DEF and IMPRF-VBZ-sing=3sgABS ART.M Yani
Amanda was doing the exam while Yani was singing
If we take the literal meaning of (254) it says: Amanda does the exam and Yani is
singing. However, we can see how the verb majame does not take any clitic to express
agent, while the verb makelong it takes the absolutive to express agent, doing inversemarking. The two sentences are linked by a conjunction, and indeed, the meaning is the
same as it infers simultaneity.
3.12.
Coordination
Lets take, again, example (254) but in this case lets have a literal translation of it.
(255)
ma-jame i
Amanda ujian-e
na la-ma-kelong=i
la Yani
VBZ-do ART.F Amanda exam-DEF and IMPRF-VBZ-sing=3sgABS ART.M Yani
Amanda does the exam and Yani is singing
As it can be seen conjunction works just as in English, which is placing na (and) in the
middle of the two clauses. In the same way works disjunction:
(256)
ma-anre jampu ato yoka ma-pasayangki
VBZ-eat fruit
or go
VBZ-kite
to eat fruit or to go to play with the kite
40
3.13.
Reduplication
Bugis uses reduplication in several ways, although some of the reduplications are
already lexicalized and most of them are no longer productive.
(257)
(258)
diminutive)
(259)
batu stone batubatu pebble
(260)
ana son/daughter anana children (in this case reduplication is used to
express plural, but it is lexicalized and no longer productive to create new forms of
plural).
41
4.
Kinship terminology
English
Father
Mother
Siblings
Brother
Sister
Older brother
Older sister
Younger brother
Younger sister
Middle brother
Middle sister
Grandparents
Great grandparents
Uncle
Aunt
Cousin male
Cousin female
Son
Daughter
Children
Mother in law
Father in law
Sister in law
Brother in law
Stepfather
Stepmother
Stepbrother
Stepsister
Cousins son
Cousins daughter
Cousins children
Grandfather
Grandmother
Parents
Nephew
Niece
Wife
Husband
Bugis
ambo
indo
silasuang
foorane
parakunrai
daing (urane)
daing (makunrai)
anri (urane)
anri (makunrai)
anatanga
anatanga
nene
nene utu
amue (urane)
amue (mankunrai)
sapisang (urane)
sapisang (makunrai)
ana (burane)
ana (makunrai)
ana ana
matua (urane)
matua (makunrai)
ifa (burane)
ifa (makunrai)
fura ambo
fura indo
amforo (urane)
amforo (makunrai)
anue (urane)
anue (makunrai)
anana sapisang
laato
nene
indoambo
anure (urane)
anure (makunrai)
baine
lakkai
Bugis has no gender inflection, but at the same time many of the kinship terms use the
same generic word for referring either to male and female. Unless one needs to specify,
in a regular speech gender is never specified. With no need of listing them all again,
42
some of these terms are: dain older brother/sister; matua mother/father in law; ifa
brother/sister in law; amure aunt/uncle, etc. In case of need for sex distinction it is
added the words urane man or makunrai woman, so matua could be either mother or
father in law, but then we have matua urane father in law and matua makunrai mother
in law.
Some Austronesian languages have obligatory possessive marking for kinship terms; this
is not the case for Bugis where it is just possible to name any kinship word without the
need of adding the possessive. Since kinship terms are nouns, as any other noun may
take the genitive suffix.
(261)
ambo-ku
father-1sgGEN
My father
So, as said, it is possible to just say ambo father when referring to any father, or
amboku my father when speaking of a specific father.
Bugis has specific non analyzable words for defining kinship in which other languages,
such as English, require more than one word. For example, we find the following nuclear
terms: daing older brother/sister; anri younger brother/sister; matua mother/father in
law; ifa brother/sister in law.
Some other forms are compounds, reduplications or lexicalized forms. There is the
compound form anatanga middle son/daugther where ana is son/daughter and tanga
middle. From ana, again, we have the reduplicated form anana children, literally sonson or daughter-daugther or probably since theres no gender distinction daughter-son
or vice versa.
An exception to the fact of using the same word for both gender are the lexicalized
words for brother fororane made up of foro + rane (urane) man, and sister parakunrai
made up of para + kunrai (makunrai) woman. Then, as a lexicalized form there is
amforo step brother/sister, where foro is the same root as in brother and there is no
current meaning for am.
There are some compounds such as the formation of stepfather/stepmother with the
word fura plus the word mother or father, where fura means already, so for example,
fura indo stepmother literally means already mother.
