Module 2 Notes

M.E.
(MPDD) Module-2 Process modeling and product design
BVCOE, Navi Mumbai
Module-2 Process modeling and product design

2.1 Metal forming processes
Metal forming is a very important manufacturing operation. It enjoys industrial importance
among various production operations due to its advantages such as cost effectiveness, enhanced
mechanical properties, flexible operations, higher productivity, considerable material saving. The
objects and articles that we use in our daily life are man-made, engineered parts, which are
obtained from some raw material through some manufacturing process. All these objects are
made of a number of small components assembled into finished product. The pen that we use for
writing, for example is made of several small parts, assembled together. An automobile is
supposed to be an assembly of more than 15000 parts, produced through various manufacturing
operations. Manufacturing of finished parts and components from raw materials is one of the
most important steps in production. Production encompasses all types of manufacturing
processes. Manufacturing refers to the conversion of raw materials into finished products
employing suitable techniques. There are several methods of manufacturing such as metal
casting, metal forming, metal machining, metal joining and finishing. Some of the modern
methods of manufacturing include micro machining, nano fabrication, ultra precision
manufacturing etc. In order to fulfill the requirements of the ever-increasing demands of various
types of industries, the manufacturing engineer has to choose the right type of material and the
right type of equipment for manufacture so that the cost of production and the energy
consumption are minimum. The selection of suitable manufacturing process should also include
concerns for environmental impacts such as air pollution, waste disposal etc.
Modern concepts such as lean manufacturing, adaptive control, agile manufacturing, group
technology etc have considerable influence on cost reduction and quality improvements of
products. Computers and robots play important role in modern manufacturing techniques, today.
Modeling and simulation of the process prior to mass production helps the manufacturing
engineer fix up the best operating parameters and hence achieve the finished product to the
utmost level of quality and cost-effectiveness. The present course is focused on one of the
important methods of manufacturing, namely, metal forming.
Materials are converted into finished products though different manufacturing processes.
Manufacturing processes are classified into shaping [casting], forming, joining, and coating,
dividing, machining and modifying material property. Of these manufacturing processes,
forming is a widely used process which finds applications in automotive, aerospace, defense and
other industries. Wrought forms of materials are produced through bulk or sheet forming
operations. Cast products are made through shaping molding and casting. A typical automobile
uses formed parts such as wheel rims, car body, valves, rolled shapes for chassis, stamped oil
pan, etc. In our daily life we use innumerable formed products e.g. cooking vessels, tooth paste
containers, bicycle body, chains, tube fitting, fan blades etc. Forming is the process of obtaining
the required shape and size on the raw material by subjecting the material to plastic deformation
through the application of tensile force, compressive force, bending or shear force or
combinations of these forces.
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Fig.2.1: Various manufacturing operations on materials
2.1.1 Classification of Forming:-
Fig. 2.2: Classification of metal forming processes

Typically, metal forming processes can be classified into two broad groups. One is bulk forming
and the other is sheet metal forming. Bulk deformation refers to the use of raw materials for
forming which have low surface area to volume ratio. Rolling, forging, extrusion and drawing
are bulk forming processes. In bulk deformation processing methods, the nature of force applied
may be compressive, compressive and tensile, shear or a combination of these forces. Bulk
forming is accomplished in forming presses with the help of a set of tool and die. Examples for
products produced by bulk forming are: gears, bushed, valves, engine parts such as valves,
connecting rods, hydraulic valves, etc.
Sheet metals forming involve application of tensile or shear forces predominantly. Working upon
sheets, plates and strips mainly constitutes sheet forming. Sheet metal operations are mostly
carried out in presses hydraulic or pneumatic. A set of tools called die and punch are used for
the sheet working operations. Bending, drawing, shearing, blanking, punching are some of the
sheet metal operations. A new class of forming process called powder forming is gaining
importance due to its unique capabilities. One of the important merits of powder forming is its
ability to produce parts very near to final dimensions with minimum material wastage. It is called
near-net-shape forming. Material compositions can be adjusted to suit the desirable mechanical
properties. Formability of sintered metals is greater than conventional wrought materials.
However, the challenge in powder forming continues to be the complete elimination or nearcomplete elimination of porosity. Porosity reduces the strength, ductility and corrosion resistance
and enhances the risk of premature failure of components. Based on the nature of deformation
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force applied on the material, during forming, metal forming processes are also classified into
several types as shown below:
Forming is also classified as cold forming, hot forming or warm forming. Hot forming is the
deformation carried out at temperatures above recrystallization temperatures. Typically,
recrystallization temperatures for materials ranges from 0.5 Tm to 0.8 Tm, where Tm is melting
temperature of material.
2.1.2 Brief description of forming operations

We discuss briefly the various forming operations in the following sections.
- Bulk forming processes:
Rolling is a compressive deformation process, which is used for producing semi-finished
products such as bars, sheets, plates and finished products such as angles, channels, sections.
Rolling can be carried out both in hot and cold conditions.
Fig.2.3: Rolling Process
Fig.2.4: Forging processes
Forging is a bulk forming process in which the work piece or billet is shaped into finished part
by the application of compressive and tensile forces with the help of a pair of tools called die and
punch. Forging can be done in open dies or closed dies. Open die forging is usually used for
preliminary shaping of raw materials into a form suitable for subsequent forming or machining.
Open die forming is done using a pair of flat faced dies for operations such as drawing out,
thinning, etc.
Closed die forming is performed by squeezing the raw material called billet inside the cavity
formed between a pair of shaped dies. Formed products attain the shape of the die cavity. Valve
parts, pump parts, small gears, connecting rods, spanners, etc are produced by closed die
forming.
Coining is the process of applying compressive stress on surface of the raw material in order to
impart special shapes on to the surface from the embossing punch e.g. coins, medallions
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Fig.2.4: Direct extrusion process

Extrusion involves forcing the raw material through a narrow opening of constant cross-section
or varying cross-section in order to reduce the diameter and increase the length. Extrusion can be
done hot or cold. Extruded products include shafts, tubes, cans, cups, gears. Basically there are
two methods of extrusion, forward and backward extrusions. In forward extrusion the work and
the extrusion punch move along the same direction. In backward extrusion the punch moves
opposite to the direction of movement of the work piece.
Fig.2.5: Backward extrusion or Indirect extrusion

Wire drawing process is used for producing small diameter wires from rods by reducing their
diameter and stretching their length through the application of tensile force. Musical strings are
produced by wire drawing process. Seamless tubes can be produced by tube drawing process.
-Sheet metal operations:
Deep drawing is a sheet metal process the process in which a sheet metal is forced into cup of
hollow shape without altering its thickness using tensile and compressive forces. Complex
shapes can be produced by deep drawing of blanks in stages redrawing, multiple draw deep
drawing etc. Hydro mechanical deep drawing uses both punch force and hydrostatic force of a
pressurized fluid for achieving the shape. Flanges and collars are formed by flanging process.
Spinning transforms a sheet metal into a hollow shape by compressive and tensile stresses.
Spinning mandrel of given shape is used against a roll head. Embossing imparts an impression
on the work piece by means of an embossing punch. Bending of sheets includes rotary bending,
swivel bending, roll bending using rotary die. Die bending using flat die or shaped die is used for
bending of sheets, or die coining of sheets.
Fig.2.6: Wire Drawing
Fig.2.7: Deep drawing
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Fig.2.8: Bending and shearing
2.2 Analysis of forming

2.2.1 Slab Method of analysis:Forming of materials is a complex process, involving either biaxial or triaxial state of stress on
the material being formed. Analysis of the forming process therefore is highly involved.
Prediction of forming load in a particular process is rather empirical. However, fairly accurate
methods have been developed in order to predict the forming process and process parameters.
Some of the early methods of forming analysis include slab analysis; slip line field analysis,
upper bound analysis etc. With the availability of high speed computers, we can depend on finite
element method for accurate predictions of forming loads. Numerous metal forming software
have been developed based on finite element procedures for complex shapes with more realistic
boundary conditions. In this lecture we will discuss the simple slab method of forming analysis,
with a typical example.
Slab method is a simple analytical procedure based on principles of mechanics. We can assume a
simple relation between forming load and material flow stress in the form: F = kA, where k is an
empirically determined constant which takes into account friction, redundant deformation etc.
The general methodology involved in slab method can be stated as follows: First the material
under deformation is sliced into infinitesimally small portions. Then force balance is made on the
small element. From force balance a differential equation in terms of the forming stress,
geometric parameters of the billet and friction coefficient is formulated. This differential
equation is solved with suitable boundary conditions. The solution gives us the required forming
stress. This method may involve some simplifying assumptions. Hence this method may be
considered approximate. Moreover, it may not be easy to apply this method for more complex
forming processes, such as impression die forging. Slab method is developed with the
assumption that the material flow is homogeneous during forming.
2.2.1.1
Upsetting of a ring
Let us try to understand the slab method of forming analysis with the help of a simple example.
Sliding or Columbic friction often occurs at the material tool interface. As a result of friction the
forming load is enhanced. The flow of material is also non-uniform due to friction. Another type
of friction condition, namely, shear friction or sticking friction could be convenient to consider in
the analysis. In shear friction model, we assume the frictional shear stress to be proportional to
shear yield strength of the material. Thus we have: =mk , where m is friction factor and k is
shear yield strength.
The following assumptions are the basis of the slab analysis:
1. The reference axes are in the directions of the applied stresses
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2. Friction does not cause non-uniform deformation. Therefore material is assumed to deform
homogeneously a plane remains a plane after deformation.
Consider the homogeneous deformation of a ring shaped specimen subjected to upsetting force.
Let us assume shear friction at tool-material interface. The ring compression process is widely
used for finding the coefficient of friction for given condition of friction. Consider an elemental
portion of the ring specimen and the various stresses on this element. The following diagram
shows the stresses acting on the elemental part of the ring.
Consider a small sector of an elemental ring of radius r, radial thickness dr, height h and the
angle of the sector as d. The ring is subjected to upset force F, which is to be determined.
The various stresses acting on the sector are:
Fig.2.9: Stresses acting on elemental ring subjected to upsetting
There exists a neutral radius in the ring, such that the material deformation happens towards the
axis for radii less than the neutral radius. There is a decrease in diameter of the ring. For radii
greater than the neutral radius, the material flow is away from the axis-axially outward. This
condition exists because of friction. Therefore, the friction force is observed to act axially
outward within the neutral section. It acts radially inward in sections beyond the neutral section.
The force balance along the radial direction gives:
The force balance along the radial direction gives:
Dropping higher order terms, and applying =r
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We need to solve for z the axial stress for upsetting the ring
We can apply Tresca yield criterion in order to replace r in the above differential equation.
Let us assume that the two principal stresses acting on the ring are: z and r
Therefore, we have:
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In the above equation the bracketed term represents the factor which accounts for friction effect
during the forming. The limitation of uniform deformation assumption in slab method is
overcome in another method of analysis called slipline field analysis, which is discussed in the
next lecture. The upset force is found to vary linearly with the friction factor m, as observed from
the above equation. Further, we also note that the forming force required increases with
reduction in height of the ring. Rings of smaller height require greater forming force as compared
to rings of larger height. This is expected because the redundant deformation zone extends
towards centre for rings of smaller height. Ring compression test is a simple test for
determination of friction factor or the coefficient of friction. It can also be used for studying the
lubrication characteristics of different lubricants.
2.2.2 Slipline Field Method of analysis:Slab analysis of the forming process is considered approximate due to the assumption of
homogeneous deformation of material. Slipline field analysis is more accurate as it considers the
non-homogeneous deformation also. This method is widely applied for forming processes such
as rolling, strip drawing, slab extrusion etc. Slipline field analysis is based on the important
assumptions that the deformation of material is plane strain type, no strain hardening of the
material, constant shear stress at interfaces, the material is rigid plastic. The general methodology
of this analysis can be described by the following steps: First differential equations in terms of
mean stress and deviatoric stress for plane strain deformation are formulated Slipline field is
constructed graphically out of orthogonal maximum and minimum shear lines. From known
stress at some point, the integral constants are determined. From this the forming load can be
found. Before we proceed to understand the methodology of the analysis a few definitions should
be considered. What are sliplines? They are planes of maximum shear, which are oriented at 45
degrees to the axes of principal stresses. Maximum and minimum slip lines are orthogonal. What
is plane strain deformation? It is a type of plastic deformation in which the material flow in one
of the three principal directions is constrained. The material strain in the third direction is zero.
This is possible by the application of a constraint force along the third direction. All
displacements are restricted to xy plane, for example. Examples for this type of deformation
include strip rolling, strip extrusion etc. Constraint to deformation along the third axis could be
introduced either through the die wall or through the rigid material adjacent to deforming
material, which prevents the flow. The basis for slipline field analysis is the fact that the general
state of stress on a solid in plane strain deformation can be represented by the sum of two types
of stresses, namely the mean stress and the pure shear stress.
For plane strain condition we have
We can write the Tresca criterion for plane strain as: 1 3 = 2k For plane strain deformation
we have the equilibrium of stresses written in differential form as:
These two differential equations will be transformed into two algebraic equations along a
changed coordinate system, namely, along two directions of maximum shear. Then they can be
solved subjected two suitable boundary conditions.
Consider the plane strain state of stress acting on x-y plane. Let x,y and xy be the stresses
acting in this plane.
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Fig. 2.10: Stresses in Plane strain condition
Now substituting 3 and 4 in 5, 6 and 7 we get:
We get:
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Then the equation 11 and 12 becomes:
If the directions x and y are taken to be directions of maximum shear, denoted as directions and
, Then we have:
Equations 15 and 16 represent the two differential equations transformed to the directions of
maximum shear, and .
Here the directions and are called slip lines (lines of maximum shear) Therefore, we may
now conclude from 15 and 16 that:
p+2k = constant along line and = f () ------ 17
Similarly, p -2k = constant along line and = f () ------18
Or we can write: p = -2k along lines
And p = 2k along slip lines
The above equations mean that the pressure p changes by an amount equivalent to change in the
angle as one move along the slip lines. The following conditions are to be remembered while
establishing the slip line field: The stress normal to a free surface is a principal stress and hence
the slip lines meet the free surface at 45o.
and lines always meet at 45o on a frictionless surface. They meet at 0o and 90o on a surface
with sticking friction Slip happens along the slip lines as there is maximum shear along the slip
lines. Further, along the tangent to the slip lines there is a discontinuity of velocity. The angle
between the intersections of one type of slip line with the other type of slip line remains the same
all along the slip line.
The radii of curvature of the intersecting slip lines ( lines) along one type of slip lines ( lines)
change by an amount equal to their distances traversed.
2.2.3 Upper bound analysis

