PURE

ENGLISH;

WORDS

AND
IN

OR

PHRASES,

OF

USE

THE

ON

TREATISE

LANGUAGE.

HACKETT

H.

FRED.

PRACTICAL

AND

ERNEST

A.

GIRVIN.

(;u;rivi8ii3iT7l

BAN

A.

tr.

PBANCISCO:

BANCRORX

1884.

OO.

LESSONS

STS'iiL
Entered

according

to

FRED.

Act

of

Congress

H.

in

the

year

1884,

by

HACKETT

AMD

ERNEST

in

the

Office

of

the

Librarian

A.

of

GIRVIN,

Congress

at

Washington,

D.

C.

Simplicityis beauty; simplicityis power.

authors

only impeccable

The

HaUeck.

"

those

are

that

wrote.

never

"

HazUtt.
word

spoken
fitly

is like

apples of gold

in

picturesof silver.

Solomon,

"

of
Altogetherthe style*
his ideas.

words

of his

country.

own

great

be

eloquent in
It is

the

to

or

study any language, it ought

loose

styleis

the

that words

maxim

the clearness

injudicioususe

which

diminish

must

literature abounds

by

meaning

of

misuse

in

words

this

has
ungovernable sensibility
of
validity

tendency

all definitions.

slang, to

to

to guard
especially

Proprietyof thought
found

of

; but

to

nothing

force of the

to

pression.
ex-

with
whole

examples
classes

words

of

of writers.

"

literature

become
E,

"

and
and

ungoverned

general

so

P,

of

as

to

threaten

Whipple,

colloquialinelegancies, and
to

or

we,

struggle. W, D,
"

proprietyof

diction

as

even

Americans,

Whitney,
are

commonly

together. Obscurity of expression generallysprings from

confusion

of ideas.

The

and

curse

"

Macaulay,

perilof language in

this country, is that it is at the mercy

content

add

the

is the besetting sin against which

vulgarities,
have

that

be

to

Mathews,

The

Southey,

"

tongjie$4? 4he labor of a few years

is t"he labbrx)rd life. Anon,

without

almost

William

the

densed
con-

"

historyof

The

they are

more

Campbell,

"

used

one

the

sunbeams,

Blair,

"

invariable

an

sense

representativeof

Locke,
of

few

acquire a

to

"

source
terms.

synonymous
To

be

gentleman

The

with

as

deeper they burn.

the
a

faithful

Goethe,

"

It is with

If

writer is

to

use

it well

according to

of

day,and

our

who, instead

men

their honest

illaccordingto their affected knowledge.

in
particularly

"

of

being

ignorance, use

Richard

Grant

it

White,

GoQgle

INTRODUCTION.

The

abuse

which

to

subjected

be

must

who

appreciate

and

civilization, and

language,

which
a

the

to

beech, although

While
to

not

combine

present
of

use

to

write

to

cardinal
conciseness.

the

laws

and

to

many

current

of

It

is

of

the

among

the

supplied,

dp

not

think

we

think.

what

barbarisms,
A

words,

synonymous

is well

violation

all classes.

is also
we

say,

all, and

the

motive

been

to

and

study

teach

of

rather

given

of

the
than
the

to

related
of

else

to

these

or

which

we

color,

laws

an

do

etc.,

that
now

ignorant
language

our

of

to

accuracy

solecisms,

careless

with

grace,

and

subordinated

prolificsource
or

beech.

English."

the

are

closely

the

Pure

rhetoric, it aims

attributes

more

into

clearness, purity,

neglected,

not

word
meant

for

has

attention

result

same

them

to

style, viz.:

language

strength.

leads

use

of

been

serious

the

are

"

of

essays;

additional

vividness, while

and

so

of

The

or

that

Romans

of

all

to

progress

to

very

the

to

purpose

has

lessons^ not

elements

The

elements

It

Special

entertain.

language

practical plan

language.

our

authors

and

simple

of

age

entitled

grammar,

essential

the

ally
gener-

regret

yet changed

leading

so

remembered

and

oak,

never

dictionary,

an

be

in

an

oak

the

is

to

is

sincere

convulsions.

meant
an

is

ought

changes

Greeks

Instruction

Ours

progressive,

of historical

language

of

source

it

Great

consideration.
sometimes

English

its beauties.

also

is

the

error.

not

"^'^'^'''^'^

s^y

We
what

v^oogle

INTRODUCTION.

VI

"They are,"says Professor S win ton, definingsynonyms,

such as bearinggeneraland genericresemblances,have
and
of their
contour
a color and
differences,
yet specific
Like views were
own."
held also by the brilliant De
writes : "All
Quincey, who
languages tend to clear
"

themselves
the

by

of synonyms

words
superfluous
shades

new

the progress

of

and

as

intellectual culture advances,

being

taken

combinations

up and appropriated
of thought evolved
in

society."

consistent
Synonymy has been treated in a manner
with
its importance, and
it is believed
that "Pure
in our
be of, especial value
to
English" may
prove
The
in use, deal with
text
books, now
public schools.
the character and genius of our
language in a very superficial
and unsatisfactory
the study of English
way, and
is too often neglectedfor that of Latin, Greek, French^

German,

etc.

Professor

Reed, of the

University

of

Pennsylvania,

of instruction :
usual course
But
to our
says, referring
for the more
essential acquirements in the language
"

nothing

is done;

philosophy of
forms

not

word

construction

nothing

of idiom, formation

expression,etc."

"

The

about

is mentioned

maxims

of

the

of
facility
style,accuracy

on

in works

contained

pression,
ex-

of
on

Spencer, "are
composition and rhetoric,"says Herbert
Standing as isolated
presentedin an unorganized form.
as
empirical generalizations,
dogmas
they are neither,
so
clearlyapprehended,nor so much
respected,as they
from
be were
would
some
simple first
they deduced
principle." * " " And we may be sure that a comfrom which the rules
of the generalprinciples,
preliension
home
of compositionresult,will not only bring them
to
"

us

with

of like

greater force,but will discover

origin."

to

us

Digitized
by

other

rules

INTRODUCTION.

Realizing

the truth of these

also the limited

their

disposal;

time
and

which

shall

meet

remembering
principles;

readers

and

appreciatingthe
have

condensation, the authors

that

Vll

these

value

striven

requirements

students
of

to

at

intelligent

make

be

and

have

book

adapted

to

people. The latest and best

in the preparation
authorities have been freelyconsulted
of
Pure
English," but, so far as the plan is concerned,
it is original. Its authors do not suppose
that the book
have violated
is literally
above
criticism
and they may
of the principles
mit
which
but they subit contains
some
it,such as it is,with a willingnessthat it be judged
It may
be added
that a tendency
solelyupon its merits.
is what
bombasticism
to prolixityand
prevents many
from speaking and writing
modern
and authors
orators
in
is offered
with
propriety. A superfluityof words
for a paucityof ideas ; but the stylethat is to
atonement
be free from
all such faults, dense
please to-day must
with ideas,full of color,clear,concise,powerfuland pure

the

needs
practical

of

our

"

"

"

FRED.
ERNEST

San

H.

HACKETT,
A.

GIRVIN.

Francisco, May, 1884.

[U2nVEr.3ITYl

CONTENTS.

PAGES.

Vocabulary

1-76

Eclectic

Grammar

79-1 16

Etymology
Syntax

'.

Common

Errors

Philosophy

87-

93

19-168

Purity.

123-126

Propriety

126-129

Precision

129-130

Clearness

Perspicuity

or

130-145

Strength

145-149

Harmony.

150-151

Unity

The

Words

87

93--1 16

Rhetoric

of

80-

Logic

of

Style

52-1

53

153-163

Versification

and

Poetry

163-166

Punctuation

and

Capitals

166-168

Phrases

and

Objectionable

Faulty

Phrases

Words

of Dual

Changes

in the

171-193

and

Obsolete

Words

171-177

177-183
Meaning

Meaning

Index

183-184
of

Words,

etc.
.

184-193
197-205

iz

VOCABULARY.

TUB

OK

VOCABULARY.

class of so-called

The

synonymous

words,

correct

in

themselves,but

currentlymisapplied in speaking and

best authors, is
cases
even
by our
writing,in many
comprised under the head of Vocabulary." The list is
and the difference in the use
arranged alphabetically,
and
trated
meaning of the words contrasted, carefullyillusand explained.
"

Confound"

Abash"

Confuse.

Abash

than
more
expresses
than
has
confuse. Abash

more

that

is abased

which
which

benumbed

are

lowered

and

and

confound^and
reference

to

confound
the spirit

confound^to the faculties

crippled
; confuseto the feelings
;

deranged and perplexed. Thus, the haughty

is confounded^and the
is abashed; the wicked
man
man
is confused.
modest
man
are

Abbreviate"
Both

of these

to shorten

Words

mean

by condensingor

tontractingor cuttingoff.
\"ooV^ abridged.

Abridgre.
shorten.

abridgeis
compressing; abbreviate,by
to

word

To

is

abbreviated;

o,".ea.vGoog*

VOCABULARY.

Abhor"

Abhor^ which
confounded

Detest.

should
impliesa strong dislike,

with

detest^which

with such

combines

be

not

dislike

equallystrong disapprobation.

an

Ability" Capacity.
Abilityis the

of action,either mental

power

cal.
physi-

or

Capacityimpliesthe power of holding or receiving.

is
"Wealth
Abilityis misused in the followingsentence:
the ability
useless without
of enjoying it." Capacity is
likewise
the

not

in the

misused

capacityrequisitefor
Abominable"

The
and

abominable

of

sense

He

has

presidingofficer."

Detestable"
excites

"

ability;as,

Execrable.
; the

aversion

revulsion ; the execrable^

horror

and

Above"

etc.

Beyond,

hatred
detestable^

indignation.

is often

It is a
used for beyond; as,
incorrectly
task above your strength;
also,for more
than; as, The
distance is above a mile ;
also,instead of foregoing; as,
It will be seen
by the above statement". Says Edward
Above

"

"

"

"

"

S. Gould

"

This

followed

by a noun
preceded by a

or

or

verb

or

it is
participle,

God

Accord
is often
was

accorded

Grant"

to

offenses

offenses against

against man.

Give.

or

be in

for grant

or

give;

the information

to

offenses

agree

to
signifies

misused

applied

but oftener

acquitting
appliessolelyto
Accord"

adverb."

an

Acquit.

occasionallybe
of man,

it is followed

when

; and

pronoun

Absolve"

Absolving may
against the laws

it is

\above\is a prepositionwhen

word

harmony with,
"

as,

The

that he desired.*!^

but

reportei:
,

VOCABULARY.

Emphasis.

Aeeent"

in

word; emphasis the

in

words
of

words; emphasis^the meaning of

include

Accidents
and

upsettingof
tidal waves,

coach

meaning

of minuteness

period is said
of

be

and

causes

of human

than

CasualThe

sense

Precise.

one

the

upon

other, exact

accurate, and precisea greater degree

than

either accurate

to be exact;

exact.

or

time

opinion,accurate;

an

or

nition
the defi-

word, precise.

produced.
into the

To

Dramatize.

is termed

change

the

dramatic, so

as

styleof

for the purpose

whom

story from

to make

it suitable

the stage, is to dramatize.

representation
upon
process

quences,
conse-

agency.

adapt a play is to alter its construction

of suitingthe taste of the publicbefore

narrative

an

Adjacent"
The

their

Exact"

Adapt"
To

sentences.

usuallyan accident; earthquakes,

always casualties.

rise in

more

pronunciation

is

etc.,are

words

with

events

Accurate"
These

certain

upon

Casualty.

independent

are
a

syllables

be the result of carelessness.

may

ties,however,

voice

respects the

Accident"

to

of

stress

Accent

sentence.

certain

of voice laid upon

is the stress

Accent

The

adaptation,the other, a

the
for
one

zation.
dramati-

Adjoining^-Contigruous.

difference in the meaning of these words

thus illustrated

it is

that which*

is

altc^etherby the intervention

which
is adjoiningmust
touch

adjacentmay
of

; that

third
which

be

may

be

separated

object; that
is

contiguous

VOCABULARY.

4
touch

must

entirelyon

adjacentto
houses

house

one
or

side.

Example:

Lands

town;

fields

adjoining;

are

are

contiguous.

are

Adjective" Epithet.
All

rhetorical ;

Epithetis a

Adopt"
A
ox

all

but
are
epithets^
adjectives

ives.
adject-

not

a grammaticalterm.
adjective

Prevail.

Pass"

Carry"

in any parliamentarybody is carried^

resolution is passed ox adopted. Hence
it

made

motion

prevails;a

is wrong

are
epithets

say the resolution

to

carried]or the motion

was

adopted.
Affable"

Affabkynow

commonly

in its strict sense, has

Courteous.
used

as

for cdurteouSy

synonym

limited

It
significance.
impliesa sort of politecondescension,as in the affability
of a general to his soldiers.
of a king to his subjects,
or
It is not accordinglycorrect
usage for us to talk of the
of our
boot-blacks,or persons who are socially
affability
below

more

us.

After"

Behind.

After respects order; behind, position.

and stand behind his chair.
After
man,
or
figurative
only.

either in
sense

Aggravate"
Aggravate,
to

make

worse,

which

literal

etc., should

not

be

be

may

in

used
literal

Provoke.

merely to

means

after

run

; behind

sense

Irritate"

We

add
used

to the
as

weight,

synonym

for

irritate,
provoke,or anger.
Injurymay h^ aggravated
not
by the addition of an insult,but we are irritated,
aggravated,by disappointmentsin business, etc. The
.

use

of aggravate in the

sense

criticised is

given

in Web-

VOCABULARY.

is there

but

ster

condemned

"

being

as

of

questionable

propriety."
AiF~Hanner"
-^Z;'lies in the person;
A

air may

man's

motion

be

at

seen

his

at rest ; but

or

is restricted

manner
a

manner

action.

to

glance,whether
can
only be

he

be

in

detected

his movements.

by

Alacrity" Ppomptness.
It is customarj'' to
cheerful

quicknessof
talk of

these words,

alacritysignifyin
readiness,a sprightliness;
promptness,
misapply

decision

criminal

ascending

it is absurd

Hence

action.

or

the scaffold with

to

alacrity.

All" Whole.
All refers
to

indefinite number

an

with

single body

Romans

believed

that

that those

means

lost

to

leg,or

an

its components.

they

Romans

could

who

conquer

"The

whole

the

world,"

entire ; who

were

etc., which

arm,

quantity; whole

or

the

is not

had

not

that

sense

is

intended.
Alone"
Alone

itself,unaccompanied.

by

means

from

onely, denotes

clearlyillustrate
words:
brother
is left
brother

"John

is

the

sister.

"

Virtue

difference

it may,

doit.

any

other

or

only makes
can

do

the

has

two

neither

meaning

that it

not, have

may

happy,"means

us

it.

"

Virtue

virtue in itself,
and

advantages,

tracted
con-

amples
following ex-

between

"

nothing else except virtue

makes
that
us
happy," signifies
that

by

The

child is alone,

by itself,although
or

unity.

Only,

only child," that is, he

an

sister;"The

nor

Only.

will

alone
companied
unac-

suffice

to

VOCABULARY.

Allude"
Allude
direct

to

means

is

mention

incorrect

"

to say

has

been

hint,to

Refer.

intimate,to suggest, while

implied by refer.
The
picture alluded
recovered/* when

picturewas directlymentioned
at darkly.

It is
to

accordingly

in the

tisement
adverthat the

it is meant

described,not hinted

and

Also"Likewise.
The

distinction
Likewise

ignored.

it unites,and
Everett
unless

thus

is

commonly
plying
im-

manner,

the words

than also.
Edward
specific
Denis Kearney likewise!^
Here"
class together the oratorical
to
tuted
Kearney, also should be substi"

more

it is intended

abilities of Everett

is

between

agreement

or

orator,

an

was

words

in like
denotes, strictly,

connection

some

these

between

and

for likewise.

Alternative"Course.
between
a choice
two,
signifies
is accordinglya palpablecontradiction

Alternative
It

two.

of

speak

to

"

since
than

more

is
one

course

The

alternative

two.

only,2st,Q.^^A

misused

Two

amateur

alternatives.

for succession

and

distinction between
is

person

cases

who

be

only

in terms
were

sented,"
pre-

properlyappliedto

the correct

things which

Amateur"
The

cannot

In all such

courses.

or

several alternatives which

and

word

offer

Alternation

for by
alternately

is

to

use

choice

of

similarly

turns.

Novice.
these words

cultivates and

is very clear.