According to Blust (2013, p. 352), Proto Malayo Polinesian show traces of a possible
matrilineal
society,
these
traces
could
still
be
found
in
the
following:
nene
such as in Catalan, the word for parents is pares (lit. fathers) and that includes the
mother and the father. In this case, in Bugis we have that the including word for both,
male and female derives from the female word. In Bugis, the word for parents is
indoambo, literally motherfather, perhaps the fact of placing first the word for mother
aslo tells us something about this possible matrilineal past.
Bugis uses the same word for nephew/niece and cousins son/daughter which is anure.
Then for cousins children uses anana sapisang, which literally means the children of
the cousin. So this last term is a descriptive one since theres not a specific form for it,
instead of being a lexicalized one or a nuclear form.
The following is a kinship matrix in order to well-establish the kinship relationship
throughout the vocabulary.
Figure 12. Kinship matrix for Bugis
Gend
er
Relative age
+old
er
+young
er
generation
Blood
relative.
kindr
ed
+2
+
1
.
0
-1
+collate
ral
+3
Ambo father
Indo -mother
Fororane
-brother
Parakunrai
-sister
Daing -Older
sibling
Anri younger
sibling
Anatanga
-Middle sibling
Nene
-grandparents
Nene utu
-greatgrandpa
rents
Amure
uncle/aunt
Sapsiang
-cousin
Ana
son/daughter
Matua
mother/father
in law
Ifa
brother/sister
in law
Fura ambo
-stepfather
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
44
Fura indo
-stepmother
Amforo
stepbrother/sis
ter
Anure cousin
son/daughter
Laato
-grandfather
Nene
-grandmother
Indoambo
-parents
Anure
nephew/niece
+
+
+
+
+
Kinship
person
mother
father
child
man, male
woman,
female
Proto
Austronesia
n
*Cau
*t-ina
*t-ama
*aNak
*maRuqanay
*bahi
Proto
Malayo
Polynesian
*tau
*t-ina
*t-ama
*anak
*laki, *maRuqanay
*bahi
Proto
Oceanic
Proto
Polynesian
Bugis
*taumataq
*tina
*tama
*natu
*nwaRuqan
e
*pine,
*papine
*tangata
*tinana
*tamana
*tama
*taqane
ma, tau
indo
ambo
ana ana
urane
*fafine
makunrai
Taking a look at the above it is easy to notice that Bugis shows obvious similarity with
Proto-Austronesian and Proto-Malayo Polynesian, although that this fact is clear only in
the terms for person and child. There might be some similarity as well in the term for
father *t-ama and ambo. The most striking characteristic of the above figure is the
similarity of the word in Proto-Austronesian and Proto-Malayo Polynesian *ma-Ruganay
and the Bugis one makunrai, similarity in form but not in meaning, as the proto form
means man and the Bugis one means woman. At the same time, in Proto-MalayoPolynesian there is an alternate form for man which is *laki, and in Bugis we find lakkai
which means husband, so in this last case it could be a semantic specialization of the
word *laki that went from the broader meaning of man to the narrower meaning in
Bugis of husband.
Proto-Malayo-Polynesian had four sibling terms:
45
5.
Appendix
1.lok:a maceita watuku becu gampoe watuku becu iolo ufui jokanae kusaloe
l.=k:a ma-.ce..ta ua.t.ku b.cu kam.po.- a.t.ku b.cu i..lo u.f.=i jo.ka n.e
kusalo-e
will=1sgABS VBZ-tell story kid small village-DEF kid small long ago like=I go swim river-DEF
I will tell a story of when I was a small kid in a village. Long ago when I was a kid I liked to go to
swim
2. ak:a salo sidop:e bola:ku biasaka joka cam:e koo sibawa cume na na:e sibawa
.k:a s.lo si.d.p:e b.la:=k:u bi..sa=ka j.ka c.m:e k.o si.b.ua c.me n n:.e
si.b.ua
46
47
10. sap:a awo: nap:a jort: awoe nap:a joka toki mal:i kartasa sibawan:a
sa.p: a.u: na.p: jo.r.t: au.o na.p: j.ka to.=k m-.l:i kar.ta.s si.ba.a=n:a
looking for bamboo then cut=1plABS bamboo then go also=1plABS VBZ-buy paper
with=rope
to look for bamboo then we cut the bamboo, then we go to buy the paper with a rope
11. nap:a iini mebu ierobenae pasajae nap:a sibawani macule sibawalok:u
na.p: i..ni me.b ie.r.be na.- pa.sa.ja- na.p: si.ba.a=ni ma-.c.le si.ba.a l.=k:u
then we make this rope-DEF kite-DEF then with=1plABS ABS-play with friend=1sgABS
then we make the kite with the rope then I play with my friends
12. ku lapaae mapasaja biasa kuawee joro ceretaku atuku becu
ku la.pa.a. ma-.pa.s.ja bi..sa ku.a.ue.- j.ro ce.re.t.=k:u a.t.ku b.cu
PREP field VBZ-kite usually afternoon-DEF that story=1sgABS kid small
in the field with the kite usually in the afternoon. Thats the story of when I was a small kid.