Limit analysis is an alternative analytical approach that is receiving increased acceptance and is
being used with increased frequency.
Two separate solutions have been developed:
1. the upper-bound solution provides a value for the power required which is equal to or greater
than the actual power, and
2. the lower-bound solution provides a value equal to or lower than the actual power
The upper-bound theorem may be stated as flows: Any estimate of the collapse load of a
structure made by equating the internal rate of energy dissipation to the rate at which external
forces do work in some assumed pattern of deformation will be greater than or equal to the
correct load. The bases of an upper-bound analysis can be summarized as follows:
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An internal flow field is assumed and must account for the required shape change. As such, the
field must be geometrically self-consistent
The energy consumed internally in this deformation field is calculated using the appropriate
strength properties of the work material
The external forces (or stresses) are calculated by equating the external work with the internal
energy consumption
For a mathematical proof that such solutions predict loads equal to or greater than the exact load
to cause plastic deformation, various sources (Johnson and Mellor, 1973) may be consulted.
With such solutions, the assumed field can be checked for complete consistency by drawing a
velocity vector diagram, which is commonly called a hodograph.
In applying the upper-bound technique to metalworking operations, several simplifying
assumptions are invoked:
The work material is isotropic and homogeneous
The effects of strain hardening and strain rate on flow stress are neglected
Either frictionless or constant shear stress conditions prevail at the tool work piece
interface
Most of the cases considered will be those where the flow is 2 dimensional (plane strain),
with all deformation occurring by shear on a few discrete planes. Elsewhere the material
is considered to be rigid. If shear is assumed to occur on intersecting planes that are not
orthogonal, these planes cannot in reality, be planes of maximum shear stress. Many
such fields can be posed and the closer such a field is to the true flow field, the closer the
upper-bound prediction approaches the exact solution.
ENERGY DISSIPATION ON A PLANE OF DISCRETE SHEAR: - Figure 2.11 shows an
element of rigid metal, ABCD, moving at unit velocity, V1 and having unit width into the study.
AD is set parallel to yy'. As the element reaches the plane yy' it is forced to change direction,
shape and velocity. Thus, to the right of yy' the element has the shape A'B'CD' and velocity V2,
at an angle 2 to the horizontal. Fig. 1b is the hodograph; the absolute velocities on either side of
yy' are V1 and V2 and they are drawn from the origin, O. Both V1 and V2 must have the
horizontal component. Vx; otherwise, material approaching and leaving yy' would differ in
volume; this would violate the concept of incompressibility. The velocity V*12 is the vector
difference between V1 and V2 and is the velocity discontinuity along yy'. It is assumed that
V*12 occurs along the line (or plane) yy'. The rate of energy dissipation on yy' must equal the
work per volume times the volume per time crossing yy'. Because deformation is due to shear,
the work per volume, w, equals the shear stress times the shear strain, . Here, must be the
shear strength, k, of the metal and = dy/dx, thus:
w = k(dy/dx)
(1)
The volume crossing yy' in an increment of time, dt, is the length of line, S, along yy' times the
depth of the plane perpendicular to yy' (unity) times Vx. Thus:
vol/time = S (1) Vx
(2)
Combining Eq. (1) and (2) gives the rate at which work, W, is done to effect this shear
deformation:
dW/dt = k(dy/dx) (SVx)
(3)
Comparing Fig. 1a and b, dy/dx = V*12 / Vx so:
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dW/dt = k S V*12
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(4)
For deformation fields involving more than one plane of discrete shear:
dW/dt = 1 k Si V*i
(5)
where, Si and V*i pertain to each individual plane.
Equation (5) is the form used in most problems involving upper bound calculations. It implies
that an element deforms in a way that offers maximum plastic resistance.
Most of the flow fields assumed in this study consist of a number of polygons, which are viewed
as rigid blocks. This means that the velocity of all the material inside a polygon is the same and
is represented on the hodograph by the point that is common to the lines that bound the polygon
on the proposed deformation field. The polygons are separated by the lines of velocity
discontinuity and these discontinuities as well as effects of boundary friction must be considered
when summing the contributions to the total internal energy dissipation.
(a)
(b)
Fig. 2.11 (a) Basis for analysis of energy dissipation along a plane of intense shear discontinuity and (b) the
hodograph or velocity vector diagram
2.3 Forging process:Bulk deformation processes involve shaping of materials to finished products which have small
surface area to thickness or surface area to volume ratio. Sheet metal forming produces parts
having large surface area to thickness ratio. In sheet metal forming thickness variations are not
desirable. Examples for sheet metal forming are: beverage cans, automobile body etc. Bulk
forming processes may be primary processes such as rolling of ingot to blooms or billets, in
which the cast metal is formed into semi-finished raw material. In secondary forming, the raw
materials, such as blooms, billets are converted into finished parts such as gears, wheels,
spanners etc. Rolling, forging, extrusion and drawing are bulk forming processes. The present
module describes the salient aspects of forging process.
In ancient times, people employed forging for making coins, jewelry, weapons, Forging is a
deformation processing of materials through compressive stress. It is carried out either hot or
cold. Hot forging is done at temperatures above recrystallization temperatures, typically 0.6 Tm,
or above, where Tm is melting temperature. Warm forging is done in the temperature range: 0.3
Tm to 0.5 Tm. Cold forging has advantages such as good surface finish, high strength and
greater accuracy. Hot forging requires lower loads, because flow stress gets reduced at higher
temperatures. Strain rates in hot working may be high 0.5 to 500 s-1. Strains in hot forging are
also high true strains of 2 to 4 are common. Typical applications of forging include bolts, disks,
gears, turbine disk, crank shaft, connecting rod, valve bodies, small components for hydraulic
circuits etc. Forging has several advantages. Closer dimensional accuracies achieved require very
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little machining after forging. Material saving is the result. Higher strength, greater productivity,
favorable grain orientation, high degree of surface finish are other merits. However, complex die
making is costly.
Forging is a metal working process in which useful shape is obtained in solid state by
hammering or pressing metal.
2.3.1 Different Forging Operations

1. Upsetting: - The thickness of the work reduces and length increases
2. Edging: - The ends of the bar are shaped to requirement using edging dies.
3. Fullering: - The cross sectional area of the work reduces as metal flows outward, away from
centre.
4. Drawing: - The cross sectional area of the work is reduced with corresponding increase in
length using convex dies.
5. Swaging: The cross sectional area of the bar is reduced using concave dies.
6. Piercing: The metal flows around the die cavity as a moving die pierces the metal.
7. Punching: It is a cutting operation in which a required hole is produced using a punching die.
8. Bending: The metal is bent around a die/anvil.
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-Classification of Forging Processes

(A) Based on Temperature of the work piece:
1. Hot forging: (most widely used):- Forging is carried out at a temperature above the
recrystallization temperature of the metal.
2. Cold Forging: Forging is carried out at a temperature below the recrystallization temperature
of the metal.
(B) Based on Arrangement of Dies:
1. Open Die Forging: - Flat dies of simple shape are used.
2. Closed Die Forging: - Work piece is deformed between two dies with impressions (cavities) of
the desired final shape on them.
Fig 2.12 Open die forging
Fig.2.13 closed die forging
2.3.2 Slab analysis of forging: In a plane strain condition, the strain in one of the principal directions is zero.
During a forging process,
the thickness of the work piece decreases
the length of the work piece decreases
The width remains unchanged
In a general condition of stress:
Let 1,2, and 3 be the principal stresses, and 1, 2 and 3 be the principal strains.
In a plane strain condition, 2=0 (as width remains constant).
In this condition, it can be shown that the principal stress 2, acting in a direction where
2=0, is the algebraic mean of the other two principal stresses.
This means
Consider Upset forging of a rectangular slab under plane strain condition, using a wide and
flat die.
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Fig.2.14 Plane strain upsetting of rectangular billet

stresses acting on the element of thickness dx
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Fig. 2.15 Stresses acting on a small and the

elemental billet of thickness dx
Consider a rectangular slab as shown in the figure.