An

practicesany art"
being attached to

pursuitfrom taste, without

who
A novice^on
the contrary, is one
it professionally.
is new,
inexperienced,and unskilled in his calling a
speak of a professional
tyro, a beginner. Thus we may
science

or

"

VOCABULARY.

actor

musician

or

as

in artistic skill and

be excelled

may

novice^but

Between.

prepositionsare
refers to only two

commonly

"

three

to

collection.

or

It may

the

be

objectionablein
and

you

"

^^

me;

should

for

or

more,

it is

Hence

"

He

general,"

women."

We

misuse
"

as,

And
"

men,

should

for

delivered

an

Come

is also used

and

was

be used
heroic

an

to

Or.

is very

me,"

occasionallyin

It is clear that the Latin

It may

historical address."
To"

see

earth,"etc.

A.

sentences

for

write, '^Between

euphony only.
as:
"Napoleon

of and

usage to say
but it is very

of the

the nations

Among

And"
The

correct

not

between

custom

be used

in such

actor
professional

tween
misapplied. Beor
things,while among
and usuallydenotes
a

persons

An"
An

while

amateur^

an

the amateur.

by

Among"

reference

mass

as

the

experience

These

has

not

and

in such

common
"

Try
the

Greek

and
sense

do
oi

tences
sen-

it,"etc.
or;

language is

of

thus,
ondary
sec-

English." The existence of a

Greek
and Latin language has not yet been recognized,
but there is a Latin language,also a Greek
language.
importance

to the

Anticipate" Expect.
When

used

with

to take
means
precision,anticipate
beforehand; to enjoy,possess, or suffer in expectation;
to foretaste;
to forestall. It is accordingly a violation
of exactness
to
I do not
anticipatea refusal ;"
say,
His
death
is daily anticipated"etc.
The
preferable
in' these instances are expect and expected.
words
"

"

VOCABULARV.

Answer"
We

answer

to
rejoinder

Reply" Rejoinder" Response.

assertion; make

question; replyto an
a call.
reply;respon(P\.o
a

Seem.

Appear"

Things appear as they present themselves to the eye ;

they seem as they are representedto the mind.
Things
bad, so far as we can judge by our
appear good or
rightor wrong, as we may determine by
senses, and seem
reflection.
Address.

Approach"
The

word

sometimes
to

man

approach,which
for

misused

address;

just estimate

Hence

it is correct

is the
to

is erroneouslyused

will

"

as,

true
"

say

in the

difficult

meaning of appreciate.
appreciateit." The word
of

sense

rise;as, "The

receive

idea

an

into the

Think.

it is

we

truths which

to

is to

apprehendit,
comprehend it. Hence,

mind

while

fullyto understand
apprehend many
may

Apprehend is also looselyused

apprehendthat it will rain."
Apt" Likely"
Critics do
which

not

sanction

the

use

land

in value.

increase

or

Comprehend"

Apprehend"

of

is

Rise.

appreciaterapidly;"that is,rise

To

He

to, is

near

approach!*
Appreciate"

draw

to

means

we

do

for

not

hend.
compre-

think;

**

as,

Liable.
of apt^the

meaning
special

is

quick, prompt, ready, suitable,in the

of likely
words
liable,
sense
or
or
denoting a probability
is apt to leave town
contingency; as, "He
to-day;"
"

You

will be apt

to

take cold."

Likelyshould

be substi-

VOCABULARY.

the second.

She

"

of the

use

firstexample, and

for apt in the

tuted

is

arts

word.

practicethe

Mechanic.

fine arts;

mechanics, the mechanical

artisans; but artisans

Following is
as

the

in

I."

In the

the

plansare

of the

oi
"It

as

is not

he would

these words

it is

At"

Following is
I attended

an

as,

is not

of sale.

manner

of the

better to say,
it is to say,
at

"

"

at

may

I attended

Avoqation"
A
His

man's

such

just

expressions

of at for
here

sense

auction

the ball in Union

either in

mean

acted

or

by:
dently
evi-

denotes

than in, and

specific

Hall ; " since

Union

use
mis-

connection, yet

misuse
The

auction."

is less

At

He

as

In.

requiresthe prepositionby,since
the

The

as.

"

far

statement," etc.

true

any
in

assure

By"

example

the sales at

for

as

Promise.

for

"

smart

as

act."

there

promise is often misused

I pro7niseyou that
as,

of the

use

so
satisfactory

uncommon;

Assure"

"

be

may

not

are

concerned," so is misused

supposed

Between

incorrect

"You

so:

ways
al-

are

mechanics.
necessarily

not

are

example
sense

Mechanics

arts.

Like.

sentence,

of like for
like I had

an

artisans^the industrial

So"

As"

adverb

likelyin

or

illustratesthe proper
apt pupil,"

an

Artist"Artisan"
Artists

liable

it is

Hall," than

in this
literally,

nection,
con-

the hall.

near

Vocaticm.

is his vocation.
or
business,calling,
profession

avocations

to
incidentally

are

such

occupy

pursuits or

his time and

diversions
attention.

as
"

The

serve
use

VOCABULARY.

lO

for vocation^'
Webster, is
[avocation]
says
Philosophyis the vocation oi
improper." Thus;
very
be' his
Herbert
Spencer, but fishingand hunting may
"

of this word

"

avocations^

Avow"
An

is

admission
different

under

implied by

is

and

as,

common

occurrence.

It is

awful

Balance"
refers to

Balance

from

to

cold

accounts,

"

The

or

balance

Beside"
Beside is

use

awful in the

to-day."

This

sense

is of

error

etc., and

should

remainder, meaning that which

in relative value

incorrect to say

patriot avows

Remainder.

remains; while balance,in its

compare

Very.

in the extreme

of very;

"

Thus,

words, but

is

and

Awful"

clumsy

of these

applauded ; a gentleman
and is forgiven
fesses
; a prisonerconpunished.

to tyranny
hostility
acknowledgeshis mistake

It is

each

circumstances.

his

his crime

Confess.

Acknowledge"

common

sense,

weight

It is

be

tinguish
dis-

is left

or

to
signifies
accordingly-

of the week."

Besides.

by the side
preposition,
meaning, originally,
of. It is always a preposition,
and only a preposition
;
sits beside you." Usage has extended
the
as, "Nellie
meaning of the word to one side,or out of the regular
a

VOCABULARY.

course;
a

of the

deeper phase

ified to
"

"It is beside my

as,

You

when

it

between
adverb

you

and

when

it

way

is

that the
beside

in

means

as

an

means

adverb

and

been

mod; as,

preposition

all

else,

Besides

"Tell

as,

from

Besides

gulf"

difficult."

is

an

him, besides,
the

Hence

of

use

is incorrect.
See

Between.

Among.

Confer.

Bestow"

things given among

persons in private
things given from persons in authority to

is said of

Bestow
life;

^^

as,

wide

moreover;

long

is also

to;
a

also

of deviation

Besides

there is

to consider
.

state

addition

me

It has

subject."

yourself"

beside

are

present business

of,or in

out

mean

II

conferof

those

below

favor

upon

them

in rank.

another

Hence

one

friend

bestows

their

on
confer privileges

emperors

ministers.
See

Beyond.

Grow.

Become"
These

words
used

dark

sky grows

become

for

\becomein

such

It could

clearer."

Grow

sentence

grow

darker

is incorrectl
"

as,

The

; it could

clearer.
Behind.

See After.

Bias"
Bias

confounded.

commonly

are

Above.

leaning which influences our

ive
opinions;prejudicea pre-judgment irrespect-

indicates

feelingsor

of the merits
either for

Prejudice.

mental

of the

Thus,

case.

we

may

be

biased,

prejudicedagainst. Bias
good or bad, which
something real,whether
supposes
affects our
opinions, but prejudicesupposes
something
the judgment.
unreal or false,which misleads
Bias may
be taken in a neutral or a good sense
always
; prejudice,
or

against,but

we

zxe

VOCABULARY.

12

in

bad

It is

sense.

Blaneh"
Blanch
whiten
with

is to make

to

cover

to

say:

"i

his favor."

prejudicedin

was

accordinglyincorrect

Whiten.

white

color with

or

the

by withdrawing

face whitened

"His

white.

color;

fear,"is accordinglyincorrect.

Booty" Prey.

The

idea of

of prey

use

bird

is

is restricted

for

intended

plunder

that

to

that

the

these words, but the

which

Hence

consumption.

o{ prey^ and

to

common

we

robbers

is consumed,
the

say

escaped

or

eagleis a
with

their

booty.
Bound"
Bound
in the
do

is

of

sense

it."

nautical

We

Determined.
term, and

ready, or determined;

used
correctly
"

as,

"The

properlysay:

may

be

cannot

bound

am

ship is bound

to

for

Liverpool."
Bountiful"

Bountiful appliesto
reference
synonym

quantity; hence
iov plentiful
; as,

form
words
brace

persons
a

it is
^'

Pair"

most

judgment.

to

erroneous

use

has
it

no
as

joined or
in
:

"A

linked

together

the

of these
meaning
married
"A
couple;''

gloves." Couple,of these

lars."
frequentlymisused ; as, "A coupleof dolBravery"

Bravery

things,and

Couple.

difference

be thus illustrated
may
of ducks ;" " A pair of

to

bountifulhxeQkidiSt''

things when

or

couple. The

words, is

not

persons,

to

Brace"
Two

Plentiful.

Courage.

is inborn; courage

is the

result

of

reason,

VOCABULARY.

Bring"

13
Fetch.

Bring expresses a motion toward, not away from the

speakeror writer,-whWe fetch expresses a double motion,
first from and then toward
him.
Example: A servant
bringsthe parcel home which he has been sent to fetch.
Bury"

Inter.

Burial, concealing in the ground, comprehends simply

of the

the purpose
manner

as

well

action ; interment

of the act.

the motive

as

the
sepulture,

and

Interment

and

ceremonies, and
accompanied by religious
refer to the bodies of human
beings only ; burial is not
confined to humanity, but appliesalso to the lower animals,
and to any object deposited in the earth for the
of concealment.
Thus, dogs are buried; men
purpose
Burial
interred.
cealed
are
requires that the object be conunder ground ; interment may
be used for depositing
of
in vaults.
used in the sense
Bury is familiarly
inter,but inter cannot
properlybe used for bury.

sepultureare

That"

But"
But
doubt
it

were

is often

he

but

for that

misused
will

"

come

"I

if; as,

or

should

not

do

not

but

wonder

so."
With.

of these words

Both

and

We

"I

By"

means

If.

closer,by a

kill

the

man

with

imply
agent by
more
a

remote

sword

By.

connection
whom

between

it is used ; but

relation.

; he dies

See At.

by

To

an

strumen
inwith

illustrate:

violence.

VOCABULARY.

14

Can"
These
I go

littlewords
to

out

mother?

the former

very

"

is askfed in

Permission

before

See

to

the

the

ent
differ-

very

park to-day,

latter,but

not

in

countries, it is

Lent; but, in

synonymously

"

Authors'

farewell

festival

other

any

with

Carnival

Adopt.

Festival.

a
literally

means

used
The

has

Can

"

sentence.

Carnival"

Catholic

"

park to-day,mother?
from
May I go out

Carry.

Carnival

generallymisplaced.

the

meaning
"

are

May

to

celebrated
it should

sense,

fun, frolic,or

was

and

meat,
a

in

week
not

be

festival] as,

pleasingspectacle."

Caligraphy" Chirography.
difference

in the

of

caligfaphyand chirfair penmanship, and

ography is that the former signifies
of its qualone's own
the latter,
ity.
handwriting,irrespective
of caligraphyfor
consists in the use
The
error
The

meaning

chirography.
Capacious"

Large.

having the capacity to hold or retain.

confounded
with large\ as, for exis often ludicrously
ample,
talks of a capaciousrent in his coat.
when
a man

Capaciousmeans
It

Capacity.

See

Ability.

Caption" Heading.

Caption should not

captionof a
as, "The

be

used

in the

press article."

sense

of

CaptionM

heading;
that part

VOCABULARY.

of

legalinstrument
authorityit was

what

15

which

shows

taken, found,

Casualty.

See

Character"
Careless
such

two

to

is

use

simple

define them;

executed.

or

Accident.

of character

common

that it would

words

by

Reputation.

different
essentially
and
a good reputation

man

vice

reputation,

and

seem

be remarked

yet it may

is
have

where, when, and

unnecessary

that their

of bad

ing
mean-

character va^cy

versa.

Chastity" Continence.
Both

of these

prescribesrules

words

denote

Chastity
^

indulgenceof the passions;

prohibitssuch indulgence.
altogether

tinence

for the

Circumstance"
Crabb
these

.moral virtues.

thus

Incident"

defines the
and

common

Fact.

difference in the
abused

much

con-

words:

meaning

of

'^Incident

is

happens ; fact is what is done ; circumstance is not

longs
only what happens and is done, but whatever is,or beto
a
comprehends in its
thing. Circumstance
whatever
be said or thought, of anysignification
thing
may
what

; incidefit carries with

befall,or be said

nothing

but

to

it the idea

befall,anything ; fact includes

one

to be civil in

Example
when

*'

The

he learned

manner

landlord
my

name,

it

in the

use

of these words.

possiblefor
and conduct, and yet not polite.
but
me
a civil reception,
gave
he became
/^///^."

than

more

in

Polite.

Little distinction is observed

expresses

may

is done."

Ayhatreallyis,or
Civil"

Polite

of whatever

and
civil,

it is

l6

VOCABULARY.

Generous.

Clever"

of generClever^is often erroneouslyused in the sense

ous.
is smart, skillful,
adroit.
Its true meaning

Clumsy
A

before

of action.

grace

awkwardy

to

adroit.

something

appearance

man
shape ; an aivkward
Clumsy is opposed to elegant;

lacks grace

clumsy man

lacks

of

Awkward.

"

We

of

do

is done

not

; clumsiness

thing,or

verb

finish has

is

in the very-

seen

person.
Finish.

Complete"
The

awkwardness

discover

restricted

more

meaning

than

and
a house
complete, A builder,for example, may ^/f/z/i-A
anything is completed,it
yet fail to completeit. When
all has been done to
lacks nothing; when
it is finished,
it that

was

intended.

Comprehend.

Condign
is

means

See Apprehend.

Condign"

Severe.

that which

is merited

accordinglyabsurd

"The

villain did

which

he received."

use

it in the

deserve

the

to

not

This

is

Condon

Condone,which
in the

sense

means

Conduct"
Behavior

refers to

our

of severe;

as,

he did

deserve

not

in
the

Atone.

should
forgive,

to

of compensate,

It

condign punishment

Compensate"

e"

sense

deserved.

palpable contradiction

equivalentto saying,that
deserved
punishment.
terms,

or

not

be

used

atone.

or

Behavior.
manner

of acting

on

particular

occasions;conduct,to the general tenor of our actions.

Hence, the gallantbehavior of the soldier in battle; the

VOCABULARY.

uniformly wise
humor

Our

by

influences

behavior; conduct

our

See

Confound.

See

Abash.

See Abash.

Confuse.

Scrupulous.

Conscientious"
does

man

Bestow.

See Avow.

Confess.

conscientious

is influenced

temper.
Confer.

of all good citizens*

and temperate conduct

morals* and

our

If

nothing to

offend

his

science;
con-

often has his scrupleson

scrupulousman
be scrupulous^
minor
points. Hence, a man
yet not
may
should
endeavor
to be
necessarilyconscientious. We
conscientious without being ow^t-scrupulous.
a

Consequence"
The
a

etymologicalmeaning
of

of consequence

careful writers do not

result,and

sense

Importance.
sequence,
in the
its use

sanction

Professor

importance. Says

is

Gould:

"The

so
used, and it is so
phrase,however, is now
universally
and
generallyaccredited by both lexicographers
good
be justified
in assertingdogmatcan
writers,that no man
ically
that it is a corruptionof language."

Consider"
"This

word," says

Think"

Richard

consider^ is pervertedfrom
"

those

who
to

or

use

it."

and
reflect,

suppose^ in such

very

Consider
cannot

sentences

Suppose.
Grant

its true

to
White, referring

meaning by
to

means

"

of

erate,
meditate, to delib-

properly be
as,

most

used

I consider

for

thinky

his conduct

ungentlemanly."
Constantly" Continually.

is commonly
or steadfastly,
Constantly meaning firmly,
for continually;
The trade of the house is
misused
as,
y

"

l8

VOCABULARY.

constantlyincreasing."That which is continual mxf not

always continue in the same
state, and is appliedto that
which is expected to cease
is constant, however,
; that which
in the

remains

state, and

same

which

ought to last. Thus, we

constantly
try to live in peace.
Contemptible"

Contemptibleis
"

as,

I entertain

that

applied to

continual

noises,and

Contemptuous.

sometimes
a

hear

is

misused

for contemptuous;

contemptibleopinion

of

The

you."

his
casts
a reflection
speaker here unintentionally
upon
own
opinion,instead of upon the character of the person
addressed.