5.2. Glossary
5.2.1. Bugis Catalan English
'
'baa Noun. anec; duck.
af
aa
a
aga
aga
aha
aa
al
ama
amba
am
ana
daj uane
bird.
menu
mega
49
tl:upulo ss ei
Adjective. trenta-u;
thirty one.
he wrote.
umpu
Noun. fum; smoke.
salo Noun. riu; river.
saptu
Noun. dissabte; Saturday.
sao Noun. front; forehead.
ss ei Adjective. u; one.
aga
See main entry: aga2.
amatea Noun. mort; death.
asu
See main entry: ass u.
ass u
See main entry: ass u.
ana makunn rai
See main entry: . fillla;
daughter.
ana ua:ne
See main entry: . Noun. fill; son.
uapulo See main entry: . Adjective. vint; twenty.
fau
See main entry: fau.
ii man
Pronoun. nosaltres (tots); we
1
ii man
jasan
See main entry: jasa.
ji taa Noun. dit del mig; middle finger.
limapulo Adjective. cinquanta; fifty.
mega
See main entry: mega.
silasout:a
See main entry:
silasouta.
te:gi
tel:u ra:tu
(all of us).
A - a
a ss uk:u
See main entry: . el meu gos; my dog.
abjo Noun. ma dreta; right hand.
aua Adjective. vuit; eight.
ale:na
Pronoun. ells (paucal); they (paucal).
1
ale:na
Noun. ell/a; he/she.
ale:na man Pronoun. ells/elles (inclusiu);
2
amue
50
anana sapisa
anue
anue
anue
ao:la
heart.
ass u
anar-se'n; to go out.
ass um:u
See main entry: . el teu gos (colloquial);
your dog (colloquial).
ass un:a
ass ut:a
B - b
balawo
Noun. ratoli; mouse.
becu
Adjective. petit; small.
biasa Adverb. sovint; usually.
bola
See main entry: bola.
bola:k:u
See main entry: . la meva casa; my
bola:mu
bola:t:a
bolan:a
bola:k:u
house.
house.
bosi
Noun. pluja; rain.
bobwa Noun. estomac; stomach.
bulu Noun. muntanya; mountain.
C - c
cela
D - d
de
negacio; negation.
-
uara:tu
E - e
e
eu
-
lu
n:
51
n:pulo
seixanta; sixty.
F - f
fagolo
fem
Adverb. seguent; next.
fooane Noun. germa; brother.
fura
Adverb. ja/encara; already.
player.
fapara
faelo
G - g
gau Adjective. blau; blue.
gm
Noun. cabells; hair.
I - i
i
ijo
Adverb. si (colloquial); yes (colloguial).
iwin:i
Adverb. ahir; yesterday.
i
ell/a; he/she.
inn o
Noun. mare; mother.
indoambo Noun. pares; parents.
ifak:u
law.
ija
J - j
jasena
sobre; on.
jawana
Adverb. sota; under.
jategi Pronoun. quin; which.
jnu
joanane
ajuda; help.
uma:
K - k
k:e
Pronoun. tu (formal); you (polite).
k:o
Variant: ko. tu (colloquial); you (colloquial).
k:u
Variant: ku. Pronoun. la meva/el meu; my.
ka
jo; I.
kalolo
Noun. animal; animal.
kara Variant: muf. Verb. plorar; cry.
kaeb
Noun. noticies; news.
kartasa
Noun. paper; paper.
kaeba na
Noun. noticies ell/a; news
kataw
kmmo
Adverb. encara; still.
kraa Noun. cistella; basket.
ki
See main entry: ku. Variant: ku. Adverb. sobre;
into / on.
kiase
Adverb. amunt; up.
kiawa Adverb. avall; down.
ko See main entry: k:o.
him/her.
52
ku
kufua
kuawe
kuaa
tarda; afternoon.
L - l
la
lalo
tot just; just.
lima:m:u See main entry: . el teu brac; your arm.
limak:u
See main entry: . el meu brac; my arm.
liman:a
See main entry: . el seu brac; his/her
lak:aj
Noun. marit; husband.
lad
Adverb. molt; very.
laganrani Verb. ell llenca; he throws.
arm.