Let t = thickness of the work (decreases during forging)
L = length of the work (increases during forging)
W = width of the work (remains constant)
Consider an elemental volume in the work piece with length dx at a distance x from the
centerline.
The stresses acting on the elemental volume are:
i) P = forging pressure
ii)x= Longitudinal stress due to lateral flow of the metal
iii) =Shear stress due to friction between work and die surfaces
Under the equilibrium conditions, the summation of forces acting in a longitudinal direction must
be zero.
Applying the above condition and conditions of plane strain, it can be shown that:
The above equation is solved for different conditions as follows:

Case i): Sliding friction at the contact surface between work and die:
Coefficient of friction is low. The height of the billet is small so that the forging pressure is
constant over the height of the billet.
Assume that x and y are principal stresses [Though y can not be assumed as principal stress
as a shear stress is also acting on the plane on which the normal stress is acting]
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Here y is the forging stress necessary at any height h of the billet. Force balance on the element
gives: Assuming the dimension of the billet perpendicular to the plane of the paper,
-----------------9
We have to eliminate because there are two unknowns in the above equation.
For eliminating we can apply the von Mises yield criterion for plane strain. According to this
criterion, we have:
--------------------10
From this we have dy=dx .The force balance equation now becomes:
------------------------------11
Upon integration, we get:
-----------------------------------12
To solve the constant A, we need a boundary condition.
At x = a, x = 0 [free surface]
From the yield criterion we have: At x=a, y=y
Substituting this in equation 12 and simplifying we get,
-----------------------13
P is the forging pressure Equation 13 can also be written as:
-------------------14
Where L = 2a is width of the billet From the above equation we find that as L/h increases, the
forging pressure increases resistance to compressive deformation increases. This fact is utilized
in closed die forging where the deformation resistance of flash, being high [due to high L/h] the
die filling is effective. Note: Y is plane strain yield strength of the material If the material is
work hardening type of material, we have to replace Y with Yf which is the flow stress of the
material The variation of forging pressure normalized with plane strain yield strength Y is
shown with respect to the billet thickness:
Fig. 2.16 Friction hill in plane strain upsetting under sliding friction
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Forging pressure variation across the billet due to friction is shown above. The pressure
distribution curve is called friction hill. Area under the friction hill represents the forging work
done. As shown in figure, as the coefficient of friction increases, the forging pressure increases
and hence the work done. Average forging pressure: The average forging pressure is given as:
------------15
Substituting for p from equation 13, we get:
We can get approximate expression for average forging load by expanding exponential function
as infinite series. We get:
----------------16
Note that the forge pressure is a function of instantaneous height of billet. As height gets
reduced, after successive plastic flow, forging pressure increases. If the rectangular billet is
subjected to plane stress compression stress acting along the height axis and the length axis,
there will be material flow in the width direction. It is found that the extent of flow along width
direction is several times greater than the flow along longitudinal direction. Because of lower
friction along width, material flows freely along width direction. If a rectangular block is
compressed, due to friction and non-uniform flow, bulging and barreling take place. Bulging
refers to the non-uniform flow considered on the plane of the loading, while barreling refers to
the non-uniform deformation along the height of the specimen. The reason for bulging and
barreling is the material flow along the diagonal direction is rather sluggish, compared to the
other directions.
Case-ii) Sticking friction:The frictional shear stress p increases towards the axis as the forging pressure p increases.
However, the maximum frictional shear stress can not exceed the shear yield strength of the
material. When the limiting condition of = k, we can say sticking exists at the interface.
Generally, we can relate the friction shear stress with shear yield strength by the relation:
= mk,
m is friction factor, which can not exceed 1. Under sticking friction the friction shear stress and
shear yield strength are related as:
= k ------------------------17
Where k is shear yield strength. For sticking friction, the limit of friction shear stress is the shear
yield strength of the material m=1.
In general, with = mk, the forging pressure is given by:
---------------------------------18
As per the above equation, with sticking friction [m = 1], one can write the forging pressure as:
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-----------------------19
This is a linear relation, which is shown in figure below:
Fig. 2.17 Upset forging with sticking friction variation of forging pressure
2.4 Drawing Process: Cup drawing or deep drawing is one of the widely used sheet metal
forming operations. Cup shaped objects, utensils, pressure vessels, gas cylinders, cans, shells;
kitchen sinks etc are some of the products of deep drawing. In this process, a sheet metal called
blank is placed on a die cavity, held in position using a holding plate or holding ring and pressed
against the die cavity using a solid punch. The sheet metal attains the shape of the die cavity with
flat bottom. Both die and punch should be provided with corner radius in order to avoid shearing
of the sheet.
Fig. 2.18 Cup drawing process sequence of operation
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During drawing of sheet into the die, there is thickening of the sheet upto 12%. Therefore,
clearance is provided between the punch and die. The radial clearance therefore is equal to the
sheet thickness plus the thickening of sheet. Punch pushes the bottom of the sheet into the die
cavity. The flat portion of the sheet under the holding plate moves towards the die axis, then
bends over the die profile. After bending over the die profile the sheet unbends to flow
downward along the side wall. The vertical portion of the sheet then slips past the die surface.
More metal is drawn towards the center of the die in order to replace the metal that has already
flown into the die wall. Friction between holding plate and blank and that between die and blank
has to be overcome by the blank during its horizontal flow.
2.4.1 Analysis of Cup Drawing:
Tensile stress is induced on the sheet at various locations
within the die cavity. Maximum tensile stress is caused near the end of punch, at the profile of
punch, because the sheet bends over the edge of the punch due to tensile stress. The sheet
unbends along the cup wall. Necking of the sheet takes place near the punch profile due to excess
tensile stress, resulting in fracture. The sheet under the holding plate, namely, the flange
undergoes compressive hoop stress, radial tensile stress and compressive stress due to blank
holding plate. Thickness of the cup wall increases from bottom to top. The die-punch clearance,
usually, taken as 1.1t, where t is thickness of the sheet. Stresses acting on the sheet at various
locations are shown in figure. The flange portion of the blank is subjected to a compressive hoop
stress due to it being drawn towards the center. It is also subjected to radial tensile stress. The
compressive stress of the hold down plate will be acting in the axial direction. If the hoop
compressive stress is high or if the metal in the flange is not restrained wrinkling of the metal in
the flange happens. To prevent wrinkling, the hold down plate is used. The material of the flange
undergoes compressive hoop strain and a radial tensile strain. The result is the metal in the
flange, as it flows towards the center, tends to thicken due to circumferential shrinking.
However, due to bending under the punch and die profile, the metal undergoes thinning. The
metal at the center of the blank, which is getting pressed by the punch bottom, is subjected to
biaxial tensile stress due to the punch. The metal in the gap between die wall and punch is now
subjected to longitudinal and hoop tensile stresses. If the clearance is less than the metal
thickening on the flange side, the metal in the cup wall is squeezed. This process of thinning of
the cup wall is called ironing. In order to reduce thickness and to cause uniform thickness on the
cup, ironing is used in some drawing process, employing smaller clearances between die and
punch. The drawing force required under ideal frictionless flow conditions will increase linearly
with punch stroke due to increase in strain on the metal and also because the material gets
strain hardened. Friction due to hold down pressure as well as sliding tends to increase reach a
peak value and decreases early during the drawing. This is due to the fact that after certain
amount of drawing the amount of material under the hold down plate reduces. Ironing force
operates during the later part of the process, as sufficient thickening has to occur. About 15% of
the total force is spent on bending and unbending of the blank on the die and punch profile. 70%
of the total force is required for radial drawing of the material. 10% of the energy goes for
overcoming friction. If the blank hold down force is too high or if draw beads are used under the
hold down ring, the material around the punch will begin to stretch instead of being drawn. This
may lead to localized necking or diffuse necking depending on strain rate sensitivity, lubrication,
and punch geometry. On the other hand, a lower hold down pressure makes the metal flow freely
into the die cavity.
The material which occupies the length represented by the difference between the die and punch
radii is likely to undergo wrinkling folding due to hoop compressive stress. This is due to the
fact that the diameter of the blank has become sufficiently smaller. Therefore, the smaller
material is unable to support the hoop stress and hence wrinkles. This happens especially when
the hold down pressure is insufficient and the thickness of sheet is too small and the material
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flow is pure drawing mode. Sachs has given an approximate expression for total drawing force,
which is given below:
Dp is punch diameter Do is blank diameter H is hold down force B is force for bending and
unbending T is blank thickness Y is yield strength of the material In deep drawing material just
above the bottom of the punch is subjected to circumferential tensile stress and longitudinal
tensile stress. Punch force acting on the bottom of the cup is transferred to the side of the cup.
The narrow ring of metal just above the bottom of the cup is subjected to plane strain condition.
As a result, failure of the cup easily happens in this zone due to necking induced by the tensile
stress, leading to tearing. Punch force is shown to vary with the stroke of the punch. It is difficult
to predict the punch force in deep drawing. However, an expression for maximum punch force is
given by:
UTS is ultimate tensile strength of the material, to is initial thickness of blank The maximum
tensile force on the cup which causes tearing can be estimated form the plane strain condition as:
In wire drawing the strain hardening exponent n has significant influence on deformation and
draw force. Whereas in deep drawing strain hardening does not affect significantly both draw
stress and deformation. Clearance between die and punch is a critical factor in deep drawing.
Normally, radial clearances of 7 to 14% of the sheet thickness are common. Too small a
clearance may cause shear on the blank. Sharp corner on the punch could cause fracture of the
cup along the corner. Too large a radius on the corner of punch may cause wrinkles on the
flange. Similarly die corner radius, if small, can cause fracture on the flange. Corner radius is
normally 5 to 10 times the sheet thickness. Blank holder pressure is another important factor. 0.5
to 1% of the ultimate strength of the sheet material is normally taken to be the hold pressure. Too
large a hold pressure results in tearing along cup wall. Too low a value leads to wrinkling in
flange. An approximate expression for holding force is given based on the initial area of the
blank and assuming that the holding pressure is 0.015 times yield strength.
Rd is die corner radius. Thick sheets could be drawn without blank holder. In such case, the limit
on the diameter of sheet is governed by: Do-Dp< 5to
2.5 Modern materialsModern materials are developed through the invention of new or
improved processes, for example, as a result of 'man' made materials/ingredients or human
intervention, in other words not naturally occurring changes. They are altered to perform a
particular function. Many smart and modern materials are developed for specialized applications
but some eventually become available for general use.
2.5.1 Steel: - Steel is hard, strong, bluish gray metal alloy of iron and is one of the most widely
used materials in the world; steel is Most important engineering and construction material. Steel
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has carbon content from 0.2 to 2.1 percent (by weight), depending on classification according to
composition and their physical properties.
Steels can be classified by a variety of different systems depending on:
The composition, such as carbon, alloy (high alloy and Low alloy) or stainless steel.
The manufacturing methods, such as open hearth, basic oxygen process, or electric
furnace methods.
The finishing method, such as hot rolling or cold rolling
The product form, such as bar plate, sheet, strip, tubing or structural shape
The deoxidation practice, such as killed, semi-killed, capped or rimmed steel
The microstructure, such as ferritic, pearlitic and martensitic
The required strength level, as specified in ASTM standards
The heat treatment, such as annealing, quenching and tempering, and thermo mechanical
processing
Quality descriptors, such as forging quality and commercial quality.
2.5.1.1 High strength low alloy metals: - High-strength low-alloy (HSLA) steels are
designed to provide better mechanical properties and/or greater resistance to atmospheric
corrosion than conventional carbon steels in the normal sense because they are designed to meet
specific mechanical properties rather than a chemical composition.
HSLA Classification:
1. Weathering steels, designated to exhibit superior atmospheric corrosion resistance
2. Control-rolled steels, hot rolled according to a predetermined rolling schedule, designed
to develop a highly deformed austenite structure that will transform to a very fine
equiaxed ferrite structure on cooling
3. Pearlite-reduced steels, strengthened by very fine-grain ferrite and precipitation
hardening but with low carbon content and therefore little or no pearlite in the
microstructure
4. Microalloyed steels, with very small additions of such elements as niobium, vanadium,
and/or titanium for refinement of grain size and/or precipitation hardening
5. Acicular ferrite steel, very low carbon steels with sufficient hardenability to transform on
cooling to a very fine high-strength acicular ferrite structure rather than the usual
polygonal ferrite structure
6. Dual-phase steels, processed to a micro-structure of ferrite containing small uniformly
distributed regions of high-carbon martensite, resulting in a product with low yield
strength and a high rate of work hardening, thus providing a high-strength steel of
superior formability.
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7. Alloy Steel: - Steel containing significant quantities of alloying elements (other than
carbon and the commonly accepted amounts of manganese, silicon etc.) to effect
changes in the mechanical or physical properties.
8. Low Alloy Steel: - Steel containing less than 3.5% of alloying elements e.g. 2.25% Cr
1% Mo.
9. Micro Alloy Steel: - Steel containing small amounts of vanadium, niobium and/or
titanium. Individual elements generally less than 0.10% and total microalloying
elements generally less than 0.15%. Also known as HSLA steels.
10. Micro alloyed:- Micro alloyed steel is a type of alloy steel that contains small amounts
of alloying elements (0.05 to 0.15%), including niobium, vanadium, titanium,
molybdenum, zirconium, boron, and rare-earth metals. They are used to refine the grain
microstructure or facilitate precipitation hardening.
11. The steel grades are usually required for the production of body parts of vehicles, trucks,
and machineries.
12. In forgings, micro alloy steels are able to develop higher mechanical properties (yield
strengths greater than say 60,000 psi) and higher toughness as forged by just cooling in
air or with a light mist water spray.
2.5.1.2 Micro Alloyed Steel :-Microalloyed steel is a type of alloy steel that contains small
amounts of alloying elements (0.05 to 0.15%), including niobium, vanadium, titanium,
molybdenum, zirconium, boron, and rare-earth metals. They are used to refine the grain
microstructure or facilitate precipitation hardening. These steels lie, in terms of performance and
cost, between carbon steel and low alloy steel. Yield strength is between 500 and 750 MPa
(73,000 and 109,000 psi) without heat treatment. Weldability is good, and can even be improved
by reducing carbon content while maintaining strength. Fatigue life and wear resistance are
superior to similar heat-treated steels. The disadvantages are that ductility and toughness are not
as good as quenched and tempered (Q&T) steels. They must also be heated hot enough for all of
the alloys to be in solution; after forming, the material must be quickly cooled to 540 to 600 C
(1,004 to 1,112 F).
Cold-worked microalloyed steels do not require as much cold working to achieve the same
strength as other carbon steel; this also leads to greater ductility. Hot-worked microalloyed steels
can be used from the air-cooled state. If controlled cooling is used, the material can produce
mechanical properties similar to Q&T steels. Machinability is better than Q&T steels because of
their more uniform hardness and their ferrite-pearlite microstructure.
Because microalloyed steels are not quenched and tempered, they are not susceptible to quench
cracking, nor do they need to be straightened or stress relieved. However, because of this, they
are through-hardened and do not have a softer and tougher core like quench and tempered steels.
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The Difference between Microalloy and Regular Alloy Steels