Contiguous.

See

Convene"
Convoke

has

literature of the
the word
vency

is

to

Convoke.

been

the current
from
nearly banished
day by the adoption,as a substitute,of
Convoke

convene.

assemble, or

in the

The

together;
correct

followingsentence:
it had

after

soon

to call

means

together.

come

illustrated
strikingly
convened

Adjacent.

been

con-

usage
gress
"Con-

convoked

by

the President."
Convenient"

Near.

with
if synonymous
For
hotel is cojivenient to your
near.
example: "The
the house, it may
While
the hotel may
be near
house."
of convenient.
be the reverse
Convenient

should

not

be used

as

Corporeal.

Corporal"

Corporalis employed only for the animal frame, or the

body in its proper sense.
Corporealfor corporal'*
says
Professor
is a gross
Mathews,
vulgarismz-the use of
"

"

VOCABULARY.

which,

at

this day, should

I9

almost

educated

subjectan

the kind of

punishment which the latter adjective

or
designates. Corporealmeans
having a body corporal^
belonging to a body."
to

man

Couple.

Courage.

Vice"

confusion

in which

in
prevails

use

of these three little

of the

of the

injuryof

the

Sin.

secular law

violation of

live;sin^the

we

violation

or
injury,

Affable.

the

is the violation

law; vice^the

laws

of

of the

religious
morality to our
a

It will thus be

others.

seen

be criminalyyet not sinful; vicious,yet

may
criminal',and sinful,
yet neither vicious nor criminal.
a

man

Curious"
Curious
and

Strange"

should
"

as,

be used

not

It

was

Between

the

meaning

in

very

Custom"
of

Remarkable.

nice, or
inquisitive,

prying,or
signifies

remarkable;

the

sense

curious

cate,
intri-

of strange, or

phenomenon."

Habit.
these

words,

so

often

used

there is an appreciaprecision,
ble
difference. Custom
is a frequent repetition;habit,
result of such a repetition. By the custom
of early

in defiance

the

Alternative.

Crime"

country

not

Brayert.

See

Crime

that

See

Courteous.

words.

own

Bracb.

See

Course.

Much

See

of the laws

of

risingwe form habits of diligence. Custom appliesto

to them
men
as
or
individually,
collectively
; habit applies
individuals
has his peculiarhabits;
only. Every man
every

nation

has its customs.

VOCABULARY,

Decimate"

Decimate^ meaning

Reduce.

to take

for reduce; as,

properlyused
tUcimated
by

the

part,is often

the tenth
The

"

regiment

was

im*

terribly

enemy^s artillery."
Defalcate"

Default.

to detract from, cannot

Defalcate^signifying
properly
be used for default,
hearingof the
yet we are continually
real offense has
defalcationof bank clerks, etc., whose

been

not
defalcation.
defaulting,

Demean

has, of

debase,or humble.

often misused
for
late years, been
Demean
to behave, to carry,
signifies

Hence

to conduct.

himself

Humble.

Debase"

Demean"

itis incorrect to say:

his mother."

before

Deprecate"

"

He

demeaned

Condemn.

Disapprove"

Deprecateis properly used as meaning to beg off,to

It is
from.
entreat, to pray exemption, or deliverance
with
often,however, erroneouslyused as if synonymous
the action which
2XiA condemn; as,
I ^4^r^"r^/^
disapprove
"

you

have

taken."

Description" Sort"
It is not

in

with

always of
of

good

sort

and

the most

taste

to

use

kind;

as,

amiable

is a sketch,an
description

enumeration,

Kind.

as
description
"

His

manners

description^^The
account,

a class.
recital,

if synonymous
were

not

meaning

an
representation,

VOCABULARY.

21

Deteriorate"
These

words

from
the

or

Deteriorate

is misused

I do not wish

"

followingsentence

Deteriorate

detract^ to take

worse;

grow

one's credit

the merits

confused

sometimes

are

make

to

means

Detract.

away

for detract in

to deteriorate

from

of that great man."

Determined.
Detest

See Bound.
See Abhor.

"

Difference"

Distinction.

lies in the thing; distitiction is the act of the

Difference
is to distinction as the cause
is to the
Difference
person.
effect ; the distinction rests upon the difference.
Those
are
who
make
distinction without
a
a
equallybad logicians,
who
make
there is a
distinction where
or
no
difference,
difference.
.

The

meaning

foulness

or

used

anythingwhich

of dirt is filth,
or
It is

uncleanness.
for earth

of dirt into the

Soil.

Earth"

Dirt"

soil;

or

to

common
*'

as,

hear

threw

He

causes

it incorrectly
shovelful

grave."
Discriminate.

Distinguish"

Distinguishis the general,discriminate,the particular

well as
of the senses
We
term.
as
distinguishby means
the understanding ; we discriminate by the understanding
Hence

only.
but

of

the
proper
used
the

we

speak of

discrimination

bay

word
in the

from

gray

in this sentence.

expression:
meaning of the two

distinction

nice.

as

the

"

"It

horse."

was

as

true

easy

to

or

false,

inate
discrim-

Distinguish is

the

Distinguishis inaccurately
between
could not distinguish

words."

VOCABULARY.

22

Divide"
Divide

That

is conceived

or

be

might

make

to
signifies

into parts.

joined. Thus,

roof,into

between

it and

or

dock into the water,

fall from

so

dock is

use

divided

be

separated.

an

open

out
place,with-

pier will

be apparent; and
one

any

fall from

can

do
occasionally

persons

Bestow.

Give"

of the word

donate

for

give or
by careful

avoided

improprietyof using donate in this sense

the followingexample :
Please donate

bestow

says

this remark

Professor
So

Gould,

long as

its

"

may

is

writers.

demned
con-

The

is illustrated

"

Donate^'

we

wharves.

and
by critics,

"

into

received,the distinction

are

although

Donate"
The

been,

Pier.

shall find it difficult to realize how

a

has

separated which

is

may
likelyto be

vessels

wharf

which

army

Wharf"
that

which
a

an

are

remember

we

; that

be, a whole

to

make

separate^ to

be divided

to

Dock"

into two

is said

divisions ; the divisions

When

Separate.

me

an

by

apple.'*

be dismissed

with

place is occupied by give^

bestow^grant, present, etc.,it is not

needed

be

; and

unceremoniously bowed out, or thrust out,

into which it has temporarilyintruded.'

it should

of the seat

"

Do
Do
does

n't"

Does

n't.

is often misused
a colloquialism,
7i't,

not; as,

"He

it is remembered

absurdityof

such

don't

wish

that do n't is
usage

to

walk

contraction

will be evident.

Dramatize.

See Adapt.

for does n't^or

home."

When

of do not, the

VOCABULARY.

Drive"
The

word

either

I took

"

expression:

horseback

on

lines to drive.
with

in

or

The

Drunk
while

intoxicate

ride
may
hold the
more

mon
com-

Intoxicated.
used

without

word

and

is derived

from

the

in the

Americans.

Saxon

is

ride,as

of drive for ride is

commonly

are

for

park." One
carriage; but must

misuse

English than

words

misused

drive in the

Drunk"
These

Ride.

is often

drive

23

due

means

Greek

nation.
discrimi-

inebriated,
toxikon,a

were
dipped, and conveys the
poison into which arrows
idea of poisoningin addition to that of inebriety. Thus
be intoxicatedy
a man
can
only when he has lost his wits,
of the drugged or
not by the quantity but by the quality
poisonousliquorwhich he has drunk.

Due"
These
Due

words

is often

to be

should

as

be

used

indiscriminately.
for owing. That is owing which is
source
ought to
; that is due which

misused

referred to

Owing.

not

correct
Followingis an example of the inof due for owing:
due to your
"It was
use
carelessness
that the accident
happened." Owing is
sometimes
confounded
with due; as,
It is owing to my

be

paid, as

debt.

"

friends that I should

be candid."
Dumb"

dumb

while

one

and

lacks the power of speech;

who
person is one
be mute, either from inclination or necessity,
may

yet have

the

if
ability,

Duty"
Duty
concerns

Mute.

arises from
the

the

not

the

will,to speak.

Obligation.
natural

relations of

is
concience; obligation

and
society,
speciesof duty.

VOCABULARY.

24
and
bind

ourselves

is

obligation.

an

Accordingly,what we
of our
natural duttes,
do, irrespective

circumstances.

from

arises

to

E
Earth

Either"
refers to

Either

one

Either

side of the

Neither"
the

or

applicationto

river

the

was

that if the tree

meant

it was

Dirt.

Each.

other,and

as

ited
rule,is lim-

nition
defiobjects. The same
is true of neither;namely,not either;
negatively
the other,the word thus referring
to only two.
or
either
is often improperlyused for each; as, "On

in its

not

one

See

"

two

not

were

that ; but that it was

on

sanctioned

the

use

of life."

tree

on

on

this side of the river

each side.

of either where

it is not

Here

there

has

Custom

than

more

are

either.
objects,in such exceptional phrases as,
Monday, Tuesday, or Wednesday." Ordinarily,\Vhen
than
two
more
things are referred to, any and none
should
be used instead of either and
neither;as, any
of the twelve jurors;" fione of the six teachers,"etc.
^^

two

^^

*^

Older.

Elder"
Elder

appliesto

and
am

than

rational

inanimate.

Thus, it is

the older of the two;

San

Francisco."

mate
beings; older^to objectsani-

"

or

'*

New

to

erroneous

Ygrk

is

an

say:

elder

"I

city

VOCABULARY.

Eleet"
elect is

To
be

always the

either the

chooses his

of

act

Choose*
of

act

one

or

the

Secretary;

25

is derived

by

general currency
there

the

the

means

irrelevant.
elicit\

as,

thinker

can

of

extrusion
It

Latin

expel.
of

that

hesitate

once

in the

from

inated

correctly
author might

employ

do not

whatever

for

Use.

we

use;

always use

make

we

time ;

"

less than

expresses
use^ but

we

use

purpose.

subservient
whatever

we

V^hdX/wQ

Empty"

empty

thing is empty
barrel.

or
previouslyfilled,

vacant

mind,

when

Vacant

or, a

vacant

always employ
we
employ. We
to

our

ience
conven-

devote to
entirely
belong to another;

Thus,

own.

we

use

Vacant.
there

adds

that

we

when

employ may
what we
is supposed to be our
use
implements,but employ persons.

our

elim*

See Accent.

Employ
when

thus

his book."

Emphasis.

Employ

for

is

"The
followingsentence:
poor
complain that the most important moral was
used

works,

eliminated^ no

Eliminate

accept"

to

first obtained

improperly employed

which, when

"Results

Eliminate

appear
causing a function to disother writings the word
which
is superfluous,or

In

is sometimes

eliminare^to put

in mathematical

its use

the process
signifying
from
an
equation.

Speaker.

Elicit.

the threshold,to

forth from

may

Governor

elects its

Assembly

from

choose

to

Thus,

many.

Eliminate"
Eliminate

number;

the

is

nothing in it; as, an

idea of its having been

it is about
chair.

to

be

filled: as,

26

VOCABULARY.

Suffleient.

Enough"
A

difference exists

well-defined

of these words.

illustrate:

not

have

is desired.
man

word

never

Charm

he

degree,and
the

is not

never

term^

yet

See Whole.
See

does

not

Adjective.

Never.

Ever

wisely."

relate

is

for ever;
adverb

an

time, in such

to

Great"

sentences

of
as

was

Between

these

Evidence

some

The

of great and

perfect;as"

the nomination

;"

"

He

words
relates

Testimony.
there

is

the

to

well-defined

convictive

testimonyto the knowledge of

fact
Testimony^is a broader
a

case

in court

may

view

ence.
differof

the

person concerning
than evidence.
term

evidence in

but
separately,

I have every confidence."

Evidence"

mind

all taken

simply,each or
employed in the sense
at every pains to secure

in whom

man

Perfect.

means

it is often

Js

foregoing.

Every
He

broader

misused
infrequently

so

Every"

"

is needed

enough.

Ever"

"

meaning

haye sufficient
food, and

may

Epithet.

as,

as

is the

Enough

Entire.

The

the

much

Sufficient
impliesso

enough^ all that

To

between

be the

reverse

of the

testimony.
Exact.

See

Example"
has

Example
example
done.

is

An

an

Accurate.

Instance.
An
passivesense.
instance is something

a
active, instance^

thing or

person

example incites

us

an

to

act

an

instance excites

VOCABULARY.

to reflect

US

actions

Men

2/

examples oi

are

instances of virtue

are

wivtu^

vice; their

or

vice.

or

Except" Unless.

equivalentto if less,if not, or if one fail,and

is employed only for the particular
case.
Except always
refers to some
generalrule, to which an exception is
signified.Exceptis often misused for unless; thus, You
accountant."
need
not apply except you
are
a competent
Unless

is

"

Excessively" Exceedingly.
Excessivelyis
"

as,

It

sometimes

awkwardly
is excessively
warm."
Execute

The

of

misuse

these

"

for exceedingly;

used

Hang.
is very

words

that

The

common.

"the

criminal

news-journalsalways

announce

executed^

hangedybut the death

passed upon him by the court

in

He,

had

which

truth,was

been

was
tence
senwas

executed.

Exigency"
what
Exigencysignifies
what
common

his

of the

rises out

Emergency.
the

demands

case

Thus

; emergency

y.

exigency is more
but less pressing. Example : A prudent traveler
carries sufficient money
of
to supply the exigencies

journey; but, if
to

borrow.
"

emergency;

as,

an

case.

emergency

Exigency

He

was

Expect"

an

arises,he

is sometimes

unprepared to
Think"

meet

may

be

misused
the

pelled
com-

for

exigency'^

Suppose.

is very loosely employed in

Expectyimplying futurity,
of think^or suppose ; as,
the sense
I expect you enjoyed
I expect company
:
say, correctly
may
your visit." We
be properlyapplied
to-morrow
never
can
; but the word
"

"

"

to the

present

or

to the

past

58

VOCABULARY.

Give.

Extend"

Concerning
says:

these

"As

extend

put out, offered,or

man

that he

extended

illustrates the

[from

it."

"

White

Grant

better

to

forth his

stretched

I will extend

him

nently
perti-

tendd\ means

and

ex

forth,it is much

stretch

merely to

Richard

words

an

that

say

hand, than
invitation,"

if not literally
erroneous
objectionable,

use

of the word.
Palliate.

Extenuate"
These

words

nearly,yet not exactly synonymous.

Extenuate
to lessen guiltwithout
means
regard to the
mode, and is rather the effect of circumstances ; palliate^
of art
The
circumstances
IS to lessen
by means
liated
palthe guiltof the criminal."
Here the proper word
are

"

would

be extenuated

Face"
Face

Front.

is

as
applied to that part of bodies which serves
index, or rule ; front,to that part which is most proman
inent,
foremost
Hence
or
we
speak of the face of
nature, ^^face of a picture but, of ^'^ front of a house,
and )iki'^
front of a sta^e.
"

Fact.
Famous"
Famous
sensation

is

See Circumstance.

Renowned.

Celebrated"

to
applicable

that

which

; celebrated to that which

is

causes

praisedand

noise

or

honored

VOCABULARY.

with
or

often

it to be

extends

repeated. Hence,

for his eccentricities ; celebrated

famous

orator; renowned

an

to whatsever

solemnity;renowned

causes

29

as

Faney"
writers appear

Many
between

warrior,or

that eminent

one
an

be

may

author,or

statesman.

Imagination.
to

be

of the

unaware

difference

is thus defined

which
imaginationy
Trench
Dean
philologist

fancy

as

the name,

and

"

by
Imaginationis
It creates
by

higherexercise of the two faculties.

with the reason;
it has
laws
more
closelyconnected
it
its actuating and formative
as
strong emotion
cause;
results of a definite and
aims
at
weighty character.
on
a lighter
wing; it is governedby laws of
Fancy moves
the

which

association

are

more

remote,

and

sometimes

trary,
arbi-

ings
capricious.It has for its actuating spiritfeelof a lively,
gay, and versatile character;it seeks to
of thought,startling
pleaseby unexpected combinations
contrasts, 'flashes of brilliant imagery, etc."
or

Farther"

Further.

There

is

hardly any

words, which

are

used

difference in the meaning of these

as

verbs
adjectives,

and

adverbs;

sidered,
always similarly
applied. Further conis correct
but farther^*says
as
an
adjective,
;
where
distance is signicommon
Webster, is the more
fied."
of fartheras a verb is rare, and in nearly
The use
all cases
the preference,
authorities,
accordingto modem
should be given to further.

stillthey

are

not

"

"

Female"
As

noun

was

if not
inelegantly,
in placeof woman;
as, "Joan of Arc
female is also
female.^*The ^Aytctlve

female

used
incorrectly

remarkable

Woman.

is often

very

VOCABULARY.