M - m
mabaca
Verb. llegir; to read.
macule
Verb. jugen; they play.
mafala
Adjective. calent; warm.
maa:
Adjective. dolent; bad.
makana Adjective. bo; good.
malopo
Adjective. gran; big.
man:asu Verb. cuinar; to cook.
manai
Noun. ballen; they dance.
maidi
Adjective. groc; yellow.
maoki suue See main entry: . Verb. esta
escrivint; is writing.
matinro
Verb. dormir; to sleep.
matoa
Adverb. vell; old.
matua
Noun. sogre/a ; mother/father in law.
matua ua:ne
See main entry: . Noun.
sogre; father in law.
mawan
maame
macoloi
Verb. es fon; it melts.
magenitu Noun. casa; house.
magolo
Verb. jugar a futbol; play football.
makeloni Verb. ell canta; he sings.
manko
nosaltres (cololquial); we (colloquial).
manki
nosaltres (formal); we (polite).
matamai Verb. entrar (la seva); enter (his).
matonowi Verb. coure; bake.
ma
Noun. persona; person.
makunn rai
Noun. dona; woman.
malumu Noun. pollastre; chicken.
mabicaa
Verb. parlar; to speak.
makce Adjective. fred; cold.
mgl:o: Adjective. bo; good.
mt: ss o See main entry: . Noun. sol; sun.
miki
Noun. mossegada; bite.
monroe
Verb. ell viu; he lives.
muf encara; still.
munri
Adverb. darrere; behind.
N - n
nafaiika
Verb. irrita; irritates.
nafoo
Noun. cuina; kitchen.
nagoai
Verb. ella ha cridat; she screamed.
great grandparents.
-
ka
53
P - p
patapulo
parakunraj
pas
mentre/sobtadament; while/suddenly.
pasaja
Noun. estel; kite.
R - r
raba Noun. dimecres; Wednesday.
ria
S - s
54
ss alass a
Noun. dimarts; Tuesday.
sanei
Noun. dilluns; Monday.
saai
Adverb. despus-dema; the day after tomorrow.
sapseku
sapisa Noun. cosins; cousins.
ss epulo
Adjective. deu; ten.
ss epulo ss ei
See main entry: . Adjective. onze; eleven.
satu
Adjective. cent; one hundred.
sibawa
Adposition. amb; with.
sibawa
Preposition. amb; with.
sidop:e
a prop; near.
sikola
Adjective. marro; brown.
silasu Noun. germa (terme no marcat, generic); sibling.
silasouta
Variant: silasout:a. Noun. germans, familia ; siblings, family.
siwali Adverb. costat; beside.
T - t
taben:ai See main entry: . Verb. cau; it falls.
tanru
Noun. banya; horn.
taasini Verb. ells estornuden; they sneeze.
tawe
Noun. gent; people.
tadampola
Noun. em sap greu; sorry.
telefon
Noun. telefon; telephone.
tte
Verb. pegar; to hit.
tte
Noun. hora; hour.
twa Noun. suc de coco; coconut juice.
U - u
uluna
uluku
upana
uane
ulehu
de; from.
W - w
wanua
wnni
A - a
Adverb. kufua
age
afternoon
already
again
kuawe
Adverb. femo
after
Noun. unuu
Adverb. fura
Adverb. ria
blue
Adjective. gau
book
Noun. bobo
B - b
back
Noun. lk
big
bad
Adjective. maa:
big finger
bake
Verb. matonowi
ball
Noun. golo
Noun. awo:
bamboo
Noun. cum:e
Adjective. malopo
Noun. inn o
ji
bird
Noun. manu
manu
bite
Noun. oko
Noun. miki
black
Adjective. bolo
black magic Noun. po
po
bottom Noun. oi
bread
Noun. roti
breast
Noun. tete
Noun. foo
brother
ane
brown
Adjective. sikola
cough
Verb. moewi
C - c
car
Noun. oto
cheek
Noun. fli
Noun. ana
ana
cloth
Noun. eu
clouds Noun. lu
cat
Noun. couki
Noun. meo
chest
Noun. ao
coconut juice
children
Noun. twa
Noun. manu
chicken
Noun. malumu
cold
Adjective. makce
cousin' son/daughter
Noun. anue
Noun. a
nana sapisa
cousins
Noun. sa
pisa
cry