1. Microalloy steel is manufactured like any other, but the chemical ingredients added at the
initial melt of the steel to make it a microalloy include elements like Vanadium,
Titanium, and higher amounts of Manganese and perhaps Molybdenum or Nickel.
2. Vanadium, Niobium, and Titanium are also grain refiners and aggressive Oxygen
scavengers, so these steels tend to also have a very fine austenitic grain size.
3. In forgings, microalloy steels are able to develop higher mechanical properties (yield
strengths greater than say 60,000 psi) and higher toughness as forged by just cooling in
air or with a light mist water spray.
4. Normal alloy steels require a full austenitize, quench and temper heat treatment to
develop properties greater than as rolled or cold worked.
Since microalloyed steels are able to get higher properties using forging process heat- rather
than an additional heating quenching tempering cycle- they can be less expensive to process to
get improved mechanical properties.
The developed microstructure ultimately makes the difference. The microstructure developed in
the steel depends on the grade and type.
Normal alloy steels require a transformation to martensite that is then tempered in order
to achieve higher properties.
Microalloy steel precipitates out various nitrides or carbides and may result in either a
very fine ferrite- pearlite microstructure or may transform to Bainite.
For machinists, if the steel is already at its hardest condition, the microalloyed microstructure of
either ferrite pearlite or Bainite is less abrasive than that of a fully quench and tempered alloy
steel.
2.5.1.3 Dual phase steel:Dual-phase steels (DP steels) consist of ferrite and a dispersed hard martensitic second phase in
the form of islands. Usually they are low-carbon low-alloy materials with 10-40
vol.% hard martensite or martensite-austenite particles embedded in a ductile ferrite matrix. As
they combine high strength and good formability at low production costs they are widely used
for automotive applications. Sometimes the martensite regions tend to percolate or appear in the
form of elongated bands which is not desirable. Increasing the volume fraction of the hard
second phase martensite generally increases the strength but sometimes reduces ductility. Such
microstructures enable achieving ultimate tensile strength values in the regime of 4001200 MPA. For some alloys also baintic portions are used in DP steel microstructures. Dual
phase steel microstructure can exhibit a number of advantageous properties compared to other
advanced high strength steels. For example the strength of the DP steel microstructure can be
designed by the volume fraction of martensite and the ductility by its dispersion. They do not
reveal a pronounced yield point elongation and show a modest ratio between the ultimate tensile
strength and the yield strength low of around. DP steels undergo high strain hardening especially
at the beginning of plastic deformation. Also, they can be strengthened by static or dynamic
strain ageing through the so called bake hardening effect.
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DP steels with low carbon content exhibit excellent resistance to fatigue crack propagation at
growth rates close to fatigue threshold. The alloying elements used in DP steels have different
types of effects Carbon, used in the range between 0.060.15 wt.% acts as an austenite
stabilizer, strengthens the martensite and determines the phase distribution. Mn , used between
1.53
wt.%
also
stabilizes
the
austenite,
is
a
ferrite
solid
solution strengthener and retards ferrite formation. Si promotes ferritic transformation while Cr
and Mo, used up to 0.4 wt%, can retard pearlite and Bainite formation. Additionally
microalloying elements such as V or Nb can be used as precipitation strengtheners and to refines
the microstructure
DP ferrite plus martensite steels are produced by controlled cooling from the austenite phase (in
the case of hot band products) or from the two-phase ferrite plus austenite phase during an
intercritical annealing treatment step (in the case of continuously annealed cold-rolled and hotdip coated products) to transform some austenite to ferrite before a rapid cooling transforms the
remaining austenite to martensite. The microstructures of DP steels are typically not good
candidates for applications that require high drawability. They usually exhibit rather poor hole
expansion ratio values. This drawback, however, can be eliminated by adding Ti with the aim of
inducing precipitation strengthening in ferrite to reduce the differences in hardness between
the two phases. Alternatively, the martensite - ferrite constituents may be replaced or aided by
introducing also a Bainite phase. This means that depending on the composition and process
route, hot-rolled steels requiring enhanced capability to resist stretching on a blanked edge (as
typically measured by whole expansion capacity) can have a microstructure containing
significant quantities of Bainite. In response to the increasing demand for fuel efficiency, CO2
reduction, and occupant safety, it was shown that grain refinement is an effective tool to
strengthen dual phase steels without raising alloying costs or allowing a decrease in ductility.
Fig. 2.19
Dual-phase (DP) steels comprise a soft, continuous phase (a mechanically separable or visually
identifiable portion of a structure) known as ferrite surrounding islands of a hard phase known as
martensite.
The ferrite phase is mainly pure iron, just like the extra-deep-drawing steel grades used to make
automotive fenders; this phase gives this steel grade its high ductility. The martensite phase
which has extremely high strength, like the quenched grades that are used for springs and cutting
toolsis responsible for the high tensile strength (TS).
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Dual-phase steel (DPS) is a high-strength steel that has a ferrite and martensitic microstructure.
DPS starts as a low or medium carbon steel and is quenched from a temperature above A1 but
below A3 on a continuous cooling transformation diagram. This results in a microstructure
consisting of a soft ferrite matrix containing islands of martensite as the secondary phase
(martensite increases the tensile strength). Therefore, the overall behavior of DPS is governed by
the volume fraction, morphology (size, aspect ratio, interconnectivity, etc.), the grain size and the
carbon content.[1] For achieving these microstructures, DPS typically contain 0.060.15 wt.% C
and 1.5-3% Mn (the former strengthens the martensite, and the latter causes solid solution
strengthening in ferrite, while both stabilize the austenite), Cr & Mo (to retard pearlite or Bainite
formation), Si (to promote ferrite transformation), V and Nb (for precipitation strengthening and
microstructure refinement). The desire to produce high strength steels with formability greater
than microalloyed steel led the development of DPS in the 1970s.
DPS have high ultimate tensile strength (UTS, enabled by the martensite) combined with low
initial yielding stress (provided by the ferrite phase), high early-stage strain hardening and
macroscopically homogeneous plastic flow (enabled through the absence of Lders effects).
These features render DPS ideal materials for automotive-related sheet forming operations.
The steel melt is produced in an oxygen top blowing process in the converter, and undergoes an
alloy treatment in the secondary metallurgy phase. The product is aluminum-killed steel, with
high tensile strength achieved by the composition with manganese, chromium and silicon.
Their advantages are as follows: Low yield strength
Low yield to tensile strength ratio (yield strength / tensile strength = 0.5)
High initial strain hardening rates
Good uniform elongation
A high strain rate sensitivity (the faster it is crushed the more energy it absorbs)[4]
Good fatigue resistance
Due to these properties DPS is often used for automotive body panels, wheels, and bumpers
Types and Availability
Like high-strength, low-alloy (HSLA) steels, DP steels are available in different strength levels,
which increase with the percentage of martensite. However, producing martensite is not as easy
as simply changing the chemistry; controlled chemistry, controlled cooling, and tight process
controls are required to change the microstructure to the desired balance of ferrite and
martensite.
Whereas most sheet steel mills have the necessary equipment and process capabilities to produce
HSLA steels, only certain mills are equipped to produce DP steels.
Tensile Properties
Another significant difference between HSLA and DP steels is the consistency of the material
from steelmaker to steelmaker. The tensile properties and chemical make-up of a given grade of
HSLA steel are essentially the same from any steelmaker. However, the production of the DP
microstructure depends heavily on the equipment used and the steelmakers capabilities, so the
steel melt chemistry is different among producers.
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The tensile properties will meet the pertinent specification, but since the steelmakers get there
using different chemistry, the carbon equivalent--and therefore weldability--can be different. If
you switch steel suppliers during the life of the part or between die development and production,
be aware of this potential for different manufacturing performance on a seemingly identical
grade.
Formability
The ratio of yield strength (YS) to TS can indicate the relative formability of a particular grade.
When YS is close to TS, only limited deformation can occur before the metal cracks. A larger
gap means the material can be formed into more complex shapes before it fails. While HSLA
grades have a typical YS-to-TS ratio of 0.8, DP steels are closer to a ratio of 0.6, indicating that
DP steels are more formable than HSLA grades at a similar strength level.
The best indicator of sheet metal formability is the strain-hardening exponent, also known as the
n-value. Higher n-values represent an increased ability to distribute strains across a part, as
opposed to concentrating strains in a specific area that can lead to failure. A distinguishing
feature of DP steels is a higher n-value when calculated over a lower strain range than the typical
10 percent to uniform elongation strain. This allows for a more uniform strain distribution early
in the press stroke. The higher n-value also indicates a greater work-hardening capability.
Unlike HSLA grades, DP steels can be bake hardened. This means their YS increases from
work-hardening during forming and again after being processed through a paint curing (baking)
cycle. A flat sheet with a YS of 350 MPa can increase in strength to more than 500 MPa from the
combination of work hardening and bake hardening.
The most common TS levels for DP steels are 590, 780, and 980 MPa. Rather than using these
TS levels, some steelmakers specify these grades as 600, 800, and 1000 MPa. They essentially
are the same grades, although the processing differs somewhat to attain the slightly higher
minimum TS levels.
Automotive Applications
The choice of a material for an automotive application depends on the function, environment,
and requirements of the part being produced. The microstructure of advanced high-strength
steels (AHSS) can be tailored to produce specific properties that are engineered for each
application. This is why usage of AHSS grades is growing in the automotive industry, and DP
steels are leading the way.
The auto body structure must protect the passenger compartment in the event of a crash;
significant impact energy much be dissipated in less than 100 milliseconds before it reaches the
occupants. The front and rear crumple zones require steel grades and structures that can absorb
this crash energy, making DP steels ideal candidates for automotive parts.
At the same YS, DP steels have greater TS and elongation than a comparable HSLA steel. In
addition, because more complex shapes can be formed from DP steels, the part geometry can be
engineered to have the best crash response. With the right section geometry, sufficient crash
performance may be achieved even with a thickness reduction.
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At the higher strength levels, DP steels are used in the passenger safety cage, where antiintrusion is critical. DP steels also can be found in such applications as front and rear
longitudinal rails, rockers, pillars, pillar reinforcements, roof rails, and cross members.
2.5.3 Smart materials: - 'Intelligent' or 'Smart' materials may be defined as 'Those materials
which sense any environmental change and respond to it in an optimal manner'.
2.5.3.1 Functional requirements:- following mechanisms may be essential for any material to
be made intelligent:
(i) A sensing device to perceive the external stimuli (skin which senses thermal gradients,
an eye that senses optical signals, etc.), termed as 'sensor' function.
(ii) A communication network by which the sensed signal would be transmitted to a
decision-making mechanism (e.g. the nervous system in humans and animals), termed as
'memory' function.
(iii) A decision-making device which has the capability of reasoning (e.g. the brain),
termed as 'processor' function.
(iv) An actuating device, which could be inherent in the material or externally coupled
with it (e.g. stiffening of muscles in humans and animals to resist deformation due to
external loading), termed as 'actuator' function
2.5.3.2 Concept of smart or intelligent materials
Fig. 2.20 concept of an intelligent material
Designing a material with sensor, processor and actuator functions is the fundamental step in the
evolution of an intelligent material for achieving a desired response adaptable to the
environment.
a.
Sensor function: - The concept of a sensor function in a smart material is defined as the
ability of the material to sense the response characteristics of self with respect to environmental
factors such as mechanical loading, temperature, humidity and electrical inputs.
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An example of this function is that of a piezoelectric sensor embedded in a composite material.