30
used

with

equallybad

the sex,

denote

taste.

should

and

lower

animals

well

as

not

limited

since it is not

as

to

to

oi

misuse

usually relates

to

properlyto

ately,
applied indiscriminhumanity, but refers to
be

See Carnival.
See Bring.

"

Fewer"
The

is used

women.

Festival.
Feteh

Female

Less.

fewer and less is very common.

quantity; fewer to number.

Less
It is

cordingly
ac-

English to say: "In San Francisco there

Less than a ton of
less than
200
are
public schools."
also the following,
are
as
coal," is a correct expression,
\^ less
illustrate the exceptionsto the rule: "He
which
The earth is less than 30,000 miles
than six feet high ;
In the last two examples it is evident
in circumference."
that fewer could not properlybe substituted for less.
bad

**

"

"

Final"
Final

Conclusive.

coming to a
having an end; conclusive^
conclusion.
Final designatessimply the circumstance
of
the mode
of finishing,
ing
comor
being the last;conclusive^
The
to the last
final is arbitrary; the conclusive is
Thus we
relative.
a conclusive
answer;
say, a _/f^/^/
ment
argumeans

Fire"
Fire

is to

heat

as

the

cause

Heat.
is to

the

effect

Fire

is

well as to the touch; heat is

to the sight,
as
perceptible
Hence
guish
distinwe
only by the touch.
perceptible
may
of the flame it emits; heatyonly by
^r^ by means
the sensations which
It is not
it produces in ourselves.
terrible ^r^ is raging within me."
correct
to say: "A

VOCABULARY.

First"

Although
to

the

adverb

certain

cases,

use

in

sanctioned

ivith the remark:

by

3I

FirsUy.
it is
critics,

some

not

desirable

however
euphonious it may be
firstly,
for first Firstly is given in Webster
Improperly used iot firsts
"

Fly"

Flee.

changeable
Although closelyconnected, these verbs are not interwith wings, fast or slow ;
to move
Fly means
with
voluntary rapidity. Til fly to the
Jlee^to move
sense
rescue," is an expression allowable in a figurative
I shall fly from
mies."
eneonly. It is incorrect to say:
my
and women,
Angels and eagles may^, but men
not
being provided with wings, can only^^.
"

"

Liberty.

Fpeedom"
It is

to

common

use

these

words

unadvisedly,yet each

Freedom
is personal and
peculiarsignificance.
private;libertyis public. The freedom of the city is
the privilegegranted by the authorities to individuals;
which
the liberties of the city are the immunities
it enjoys.
States are bom
All natives of the United
free,but
they may, at times, be temporarilyrestrained of their
also to qualify
the action ; liberty
serves
liberty. Freedom
is appliedonly to the agent
Hence, we
speak,or
may
think -with,
freedom ; but we have the libertyof speaking,
thinking,or acting.
has

its

Friend-^Acquaintance.
Between

these

observed.

degree

of

many

there

is

distinct difference

not

and dearer
impliesa far nearer
than acquaintance; thus, we
relationship
may
friencls.
acquaintancesbut comparativeljMew

always
have

words
Friend

"

32

VOCABULARV.

Future"

Subsequent

The

meaning oi future is,about to be, coming; itis often

that which
follows c*
strangelyemployed for subsequent^
I began to read the book
it
comes
after; as, "When
deeply interested me, but after the first chapter the
future chapterswere
very dull."

G
General"
General

is to universal

as

part

the whole.

to

the greater part, or

\^ generalmAvA^^
universal

Universal*

includes

every

number;

individual,or

every

What
what

part.

is
A

generalrule admits of exceptions; a universal mX^ admits

of none.
Examples: "It is generallyhclieved that the
of the sexes
mental
are
equal." It is a unicapacities
versal principle
that children should honor their parents."
"

See Clever.

Generous.

Polite.

Genteel"
There

be

may

gentilitywithout

and
politeness^

vice

genteeleducation is suited to the station of a

tility
gentleman; di politeeducation, to polishedsociety. Genthe refinement
of the
respects rank ; politeness^
versa.

mind

and

behavior.

outward

Gentleness"
Gentleness
result of

is

an

Tameness.

attribute

discipline.These

of

words

nature;
are

tameness,

misappliedin

the
the

VOCABULARY.

"The
followingsentences:
became
gentled
perfectly
dangerous."

genuine

book

it bears;

name

with
truthfully

is
an

its

one

after

lion
The

"

Genuine"
K

33

dog

brief
too

was

training
to be

tame

Authentic.
written

by

book

authentic

the

is

one

author

whose

which

deals

subject.

Get"

Take"

Become.

Get

to strive after; to desire.

Where, then, is
signifies
the justification
for such
expressions as, "I shall get
are
cold;" "You
getting crazy;" unless the idea be
that the cold and the insanityare
reallydesired 1 We
You are becomingcx^zy''
should say, I shall take cold ;
"

"

Give.

See Accord.

Glance.

Glimpse"

glimpseis the action of

action of
^. glance,the
catch a glimpse; we
we

A
eye;
Thus

Grant.

is

without

customary

the

eye
a

seeking the object.

glance.

See Accord,

misuse

gratuitous,which
or

unwarranted;

had
tax-levymeasure
whollygratuitous''

that the

Mayor, was

Great.
Grow.

the

object appearing to

cast

payment, for untrue,

intimation
the

to

the

Unwarranted.

Gratuitous"
It

"

See

Every.

See Become.

been

means
"

as,

vetoed

The

by

VOCABULARY.

34

See Custom.

Habit.

Hanged"
The

Hung.

of these words

misuse

is very

is

Hung

common.

the correct
word, but when we refer to suspenordinarily
sion
by the neck, as in the case of criminals,hanged
should

be used.

See

EXECUTE.

Hardly"
It should

Scarcely.

be remembered

meaning.
quantity. Thus
to-day,as there

refers

Hardly
we

is

say:

have

that these words

degree; scarcely to
hardly learn my lesson

to

"I

can

scarcelytime."
Haste"

Hurry.

words, though widely different in meaning,

These

tinct
dis-

are

the idea of haste^

Hurry conveys
and confusion ; while haste
accompanied by precipitation
impliesonly rapidityof action,an eager desire to make

often

confounded.

progress

Thus,

exist with
may
should
hasten^ but

; and

we

deliberation
not

hurry^in

and

dignity.
acquiringan

education.

Heading.
Healthy"
Healthy

means

in

state

See Caption.

Wholesome.
of

health,and

is

frequently

that which is conducive

misappliedfor wholesome^ signifying
tQ health.
Example : Lobsters are usuallyhealthy^
but

not

wholesome.

Hollow"
Hollow

Empty.

respects the thing itself;the absence

materials produces hollowness.

The

absence

of its own
of

foreign

VOCABULARY.

substances

Thus,

empty.

hollow; but

be

must

empty

constitutes

anything

in

is liollow

nut

Resideyice
of

have

may
means

that

so

not

contain

is
be
its

kernel.

no

temporary, home

need

it may

but
residences,

many

home.

only one

place

permanent

abode.

Hope"

Hope
the

Expectation.
is welcome;

which

is that

welcome

The

unwelcome.

or

How,
with

"

tliat;as,

with

the

meaning

live

hope to

young

either

long;

I have

of

soft notes

That.

heard
a

people

who

one

lover
The

denies

of

are

the

mankind.

condition

ameliorated

by

of

aware

Humor

state.
;

to

modern

the

to

working

of

use

proper

these

the contrary,

divinityof Christ ;
It is accordingly

of the

and

the

Webster

signifies
a
philanthropist,
inexact

classes has been

to

say:

greatly

humanitarians"
See

Demsan.

Mood.

moodhoth

feeling,they differ in
jnore

asleep

Philanthropist.

Humor"
humor

laid

others

and

"

Humble.

While

been

critics have

some

flattery."Dr. Johnson,

Humanitarian,

words.

how

supper,

Humanitarian"
Few

confused

in which, is often

manner

claret and

pacifiedwith

of

expectationis

old expect to die sooh.

How"

"

is hollow

What

Residence.

Home"
man

emptiness.

what

kernel ; it is empty if it has

35

indicate

the cause;

physical,and

is determined

mood, entirelyby

temporary

humor
mood

h^mg

by influences

events.

Humor

the

to

state

utable
attribmental

within
is

selves
our-

commoniy

36

VOCABULARY.

taken

in

bad, mood

usage

telegram

in

was

it he fell into

rect
cor-

receiptof the
after reading

but

humor,

good

The

sense.

illustrated;"On

melancholy mood!'

Hypocrite
The

indifferent

an

be thus

may
he

in

distinction

between
The

comprehended.

Dissembler.

"

these

is not

words

hypocritefeigns to

generally
what

be

he

is not

the dissembler

conceals

is a dissembler,
but
hypocrite

the words

Here, while there

is

which

melted

ice,and

which

ice is put

in

"

may

Ice

sense.

is called

iced
hence, properly,

ice

is not

crite.
hypo-

"

in the

be either

is

cream

warm

or

sound, there
no

cold,-but

making

istence;
ex-

iced;

cream

is the

of

purpose

ice water."

reallyhas

cream

ice

confuse

to

cream,'*

Ice water

cream.

for the

Thus, every

custom

is but littledifference

great deal in the

that

incorrect

iced; as,

ice and

is.

Iced.

but

common

very

he

dissembler

every

Ice"
It is

what

product
water

of

into

it cold is

iced\wdLtct,

Ideal"
The
from

ideal is not
the real ; the

opposed

to the

ination.

Ideal

mind

without

Imagrinary.

directlyopposed to, but

imaginary,on

is abstracted

the contrary, is

real ; it is the unreal

formed

by

directly

tixe imag*

happiness,for example, exists in the

any actual prototype in nature^butitmay

VOCABULARY.

possibleof

37
The

imaginary^on the
positive
contrary, is a mental state in oppositionto some
imaginary pleasureof a lunatic who
reality
; as, the
thinks himself a king.

Still be

realization.

If.

See But.

Illiterate.

Ignorant"

implyingmuch

Ignorantis a comprehensive term

illiterate. A

than

man

that is
illiterate^

be

may

unlettered,uneducated, and
the world
he

ignorantof

far from

and

; but

to say

human

that

yet be very

learned,
un-

clever

the ways

and

nature

is ignorantis

one

more

of

imply that

to

is also illiterate,

111" Sick.
The

generallythe

stronger and

is sick.

The

popular

in

of /// is

use

of these words

England, but less

preferenceappears to be
in

common

-America, where

better

the

for sick.
See

Imagination.
Imbroglio"

Row"

Fancy.

Quarrel.

intricate or complicatedplot,and
an
Imbroglio means
cannot
properly be used for row or quarrel;as,
They
the
were
engaged in a noisy and violent imbroglioover
"

title to the land."

Imitate"
To
take

imitate

likeness.

sense.

Imitate

Counterfeito

general likeness ;
is to
to counterfeit

is used

in

take

indifferent

an

copy is

to

or

a
a

to

false

good

^^/, often, and

Hence,
but

To

take

likeness ;

exact

an

sense;

is to

Copy"

to

to

s\}X\o{t'^x\t,x,m
bad
a
counterfeit,
imitate an author's styleis always permissible;

copy it would

a coin
counterfeit

or

be

too

slavish adherence.

signaturewould

be

pime.

38

VOCABULARY.

Immense"
It is

Big.

big^etc. That is
which is boundless
immense
while bigis used
or
infinite;
in a much
restricted sense.
It is accordinglyincorrect
more
immense
to speak of an
house, or an immense city.
to misuse

common

Immodest"
The

distinction

for

immense

Indecent.
these

between

is generally
adjectives
disregarded. Both indicate immorality; indecency,by
external signs,as dress,words, looks ; immodesty,by conduct
and disposition. Hence, indecencyis a weaker
word
than immodesty.
See Consequence.

Importance.
In"

Into.

In is often
in the

out

for

erroneouslyused
garden."

meaning

of

be used
"

as,

Webster
the

use

or

It should

induct

into

ingly
accord-

not

"

best critical

by

Incident.

which

cannot

cetvable; that which

incredible.

The

and ought
authorities,

all students

pure

English.

Incredible.

be conceived
be

cannot

inconceivable

is the incredible

of

to

See Circumstance.

Inconceivable-

ible, nor

go

with begin;
though it were
synonymous
of study." While
shall inauguratea new
course
recent,"
gives this definition with the remark
in any such sense
of the word
is condemned
by

carefullyavoided

That

us

as

all of the latest and

be

install

inaugurate is to

office with suitable ceremonies.

an

Let

"

Begin.

Inaugurate"
The

into; as,

or

imagined is

credited

is not

likely to be

or

incon--

believed

is

iftcred"
necessarily
inconcewable,

Digitized
by

The

VOCABULARY.

common

however, lies in misusing inconceivable

error,

for incredible.

The

The

correct

"The

expressions as,
"

39

is illustrated in such

usage

goodness of God;"
statements,"etc.

inconceivable

incredible character

of his

Increase"Grow.
To
to

increase is either
is

grow

natural
Increase

or

gradual process.

artificialprocess;

an

is used

not

is always natural.

well

as

act ;

is either

in the intransitive

as

in the intransitive.
while wheat

grow;

may

Money

both grow

increase.
Indices"

difference

The

Indexes.

"

indices;tables of

Algebraic signs are

in the

clear, stillit
sufficiently

contents

meaning

is not

dexes.
in-

are

of the words

is

for indices to

uncommon

for indexes.

misused

be

increase

to grow

is always used

but does
increases,

instantaneous

an

To

in the transitive

; but grow

and

gradualor

Individual"
Individual

Person.

that which
cannot
etymologically,
be
the many,
divided, appliesto any one
objectamong
is opposed to the whole, or
that which is divisible.
and
Hence, it is clearlyabsurd to use individual in the sense
means,

oi person; as,

"

saw

several

strange individuals

in the

class-room."

Indorse"
The
not

use

of indorse in the

indorse

his

authoHties,and

language.
that

is to

Such

action," is
is

Approve.
of approve, as,

sense

sanctioned

not

clear violation

expressionsas,

"

of

the

"

I do

by modern
genius of our

I will indorse the note,"

name
upon
say, write my
illustrate the correct use of the word.

the

back

of

it,

VOCABULARY.

40

Scandalous.

Infamous"

Infamous appliesto persons and things; scandalous,

only to things. The infamous producesgreater publicity,
and

is

man

may

be

infamous;

his acts scandalous.

Interior.

Inside"

appliedto bodies either small

to bodies
large; while interior is peculiarly
appropriate
great magnitude. It is accordingly proper to speak

The
or

of

the scandalous.

serious in its nature, than

more

inside may

word

inside of

of the

palaceor

be

nutshell

or

; the

room

interior of

cathedral.

See Example.

Instance.

Institute"

Establish.

includes design and method;

instituting
that of establishing
comprehends the idea of authority.
To institute is always the act of an agent ; to establish is
The

act

sometimes

of

effect of circumstances.

the

citizens institute that which

between

is for the

becomes

countries

Public-spirited
merce
publicgood ; com-

establis/ted in

course

of time.
See Burt.

Inter.

See Drunk.

Intoxicate"

Discover.

Invent"
The

author

of

things,invents;

he

any

who

combination

new

finds

something

of
which

causes

has

or

ways
al-

existed, but was

previouslyunknown, discovers.
discovered
Hence, Galileo invented th^ telescope;Newton
the law of

gravitation.
Irritate.

See Aggravate.

VOCABULARY.

Issue"
these words

Between

still issue is
in

recent

4I

Number.

there is not the

for

misused
currently

slightest
similarity,

number;

"

as,

I read it

issue of the Chronicle."

Jealousy" Envy.
distinction

The

these

between

words

is not

always
observed.
Jealousy^etymologicallydefined, signifies
filled with a bumipg desire; envy means
not
lookingat
or
looking at in a contrary direction. Jealousis applicable
to

bodies

individuals

of men,

only.

well

as

Nations

in their commerce,
the
what

rank
is

and
our

own;

we

are

etc. ;

of

wealth

one

are

individuals;envious,to

as

jealous of
individuals

another.
envious

We

of what

any
are
^x^

ence
interferenvious

of

jealousof

is another's.