Verb. kara
cousin's children
D - d
ana ma
kunn rai
Noun. ass o
Noun. amatea
daughter
day
death
DEF
Determiner. e
don't do it
aa
Adverb. kiawa
Noun. 'baa
Noun. iti
do
Verb. maame
down
dog
Noun. ass u
duck
E - e
ears
eight
Noun. aucili
Adjective. aua
ss ei
enter (his)
eye
Noun. mata
Verb. matam
ai
excuse me
Noun. tabe
F - f
56
falling down
Verb. be
be
farmer Noun. bar
fat
Adjective. como
father Noun. ambo
father in law Noun. matua
ua:ne
few
Adjective. ceds :e
fifty
Adjective. lima
pulo
fingers Noun. ji ji
fire
Noun. af
forest
Noun. al
fish
Noun. bale
forty
Adjective. pata
five
Adjective. lima
lempo
flower Noun. bua
fly away
Verb. lutu
foot
Noun. ae
flat
football player
Noun. fagolo
Noun. sao
forehead
pulo
four
Adjective. pa
four hundred
Friday
from
fruit
fuck
Adjective. apa
a:tu
Noun. uma:
ulehu
Noun. bua
Noun. tai la:so
G - g
goat
Noun. bembe
good
Adjective. makana
Adjective. mgl:o:
grandfather
Noun. n
grandmother
great grandparents
ene
granparents
Noun. nene
greed
Noun. la:to
green
Noun. nene
utu
Noun. 'ba
Adjective. kuaa
H - h
hair
Noun. gm
hand
Noun. lima
Verb. monro
he lives
e
ni
he throws
Verb. lagan
rani
he wrote
i
head
Verb. oki
suue
bo
lan:a
horn
Noun. tanru
hour
Noun. tte
house Noun. bola
Noun. magenitu
how
Pronoun. magai
husband
Noun. lak:aj
his/her house
Noun. ulu
joanane
here
Adverb. kwe
hill
Noun. bulu
his/her arm liman:a
his/her dog ass un:a
his/her head uluna
help
Verb. makelo
he sings
I - i
I
I want
Pronoun. ia
ink
ka
into / on
Verb. loka
Noun. fa
Noun. awa
Adverb. ki
ku
irritates
Verb. nafa
iika
Verb. maoki
suue
it falls Verb. taben:ai
it melts
Verb. macolo
i
is writing
elo
J - j
just
lalo
57
K - k
kid
Noun. atuku
Noun. nafoo
kitchen
kite
Noun. pasaja
knee
Noun. ut:u
L - l
lap
Noun. popa
Noun. lete
lightning
long ago
iolo
murderer
Noun. fawno
M - m
man
Noun. uane
many
Adverb. mega
moon
Noun. keta
Noun. ul
middle finger
Noun. inn o
Noun. ji
taa
ma
tua makunn rai
mother in law
middle son/daughter
Noun. anata
mother/father in law
Noun. matua
Noun. sa
Monday
mountain
nei
month
Noun. ceiba
monkey
Noun. bulu
mouth
Noun. te:mu
taw fawno
my
Pronoun. k:u
my arm
limak:u
my dog
a ss uk:u
my head
uluku
my house
bola:k:u
my niece
Noun. anu
ek:u
my sister in law
Noun. i
fak:u
Noun. ul
N - n
name
Noun. ass
Noun. jasa
news
Noun. a
nue
new
night
Noun. win:i
Noun. wnni
nine
Adjective. ass ea
news him/her
sidop:e
negation
de
near
nephew /niece
Noun. kaeb
next
niece
Noun. kae
ba na
Adverb. fem
Noun. anue
nobody
Pronoun. dega
norm
Noun. a
nose
Noun. i
Adjective. bau
O - o
okay
Adverb. bwana
old
Adjective. beta
Adverb. matoa
older sister
older brother
on
Noun. daj
ane
one
Noun. daj
makunrai
jasena
Adjective. ss ei
over
atu
Adverb. asej
P - p
paper
Noun. kartasa
parents
Noun. indo
ambo
58
penis
Noun. laso
pig
Noun. ma
Noun. babi
R - r
rain
Noun. bosi
repeat
bwas
really
falen
right hand
red
Adjective. cela
river
rose apple
Noun. abjo
rotten
Noun. ampu
Adjective. boo
Noun. salo
S - s
Saturday
Noun. saptu
Noun. gora
scream
sea
Noun. tasi
seven
Adjective. fetu
she screamed
Verb. nago
ai
shin
six
sixty
small
Adjective. becu
somebody
siblings, family
Noun. silaso
uta
Noun. parakun
raj
Noun.