This sensor diagnoses the mechanical disturbance imposed on the material by generating a
voltage which can be further measured and analyzed.
b.
Memory and processor function: - This mechanism stores the signals sensed and
transmitted by the sensor function.
The characteristics of these signals are then compared with prestored acceptable values acquired
during the 'training' process of the processor.
The training process may be carried out using an artificial intelligence technique, e.g. pattern
recognition method.
Typically, this function is in the form of executable artificial intelligence software that could
produce a logical output in the form of an electrical voltage that could further be amplified and
used to activate an actuator mechanism.
c.
Actuator function: - This mechanism is coupled with the material.
It produces an output corresponding to the signal received from the processor function.
This output is usually in the form of restoring stress, strain or change in temperature, or stiffness
of the actuator mechanism that is coupled with the material.
This change would be designed to neutralize the effect of the change in environment on the
material, thereby adapting the material continuously to its environment.
A typical intelligent composite cantilever beam, which consists of sensor, processor and actuator
functions.
2.5.3.3 Classification of smart materials: - Smart materials can also be classified into two
categories i.e., either active or passive.
Active smart materials as those materials which possess the capacity to modify their geometric or
material properties under the application of electric, thermal or magnetic fields, thereby
acquiring an inherent capacity to transduce energy. Piezoelectric materials, SMAs, ER fluids and
magneto-strictive materials are considered to be the active smart materials and therefore, they
can be used as force transducers and actuators. Piezoelectric materials, which convert electric
energy into mechanical force, are also active.
On the other part, the materials, which are not active, are called passive smart materials.
Although smart, they lack the inherent capability to transduce energy.
Fiber optic material is a good example of a passive smart material.
Such materials can act as sensors but not as actuators or transducers.
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2.5.4 Shape memory metals:- A shape-memory alloy (SMA, smart metal, memory metal,
memory alloy, muscle wire, smart alloy) is an alloy that "remembers" its original shape and that
when deformed returns to its pre-deformed shape when heated.
This material is a lightweight, solid-state alternative to conventional actuators such as hydraulic,
pneumatic, and motor-based systems. Shape-memory alloys have applications iThe two main
types of shape-memory alloys are copper-aluminium-nickel, and nickel-titanium (NiTi) alloys
but SMAs can also be created by alloying zinc, copper, gold and iron.
Although iron-based and copper-based SMAs, such as Fe-Mn-Si, Cu-Zn-Al and Cu-Al-Ni, are
commercially available and cheaper than NiTi.
NiTi based SMAs are more preferable for most applications due to their stability, practicability
and superior thermo-mechanic performance.
SMAs can exist in two different phases, with three different crystal structures (i.e. twinned
martensite, detwinned martensite and austenite) and six possible transformations in industries
including automotive, aerospace, biomedical and robotics.
The two main types of shape-memory alloys are copper-aluminium-nickel, and nickel-titanium
(NiTi) alloys but SMAs can also be created by alloying zinc, copper, gold and iron. Although
iron-based and copper-based SMAs, such as Fe-Mn-Si, Cu-Zn-Al and Cu-Al-Ni, are
commercially available and cheaper than NiTi, NiTi based SMAs are preferable for most
applications due to their stability, practicability and superior thermo-mechanic performance.
SMAs can exist in two different phases, with three different crystal structures (i.e. twinned
martensite, detwinned martensite and austenite) and six possible transformations.
NiTi alloys change from austenite to martensite upon cooling; Mf is the temperature at which the
transition to martensite completes upon cooling. Accordingly, during heating As and Af are the
temperatures at which the transformation from martensite to austenite starts and finishes.
Repeated use of the shape-memory effect may lead to a shift of the characteristic transformation
temperatures (this effect is known as functional fatigue, as it is closely related with a change of
microstructural and functional properties of the material).The maximum temperature at which
SMAs can no longer be stress induced is called Md, where the SMAs are permanently deformed.
The transition from the martensite phase to the austenite phase is only dependent on temperature
and stress, not time, as most phase changes are, as there is no diffusion involved. Similarly, the
austenite structure receives its name from steel alloys of a similar structure. It is the reversible
diffusionless transition between these two phases that results in special properties. While
martensite can be formed from austenite by rapidly cooling carbon-steel, this process is not
reversible, so steel does not have shape-memory properties .In the fig. 2.21, (T) represents the
martensite fraction. The difference between the heating transition and the cooling transition gives
rise to hysteresis where some of the mechanical energy is lost in the process. The shape of the
curve depends on the material properties of the shape-memory alloy, such as the alloying and
work hardening.
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Fig. 2.21 Typical transformation versus temperature curve for a specimen under constant load (stress) as it is
cooled and heated. Ms martensite starts, Mf martensite finish, As austenite starts and Af austenite finish.
-One-way vs. two-way shape memory

Shape-memory alloys have different shape-memory effects. Two common effects are one-way
and two-way shape memory. A schematic of the effects is shown below.
Fig. 2.22 The procedures are very similar: starting from martensite (a), adding a reversible deformation for
the one-way effect or severe deformation with an irreversible amount for the two-way (b), heating the sample
(c) and cooling it again (d).
-One-way memory effect: - When a shape-memory alloy is in its cold state (below As), the
metal can be bent or stretched and will hold those shapes until heated above the transition
temperature. Upon heating, the shape changes to its original. When the metal cools again it will
remain in the hot shape, until deformed again.
With the one-way effect, cooling from high temperatures does not cause a macroscopic shape
change. A deformation is necessary to create the low-temperature shape. On heating,
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transformation starts at As and is completed at Af (typically 2 to 20 C or hotter, depending on