Jealousy fears to lose what it has; envy is pained at

seeing another have that which it wants for itself. Princes
^x^
jealous of their authority;courtiers are envious of
The envious man
sickens at the sightof
those in favor.
enjoyment; he is easy only in the misery of others.
Jealousy,according to its object,is a noble or an ignoble
passion ; in the former case it is em-ulation sharpened by
fear; in the latter,it is greediness stimulated by fear.
Envy is always a base passion.
Jeopardize" Jeopard.
It is now
^hWe

customary

is not
jeopardize

jeopardizeinstead o( jeopard.
incorrect,stillthe preferliterally

to

use

VOCABULARY.

42

ews,
given to jeopard. Says Professor Math"There
is considerable
authority for this word,
is beginning to supplantthe good old
which
\^jeopardize'\
than
needed
English v^or A jeopard. But why is it more

ence

should

be

hazardize?"
perilize,

Judgrment"

Discretion.

ment
Judgment is conclusive ; discretion is intuitive. Judgacts
by rule ; it admits of no question or variation ;
discretion acts
according to circumstances.
Judgment
requires knowledge and actual experience; discretion
Thus, a general
requiresreflection and consideration.
of his army
and
exercises h.\sjudgment in the disposition
in the

mode

choice

of

of

attack, but

his

uses

discretiort in

the

etc.
officers,

Justice"Equity.

Justiceis founded on the laws of society;equityon the

laws of nature.
Justiceis a written or prescribed law ;
equityis a law in our hearts,conforming to no rule except
of
circumstances, and deciding by the consciousness
rightand wrong.
Justiceforbids us from doing wrong,,
have
which
and requiresus to repair the wrongs
we
from
done
to others; while equity forbids us
doing ta
y

others

what

we

would

not

have

them

do to

us.

K
Keep"
The

idea

all these

of

Preserve"

having in
terms, but they

one's

Save.

possession is common

differ somewhat

in

to

application^

VOCABULARY.

4J

ces
Things are keptat all times; preservedunA^x circumstanof difficulty
and danger ; saved at the moment
when
threatened
with destruction.
Thus, the shepherd keeps
his flock,by simply watching over
it; children are at
times
preserved amid the greatest dangers; things are
often saved from burning by the exertions of the firemen.

KUl"
All

of these

life.

Kill

is the

means

the

being ;

to

to

all that
to

thus

words

convey

generaland

unlawful

and

Slay.
the

idea of the

indefinite term

taking of

; to

murder

deliberate

killingof a human
slay is to kill in battle. Killing is applicable
has life; murder^ to mankind
ly
only ; slay^most-

men,

but

sometimes

be observed

is not

Murder"

to

that the

the lower

of
killing

one

animals.
man

by

It will
another

murder.
necessarily
Kind.

See Description.

Knowledgre"

Knowledge
thing known

is

Learning^.

"

generalterm which signifies

simply the
rived
; learning is that species of knowledge defrom
of personal
schools,or through the medium
instruction.
Knowledge admits of all degrees,and is the
oppositeof ignorance; learningis positively
a high degree
of knowledge. We
acquire knowledge from permay
sonal
from books.
experience; learning,
a

Labyrinth" Haze.
The

idea

words, but

of
in

intricacyis expressed by each of these

far greater sense
in
in labyrinththan
a

VOCABULARY.

44
Political and

polemical discussions may be

that is,a mental
compared to a labyrinth^

maze.

of confusion

from

; mazCy

which

we

unable

are

perplexityinto which the mind

events.
unexpected or inexplicable
be

exercised

in their use, these

selves
our-

of temporary

state

state

extricate

to

the contrary, denotes

on

phorically
meta-

has been

thrown

Unless

great

terms

by
care

be

likelyto

are

misapplied.
Lady" Woman.
The

prevalentmisuse
affected.
Lady is a term
moral
while
superiority,
All

ladies

all

women

lady,and

says

sort of a woman.
very decent
the misapprehension that
under
not

implied in

and
silly

that

Many
a

her mistress
be

to

appear

sufficient

the time-honored

ladies.

not

are

respect is

is very

indicatinga social,mental, or
woman
merely denotes the sex.

but

women,

stylesherself

servant

is

are

of these words

of

degree

noble word

and

woman,

Largfe.

See Capacious.

Large" Quite.
words
are
occasionallyconfounded
and it
Quite relates to adjectives,

These

is incorrect

if

In the sentence
relatingto a noun.
shall soon
inherit quitea fortune,"quitequalifies
the noun
If large were
fortune,and is accordinglyerroneous.
to

it

applied.
mis-

and

use

as

be inserted before the word

sentence

read

"

I shall

soon

"

fortune." so
inherit

objectionto the use of quite,which

qualifythe adjectivelarge,instead of

to

the

to make

is then
the

noun

made

to

fortune,

be removed.
Lean"

Lean
The

quitea largefortune,"

the

would

as

"

means

lean is

not

lack

Heagrer.

of fat ; meager

necessarily
meager

but

lack
the

of

flesh.

meager

is

VOCABULARY.

45

always lean. Animals, as well

Leanness
men
only#aremeager.
the

temperament

and

be lean^but
may
is often connected
with

as

men,

is the

; meagemess

result of.starvation

disease.

Learn"
To

learn

take;

to

means

It is said that the words

difference

the

Teach.

in their

art of

the

you

meaning

expressionsas

See

Leave"

for

used
short

quit
Leave

with

time, and

place it

appliesto

persons

man

may

to
go back
the intention
or

I will learn

Knowledge.

then

is with

the

longerpermissible.

exists between
A

exactness.

"

now

Quit.

appreciabledistinction

when

but
synonymous,
is well defined,and

etc., is no
multiplication,"

Learning^*

An

teachyto give instruction.

once

were

of learn for tea^h in such

use

to

these words

leave his house

it,but when
never

to

we

return.

things;quit,to thingsonly.

Lengrthy" Long.
In such

phrasesas
and
is objectionable,

lengthydebate,"the word lengthy

should be supercededby long.

"

Leniency"

Lenience"

Lenity.

lenityrather than
either lenience or leniency. Although lenience and leniency
and Worcester, they do
are
recognizedby both Webster
It is

in
preferable

all cases,

to

use

demned
etymologically correct, and are concritics. Says
in strong terms
by nearlyall literary
Professor Gould, referring
to leniency: It is not properly

not

appear

to

be

"

constructed,and

it is not
Less.

needed."
See Fewer.

46

VOCABULARY.

See Freedom.

Liberty.
Lie"
A

Lay.

confusion

wide

prevailsrelative to the proper use

of these verbs.
"To
lie is neuter, and
Says Crabb:
designatesa state; to lay is active,and denotes an action
an
on
one
object;a thinglies on the table; some
lays it
his fathers;they /"a:/^/
the table; he "^with
him with
on
his fathers.

in

of
a

same

when

manner,

used

ally,
idiomatic-

thing lies by us until we bring it into

future purpose ; we
lie down
lay it by for some
; we
order to repose ourselves ; we lay money
down
by way
deposit; the disorder lies in the constitution ; we lay
we

use

In the

burden

say,

upon

friends."

our

Like.

Likely"

See As.

Liable.

Likewise.
List"
A

list is

list. Thus

only, regardlessof
catalogueimplies,in
classification and

See Also.

Catalogrue.
of

record

mere

See Apt.

names

list of books

any

plan

addition

catalogueis a systematic
will give their titles
a

of arrangement
to

the names,

; while

systematic

arrangement.

Lit"

Lighted" Alighted.

is often misused
for lighted;as,
Lit, a colloquialism,
also for alighted;as, "he /// upon
"the gas is lit;''
his
feet."

Loan"
Both

of these verbs

but
literature,
be

avoided

have

Lend.

recognizedexistence in our
loan is perhaps obsolete,
and its use should
by precise writers and
speakers. It is
a

VOCABULARY.

undoubtedly far
cil/*than it is to

better usage
Loan
say,

47
to say, '^Lend me

"

me

of locate in the

use

should

be shunned.

and

Locate

is

"

misapplicationis often
"Children, love and obey your

the dictionaries,

rarelyused."

of

made

ludicrous

these

trates
parents,"illusthe proper use of love,but it is very silly
to
say
Like is sufficiently
love roasted turkey,"etc.
strong

words.

**

recognized,in

to

Like.

Love"
A

is said to settle,
not

man

stigmatized
"vulgarism,"and

verb, with the remark

neuter

as

of settle has been

sense

Thus,

locate,in California.

pencil."

your

"Americanism"

an

as

pen*

Settle.

Locate"
The

your

such

in any
civil and

be said

Men

sense.

may
liberty; but
religious

to

love God

they like,rather

and

than

love,

etc.
books, music, pictures,

Luxuriant.

Luxurious"
A
which

clear distinction is
are

confounded.
frequently

so
"

accuracy,

drawn

now

luxurious

sense

but

of rank

luxuriant

the
or

use

"

of

excessive

weeds,"

We

table," luxurious

zirious liver,"
etc., implying

luxury;

between

an

these
may

say, with

ease,"

indulgence or

words,
"

lux-

delightin
to

the

growth or production; as,

"the

luxuriant

is restricted

etc.

M
Male"

signifies
pertainingto the 7nale,
adjective,
It appliesto the
distinguishedfrom the female sex.

Male,
as

Han.

as

an

48

VOCABULARY.

lower

animals

well

as

to human

as

idea

apparentlyexists

that

and

in this

w"rd

the

sense

male

only;
misapplied. See

to
applies

is often

mistaken

beings.

men

Female.
See Air.

Manner.

See Can.

May.
Make"
In such

"

sentences

as,

Try.

I will try the

experiment,"the

try is improperlyused for make.

word

See Labyrinth.

Maze.

Meager.
Mechanic.
Mistake"
A

serious

See Lean.

See Artist.

Mistaken.

blunder
philological

lies

in

the

popular

misuse

of these

and

equivalent to misjudge, misapprehend,

is

"

I do not
"

means

Mistake

words.

means

to

take

Your

tions,"
intento your
as
any mistake
intentions are clear to me
; I do not

Says Arthur to Henry:

of San
Francisco
is
500,000." "You
takeUy'answers
Henr"'; it is only 250,000."
mistaken
in this sense
is clearlyerroneous,
and
"

Arthur

ceive.
miscon-

make

misapprehendthem."

mistake,

amiss,

is not

mistaken

by Henry, who

"

The

population
mis*

are

The

use

should

that is to say,

clearlycomprehends

of
be

prehended
misap-

and

nies
de-

assertion about the populationof San

(Arthur's)
Francisco.
He intended
what he did not say.
Henry meant
You
to tell Arthur,
mistake,that is to say, you
You
err, misapprehend,or misjudge,in your statement.
make
the number
too
high; it is not as you assert,
500,000, but only 250,000."
his

"

VOCABULARY,

Bashf Illness.

Modesty"
is

of the mind ; bashfulness^

a state
principle
cast,
feeling.Modesty is unassuming; bashfulnessis downtimid, and awkward.
Modesty is desirable;bashful-

Modesty
of

49

fiess

is not

Cash.

Honey"
is appliedto

Money

cash

medium;

only.

Hence

everythingwhich
is,in

strict sense,

all cash is moneys

Most"

almost;

as,

"

Most

He

to

comes

and

of mutual

blunder

which
other

many

title given

by

See

in the

vulgarismfor

critics.

friend of

ing
shock-

and

Mutual
of

one

acts

persons.

man

James

for

day."

every

and
and

or

Friend"

his novels.
:

'^Mutual

Mutual

between
Thus

reciprocal,

Dean

den9unced by

friend."

directlyapplicableto
common

most

of common,

Macaulay

common

love of

was

Reciproeal.

"Our

to

Lord

of sentiments

the mutual

most, the

use

Dumb.

sense

has been

Dickens

scholar

eminent
low

to

See Kill.

Common"

Mutual"

is

most

me

see

Mute.

use

cctsh.

is not

is, besides, widely misused

Murder.

The

for coin

used

Almost.

Very"

accident."

lating
circu-

Humor.

inexcusable
error
gross and
of much, for very ; as, " It
superlative
It is

as

but all money

See

Mood*

serves

wife ; and

is the

Says
friend

that
is

rocity
impliesreciptwo,

we

Alford

but

is not

speak of
may
of John, as the

Charles.
5

yOCABULA]?,V.

so

N
Named"
In such

"

expressions

him," named

to

Mentioned.

as,

is

I have

named

never

improperly used

ject
the sub-

for mentioned.

See Convenient.

Near.

Essential.

Necessary"

Necessarysignifiesnot to be departed from, and

The essentia/ conta,ins
generaland an indefinite term.
essence

property which

or

essary

for

of
between
use

health.

gold

necessary

die.

to

men

and

cannot

be omitted.

It is

is

that
n^-

is essential to the ervation

presis an
essential difference

Exercise
There

silver.

Here

we

could

not

properly

for essential.

Negligrence" Negrlect.
Negligenceis

habit ;

neglectis an

"

:
"

The

following
meaning of these

act.

illustrate the difference in the

sentences

words

His

the source
of all his misfortunes,"
was
negligence
By his neglecthe lost the opportunity."

Neighborhood"

Vicinity.

place which is nigh,that is,

the
habitation; vicinityprimarily means

Neighborhood

means

the

nigh to one's
place which does not exceed in distance the extent of a
village. Neighborhood refers to the inhabitants,or to
inhabited places,
and denotes nearness
of persons to each
other,or to objects; as, a populous neighborhood. Vicinity
denotes nearness
of one
objectto another, whether person
is in the vicinity
oi San
cisco."
Franor
thing; as, "Oakland
Neither.

See Either.

VOCABULARY.

Never.

See Ever.

New"
and

New
New

is

novel

opposed

51

Novel.

sometimes

are

old,novel

to

indiscriminately.

used

to known

house,

new

; as,

novel invention.

No"
It

is

misuse

to

easy

makes

littledifference

should

be used

for

Not.

these
whether

nominated

are

To

named

These

To

conjunctionsare

neither
used

He

i*ead
for

write."

or

noted

the
be notorious^
which
or

terms

criminal."

meaning

is bad ; while
bad

specific
purpose.

To

Or.

Example

In this sentence

or

"

rectly
is incor-

nor.

these
adjectives,
is

often confused.

Noted"

"

for

Nor"

As

Name.

may,
dishonorable.
or

honorable

can

not

Persons only
generalpurpose.
things,as well as persons, are named.
is a public act ; to be named
is generally
is
fwminated
honor
be
always an
; to
according to circumstances, be either

be nominated

private.
be

for

mention

is to

name

"It

no.

is to mention

nominate

as,

Here

do it"

no\

ox

Nominate"
To

little words;

two

noted

Notorious.
are

The

better word

of which
may

Number.

here

is restricted

be used

sense.

Novice.

misused

sometimes

See Amateur.
See Issux.

in either

; as,

would
to

that

good

VOCABULARY.

52

Obligration. See

Observance.

Observation"
The

noting is

celebratingis

or

in the
such

of

act

called observation; that

called

The

observance.

of

ing
keep-

difference

meaning of these words is clearlyillustrated byive;"

phrases as, "the acute observation of the detect"the religious
observance of the Sabbath."
Observe"
the

While
these

Duty.

dictionaries

authorize

is in better

words, it

Say.
the

common

use

of

restrict the

employment
of observe to its primitivesignification
; namely, to
Hence
did you
notice.
such an
expressionas, "What
observe?'' is objectionable,
should
did
and
be, "What
you

say ?

to

"

Oecasion"
The

taste

Opportunity.

occasion is that which

determines

our

conduct, and

is that
degree of necessity; the opportunity
which
invites to action.
We
do things as the occasion
the opportunity
offers. We
have ocor
as
casion
requires,
may
to write a letter without
having the opportunity.
amounts

to

Occur"
The

misuse

of

Transpire.

these words

is very

common.

Occur

to leak
place,to happen ; transpire
The
to light. Hence, itis incorrect to say,
out, to come
annual
school
exhibition
The
transpiredlast week."
word here is occurred.
But transpire
is correctly
proper
used in such a sentence
of the cauThe proceedings
cus
as,
have not yet transpired'.'
means

simplyto

take

"

"

VOCABULARY.

53

Of"

To.

It often

are
misapplied
happens that these prepositions
expressionsas, It is a quarter to lo o'clock."
"

in such
To

toward, and

means

is

construction

the proper

Or.

See Nor

by

is out

of.

And.

"

Common.

be thus drawn

is done

is common

in such

See Alone.

Ordinary"
what

use

See Elder.

Only.

distinction may

to

literal meaning of which

of^the

Older.

word

many

repeatedmany times.
repetitionof the act; common,

; what

persons

Ordinary

is

these terms

between

is ordinary

has to do with the

with the persons

who

form
per-

it

Ougrht- Should.
Both

of these

have
words, though implying obligation,

different shades
Thus

Ought

meaning.

ought to

man

of

is the

; he should

be honest

stronger term.
be neat

in his

dress.