ana
sorry
Noun. tadam
speak
pola
Verb. fau
sister/brother in law
Noun. ifa
a:ne
son/daughter
Noun. fura
ambo
Adjective. ata
Noun. ana
Noun. ana
Noun. am
poro
stepfather
slave
son
step sibling
Adjective. n:
pulo
Noun. biti
sister
Adjective. n:
Noun. fura
indo
still
Adverb. kmmo
muf
stomach
Noun. bo
bwa
stone Noun. batu
sun
Noun. mt: ss o
Sunday
Noun. aha
swallow
Verb. am
stepmother
T - t
Noun. guu
teacher
teeth
they (paucal)
Noun. iss i
Noun. iss i
telephone
Noun. tele
that
Adjective. tel:
le:na
they dance
Noun. ma
u ra:tu
Thursday
nai
fon
ten
three hundred
Pronoun. a
Noun. kamis
Adjective. ss epulo
they play
Verb. macule
to come
Verb. fwole
Pronoun. joo
they sneeze
Verb. ta
to cook
Verb. ma
ai
then
nap:a
there
Adverb. akuro
there is
kfat
ka
they (all of us)
Pronoun. a
le:na man
thirty
asini
Adjective. tl:u
pulo
n:asu
to drink
Verb. menu
thirty one
Adjective. tl:
upulo ss ei
this
Pronoun. je
this is mine oko
those Adjective. joo
three
Adjective. tl:u
to eat
Verb. manre
ass u
Verb. amba
Verb. pope
Verb. tte
Verb. fapara
to go out
to hit
to like
59
Verb. mita
Verb. ma
to sleep
tinro
to speak
Verb. mabi
caa
Verb. nae
to swim
Verb. oki
to write
today
Adverb. baa
la
treatment particle for
women
i
tree
lass a
Adverb. jeso
tomorrow
Noun. ss a
Tuesday
twenty Adjective. ua
pulo
two
Adjective. ua
two hands
Noun. ua
lima
two hundred Adjective. ua
ra:tu
Noun. popo
U - u
uncle/aunt
under
Noun. amue
Adverb. jawana
up
Adverb. kiase
V - v
vagina Noun. combi
very
Adverb. lad
W - w
want
Verb. lo
Wednesday
warm
Adjective. mafala
what
water
Noun. wai
man
we (colloquial)
we (paucal)
we (polite)
manko
Noun. ii
manki
Noun. raba
who
Pronoun. iga
Pronoun. aga
Pronoun. aga
wife
Noun. bajne
wild
Adjective. lampa
when
Pronoun. upana
with
where
Pronoun. te:gi
Adposition. sibawa
Preposition. sibawa
which
Pronoun. jategi
woman
while
pas
Noun. ma
kunn rai
Noun. aa
Adjective. pupu
while/suddenly
word
white
worn
pas
Adjective. fute
Y - y
60
year (Indonesian)
Noun. tahun
yellow
Adjective. maidi
yes
Adverb. ba
yes (colloguial)
Adverb. ijo
yes (polite)
Adverb. ija
yesterday
Adverb. iwin:i
k:o
Pronoun. k:e
you (colloquial)
you (polite)
Pronoun. ii
Pronoun. ii
Noun. iko
Pronoun. ii
younger sibling
Noun. anri
your arm
man
lima:m:u
ass um:u
your dog (polite)
ass ut:a
your house (colloquial)
bola:mu
your house (polite) bola:t:a
your dog (colloquial)
A - a
a prop
sidop:e
ku
agradar
Verb. fapara
ahir
Adverb. iwin:i
aigua Noun. wai
aixo s meu oko
ajuda joanane
alg
Noun. jnu
Noun. kataw
alla
Adverb. akuro
amb
Adposition. sibawa
Preposition. sibawa
aquest Pronoun. je
aqu
Adverb. kwe
amunt
Adverb. kiase
arbre
Noun. popo
a sobre / a dins
ass u
anec
Noun. 'baa
Noun. iti
animal Noun. kalolo
any (indonesi)
avia
anar-se'n
Noun. tahun
aquella
Pronoun. joo
aquells/es
Adjective. joo
avall
avi
avis
avui
taw fawno
Adverb. kiawa
Noun. la:to
Noun. nene
Noun. nene
Adverb. jeso
B - b
ballen
Noun. manai
besavis
Noun. cum:e
beure
banya
Noun. tanru
blanc
blau
Noun. nene
utu
Verb. menu
Adjective. fute
Adjective. gau
bo
Adjective. makana
Adjective. mgl:o:
boca
Noun. te:mu
bosc
Noun. al
C - c
61
cabells Noun. gm
cau
Verb. taben:ai
costat
Adverb. siwali
cabra
Noun. bembe
caure
Verb. bebe
cotxe
Noun. oto
calent
Adjective. mafala
cent
Adjective. satu
coure
Verb. matonowi
cinc
Adjective. lima
crit
Noun. gora
cuina
Noun. nafoo
cuinar
Verb. man:asu
cuixa
Noun. popa
cul
Noun. oi
Verb. oka
caminar
canyella
cap
Noun. ulu
cardar
Noun. tai
casa
la:so
Noun. bola
Noun. magenitu
Adjective. lima
pulo
cistella Noun. kraa
cobdcia
Noun. 'ba
com
Pronoun. magai
cosins Noun. sapisa
cinquanta
cunyat/cunyada
Noun. i
fa
D - d
Adverb. bwa
d'acord
na
dalt
Adverb. asej
ulehu
DEF
Determiner. e
dema
Adverb. baa
dents
Noun. iss i
Noun. iss i
desgastat
Adjective. pu
pu
Adverb. kufu
desprs
desps-dema
Adverb.