the alloy or the loading conditions). As is determined by the alloy type and composition and can
vary between 150 C and 200 C.
-Two-way memory effect: - The two-way shape-memory effect is the effect that the material
remembers two different shapes: one at low temperatures, and one at the high-temperature shape.
A material that shows a shape-memory effect during both heating and cooling is said to have
two-way shape memory. This can also be obtained without the application of an external force
(intrinsic two-way effect). The reason the material behaves so differently in these situations lies
in training. Training implies that a shape memory can "learn" to behave in a certain way. Under
normal circumstances, a shape-memory alloy "remembers" its low-temperature shape, but upon
heating to recover the high-temperature shape, immediately "forgets" the low-temperature shape.
However, it can be "trained" to "remember" to leave some reminders of the deformed lowtemperature condition in the high-temperature phases. There are several ways of doing this.[11]
A shaped, trained object heated beyond a certain point will lose the two-way memory effect.
Manufacture:- Shape-memory alloys are typically made by casting, using vacuum arc melting or
induction melting. These are specialist techniques used to keep impurities in the alloy to a
minimum and ensure the metals are well mixed. The ingot is then hot rolled into longer sections
and then drawn to turn it into wire.
The way in which the alloys are "trained" depends on the properties wanted. The "training"
dictates the shape that the alloy will remember when it is heated. This occurs by heating the alloy
so that the dislocations re-order into stable positions, but not so hot that the material
recrystallizes. They are heated to between 400 C and 500 C for 30 minutes, shaped while hot,
and then are cooled rapidly by quenching in water or by cooling with air.
-Properties: - The copper-based and NiTi-based shape-memory alloys are considered to be
engineering materials. These compositions can be manufactured to almost any shape and size.
The yield strength of shape-memory alloys is lower than that of conventional steel, but some
compositions have a higher yield strength than plastic or aluminum. The yield stress for Ni Ti
can reach 500 MPa. The high cost of the metal itself and the processing requirements make it
difficult and expensive to implement SMAs into a design. As a result, these materials are used in
applications where the super elastic properties or the shape-memory effect can be exploited. The
most common application is in actuation.
One of the advantages to using shape-memory alloys is the high level of recoverable plastic
strain that can be induced. The maximum recoverable strain these materials can hold without
permanent damage is up to 8% for some alloys. This compares with a maximum strain 0.5% for
conventional steels.
Applications:1.
Aircraft and spacecraft:- Boeing, General Electric Aircraft Engines, Goodrich
Corporation, NASA, Texas A&M University and All Nippon Airways developed the Variable
Geometry Chevron using a NiTi SMA. Such a variable area fan nozzle (VAFN) design would
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allow for quieter and more efficient jet engines in the future. In 2005 and 2006, Boeing
conducted successful flight testing of this technology.
SMAs are being explored as vibration dampers for launch vehicles and commercial jet engines.
The large amount of hysteresis observed during the superplastic effect allows SMAs to dissipate
energy and dampen vibrations. These materials show promise for reducing the high vibration
loads on payloads during launch as well as on fan blades in commercial jet engines, allowing for
more lightweight and efficient designs. SMAs also exhibit potential for other high shock
applications such as ball bearings and landing gear.
There is also strong interest in using SMAs for a variety of actuator applications in commercial
jet engines, which would significantly reduce their weight and boost efficiency. Further research
needs to be conducted in this area, however, to increase the transformation temperatures and
improve the mechanical properties of these materials before they can be successfully
implemented
2.
Automotive: - The first high-volume product (> 5Mio actuators / year) is an automotive
valve used to control low pressure pneumatic bladders in a car seat that adjust the contour of the
lumbar support / bolsters. The overall benefits of SMA over traditionally-used solenoids in this
application (lower noise/EMC/weight/form factor/power consumption) were the crucial factor in
the decision to replace the old standard technology with SMA.
The 2014 Chevrolet Corvette became the first vehicle to incorporate SMA actuators, which
replaced heavier motorized actuators to open and close the hatch vent that releases air from the
trunk, making it easier to close. A variety of other applications are also being targeted, including
electric generators to generate electricity from exhaust heat and on-demand air dams to optimize
aerodynamics at various speeds.
3.
Robotics: - There have also been limited studies on using these materials in robotics, for
example the hobbyist robot Stiquito , as they make it possible to create very lightweight robots.
Recently, a prosthetic hand was introduced by Loh et al. that can almost replicate the motions of
a human hand [Loh2005]. Other biomimetic applications are also being explored. Weak points of
the technology are energy inefficiency, slow response times, and large hysteresis.
4.
Civil Structures: - SMAs find a variety of applications in civil structures such as bridges
and buildings. One such application is Intelligent Reinforced Concrete (IRC), which incorporates
SMA wires embedded within the concrete. These wires can sense cracks and contract to heal
macro-sized cracks. Another application is active tuning of structural natural frequency using
SMA wires to dampen vibrations.[24]
5.
Piping: - The first consumer commercial application was a shape-memory coupling for
piping, e.g. oil line pipes for industrial applications, water pipes and similar types of piping for
consumer/commercial applications.
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6.
Telecommunication: - The second high volume application was an autofocus (AF)
actuator for a smart phone. There are currently several companies working on an optical image
stabilization (OIS) module driven by SMA wires.[citation needed]
7.
Medicine: - Shape-memory alloys are applied in medicine, for example, as fixation
devices for osteotomies in orthopedics surgery, in dental braces to exert constant tooth-moving
forces on the teeth.
The late 1980s saw the commercial introduction of Nitinol as an enabling technology in a
number of minimally invasive endovascular medical applications. While more costly than
stainless steel, the self expanding properties of Nitinol alloys manufactured to BTR (Body
Temperature Response), have provided an attractive alternative to balloon expandable devices in
stent grafts where it gives the ability to adapt to the shape of certain blood vessels when exposed
to body temperature. On average, 50% of all peripheral vascular stents currently available on the
worldwide market are manufactured with Nitinol.
8.
Optometry: - Eyeglass frames made from titanium-containing SMAs are marketed under
the trademarks Flexon and TITANflex. These frames are usually made out of shape-memory
alloys that have their transition temperature set below the expected room temperature. This
allows the frames to undergo large deformation under stress, yet regain their intended shape once
the metal is unloaded again. The very large apparently elastic strains are due to the stressinduced martensitic effect, where the crystal structure can transform under loading, allowing the
shape to change temporarily under load. This means that eyeglasses made of shape-memory
alloys are more robust against being accidentally damaged.
9.
Orthopedic surgery:-Memory metal has been utilized in orthopedic surgery as a
fixation-compression device for osteotomies, typically for lower extremity procedures. The
device, usually in the form of a large staple, is stored in a refrigerator in its malleable form and is
implanted into pre-drilled holes in the bone across an osteotomy. As the staple warms it returns
to its non-malleable state and compresses the bony surfaces together to promote bone union.
10.
Dentistry:-The range of applications for SMAs has grown over the years, a major area of
development being dentistry. One example is the prevalence of dental braces using SMA
technology to exert constant tooth-moving forces on the teeth; the nitinolarch wire was
developed in 1972 by orthodontist George Andreasen. This revolutionized clinical orthodontics.
Andreasen's alloy has a patterned shape memory, expanding and contracting within given
temperature ranges because of its geometric programming.
11.
Engines:- Experimental solid state heat engines, operating from the relatively small
temperature differences in cold and hot water reservoirs, have been developed since the 1970s,
including the Banks Engine, developed by Ridgway Banks.
Materials:- A variety of alloys exhibit the shape-memory effect. Alloying constituents can be
adjusted to control the transformation temperatures of the SMA. Some common systems include
the following (by no means an exhaustive list):
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Ag-Cd 44/49 at.% Cd, Au-Cd 46.5/50 at.% Cd ,Cu-Al-Ni 14/14.5 wt% Al and 3/4.5 wt% Ni ,CuSn approx. 15 at% Sn, Cu-Zn 38.5/41.5 wt.% Zn ,Cu-Zn-X (X = Si, Al, Sn) ,Fe-Pt approx. 25
at.%Pt ,Mn-Cu 5/35 at% Cu , Fe-Mn-Si, Co-Ni-Al[27], Co-Ni-Ga, Ni-Fe-Ga, Ti-Nb, Ni-Ti
approx. 5560 wt% Ni, Ni-Ti-Hf, Ni-Ti-Pd, Ni-Mn-Ga.
2.5.5 Metallic glasses: Glass is a uniform amorphous solid material, usually produced
when the viscous molten material cools very rapidly to below its glass transition temperature,
without sufficient time for a regular crystal lattice to form. The term glass transition refers to the
enormous slowing down in the dynamics of some liquids when their temperature is lowerd.
Amorphous materials are often prepared by rapidly cooling molten material. The cooling reduces
the mobility of the material's molecules before they can pack into a more thermodynamically
favorable crystalline state. Amorphous materials can also be produced by additives which
interfere with the ability of the primary constituent to crystallize. For example addition of soda to
silicon dioxide results in window glass.
In conventional metals, atoms crystallize into uniform three-dimensional patterns known as
lattices. But about a half-century ago, materials scientists learned how to make glassy metals by
cooling a metallic liquid so quickly that the internal atomic configurations froze before the atoms
had a chance to arrange themselves into a lattice pattern. The processing method involved
chilling molten metal at rates of 1K/s to 100K/s. Solidifies as a metallic glass with extraordinary
properties. Its atoms seemed to be arranged in an irregular fashion without the long-range order
characteristic of crystalline materials. The first metallic glass was a goldsilicon alloy (Al80Si20),
produced in 1957. It is less brittle than oxide glass and looks like a metal, so it is opaque, gray,
shiny and smooth.
Metallic glasses, or amorphous metals, are novel engineering alloys in which the structure is not
crystalline (as it is in most metals), but rather is disordered, with the atoms occupying more-orless random positions in the structure. In this sense metallic glasses are similar to the more
familiar oxide glasses such as the soda-lime glasses used for windows and bottles.
From a practical point of view the amorphous structure of metallic glasses gives them two
important properties. First, like other kinds of glasses they experience a glass transition into a
supercooled liquid state upon heating. In this state the viscosity of the glass can be controlled
over a wide range, creating the possibility for great flexibility in shaping the glass.
Second, the amorphous atomic structure means that metallic glasses do not have the crystalline
defects called dislocations that govern many of the mechanical properties of more common
alloys. The most obvious consequence of this is that metallic glasses can be much stronger (3-4
times or more) than their crystalline counterparts. Another is that metallic glasses are somewhat
less stiff than crystalline alloys. The combination of high strength and low stiffness gives
metallic glass very high resilience, which is the ability to store elastic strain energy and release it.
Extraordinary properties of metallic glass
The atomic structure is the most striking characteristic of the liquidmetal alloys as it
fundamentally differentiates liquidmetal alloys from ordinary metals. Liquidmetal alloys possess
an amorphous atomic structure, which is truly unique (Fig.2.23and Fig. 2.24). By contrast to the
crystalline structure, no discernable patterns exist in the atomic structure of the unique liquid
metal alloys (Fig.2.25). As such, properties superior to the limits of conventional metals can be
achieved. In the tightly packed glassy structure, the displacement of atoms is obstructed. Their
unusual atomic structure gives them distinctive mechanical and magnetic properties. Many
traditional metals are relatively easy to deform or bend permanently out of shape because their
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atomic structure is periodic, where the layout of atomic elements shows repeating patterns over
an extended range. This atomic structure is called crystalline and limits the overall performance
of conventional metals. A metallic glass, in contrast, absorbs less energy upon stress and springs
back to its original shape much more readily. With no crystal defects, metallic glass and its
products have extraordinary properties like strength, hardness, toughness and elasticity
(Fig.2.27). The different sizes of atoms lead to low free volume and therefore up to orders of
magnitude higher viscosity than other metals and alloys in the molten state. The viscosity
prevents the atoms moving enough to form an ordered lattice. The material structure also results
in low shrinkage during cooling, and resistance to plastic deformation.
Fig.2.23: The atomic structure of conventional metal
Fig. 2.24: An amorphous atomic structure.
Fig. 2.25: Metallic glass has an amorphous structure and moreover does not have a slip plane.
The absence of grain boundaries means that the material is resistant to corrosion and wear. It has
good corrosion resistance because metallic glass has homogeneous microstructure and does not
have grain boundaries (Fig. 2.26). Moreover, metallic glass has superior abrasion resistance
because metallic glass has a hard oxide surface by oxidation treatment.
Fig. 2.26: Good corrosion resistance of metallic glass.
Metallic glasses possess soft-magnetic properties, specifically in the alloys of glass formers B,
Si, P and ferrous magnetic transition metals Fe, Co, Ni. High electrical resistivity leads to low
eddy current losses. Easy magnetization and demagnetization allow lower losses in applications,
operation at high temperatures with minimal flux density reduction and annealing. In
manufacturing, properties like these can have great appeal.
Metallic glasses are unique. Metallic materials in amorphous state can be obtained by vapour
condensation and inert gas sputtering techniques.
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Fig. 2.27: Typical strengths and elastic limit for various materials.
Quantity of amorphous metals produced using these techniques were limited for any practical
applications. Subsequently, rapid solidification techniques were developed to obtain ribbons of
amorphous materials to be called metallic glasses. Detailed study of thermodynamic and kinetic
principles related to crystallization led to development of fluxing techniques to obtain metallic
glasses in bulk (BMGs). Later on, importance of constitution, mixing enthalpy, and size mismatch among constituent elements was realized and these factors were described by Inoues
empirical rules and Greers confusion principle. These principles finally led to synthesis of bulk
metallic glasses in Fe-Zr-Mg- and Cu-based alloy systems. Present paper describes scientific
endeavor to develop BMGs, properties of BMGs and their possible application areas.
Critical casting thickness: - Heat conduction is slow in these materials. An important
consequence of this was that metallic glasses could only be produced in a limited number of
forms (typically ribbons, foils, or wires) in which one dimension was small so that heat could be
extracted quickly enough to achieve the necessary cooling rate. As a result, metallic glass
specimens (with a few exceptions) were limited to thicknesses of less than one-tenth of a
millimeter. In 1970s a new method of manufacturing thin ribbons of metallic glass was
developed, by casting molten alloy of iron, nickel, phosphorus and boron onto a supercooled
fast-spinning wheel. It has produced a continuous ribbon tens of microns thick. The material was
commercialized in early 1980's and used for low-loss power distribution transformers.
Alternatively, droplets can be quickly frozen into a cold surface by splat cooling. This process
was commercialized in the early 1980s for magnetic applications. The losses of power
distribution in transformer cores are much lower. To enable bulk molding, the focus has been out
on slow cooling rates to increase critical casting thickness.
2.5.6 Metal Foam: For years, materials scientists and engineers have been trying to create
porous metals and metal foams based on in an attempt to emulate naturally porous materials,
such as bone, coral and cork.
-Metal foam is a cellular structure made up of a solid metal containing a large volume fraction of
gas-filled pores. These pores can either be sealed (closed-cell foam), or they can be an
interconnected network (open-cell foam). The closed-cell foam is referred to as metal foams,
while the open-cell foam is referred to simply as porous metal.
-The metal that is commonly used to make metal foams is aluminium. However, other varieties
of metals can be used to make the foam, such as titanium and tantalum.
-Properties of Metal Foam: - The key properties of metal foam are as follows:
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Ultra light material (7595% of the volume consists of void spaces)

Very high porosity
High compression strengths combined with good energy absorption characteristics
Thermal conductivity is low
High strength
-Production Method:- Metallic melts can be foamed by creating gas bubbles in the liquid.
These gas bubbles in the metallic melt tend to rise to the surface due to the high buoyancy forces
in the high-density liquid. In order to prevent this from happening, the viscosity of the molten
metal has to be increased. This can be done by adding fine ceramic powders or alloying elements
to form stabilizing particles in the melt.
Three ways of foaming metallic melts are listed below:
Injecting gas into the liquid metal from an external source