These

words
of

terms

^^

under

various

meanings

oath,"

^^

often

are

hand

under

besides

the

designation
misapplied. The

and

seal," ''under

etc.,are fullyestablished
signature,"
authorized
forms of expression,which do not concern
the relative positionsof the persons
and
things
his

indicated, but
under\C\s
the

Under.

and
locality,

mere

arms," under
and

have

Over"

own

own

are

idiomatic.

Hence,

instead

of

is an unjustifiable
signature,
phrase,despite

fact that the

the instrument

over

signatureis reallyat
signed.
Owlngf.

See

Due.

the

bottom

of

"VOCABULARY,

54

Own"

The verb
the

to

own

additional

owns

to possess, but

means

"

as,

He

of which

offenses is

in

denote

terms

the

and

absence

an

countenance

wanness

and
fatigue,

are

are

of

Paraphernalia"

in

murder, neither

may

caused

of

color,but

vary

wan

upon

See Extenuate.

Trappings" Regralia.

"The

Grand

in the

Marshal

was

sense

of trap^

conspicuous

his

from

paraphernalia^ The word is derived

gorgeous
the Greek, and is strictly
ever
a law term, meaning what-

the wife
her

man

pallid.
be temporary, but pallidness
by sickness,hunger,or

often Yit^x paraphernalia

used

pings or regalia;as,

longerduration.

Palliate*

We

crime."

confess^

Wan.

degree,pallidrisingupon pale^and

in
P^aleness

of to

See Brace.

Pallid"

Pale"
these

has borrowed

of ownership.
hardlysusceptible

Pair.

All

his

owned

house, but confesses

a larceny,
or

it

objectionable
meaning

and

acknowledge ;

to

Confess.

bringswith

dower, such

the evident
sentence

as

her dresses

absurdityof

cited.

her at

the

use

marriage,in addition to
and her jewels. Hence
of pharaphemalia in the

VOCABULARY.

55

Partake"

Eat.

to take

Partake, meaning

part of in

is often affectedly
used
others,to participate,

of

It is correct

eat.

to

that

say

two

or

with

common
as

synonym

more

persons

partakeof dinner,as they vmy partakeof anythingelse.

But,for the individual who eats alone,to say he partookof
refreshments is an egregiousblunder.
Partially"Partly.
lor partly althoughit
partially
has the sanction of Webster, is obviously
incorrect.
"The
has been partially
heard."
This is a comin court
case
mon
the intended
meaning of which is,that
expression,
the case
has been heard in part^ or partlyheard.
Partiallyheard, denotes that it wais heard in a biased or
prejudiced manner.
The

of the adverb

use

Person.

Party"

Party a collective noun, meaning a number

used for person ; as,
He
is often incorrectly
agreeableparty'*
y

of persons

"

Pass.
Patron"
These

nouns

patron is

aids,or
who

very

Adopt.

Customer.

virtual benefactor
.

supports. A
it is

A
generallyused indiscriminately.

are

expects in

Hence

See

was

return

erroneous

patron of mine," when

one

is

customer

for his money

for a merchant
he

means

who

countenances,

purchaser,or
full value
to say,

simply a

buyer,

received.
"

He

is

customer.

People" Persons.
The

meaning

of

peopleis

nation
a
collectively,

; hence

of persons regarded
obvious
inaccuracyof

body
the

56

VOCABULARY.

the

expression, M^x^y peoplethink

"

such

in any

Persons

so."

is

erable
pref-

sense.

See Every.

Perfect.

Perpetually" Continually.

terrupt
ceasing,
continuingwithout inetc., with
; continual, of frequentrecurrence,
occasional
interruptions. Indolent pupilsare perpetually
Here
the
failingin the tasks assigned them."
is perpetual
; frequent
proper word is continually.Time
disregardof our duties is continual,

Perpetualmeans

never

"

See

Persons.

"

Individuals.

Sect"

Persuasion"

Denomination.

Persuasion,the definition of which

who

one

every

in the

of

sense

Methodist

speaks English,is
sect

or

often

denomination

plain to
ludicrouslyused
"

be

as,

He

is of the

persuasion''
See Humanitarian.

Philanthropist.

Pleaded.

Plead"
"

should

tutes
plead not guilty."Pleaded, not plead, constiof the
the imperfect
tense
and the perfect
participle
to plead. Hence, in the example quoted the correct
impleaded.

He

verb
word

Plentiful.

See

Polite.

See Civil.

Portion"
The

distinction

between

Bountiful.

Part.
these

words

is

usually

heeded.
un-

is a part assigned,
or set aside
allotted,
portion
for a specialpurpose ; part has a less limited meaning.
Hence, we may say correctly; In -whdXpartof the citydo
you live?" ''V^hdX portionof the estate do you inherit.^"
A

"

VOCABULARY.

Inform.

Post"
The

of post for

misuse

will post you

about

inform

it,"is

of these

3hould

not

of

mode

display some

is

grace

of the mind.

purpose

themselves
assumed

has

its

misappliedfor

Attitude

they

"

as,

it is inaccurate.

and

appropriate place,and
the other.

Posture

be either

may

always assumed, and

of the body, or some
Postures, when

to the

may

sentences

Attitude.

placing the body,

assumed.
to

be

words

in such

inelegantas

as

Posture"
Each

$7

be either serious

Praise"

is the

natural

or

is intended
affection

or

date
natural,accommo-

of the

convenience

one

or

body

; when

ridiculous.

Applause.

approbation by praise and applause.

is the general,applause,
the specific
Praise
term.
Ap^
ptause
springs from impulse,while praiseis the result of
We

express

reason

and

our

reflection.

Precise.

See

Base"

Predicate"

Says

Professor
"The

Accurate.

Found.

Gould, concerning these

functions

of

much-abused

the

etymological family,
vihtnc^ predicate
descends, are limited to speaking,saying,
And
etc.
our
lexicographers generallyagree in
telling,
so
limitingthe definition of predicate; namely, to say, to
and very
affirm, to declare. * * * * Ignorant usage
words:

"

ignorant usage

it must

be

"

in the

United

States has

cently
re-

of to found; as. His

parsided
predicatein the sense
was
predicatedon the assumption, etc. The
argument
in the pulpit,
is used in that sense
at the bar, and
word
But it^nq-jgore
of course
in novels and
newspapers.

*'

58

VOCABULARY.
'

means

to

foundy than

that,in the

is thus clear

destroy." It
based or founded
criticised,

to build

it means
sense

to

won!

is the proper

See Bus,

Prejudice.

IntFoduee.

Present"

place in the presence of

bring to be acquaintedis to

To
to

or

superior is

to

presentj^

ingly
It is accord-

introdtice.

to Miss
incorrect to say,
I will present Mr. Smith
Jones." A foreignMinister is properlysaid to be pre^
"

sented
social

to

the

ladies

President; but

and

gentlemen,in

merely introduced.

life,
are

See

Preserve

Prevail.

Keep.

See Adopt.

Previous"

Previously.

previousis often misused for the adverb

adjective
leaving the cityI called
previously
; as, ^'Previous to my
upon the Mayor."
The

See Assure.

Promise.

See

Promptness.
Propose"
A

general lack

relative to the

use

of

Booty.

See

Prey.

Alacrht.

Purpose.

discrimination

of these

verbs.

put forward,to offer for consideration

a

proposition;
purpose^ on

design,or
'*

as,

resolution.

the

I propose to write

propose to do it to-day;

"

exist

to
Propose signifies
; hence, ^proposaly

contrary,means

The

to

appears

an

intent,

tences
improprietyof such senessay on language ; "I
accordinglyself-evident.
"

an

etc, are

VOCABULARY.

59

ppoud"

-Vain.

of the difference in the

to be unaware
Many seem
Pride
is self-esteem,conceit,
meaning of these words.
egotism. Vanity is a desire for the esteem of others ; apis not necessarily
probativeness.Hence the proud man
vain^ nor the vain woman
proud.
necessarily
Proven"
It is
has

not

been

is said

proven
all such

to hear

uncommon

to

proven

cases

\s

is universal
from

condition.

The

correct

use

word

"

It
of
in

proved.
See Aggravate.

Chastise.

Punish"

comes

expressionsas,

The

Scotticism.

Provoke.

Punish

such

full satisfaction."

my

be

to

Proved,

in its

superior to

children

Thus,

application
;
are

an

chastisement

inferior in rank

chastised^criminals

ways
alor
are

punished.

Q
Quality" Property"
Quality is that

which

is inherent

Attribute.
in the

and

existent;
co-

belongsto it for the time

being; attribute is the qualitywhich is assigned to any
out
object. The qualityof a thing can not be altered withalteringthe whole thing; property may be given to
taken from bodies without destroying their identity;
or
property

attributes may

\s

that which

thing

be ascribed

at

discretion.

6o

VOCABULARY.

Quantity" Mumber.
number, to
Quantityappliesto a collection or mass;
individual objects. The
ed
confoundwords are frequently
He had a largequantityof books."
Here quan; as,
tityshould be number,
"

QuarreL

See Imbroglio.

Question" Query.

Inquiryis impliedby
tion may

while

cause,

asked

be
a

query

for

for the sake

reasonable

put from

See

Raise"
indiscriminate

raise,meaning

to liftor

larger. Example
increase

an

or

quesunreasonable

mere

tions
inquiry. Quesqueries,
curiosity;

the

rent.

Leave.

See Large.

Quite.

and

words; but

of information.

Quit.

The

of these

is generally
a rational

thus sometimes

are

both

Increase.
of these

use

words

is

common

elevate ; increase,
to make
landlord may raise his
: A
say that

To

he

raised

or

come
be-

house,

the

rent

is absurd.

Raised"
It is a

common

instead of reared.

boys

and

girlsare

error

Com

to

Reared.

speak

and

reared.

of children

chickens

may

being raised
be

raised^but

6l

VOCABULARY.

Beam.

Ray"
is indefinite in its

Ray

meaning,

and

either

mean

may

largeor small quantity of light,while beam can be applied

We
only to that which is considerable.
speak of
the rays of any luminous
body ; of the beams of the sun
the moon.
break through the
The
or
rays of the sun
clouds;its beams are scorchingat noonday.
a

Real"
It is

Very.

of very ;
misplacereal in the sense
book."
It is a real interesting
Very is an^ adverb of
as,
degree, while real is an adjective,
signifyingthat which
actuallyexists.
JEteason" Cause.
to

common

"

Causes
for

things;

evident

effects ;

natural ;

are

reasons

reasons

for actions.
true

are

is to

presented
to

call to the
it ; while

to

recall with

an

may

advise;
to

call

would

an

"

as,

to

remember.

have

has

To

been

member
re-

been

once

remember

commend,

the Governor

session of the

afresh,

forgotten.

or

to

in the

See Decimats.

declare
sense

of

be recommended

Legislature."Here

be the better word.

Reduce.

forgotten

some

erroneouslyused

Resolved,that

extra

produces

Advise.

means

of esteem, is often

worthy

with

to recollect is to

effort what

which

of

that which

mind

Recommend"

Recommend,

or

Mutual.

the mind

confused

be

Cause

are

Remember.

the recalling
to
Recollect^
not

hidden,

are

false.

See

Recollect"

should

Causes

or

Reciprocal.

event,

logical.Causes

conclusions.

produces

reason

are

reasons

advised

62

VOCABULARY.

Refer.

See Allude.

Refate"
When

argument

one

Confute.
neutralized

is

by another, it

is

it is reconfuted;when an assertion is proved to be false,

we
futed. In confuting^
prove the absurdity; in refuting
of an assertion.
we
Opinions,etc.,are
prove the falsity
confuted; slanders,insinuations,etc., are refuted,
Paraphernalia.

Regr"li"" See

Religion" Piety.
Piety is
is

much

broader

repeatedlyused

though

as

than

term
a

each

of the other.

synonym

See

Remainder.

religion^
yet

Balance.

See Curious.

Remarkable.

Rendition" Rendering.
It is

very
as,
means

rendition

use

; while

surrender

to

of Hamlet

rendition

Booth's

"

Rendition

mistake

awkward

was

for

dering;
ren-

excellent."

a
renderingsignifies

version.
or
translation,
See Answer.

Reply.

See Character.

Reputation.

Reticence.

Reserve"
is

Reserve
Reserve

wider

impliescaution
little more

means

less definite term

and

than

silence.
See Home.

Restive"

go ; as,

means

"

inclined

restive horse."

unquiet,uneasy,

reticence.

secretiveness,while reticence

and

Residence.

Restive

than

Restless.
to

rest, stubborn,unwillingto

Restless^on

the contrary,

moving.
continually

But

nifies
sig-

restive

63

VOCABULARY.

is
"

in the

generallymisused

now

became

He

restive under

so

Retort"
A

retort

The

is

retort

an

is

Repartee.

See

Ridiculous"

does
which

includes

excite

that

say

which

excites

repartee

another.

idea of contempt,

are

Persons

at

; the

censure

Ludicrous.

an

but
laughter,

laughed

reply.

smart

Drive.

ludicrous

The

not

to

to the wit of

Ride.

Ridiculous

disappointments."

many

answer

answer

an

of restless ; as,

ill-natured,di repartee,a

always an

is commonly

sense

are

is found

in circumstances

disparagingto the person

ridiculous when
they do or

not

laughter,mixed

our

crous
ludi-

which

Rise.

See Appreciate.

Row.

See Imbroglio.

with

tempt
con-

S
Said"
It is bad
in

the

would

We

taste

as

well

of said.

sense

rather die than

Allowed.
bad

Englishto use
Example: "He allowed
be guiltyof such an act"
as

to
admit, concede, or make
signifies
He allowed the
accordinglysay,
may

statement

"

"

conceded,"

or

but it would
"

be

he admitted."

allowed
that

he

To

low
al-

abatement

truth of my
he
in better taste to say,
"

64

VOCABULARY.

See KsEP.

Save.

See Observe.

Say.
Scandalous.

See Infamous.
See Hardly.

Scarcely.
Scholar"
clear difference exists in

A
A

scholar is one

who

Pupil.
the meaning
"

is learned

; as,

He

of these terms.was

profound

Pupil implies one who is learning,a student.

it is objectionable
to speak of the scholars attending

scfiolar"
Hence

school.

Scrupulous.
Sect.

See Conscientious.

See Persuasion.

Seem.

See Appear.
See Divide.

Separate.
"

The
not

may

of

misuse

for

set down

moment

"

"

do not

than

shall
into the
"

help me,"

Will

as

"

but human

Will.

in the

will;

languageare
"

as,

more

I will drown

said

widely
and

who
by the foreigner
Head, in a little treatise

was

Sir E. W.

Will," thus

auxiliaryverbs
"

words

shall and

river.

Shall and

is setting."We

See Condign.

ShaU"
two

you

See Locate.

Severe.

misused

hen

Will

set.

Settle.

Perhaps no

The

"

as,

"

beingssit^and

general;

propriety, the settingsun

with

say

for sit is very

set
a

Sit.

Set"

states

the rule for the

use

body
no-

fell
on

of these

in the first person

promise ; as, I will

I will give it you
"

not

go

"

a
or
a
resolution,
expresses
It is my resolution not to go j

promise to give it you.

65

VOCABULARY.

IVt/l in the second

**

at

o'clock

12

questions,anticipatesa wish, or

Wi//

; as,

intention,to

or

wi//

you
person, in

second

foretells ; as, If you come

find me
Wt/l in the
at home.

person

Wi// in the third person

"

also

intention

what

is

take

to

He

; as.

Is it your

foretells,
generallyimplying

wi//

place,and

intention.

an

S/ia// in the first person

foretells,
simply
is to take place ; as, I sAa// go to-morrow.
what
desire

first person,
readi*
"

Do

"

books

books
thee

me,

command,

to

steal.

or,

Wi// you

and

third

or

to-morrow

to-morrow
not

No

tention
in-

expressed by sAa//. Sha// in the

questions,asks permission; as. Ska// I

in the second

promise,

expressing

is

wish

you

Ska//

these

in

signifies

to-morrow,

come

"

or

wish,

to-morrow

go

to-morrow

go

you

tention
in-

an

promise
ska/t

Thou

ska//

He

persons

threat ; as.

"

permit me

be

"

ska//

have

have

these

punished

threaten, or promise, to punish him

Should.

You

steal

not

expresses

let you

to

read.^

to

command
for

this; I

for this offense."

See Ought.

Should"Would.
Like

shall and

by
rules

as

shou/d
The

rules

"

confusion.

use

of skou/d^xid

Skou/d

is

wou/d\s

do

frequentlyexpresses duty;
so," meaning, it is your duty not

relative

wou/d^ which
He

say, it was

wou/d

to

the

of will

use

is often used

often talk about

his custom

to

to

See

as,
to

also

express

these

talk about

Sick.

are

rounded
sur-

the

subject to

shall,and
not

to
as,

will,the

same

"You
do

ble
applicacustom

things,"that
these things.