saai
deu
Adjective. ss epulo
dia
Noun. ass o
dijous Noun. kamisi
dilluns Noun. sanei
dimarts
Noun. ss a
lass a
dimecres
Noun. raba
dissabte
Noun. saptu
dit del mig
Noun. ji
taa
dit gros
Noun. inn o
ji
Noun. fa
elo
dits
Noun. ji ji
diumenge
Noun. aha
divendres
Noun. uma:
dolent Adjective. maa:
dona
Noun. makunn rai
dormir Verb. matinro
dos
Adjective. ua
dos-cents
Adjective. ua
ra:tu
dues mans
Noun. ua
lima
dit ndex
E - e
edat
Noun. unuu
el meu brac
el meu cap
el meu gos
el seu brac
el seu cap
el seu cor
el seu gos
el teu brac
limak:u
uluku
a ss uk:u
liman:a
uluna
ao:la
ass un:a
lima:m:u
ass um:u
el teu gos (educat) a
ss ut:a
ell canta
Verb. makelo
ni
ell llenca
Verb. lagan
rani
ell viu
Verb. monroe
ell/a
Noun. ale:na
muf
enlla
ella ha cridat
Adverb. ria
Verb. matam
ai
ai
es fon
Verb. macoloi
le:na
esclau
Adjective. ata
ells estornuden
Verb. ta
asini
ells/elles (inclusiu)
Pronoun. a
le:na man
em sap greu Noun. tabe
Noun. tadam
pola
empassar
Verb. am
escriure
Verb. oki
esquena
Noun. lk
esta escrivint
Verb. maoki
suue
estel
Noun. pasaja
estmac
Noun. bo
bwa
62
estossegar
Verb. moew
F - f
iolo
fer
Verb. maame
fill
Noun. ana
Noun. ana u
a:ne
fill/a
Noun. ana
fill/a del cos Noun. anue
fa temps
Noun. anata
a
ana ma
kunn rai
Noun. ana ana
fill/a mitja
fillla
fills
Noun. a
nana sapisa
flor
Noun. bua
foc
Noun. af
fred
Adjective. makce
front
Noun. sao
fruita
Noun. bua
fum
Noun. umpu
G - g
galta
Noun. fli
germa/na adoptat
gat
Noun. couki
Noun. meo
genoll
Noun. ut:u
gent
Noun. tawe
Noun. daj
makunrai
poro
germa/na gran
germa/na petit
Noun. anri
germana
Noun. parak
unraj
lasu
Noun. daj
germans, famlia
Noun. daj
germana gran
Noun. am
ane
Noun. silaso
uta
gos
Noun. ass u
gran
Adjective. malopo
granger
Noun. bar
gras
Adjective. como
groc
Adjective. maidi
H - h
ha escrit
Verb. oki
hi ha
suue
kfat
ka
home
Noun. uane
hora
Noun. tte
I - i
irrita
Verb. nafaiika
J - j
ja/encara
jo
Adverb. fura
Pronoun. ia
jo vull
Verb. loka
jugar a futbol
Verb. magolo
jugador de futbol
ka
Noun. fagolo
jugen
Verb. macule
L - l
la meva casa
la:k:u
bo
la meva cunyada
fak:u
Noun. i
la meva neboda
Noun. anu
ek:u
63
la meva/el meu
Pronoun. k:u
bola:mu
Noun. lila
llengua
bola:t:a
llamp Noun. lete
llavors nap:a
llegir
Verb. mabaca
llibre
Noun. bobo
lluna
Noun. keta
Noun. ul
M - m
ma
Noun. lima
ma dreta
Noun. abjo
po
Noun. tasi
Noun. ama
Noun. inn o
mare adoptiva
Noun. fura
indo
marit
Noun. lak:aj
molt
Adverb. lad
marr
Adjective. sikola
molts
Adverb. mega
mort
Noun. amatea
mentre pas
mossegada
Noun. oko
Noun. miki
mentre/sobtadament
mes
mico
mirar
pas
Noun. ul
Noun. ceiba
Verb. mita
mot
Noun. aa
muller
Noun. bajne
muntanya
Noun. bulu
N - n
nas
Noun. i
neboda
Noun. anue
nebot/da
Noun. anue
nedar
Verb. nae
negaci
de
Adjective. bolo
Noun. atuku
Pronoun. dega