Causing the precipitation of gas that had just been dissolved in the liquid
Causing an in-situ gas formation in the liquid by admixing gas-releasing blowing agents
to the melt
-Foaming of Metallic Melts using Gas Injection:- Foaming aluminium and aluminium alloys is
used by Cymat Aluminium Corporation in Canada and Hydro Aluminium in Norway. Silicon
carbide, aluminium oxide, or magnesium oxide particles can be used to enhance the viscosity of
the melt.
The mixing techniques should be consistent to ensure uniform distribution of particles
throughout the melt. The melt is then foamed by injecting gases, namely, air, nitrogen, and argon
into it using rotating impellers or vibrating nozzles.
-Foaming of Melts with Blowing Agents: - A second method for foaming melts directly is to
add a blowing agent to the melt instead of injecting gas into it. Gas is introduced into the melt by
using compounds such as hydrides or carbonates.
The compound tends to decompose and forms gas bubbles when heated in a liquid metal or semisolid pellet. The resulting foam has to be stable so that the porous metals will have uniform pore
sizes and densities.
Shinko Wire Company, Amagasaki, Japan, has been producing foams using this method. About
1.5 wt.% calcium metal is added to an aluminium melt at 680C (1256F). The melt is mixed
well and the viscosity starts to increase due to the formation of calcium oxide, calcium aluminum
oxide, or Al4Ca intermetallics. This aids in thickening of the liquid metal.
Once the viscosity reaches the desired value, titanium hydride as a blowing agent is added
serving to release hydrogen gas in the hot viscous liquid. The melt then begins to expand slowly
and gradually, filling the foaming vessel. The foaming has to take place at constant pressure.
When the vessel is cooled below the melting point of the alloy, the liquid foam turns into solid
aluminium foam and can be taken out of the mold for further processing.
-Solid-Gas Eutectic Solidification:- Porous materials formed by solid-gas eutectic solidification
are called gasar, meaning gas-reinforced. It has been a known fact that certain liquid metals
form a eutectic system with hydrogen gas.
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When one of these metals is melted in a hydrogen atmosphere under high pressure of up to 50
atm, the resultant melt is homogeneous and charged with hydrogen. The melt will have a eutectic
transition to a heterogeneous solid+gas system when the temperature is lowered. The solid+gas
system should have a eutectic concentration, and then a segregation reaction will occur at a
specific temperature.
The melt begins to solidify causing gas pores to precipitate and become entrapped in the metal.
Mostly elongated pores oriented in the direction of solidification are formed.
-Applications: - The main applications of metal foams and porous metals are listed below:
The closed variety is used for structural applications requiring load-bearing features, and
for weight-saving and impact-absorbing structures in vehicles
The open variety is ideal for vibration and sound absorption, filtration and catalysis at
high temperatures, for heat exchange and in medical devices.
The open variety is also useful in functional applications such as filtration and damping.
Foam metal is being used as an experimental prosthetic in animals.
Metal foams with high strengths can act as high-capacity impact-energy absorbers.
Automotive industry - the foams reduce the number of parts in the car frame, facilitate
assembly, thereby reducing costs and improving performance.
2.5.7 Nanomaterials:Nanotechnology is the collaboration of the physics, chemistry, biology, computer and material
sciences integrated with engineering entering the nanoscale .This means science and engineering
focused on making the particles, things and devices at the atomic and molecular scale.
Nanomaterials are cornerstones of nanoscience and nano technology. Nanostructure Science and
technology is a broad and interdisciplinary area of research and development activity that has
been growing explosively worldwide in the past few years. It has the potential for
revolutionizing the ways in which materials and products are created and the range and nature of
functionalities that can be accessed. It is already having a significant commercial impact, which
will assuredly increase in the future.
Fig.2.28 Evolution of science and technology and the future
Nanoscale materials are defined as a set of substances where at least one dimension is less than
approximately 100 nanometers. A nanometer is one millionth of a millimeter approximately
100,000 times smaller than the diameter of a human hair. Nanomaterials are of interest because
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at this scale unique optical, magnetic, electrical, and other properties emerge. These emergent
properties have the potential for great impacts in electronics, medicine, and other fields. Some
nanomaterials occur naturally, but of particular interest are engineered nanomaterials (EN),
which are designed for, and already being used in many commercial products and processes.
They can be found in such things as sunscreens, cosmetics, sporting goods, stain-resistant
clothing, tires, electronics, as well as many other everyday items, and are used in medicine for
purposes of diagnosis, imaging and drug delivery.
-Classification of Nanomaterials:Nanomaterials have extremely small size which having at least one dimension 100 nm or less.
Nanomaterials can be nanoscale in one dimension (e.g. surface films), two dimensions (e.g.
strands or fibres), or three dimensions (e.g. particles). They can exist in single, fused, aggregated
or agglomerated forms with spherical, tubular, and irregular shapes. Common types of
nanomaterials include nanotubes; dendrimers, quantum dots and fullerenes. Nanomaterials have
applications in the field of nano technology, and displays different physical chemical
characteristics from normal chemicals (i.e., silver nano, carbon nanotubes, fullerene, photo
catalyst, carbon nano, silica). According to Siegel, Nanostructured materials are classified as
Zero dimensional, one dimensional, two dimensional, three dimensional nanostructures.
Fig.2.29 Classification of Nanomaterials (a) 0D spheres and clusters, (b) 1D nanofibers, wires, and rods, (c)
2D films, plates, and networks, (d) 3D nanomaterials.
The Clusters are particles containing a very small number of atoms or simply few hundred atoms
or smaller. A Nan crystallite is generally understood to possess crystalline order in addition to
nanoscale size.
Note: If one dimension of the three dimensional nanostructure is at nano scale, then it is called a
Quantum Well. If two dimension of the three dimensional nanostructure is at nano scale, then it
is called a Quantum Wire. If all the three dimension of the nanostructure is at nano scale, then it
is called a Quantum Dot. Nan crystallites are also called quantum dot. There is considerable
variety in the types of nano particle systems that have been fabricated and studied. Aside from
differences in their size and shape one important variable is their composition. Almost every
element in the periodic table, together with various alloys and compounds, can form
nanoparticles. They can be metallic, semiconducting, or insulating and typically their properties
are very different to those of the corresponding bulk material. The seven main nanomaterials
categories are (1) Carbon based nanomaterials (2) Nano-composites (3) Nano-metals & Nanoalloys (4) Biological nanomaterials (5) Nano-polymers (6) Nano-glasses (7) Nano-ceramics.
Why are nanomaterials important?

These materials have created a high interest in recent years by virtue of their unusual mechanical,
electrical, optical and magnetic properties. Some examples are given below:
(i) Nanophase ceramics are of particular interest because they are more ductile at elevated
temperatures as compared to the coarse-grained ceramics.
(ii) Nanostructured semiconductors are known to show various non-linear optical properties.
Semiconductor Q-particles also show quantum confinement effects which may lead to special
properties, like the luminescence in silicon powders and silicon germanium quantum dots as
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infrared optoelectronic devices. Nanostructured semiconductors are used as window layers in

solar cells.
(iii) Nanosized metallic powders have been used for the production of gas tight materials, dense
parts and porous coatings. Cold welding properties combined with the ductility make them
suitable for metal-metal bonding especially in the electronic industry.
(iv) Single nanosized magnetic particles are mono-domains and one expects that also in magnetic
nanophase materials the grains correspond with domains, while boundaries on the contrary to
disordered walls. Very small particles have special atomic structures with discrete electronic
states, which give rise to special properties in addition to the super-paramagnetism behaviour.
Magnetic nanocomposites have been used for mechanical force transfer (ferrofluids), for high
density information storage and magnetic refrigeration.
(v) Nanostructured metal clusters and colloids of mono- or plurimetallic composition have a
special impact in catalytic applications. They may serve as precursors for new type of
heterogeneous catalysts (Cortex-catalysts) and have been shown to offer substantial advantages
concerning activity, selectivity and lifetime in chemical transformations and electro catalysis
(fuel cells). Enantioselective catalysis was also achieved using chiral modifiers on the surface of
nanoscale metal particles.
(vi) Nanostructured metal-oxide thin films are receiving a growing attention for the realization of
gas sensors (NOx, CO, CO2, CH4 and aromatic hydrocarbons) with enhanced sensitivity and
selectivity. Nanostructured metal-oxide (MnO2) finds application for rechargeable batteries for
cars or consumer goods. Nan crystalline silicon films for highly transparent contacts in thin film
solar cell and nano-structured titanium oxide porous films for its high transmission and
significant surface area enhancement leading to strong absorption in dye sensitized solar cells.
(vii) Polymer based composites with a high content of inorganic particles leading to a high
dielectric constant are interesting materials for photonic band gap structure.
Nanomaterial - synthesis and processing

Nanomaterials deal with very fine structures: a nanometer is a billionth of a meter. This indeed
allows us to think in both the bottom up or the top down approaches (Fig. 2.30) to synthesize
nanomaterials, i.e. either to assemble atoms together or to disassemble (break, or dissociate) bulk
solids into finer pieces until they are constituted of only a few atoms. This domain is a pure
example of interdisciplinary work encompassing physics, chemistry, and engineering up to
medicine.
Fig.2.30 Schematic illustration of the preparative methods of nanoparticles.
In Bottom-up approach (or Atom-Atom Assembly), one assembles atoms and molecules into
objects whose properties vary discretely with the number of constituent entities, and then
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increases the size of the object until this discretisation gives way in the limit to continuous
variation. The relevant parameter becomes the size rather than the exact number of atoms
contained in the object. In Top-down approach (Chisel away atoms), one considers the evolution
of the properties of a sample as its size is whittled down from macroscopic toward manometric
lengths. There are many methods following these approaches. Some of them are discussed
below: 1.Mechanical grinding: - Mechanical attrition is a typical example of top down method of
synthesis of nanomaterials, where the material is prepared not by cluster assembly but by the
structural decomposition of coarser-grained structures as the result of severe plastic deformation.
This has become a popular method to make nanocrystalline materials because of its simplicity,
the relatively inexpensive equipment needed, and the applicability to essentially the synthesis of
all classes of materials. The major advantage often quoted is the possibility for easily scaling up
to tonnage quantities of material for various applications. Similarly, the serious problems that are
usually cited are;
1. Contamination from milling media and/or atmosphere, and
2. To consolidate the powder product without coarsening the nanocrystalline microstructure.
In fact, the contamination problem is often given as a reason to dismiss the method, at least for
some materials. Here we will review the mechanisms presently believed responsible for
formation of nanocrystalline structures by mechanical attrition of single phase powders,
mechanical alloying of dissimilar powders, and mechanical crystallization of amorphous
materials. The two important problems of contamination and powder consolidation will be
briefly considered.
Fig.2.31 Schematic representation of the principle of mechanical milling
Mechanical milling is typically achieved using high energy shaker, planetary ball, or tumbler
mills. The energy transferred to the powder from refractory or steel balls depends on the
rotational (vibrational) speed, size and number of the balls, ratio of the ball to powder mass, the
time of milling and the milling atmosphere. Nanoparticles are produced by the shear action
during grinding. Milling in cryogenic liquids can greatly increase the brittleness of the powders
influencing the fracture process. As with any process that produces fine particles, an adequate
step to prevent oxidation is necessary. Hence this process is very restrictive for the production of
non-oxide materials since then it requires that the milling take place in an inert atmosphere and
that the powder particles be handled in an appropriate vacuum system or glove box. This method
of synthesis is suitable for producing amorphous or nanocrystalline alloy particles, elemental or
compound powders. If the mechanical milling imparts sufficient energy to the constituent
powders a homogeneous alloy can be formed. Based on the energy of the milling process and
thermodynamic properties of the constituents the alloy can be rendered amorphous by this
processing.
2. Furnace
The simplest fashion to produce nanoparticles is by heating the desired material in a heartresistant crucible containing the desired material. This method is appropriate only for materials
that have a high vapour pressure at the heated temperatures that can be as high as 2000C.
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Energy is normally introduced into the precursor by arc heating, electron beam heating or Joule
heating. The atoms are evaporated into an atmosphere, which is either inert (e.g. He) or reactive
(so as to form a compound). To carry out reactive synthesis, materials with very low vapour
pressure have to be fed into the furnace in the form of a suitable precursor such as
organometallics, which decompose in the furnace to produce a condensable material. The hot
atoms of the evaporated matter lose energy by collision with the atoms of the cold gas and
undergo condensation into small clusters via homogeneous nucleation. In case a compound is
being synthesized, these precursors react in the gas phase and form a compound with the material
that is separately injected in the reaction chamber. The clusters would continue to grow if they
remain in the supersaturated region. To control their size, they need to be rapidly removed from
the supersaturated environment by a carrier gas. The cluster size and its distribution are
controlled by only three parameters:
1) the rate of evaporation (energy input),
2) the rate of condensation (energy removal), and
3) the rate of gas flow (cluster removal).
Fig. 2.32 Schematic representation of gas phase process of synthesis of single phase nanomaterials from a
heated crucible
3. Wet Chemical Synthesis of Nanomaterials