III.
,,",,,,

so.

is to

GoOglt

66

VOCABULARY.

Sigrnalize"Signal.
"Vulgarisms:" "To j/^v^^/wasfor*
of the telegraphingbetween
as
descriptive
To signalize
is a substitute which
vessels at sea.
To
has gained favor chieflysince that time.
signalize
should be reserved for the expression of the idea of one's
one's self by some
glorious deed, or for
distinguishing
of any attrithat of an action's enhancing the brilliancy
bute,
Horatius
lesser qualitypossessed by man
or
; as,
Codes
signalizedhimself by the exploit of defending,
which
Porsenna's
single-handed,the bridge over
army
was
endeavoring to advance.'
of

Says the author

merly employed

'

"

T acltupn.

Silent"
the

Between
distinction.
to the

Silence has reference

habit;

he is taciturn

man

from

speak, while

not

man

may

of these

meaning

be

may

is at times

occasionallymake

an

Sin"

man

silent from

will not

silent ; while

clear

taciturnity^

circumstances;
silent

does

man

speak.

The

the taciturn

quaciou
loman

effort at conversation.

See Crime.

Since"
"

to the act ;

disposition.Thus,
taciturn

there is

words

Ago.

given by Dr. Johnson for the use

of these adverbs : Reckoning time toward the present, we
It is a yt,^r since it happened:' reckoning
since; as,
use
It is a year ago^'
the present, we
use
from
as,
ago;
This rule does not always appear to be applicable. Since
for since. Ago, which
is often used for ago^ but ago never
is always an adverb, is derived from the participle
agone,
while since maybe an adverb, a preposition,
or
a conjunction.
Following

is the rule
"

67

VOCABULARY.

See Kill.

Slay.
So.

See As.

Social"
These

words

formed

often

are

for

used

with

men

are

Soil.

He

studies

some

every

Sort.

width;
news

in

Crabb

"

To

sociable.

be

in continual

not

course
inter-

Man

is

sociable.

See

to

In this and

all similar

for somewhat.
Description.

Cipculate.

spread

circulate is

to

in

are

are

acquaintances.

day."

Spread"

Says

who

See Dirt.

is misused

expressions,some

those

Somewhat.

Some"
"

to

their friends and

social animal, but all

sons
Per-

sense.

wrong

qualityof persons to congregate

society. Sociable refers to the

and live in
together,
particularinclination of some
with

their fellow-creatures

the natural

to

in

social ;

society are

active intercourse
Social refers

Sociable.

is to extend

spread

within

spreads through a country, but

from house
to house, or
or
village,
in a neighborhood."
Stopping"

to

an

indefinite

circle; thus,

story circulates

report

is circulated

Staying.

Stoppingand stayingare not, as is generallysupposed,

To stop is to cease
to go
forward,
strictly
synonymous.
to an
to bring progress
abrupt termination ; to stay is to
Consequently it is incorrect to say,
tarry, to abide.
Hotel."
We
Senator Miller is stoppingat the Palace
I stoppedfor an instant,"but strictly
speaking,
say,
may
"'

"

the pau^e
^

cannot

have

duration.
longer
^

It is^convenience
Digitized
by

68

VOCABULARY.

that dictates

modification

permits of

and
hour

two."

or

such

stop for

an

stay is the

See Curious.

Strangle.

Robust.

Strong"
distinction

The

thus defined:

in the

Robust

in his frame

inherent
the

size

and

of his constitution,from

of his

in

part of the body and

great

cease

man

maybe

man

in full health

weak

body

to be

so

bone

One

may

be

in others ; but
; and

and

strong
robust

he is robust

as

disease.

robust

be termed

may

strength

and

only from

strong,although not

has

man

power

body,

power.

strong in his whole

nature, he will

robust

texture

endowed

is

of

nerve
one

be

may

positiveand high degree

A man
peculiarbodily make.

\s

; but

with

of these words

meaning

strength,arising from a
be strong by virtue
may

man

I shall

"

is meant,

longertime

of the word,,

word.

proper

from

meaning

expressionsas,
if

But

of the

but

by

little

stout
tall,

robust.

Suavity" Urbanity.
denotes
Suavity literally
of the

city in

Suavity may, sometimes,

exist

sweetness

distinction
arise from

urbanity,the

from
natural

the

finement
re-

country.

temper, and

without

be urbanity
urbanity; but there cannot
without
makes
us
suavity. Urbanity of manner
able
agreeciates.
companions ; suavitywins us the love of our assobe applied to the voice, or
the
Suavity may
to manners
only.
style; but urbanity,

Such
saw

Subsequent.

See

Such"

So.

is misused

suck

for

so

in such

high spire."

The

Future.

expressionsas,
meaning which

"

never

is hjere

69

VOCABULARY.

is,"I

intended
form

never

saw

the idea
criticised,

high spireof

suck

high a spire;"but, in
saw
conveyed is, "I never

form,

so

or

Sufficient.

to make

-or

excellent ; as,
"

man

It

was

He

"

use

of

of such architecture."
See Enough.

Superior" Able"
It is wrong

the

Excellent.

superiorin

is a jw/^wr

the

of

sense

man," meaning

superiordinner," meaning

an

an

abky
^^/"?

excellent

"iinner.

Suppose.

See Consider

System"

"

Expect.

Method.

comprehensive term than method,

signifyingan arrangement of objectsin accordance with
of
^ome
given rule ; method, means
simply the manner
this arrangement.
System appliesto a complexity of
method, to everythingthat is to be put into exe-objects;
All business requiresmethod ; all sciences must
":ution.
System

be

reduced

is

to

more

system.

Taciturn.
Take"
To
of

take is the

See Silent.

Receive"

generalterm

Accept.

; receive and

acceptare

modes

in the way ; we
ceive
retaking. We take whatever comes
only that which is offered,or sent ; we take a book
from
which has been
sent.
a
table; we receive a parcel,
To
receive is frequently
a passiveact; but to accept is an

VOCABULARY.

70
of choice ; many

act

which

be

cannot

accepted;as,

but acceptsan
insult,

an

without
to

money;
as

consent

the
we

persons,

receive letters.

the consent,

Hence,

Animals

and

take; things may

may

blow, or

take either with

We

apology.

of another.

wishes

receives

person

receive with

we

be received

thingsaccordinglymay

or

ing
accord-

or

robber

takes

things,as

well

but
receive^

persons^

only,accept.

GeniuSy which
is

is

Take.

See Get.

Talent"

Genius.

creative
essentially
the

inborn,and denotes

talentywhich

does

not

phase of
particular
do

some

average

the

imaginative,^

of intellect ; while

but rather imitates,is a

originate,
intellect,
enabling its possessor ta

things better
skill.

highestform

and

than

Talent

others,and with

implies unusual

more

cleverness

than
and

Genius^
a talented actor.
ability
; as, a talented historian,
is higherthan talent and very rare.
Shakespeare,Mozart,,
of genius; Gibbon, Pitt,and
and
men
Napoleon were
of talent.
Genius
exercises the
men
Talleyrand were

imagination; talent^the

memory.
See Gentleness.

TameneSS.
Teach.

See

See Evidence.

Testimony.
That.

See

See And

To.

Trade"

the
merce

is either

on

carryingon of
is always on

But

"

"

Expect

Of.

Commerce.

largeor

small

implies
gain; com-^

scale,and

for purposes
of
large scale,and is trade

business
a

How,

"

See Consider

Think.

Trade

Learn.

between

VOCABULARY.

different countries.

America

Hence, trade may

Francisco and

San

tween

and

Sacramento

Trappings.
Truth"
relates
"

we

say

be carried

be^

on

between

; commerce^

England.
See Occur.

Transpire.

Truth

7I

The

to

truth

See Paraphernalia.

Ve raeity

Thus
to persons.
things; veracity,
of the story was
accepted upon the

veracityof the narrator."

Try.

See Make.

U
Qgiy" Ul-Tempered.
while
ugly for ill-tempered^
the dictionaries, is always ambiguous ;
It is impossible
to determine
ugly man."
The

of

use

of this

Jiateful.
to

whether

sentence

the

England, where
the sense
ill-favored,

In

Unbelief"

the

man

sanctioned
is

as,

He

from

the wording

**

is

meaning

would

by
an

ill-favored,
or
of

ugly

is

stricted
re-

be clear.

Infidelity.

meaning of these words is not

always appreciated. Unbelief is taken in an indefinite
and negativesense, and does not convey any reproachful
not to believe ;
a generaldisposition
meaning ; it signifies
the lack of belief. Infidelity
active state of
is a more
The

mind

distinction in the

; it supposes

violent and

total

rejectionof

that

VOCABULARY.

72

which
either

trivialor

taken

mission

of

bible,are

infidels
\ as

stars

universe

only our
planets.

World.

say, "It is not

all created

of any

An

untrue

these

saying,be

man

all fixed

in the

to

verse!'
uni-

Lie.

there

words

as

See Except.

Untruth"
Between

things

accordinglya palpableerror

the power

Unless.

World,

itants
its inhab-

solar system, but

entire

within

the earth and

includes

It is

believe
atheists.

absurdlyemployed for universe.

; not

and

do not

also deists and

in its generalapplication,
means

whole

be unbelievers in the

See General.

Universe"
is often

sacred

See Over.

Universal.

; while

to

unbeliever,

disbelieves

Turks, who
are

Under.

World

unbelievers in

but the term

said

are

be

may

who

one

The

Saviour.

our

We

serious sense,

absolutely,means
Hence
the Jews

truths.

in the

believed.

be

ought to

is

it intentional

decided
or

difference.

accidental,is

an

reflects no
untruth,and, of itself,

disgraceon the agent.

A lie is a false saying,uttered only with intention to deceive.
Children
are
likelyto speak untruths through a
misconceptionof the weight of words ; while a dishonest
lies to his customer.

tradesman

Unwarranted.

Upon"
Graham
is often
more

says

used

correct

of these words

See Gratuitous.

On.
"

The

synonymously with on,

to employ it only when

prepositionupon
though it would be

the lower substance

VOCABULARY.

of the

two

IS

73
the

considerably from

raised

floor

the

to

ject
According to this distinction we speak of an obbut we placesomething upon a shelf."
lyingon the floor,

earth.

See Suavity.

Urbanity,

See Employ.

Use.

Worth.

Value"
It is customary
an

article is

determined
Worth

judged by its real

by the price for
value is

is permanent,

worth

these words.

misuse

to

watch

See

Venal"

is

stronger

word
to

venal

as,

man

sold.
of

Proud.

Mercenary.

than
be

in their

meaning,

venal

Venal

signifies
sold ; mercenary
moved
siderations
by congreediness of gain. Thus
profit,

or

writer,or

Veracity.

mercenary.

mercenary

soldier.

See Truth.

Verbal"
The

changeable ;

be

is

of pay
say,

it could

which

is littledifference

salable,or ready
we

its value

of

See Empty.

Vain.

there

merits ; while

worth

of value.

Vacant.

While

The

of these words

Oral.
is often

misapprehended.
Verbal means
couched
in words, spoken or
written ;
while oral impliesdelivery
by word of mouth.
meaning

VOCABULARY.

74

See

Very.

Awful

Vice.

"

Real

Most,

"

See Crime.
See Neighborhood.

Vicinity.

See Avocation.

Vocation.

W
See Pale.

Wan.

Well"
Good

should

Good.

be

employed, as it frequentlyis, in
the sense
of well. While
good is always an adjective^
well is generallyan adverb, and is used as an
adjective
good in condition or circumstances^
only when it signifies
is erroneouslyused for well in
Good
sound in body.
or
the following
sentence
He played the game good''
:
not

'

"

Wharf.

See Dock.
See Blanch.

Whiten.
Whole.
Whole"
Due
these
which
not

and

See All.

discrimination

is not

seemingly synonymous

nothinghas

been

Total.

Entire"Complete"

been

That

terms.

taken

divided ; that is

usuallyshown

in the
is whole

; that is entire which

completewhich
;

of

from
has

has all its parts,

total refers to the aggregate of the parts ; as,

loaf of bread ; an entire set of spoons

the total cost or expense.

use

whole

completeharness;

VOCABULARY.

Wholesome.

See Healthy.

Will.

See Shall.

Gidn.

Win"
Possession

each

impliedby

'a

intention;we win by
and by
prizein a lottery,
gain

we

The

difference

chance.

We

win^

close attention

to

we

not

ness
busi-

Humor.

in the

thought

or

of these

meaning

generallyappreciated. Wit
some

words, but

wealth.

Wit"

on

of these

with

gain
gain

is

75

denotes

the power

and, by

occurrence,

words

of

sudden

is not

seizing
turn,

and unexpected,
presentingit under aspects wholly new
and
bearing on the subjectwith a laughablekeenness
force.

and
which

Humor

gives to

is

ideas

wild

excite

laughterby sudden
While wit
representations.

to

and

fantastic turn, and

or

and

incongruous images or
wound, humor

may

tends

does not,

has thus far less of the satirical in its mirth.

With.

Without"
is often

Without
shall

congenialthan wity

qualitymore

not

go

without

See By.

Unless.

improperly
you

Woman.

World.

for unless; as, "I

used

accompany

me."

See Female.
See Universe.
Value.

Worth.

See

Would.

See Should.

*j6

VOCABULARY.

Youthful"

Juvenile"

Puerile.

juvenile signifyfull of youth, and are

indifferent sense, but puerilemeans
taken
in an
boyish,
is suitable to a boy only. We
and appliesto what
thus
speak of youthful vigor,juvenile performances,
et^c, but
puerileoh}ectionSy
puerileconduct, and the like,the word
Youthful

here

and

being used

in

disparagingsense.

ECLECTIC

GRAMMAR.

ECLECTIC

The

distinction

themselves,

but

been

in

shown

spoken

of the

convenience,
of the

only

to

and

Syntax,

and

words, and

wrong

and

For

we

now

the

correct

the sake

pertinent

the

parts

of
of

to

come

of

use

simplicity
work,

our

specialreference
practical.

and

be

defined

language
;

has

sense,

with

grammar

may

writing

with

as

the

of

art

It

correctness.

namely. Orthography, Etymol-

Prosody,

Orthography

of

treats

letters,-syllables,separate

spelling.

Etymology
their classes

of the

Prosody

of

treats

parts of

relation,agreement,

of words

arrangement

different

speech,

modifications.

and

treats

the

of

treats

Syntax
and

is

into four

is divided

legitimatein

shall,in this section

we

Grammar

speaking

in

governing

language.

which

English

with

laws

principlesof

that

of words

meaning

"

written

and

treat

cgy.

in the

commonly used
the
Vocabulary,"

consideration

and

GRAMMAR.

in

government,

sentences.

and
punctuation, utterance, figures,

versification.
Such

the

are

that

etymology
we

thography
or-

the

specialprovince of spelling-manuals,
prosody belongs rather to the study of rhetoric, so
is virtually narrowed
of grammar
the
to
scope
is

and

accepted definitions,but

commonly

are

arrange

now

and

syntax.

faught
them

the

It is in these

relative

rank

of

departments

words^

and

how

that
to

in sentences.

fDr^TIT:?:!:.

80

GRAMMAR.

ECLECTIC

ETYMOLOGY.

parts of speech

The
defined

follows

as

Article.
which
as, the

but

are

placed before

air; the

Noun.

stars

noun

and

to limit their

nouns

island ;

an

is the

articles,
the^an^ and

three

ship.

of any

name

person,
Californiuy manyappUy tfuth.

book

new

Pronoun.
The

"

noun

; as,

are

; you

pronoun
loves

boy

a^

signification
;
place,or

thing; 2j"yJameSy
An
Adjective.
adjectiveis a word added to a
and generallyexpresses
or
quality;as, a
pronoun,
man

be

may

There

are

number,

in

ten

are

noun

wise

studious.
is

word

his book

instead

used
"

^^He

has

of

hard

task, and he does // well."

Verb.
to be

acted

verb

is

word

as, I am;

upon;

that

to be, to act, or
signifies

I walk;

am

ruled; I love.