Noun. win:i
Noun. wnni
negre
nen
ning
nit
aa
nom
Noun. ass
Noun. jasa
norma Noun. a
no ho facis
nosaltres (cololquial)
manko
nosaltres (formal)
manki
nosaltres (paucal)
Noun. ii
nosaltres (tots)
Pronoun. ii
man
notcies
Noun. ka
eb
notcies ell/a Noun. kae
ba na
nou
Adjective. bau
Adjective. ass ea
nvols Noun. lu
O - o
ocell
Noun. manu
oncle/tia
onze
on
manu
Pronoun. te:gi
Noun. amue
Adjective. ss epulo
ss ei
P - p
pa
Noun. roti
paper
Noun. kartasa
pare
Noun. ambo
ambo
Noun. indoambo
parlar
Verb. fau
Verb. mabicaa
Noun. batu
pegar
Verb. amba
Verb. pope
Verb. tte
peix
Noun. bale
penis
Noun. laso
persona
Noun. taw
Noun. ma
64
petit
Adjective. becu
plorar
Verb. kara
peu
Noun. ae
pluja
Noun. bosi
pilota
Noun. golo
poble
Noun. wanua
poma rosa
pit
Noun. ao
Noun. tete
pocs
Adjective. ceds :e
porc
podrit
Adjective. boo
professor
pla
lempo
pollastre
Noun. manu
Noun. malumu
Noun. ampu
Noun. babi
Noun. guu
Q - q
quan
Pronoun. upana
quaranta
Adjective. pata
pulo
que
quatre Adjective. pa
a:tu
Pronoun. aga
Pronoun. aga
qui
Pronoun. iga
quin
Pronoun. jategi
roba
Noun. eu
sogre
Noun. matua
R - r
ratol
Noun. balawo
realment
falen
repetir bwas
riu
Noun. salo
S - s
salvatge
Adjective. lam
pa
seguent
Adverb. i
s (colloquial)
jo
Adverb. fem
Adjective.
n:pulo
sempre
Adverb. toni
set
Adjective. fetu
s
Adverb. ba
seixanta
s (educat)
a:ne
Adverb. ija
sis
Adjective. n:
sobre
jasena
Adverb. ki
matua ma
kunn rai
sogra
Noun. matua
sogre/a
ss o
sortir volant Verb. lutu
sota
Adverb. jawana
sovint Adverb. biasa
suc de coco Noun. twa
surar
Verb. mawan
sol
Noun. mt:
T - t
kuawe
telefon Noun. telefon
tinta
Noun. awa
tot just lalo
trenta Adjective. tl:u
pulo
tarda
Adjective. tl:
upulo ss ei
tres
Adjective. tl:u
tres-cents
Adjective. tel:
u ra:tu
trenta-u
tu (colloquial)
Noun. iko
k:o
tu (educat)
Pronoun. ii
tu (formal)
Pronoun. k:e
tur
Noun. bulu
U - u
u
Adjective. ss ei
ull
Noun. mata
un altre cop
Adverb. femo
65
V - v
vagina Noun. combi
vell
Adjective. beta
Adverb. matoa
venir
Verb. fwole
verd
Adjective. kuaa
vermell
Adjective. cela
vint
Adjective. uapulo
voler
Verb. lo
vosaltres (paucal)
Pronoun. ii
vosaltres (tothom)
Pronoun. ii
vuit
man
Adjective. aua
68
6.
References
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Himmelmann, N. R. & Adelaar, A., 2005. The Austonesian languages of Asia and
Madagascar. London: Routledge.
Matthew S. Dryer, M. H., 2013. The World Atlas of Language Structures online. [On line]
Available at: www.wals.info
[Last access: 15 November 2013].
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Available at: www.wikipedia.org
[Last access: 15 November 2013].
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Available at: http://www.ethnologue.com
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