In principle we can classify the wet chemical synthesis of nanomaterials into two broad groups:
1. The top down method: where single crystals are etched in an aqueous solution for producing
nanomaterials, For example, the synthesis of porous silicon by electrochemical etching.
2. The bottom up method: consisting of sol-gel method, precipitation etc. where materials
containing the desired precursors are mixed in a controlled fashion to form a colloidal solution.
-Properties of Nanomaterials:
Nanomaterials have properties that are different from those of bulk materials. Most nanostructure
materials are crystalline in nature and they have unique properties.
Filling polymers with nanoparticles or nanorods and nanotubes, respectively, leads to significant
improvements in their mechanical properties.
Physical Properties: Crystal structure of nanoparticles is same as bulk structure with different
lattice parameters. The inter-atomic spacing decreases with size and this is due to long range
electrostatic forces and the short range core-core repulsion. The melting point of nanoparticles
decreases with size.
Chemical Properties: A large fraction of the atoms are located at the surface of the
nanomaterials which increase its reactivity and catalytic activity. The large surface area to
volume ratio, the variations in geometry and the electronic structure of nano particles have a
strong effect on catalytic properties.
Electrical properties: The energy band structure and charge carrier density in the materials can
be modified quite differently from their bulk and in turn will modify the electronic properties of
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the materials. Nanoparticles made of semiconducting materials like Germanium, Silicon and
Cadmium are not semiconductor. Nan clusters of different sizes will have different electronic
structures and different energy level separations. So they show diverse electronic properties
which depend on its size.
Magnetic Properties: The magnetic moment of nano particles is found to be very less when
compared them with its bulk size. Actually, it should be possible that non-ferromagnetic bulk
exhibit ferromagnetic-like behavior when prepared in nano range. Bulk Gold and Pt are nonmagnetic, but at the nano size they are magnetic.
-Applications of Nanomaterials:
(1)Chemical Industry: Fillers for point systems. Coating systems based on nano composites,
Magnetic fluids
(2)Automotive Industry: Light weight construction, Painting, Catalysts, Sensors
(3)Medicine: Drug delivery systems, Active agents, Medical rapid tests, Antimicrobial agents
and coatings, Agents in cancer therapy
(4)Electronic Industry: Data memory, Displays, Laser diodes, Glass fibers,
Filters, Conductive, antistatic coatings
(5)Energy Sources: Fuel cells, Solar cells, Batteries, Ultra capacitors
(6)Cosmetics: Sun protection creams, Tooth paste
2.5.7.1Carbon Nanotubes (CNT)

These are sheets of graphite rolled to make a tube. They are molecular tubes (cylindrical
nanostructure) having diameters of a few nanometers made up of lattices of carbon atoms. CNTs
are at least 100 times stronger than steel, but only one-sixth as dense. In addition, they conduct
heat and electricity far better than copper. So, CNTs can be used in tiny, physically strong
conducting devices. CNTs have been filled with potassium atoms, making them even better
electrical conductors.
There are three kinds of nanotubes: (a) Armchair nanotubes containing a line of hexagons
parallel to the axis of the nanotubes, (b) Zigzag nanotubes where there is a line of carbon bonds
down the centre and (c) Chiral nanotubes which exhibits a twist or spiral around the nanotubes
Carbon nanotubes exist as nanotubes within nanotubes, leading to a categorization as SingleWalled Carbon Nanotubes (SWCNT) and Multi-Walled Carbon Nanotubes (MWCNT). An
SWCNT contains only a single cylinder where as a MWCNT contains multiple concentric
nanotubes cylinders. They have diameter close to 1 nm. The structure SWCNT/MWCNT can be
conceptualized by wrapping a one-atom-thick layer /multi-atom-thick layer of graphite in to
seamless cylinder.
-Synthesis of Carbon Nanotubes techniques; (1) Arc discharge (2) Laser ablation
In Arc Discharge Method, vapour of carbon atoms is created by an arc discharge between two
graphite electrodes with or without catalyst. This vapour of carbon atoms self -assembles to
form the carbon nanotubes. When pure graphite rods are used then the anode evaporates and it is
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deposited on the cathode, which contains CNTs. These CNTs are MWNTs. When a graphite rod
containing metal catalyst (Fe, Co, etc.) is used as the anode with a pure graphite cathode,
SWNTs are generated in the form of soot.
In Laser Ablation Method, a high power laser beam impinges on a graphite sheet, it vaporizes
graphite and the vaporized carbon will then condense on a cooled surface, where carbon
nanotubes will collect. High-quality SWNTs are produced from this method.
In Chemical Vapor Deposition carbon- it can be achieved by breaking the carbon based gaseous
molecules (methane, acetylene and carbon monoxide) into reactive atomic carbon in a high
temperature furnace and sometime assisted by plasma to increase the generation of atomic
carbon. To start the process a substrate is layered with metal catalyst (Ni or Co). The intended
diameter of the carbon nanotubes is related to the size of the metal catalyst deposited or etched
on the substrate. The substrate is heated to700C, and carbon based gases are the slowly
delivered into the substrates chamber. Two gases are used one is called a process gas, which
would be ammonia, N2, H2, while the other is a carbon based gas (methane, acetylene and
carbon monoxide). The carbon nanotubes grow on the catalyst because the carbon based gas
breaks apart at the catalyst surface. It is the one of the most common methods of carbon
nanotubes synthesis.
-Important Properties of Carbon Nanotubes: It includes [1] Strength: They are the strongest
and stiffest materials. [2] Hardness: SWNTs are used for synthesizing super-hard material, by
compressing it at room temperature. [3] Kinetic: Multiple concentric nanotubes precisely nested
within one another, exhibit telescoping property. [4] Electrical: Their electrical conductivity is
better than metals. Electron travelling through a CNT behaves like a wave travelling through
smooth channel - Ballistic Transport. MWNTs with interconnected inner shells show
superconductivity with relatively high temperatures. [5] Thermal: Their thermal conductivity
also is better than metals. All nanotubes are expected to be very good thermal conductors along
the tube but good insulators laterally to the tube axis - Blastic Conduction. The thermal stability
of carbon nanotubes to be up to 2800C in vacuum and about 750C in air.
Application of Carbon Nanotubes: It includes [1] Structural: Its superior mechanical
properties, uses ranging from everyday items like clothes and sports gear to combat jackets and
space elevators. [2] In Electrical Circuits: Nanotube based transistors have been made that
operates at room temperature. Carbon nanotubes are used for miniaturizing electronic devices.
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[3] As Paper Batteries: A paper battery is a battery engineered to use a paper thin sheet of
cellulose infused with aligned carbon nanotubes. It gives a steady power output. This battery also
functions as a super-capacitor which give a quick explode of high energy.[4] Solar Cells: It is
formed by a mixture of carbon nanotubes and fullerenes. Electrons trapped inside fullerenes, add
sunlight lead to the flow of this electrons which produce the current. [5] They are used for
making ultra-capacitors which provide a large surface to store electrical charge.
[6] They act as molecular size test tubes or capsules for drug delivery. [7] They are used as tips
for analysis of DNA and proteins by Atomic Fourse Microscopey (AFM).
2.5.7.2 Nanowire:
Nan wires are microscopic wires that have a width measured in nanometers. A nanowire is a
connecting structure that has a diameter of 10-9 meters, which is extremely small. Typically, the
diameter of nanowires range from 40 to 50 nanometers, but their length is not so limited. Since
they can be lengthened by simply attaching more wires end to end or just by growing them
longer, they can be as long as desired. Nanowires are also known as Quantum Wires, these
connectors are used to connect tiny components together into very small circuits.
The electrical properties of nanowires are peculiar mainly because of their size and its
conductivity is strongly influenced by edge effects. The edge effects arise from atoms that lie at
the nanowire surface which are not fully bonded to neighboring atoms as that in the bulk of the
nanowire. These nonbonded atoms often become source of defects within the nanowire causing it
to conduct electricity.
Four Different types of Nanowires: They are (a) Metal nanowires are made from nickel,
platinum or gold (b) Semi-conducting wires are comprised of silicon, indium phosphide or
gallium nitride, (c) Insulating wires are made of silicon dioxide or titanium dioxide (d) To create
a Molecular nanowire, the process involves repeating organic or inorganic molecular units in a
particular format.
Striped nanowires are capable of performing more than one task along the same wire. They are
striped with different materials that posses different properties, an attribute which allows
different operations to be performed at the same time. This also enables devices to be more
compacted because fewer wires are needed; each nanowire is serving multiple functions.
Production of nanowires: A solution containing the desired metal is mixed with DNA and then
exposed to UV light. When exposed, the metal in the mixture bonds to the DNA and forms a
microscopic wire, a nanowire. Its width is dependent upon how concentrated the solution of the
metal is. The more concentrated the metal solution, the wider the nanowire; likewise, the less
concentrated, the thinner the wire will be.
Nanowires are not being heavily manufactured because they are still in the
development stage and are only produced in the laboratory and have not moved to manufacturing
plants. Until production has been streamlined, made easier and faster, they will not be heavily
manufactured for commercial purposes.
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-Some uses of nanowires include: Nanowires are simply very small wires that will be able to
greatly reduce the size of electronic devices while allowing us to increase the efficiency of those
devices. The most apparent impact this will have on society would be the increase of storage
space for MP3 players, computers, and phones without increasing size.
(1) Data storage/transfer - transfer data up to 1,000 times faster, and store data for as long as
100,000 years without degradation (2) Batteries/generators - tiny, efficient solar panels, turning
light into energy, able to hold 10 times the charge of existing batteries (3) Transistors, LEDs,
Optoelectronic devices, Biochemical sensors and Heat-pumping thermoelectric devices.
Nanowires are also being developed for prototype sensors. These sensors will be used on gases
and biological molecules. They will be used to detect harmful agents by scanning each gas or
chemical on a molecular level. This is possible due to how small these wires can be. They will be
made out of materials that react to harmful agents, thus alerting to the presence of harmful
agents.
The conductivity and tiny size make them ideal for future computer processors and connectors.
The use of nanowire in a transistor is an ideal method of producing smaller and faster
microprocessor components for the computer and electronic industry. Although nanowire
transistors function better than the current transistors, the high costs required to create them is a
barrier to wider manufacturing.
Silicon Nanowires (SiNW): The most promising building blocks for future nanoscale electronic
devices. Atomic configurations of silicon nanowires created through assembly of silicon clusters
or created through etching of crystalline silicon. The small sizes of SiNWs make their electronic
and electrical properties strongly dependent on growth direction, size, morphology and surface
reconstruction. A well-known example is the size dependence of the electronic band gap width
of SiNWs irrespective of wire direction. As the wire diameter decreases, the band gap of the
nanowire widens and deviates from that of bulk silicon gradually
-Applications: Silicon nanowire (SiNW) is a very attractive two-dimensional nanomaterial for
future nanoelectronic applications.
1) Silicon nanowire solar cells which consists of arrays of radial p-n junction nanowires
2) Silicon nanowires can help to reduce the size of microchips
3) Scientists have fabricated a memory device that combines silicon nanowires with a more
traditional type of data-storage. The device is a type of non-volatile memory, meaning stored
information is not lost when the device is without power.
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M.E.

(MPDD) Module-2 Process modeling and product design

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Module-2 Process modeling and product design

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Fig.2.1: Various manufacturing operations on materials

2.1.1 Classification of Forming:-

Fig. 2.2: Classification of metal forming processes

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2.1.2 Brief description of forming operations

Fig.2.3: Rolling Process

Fig.2.4: Forging processes

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Fig.2.4: Direct extrusion process

Fig.2.5: Backward extrusion or Indirect extrusion

Fig.2.6: Wire Drawing

Fig.2.7: Deep drawing

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Fig.2.8: Bending and shearing

2.2 Analysis of forming

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Fig.2.9: Stresses acting on elemental ring subjected to upsetting

Dropping higher order terms, and applying =r

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M.E.(MPDD) Module-2 Process modeling and product design

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Fig. 2.10: Stresses in Plane strain condition

Now substituting 3 and 4 in 5, 6 and 7 we get:

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Then the equation 11 and 12 becomes:

2.2.3 Upper bound analysis

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Comparing Fig. 1a and b, dy/dx = V*12 / Vx so:

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2.3.1 Different Forging Operations

8. Bending: The metal is bent around a die/anvil.

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-Classification of Forging Processes

Fig 2.12 Open die forging

Fig.2.13 closed die forging

M.E.(MPDD) Module-2 Process modeling and product design

Fig.2.14 Plane strain upsetting of rectangular billet

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Fig. 2.15 Stresses acting on a small and the

Consider a rectangular slab as shown in the figure.

The above equation is solved for different conditions as follows:

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