Participle,

is a word
derived
from
a
participle
in the propertiesof a verb, and of an
verb,participating
adjectiveor a noun, and is generally formed
by adding
ingydy or ed to the verb; thus, from the verb ruky are
formed
three participlestwo simpleand one
compound;
ruledyhaving ruled.
as, rulingy
Adverbs.
An adverb is a word used to modify a verb,
another adverb, and generally
a participle,
an
or
adjective,
time, place,degree,or manner
They are
expresses
; as,
now
hereystudying very diligently^
A
used
to
Conjunction.
conjunction is a word
the
connect
words, phrases,and clauses, and to show
dependence of the terms so connected; as, "You and I
"

"

are

rich because

we

Preposition.
some

relation

are

industrious."

press
prepositionis a word used to exof different thingsor thoughtstOrone

ECLECTIC

another, and

generally placed before

The book lies beforeme
on

is
**

pronoun

; as,

An

Interjection.
indicate

strong

some

Articles

The

8l

GRAMMAR.

interjectionis
sudden

or

noun

used

; as, oh!

emotion

or

the table."
word

ah!

to

alas!

Definite

the

as
distinguished

are

and

the Indefinite.

The

Definite

Article

the^which

is

the

particular
objector objects;as,
The

thing of

one

boy;

an

kind, but

not

\ /^^ oranges.

hoy

an

a, which

or

denotes

particularone

any

as,

divided

are

into

general classes,Proper

two

Common.

Proper

Noun

individual,people,or
the

is the

name

group;

as,

the Greeks, the

Mississippi,

A
of

is

some

orange.

Nouns
and

Article

Indefinite

denotes

class of

is the

Noun

Common

of

Adam,

West

name

beings or things;

as,

particular

some

San

Francisco^

Indies,the Sierras.

applicableto any one

beast,bird^fish,insect,

creature, person, children.

four modifications

have

Nouns

Gender, and
There

ber,
namely, Person, Num-

Case.

three persons

are

the First,the Second, and

the

Third.
The
"

First

Person

denotes

the

speaker,or writer; as,

I, Henry, have spoken."

The

Person

Second

addressed
The

; as,

Third

spoken of;
Numbers
and

"

as,

James

are

and
plurality,

The

Singular

boy learns."

William, who

Person
"

called

denotes

the

me

the

son
per-

"

person

or

thing

is small."

modifications
are

the hearer,or

denotes

either

Number

which

distinguishunity

Singularor
denotes

but

Plural.
one;

as, "The
7

82

ECLECTIC

The
"The
^^

Plural

Number

denotes

than

more

one;

girlslearn." It is regularlyformed by adding s

the singular;
as, book, ^^^^^/ hoyiyboxes.

to

Genders
which

modifications

are

them
distinguish

number;
and

GRAMMAR.

in

of

nouns

regard to

sex,

or

and

as,
or

pronouns
four in
are

the Masculine, the Feminine, the Common,

viz.,

the Neuter.

The

Masculine

of the male
The

Gender

kind ; as, man^

The

; as,

The

denotes

kind ; as, woman,

Common

persons

or

animals

or

animals

lion.

Gender

Feminine

of the female

denotes

Gender

persons

lioness.
either

denotes

males

or

males
fe-

children,cattle.

Neuter

Gender

denotes

thingswithout

sex;

as,

table,
garden, house.
Cases
to

other

distinguishthe
words, and

are

relations of
three

in

nouns

number;

and

pronouns
namely, the

Nominative, the Possessive,and the Objective.

The

Nominative

usuallydenotes the subject

of a finite verb; as, "/could
walk;" ^'He runs."
The
Possessive
Case
generallydenotes the relation
of property ; as, the bofs hat"
The
Objective Case commonly denotes the object
of a verb, participle,
I know
the boy'*
or preposition
; as,
Adjectives are divided into six classes; namely.
and
Common,
Proper, Numeral, Pronominal, Participle,
Compound.
A Common
or adAdjective is any ordinary epithet,
bad,peacefuL
jective,denoting
qualityor situation ; z.^,good,
A Proper
Adjective is formed from a proper name;
as, American, English,
A Numeral
Adjective expresses a definite number;
etc.
as, one, two, thee,fifty,
Case

"

"

Pronominal

after

understood
A
but

its
each

what

join to guard

is

Adjective

either accompany

may

noun

represent it;as, "^//

to

Here

gain."

has the form

of

idea of

by rejectingthe

it

word, which

definite

is

men

after each.

man

Adjective

differs from

or

desires

allyand

Participle

83

GRAMMAR.

ECLECTIC

participle,

time;

as,

an

amusing story.
A
words

Compound

consists

Adjective

of

two

or

more

four-footed.
joined together;ks^ laughter-loving^
have

three

ly,
degreesof comparison ; namethe Positive,the Comparative,and the Superlative.
Degree
Positive
is expressed by the adjective
The
its simple form ; as, hard^ soft.

Adjectives

in

The

Degree

Comparative

generallyformed
harder
softer.
is

exceeds

by adding

to

er

the
the

and
positive,
positive;as,

The

Degree

Superlative

is not

exceeded, and

is

generallyformed by adding est to the positive;as, Jiardesty softest.

Adjectives such as two, second,allytotal,immortaly
be compared.
cannot
infinite,
Adjectives that may be varied in sense, but not in
of adverbs; as, skillful,
form, are compared by means
skillful.

most
skillful,

more

Pronouns

are

divided

into five

sonal,
classes;namely, Per-

and
Demonstrative, Relative, Interrogative,

A
person
A

Personal
it is.

There

Demonstrative

are

five :

the

by

its form

of what

/, thou,he,site,and

Pronoun

The
thing named.
those,same,
this,that,these,

of
definitely
are

shows

Pronoun

is used

in

//.

speaking

demonstrative

such,etc.

sessive.
Pos-

nouns
pro-

84

ECLECTIC

Relative

word

Pronoun

Interrogative

questionis asked.
A

the

and

that

is

and

with

one

which

used

to

represent

thing possessed;such

the

who, whichy and what.

word

tence.
sen-

the relative pronouns.

are

is

three

are

Pronoun

possessor

antecedent

an

different clauses of

Pronoun
There

Possessive

both

represents

phrase,and connects
whichy what,
IV/tOf

or

An

GRAMMAR.

as,

etc
his,hers,ours, yours, tfieirs,
ntineythitie,

have

Pronouns
Verbs

the

into four

divided

are

Redundant,
Irregular,
A

forms
d

by assuming
participle
An

nouns.

classes;namely, Regular,

the

ed;

or

Verb

Irregular

as

Defective.

and

Verb

Regular

modifications

same

does

by assuming
perfectparticiple

preteritand
as,

not

^or

the

perfect

love,loved.
form

ed;

the

preteritand

seeing,

as, see, saw,

seen,

forms

Verb

Redundant

the

or
preterit

or
more
so
participlein two
ways,
regularand irregular;
as, thrive,thrived

thrived
A

forms

Verb

in but few of the moods

into

and

divided

be

both

ing,
throve,thriv-

in

no

and
participles,

tenses

; as,

is used

beware, ought.

their

signification
classes: Transitive, Intransitive,
Passive,and
are

four

or

to

perfect

thriven,

or

Defective

Verbs

as

the

respect

to

Neuter.
A

Transitive

some

person

Verb

or

thing

an
action,which has
expresses
for its object; as, "John struck

James."
An
has

no

A
as

Intransitive

object;as,

Passive

being acted

Verb

Verb
"William

an

action

which

or nominative,
represents its subject,
"

upon

expresses
walks''

; as,

am

compelled'*

ECLECTIC

Neuter

but
*'

He

Verb

The

neither action

expresses

simply being,or
s/eepsr

of

state

modification of verbs

Persons,and
Moods

85

GRAMMAR.

being; as,

passion,
"You
are-^*"
nor

Moods, Voices,Tenses,

are

Numbers.
different forms

are

of the

verb,each

of which

the

being,action,or passionin some

particular
The
moods
the Infinitive,
the Indicative,
manner.
are
the Potential,the Subjunctive,
and the Imperative.
The
INFINITIV.E Mood
being,action, or
expresses
and without
passion in an unlimited manner,
person or
number; as, to read; to speak.
The
Indicative
Mood
simply indicates or declares a
thing; as, ''Iwfite;*'''Yow know;]'or asks a question;
expresses

"

Do

as,

The

"

you know?
Potential

Mood

expresses the power,

or
necessityof the being,action,or
possibility,
as, "I

read;'' **We

can

The

Subjunctive

passion,as
"If you^^."

or

The

go,"

must

represents the being,action,

Mood

conditional,doubtful,or

Imperative

liberty,
passion;

Mood

contingent;

as,

in

used

horting,
commanding, exentreating,or permitting; as, Depart thou;"
Be comforted;''
Go in peace."
^'Forgiveme;
The
Voices
the Active and the Passive,and belong
are
is

^^

*'

"

to

when

transitive verbs.

the

subject stands

action ; as,

"

He

voice when
the action ; as,
Tense

"

denotes

"

verb

is in the

for the

doer
A

the subjectstands

for the

table

was

the time

of

struck
an

verb

by

action

or

voice

agent of

or

struck the table,"

The

active

the

is in the sive
pasreal objectof

him."
event

There

the Past,
the Present,the Present- Perfect,

are

six tenses:

the

the Future, and

Past-Perfect,

the Future-Perfect

86

ECLECTIC

The

write;
The

have

The

"

wind

The

"

Tense

wind

represents

action

"I

has been

an

present time; "I

blowing^

denotes

past time;

Tense

represents

as, "I

wrote;'*

blewr

Past-Perfect

completed
The

as,

with

connected

Tense

present time;

blowing^

past, but

as

Past

The
or

is

denotes

Present-Perfect

written;

"The

wind

The

"

event

or

Tense

Present
"

GRAMMAR.

in time

Future

as, "I

fullypast;

Tense

denotes

an

had

act

ended

as

written'*

future time; as,

"

I shall

write!'
The

Future-Perfect

finished

or

shall have
The
its

ended
written

person

subjectand

The

at

Tense
before

or

represents

of

number

act

certain future time ; as,

the letter before

and

an

the mail

verb

as
"

closes."

should

agree

with

nominative.

conjugation of

is

regulararrangement of
its moods, voices,tenses, persons, numbers, and participles.
In the conjugation of every simple and complete verb
there are
the present indicative^
the past indicative^
and
the perfect
participle.
Auxiliary
Verbs
The
short verbs prefixedto
are
of the principalparts of another
verb to express
one
mode
and time of the being,action,or
some
particular
willymay^
passion. The auxiliaries are do^be^have^s/tally
can^

must, and

and

Adverbs

Adverbs

long?How
Adverbs
Whither?
which

verb

ask.

of
soon

of

divided

Time

into four

to

answer

? or, How
Place

Whence?

their variations.

of Time, of Place, of

adverbs

"

are

the

questionsWhen

those
often? including
answer

or

generalclasses ; namely,
Degree, and of Manner.

to

the

Whereabouts?

? How

which

ask.

questionsWhere?
including those

Adverbs
much?

of

How

87

GRAMMAR.

E.CLECTIC

Degree

little? or, to the idea of

Adverbs

of

Manner

th^

to

answer

more

questionHow?
doubting,show how a subject

denying,or
by affirming,
is regarded.
Adverbs
Adverbs.
Conjunctive
the office of conjunctions,and
as

well

as

time, place,
degree,or

less.

or

to the

answer

or,

sentences,

questionsHow

sometimes

of

circumstance

to

some
express
manner
; adverbs

connect

to

serve

form
per-

used

so

called

are

adverbs,
conjunctive
'

Modifications.

except that

Adverbs
a

few

are

have

not

compared

any

tions,
modifica-

after the

manner

of

adjectives
often; as, soon, sooner^ soonest; often,oftener,
also irregularly
est; long, longer^longest. Adverbs
are
best.
compared ; as, well,bettery
divided into three generalclasses;
are
Conjunctions
namely, Copulative,
Disjunctiveand Correlative.
A
a

Copulative

cause,

or

Conjunction

supposition
; as,

; for^if he express

Disjunctive
meaning; as, "Be
evil with good."
The
so

that

refers

neit/ter eating nor

He

not

and

pute
dis-

oppositionof

[by] evil,but

overcome

answers

addition,

I shall not

denotes

Conjunctions
or

an

choice,I shall grant it."

Conjunction

Correlative
one

any

"

denotes

to

are

another;

used

as,

overcome

in

"John

pairs,
came,

drinking."

SYNTAX,

Syntax lays down the principles

by which we are to
be guided in the construction
of
of sentences.
It treats
the relation,
agreement, government, and arrangement of
The
of relation, agreement
words.
general principles

88

ECLECTIC

and

government

as

he

Rule

Articles

i.

"At

limit; as,

abbey

called,"the

commonly

is

relate

the

to

Brown,

grammarian

little distance

Goold

from

taken

number,

followingrules"

in the

comprised

are

in

twenty-six

GRAMMAR.

of grammarians."

which

nouns

tfie ruins

from

or,

they
of

the

elm."

[Severalexceptions are
noted to this rule,the definite article sometimes
relating
to an
adjectiveor an adverb, etc.]
A noun
which is the subjectof
Rule
2.
or
pronoun
a

stands

finite verb

aged

an

be in the nominative

must

thoii sayst it: says

Rule

in the

same

Rule
He

is

wise

to

5.

the

noun

spoke;

he

Rule

with

Note.

; as,

young.'* [The exceptions

that the adjectivesometimes
which

sentence

be taken

may

is the

abstractly

must

agree

which

it

with

its antecedent,

represents, in person,

is the friend of whom

[Severalexceptions are

rule.]
the

antecedent

is

the idea of

it in the

divided

pronouns

participle.]

pronoun

When

6.

conveying

or

he is

gender; as, "This

has just arrived."

to this

noted

or

plain
ex-

put, by apposition,

nouns

pronoun

or

number, and

to

to

graciousMaster."

he^ our

this rule show

infinitive

Rule

But

phrase or
interveningverb,or

an

is

pronoun

though

man,

relate to

subjectof
an

or

; as,

used

personal pronoun

as, "I know

same.'^"

Adjectives relate

4.

may

or

or

"

case

noted

with

noun

preceding noun

"

3.

thy lifethe

case;

collective

the pronoun
plurality,
plural number; as, "The

must

council

noun

agree
were

in their sentiments."
"

requiresa

collective

pronoun

agreeablyto

Rule

in the
5 ; as,

conveying

noun

"

third

The

the idea of

unity

neuter,
person, singular,
nation will enforce its laws."

ECLECTIC

Rule

When

7.

connected
the

When

8.

antecedents
them
favor

us

with

Rule

or

cedents
ante-

more

it must

rule also admits

has

pronoun

by

or

or

finite verb

must

two

as,

of

exceptions.]
more
singular

or

it must

nor,

singularnumber;
his company.?
A

9.

two

in
agree with them
and John "wiW favor us with
as, ''James

by and,

connected

in the

has

pronoun

pluralnumber;
their company."
[This
Rule

89

GRAMMAR.

'James

agree

with

with

agree
or

John

will

its subject,
or

and number; as, "I know;

thou
nominative, in person
the bird
knowst, or knowest; he knows, or knoweth;
"

birds

Jlies;the
Rule

conveying
it in the

Note.

the idea of

"

nominative

is

the
plurality,

verb

"

; as,

collective

noun

in the

third

verb

admits
His

the

pluralnumber

requiresa
**

/r."

When

10.

"

The

collective

must

council

conveying

were

noun

agree with
divided''

the idea of

unity

and genersingular,
ally
also of the regularpluralconstruction ; as,
was
defeated;'' His armies were defeated,"
person,

"

army

Rule

i i.

connected

number;

When

by and,
as,

verb

it must

"Judges

and

has

two

or

more

nominatives

agree with them in the plural

have been bought for
Senates

and love were

to be sold."
never
Pope.
gold; esteem
[The rule admits of several exceptions.]
When
Notes.
two
nected,
conare
subjectsor antecedents
of which is taken affirmatively
and the other
one
firmati
the verb or pronoun
must
negatively,
agree with the afto the other ; as,
subject and be understood
Diligent industry,and not mean
savings,produces
honorable
competence."
When
two
connected
are
subjectsor antecedents
by
well as, but,or save, they belong to different propo4is
sitions
of them is perceded by the adverb
one
; and (unless
"

"

**

ECLECTIC

go

not)the

verb

must
pronoun
agree with the former
well as
to the latter ; as, ** .Veracity,
as

and

be understood

and

"r to
justice,

be

GRAMMAR.

rule of

our

life;" Nothing,but waitings/

^'

tuardr

was

When

two

or

subjectsor

more

antecedents

are

the

by

preceded
taken

adjectiveeach,every, or know, they are

and requirea verb and pronoun
in the singuseparately,
lar
number;

"And

as,

and

sense

every

heart

every

is

joyr
When

words

be taken

to

are

as
subjectsor
conjointly

antecedents, the conjunctionand

Two

or

distinct

more

must

connected
subject-phrases

and

be wise in

require a pluralverb; as, "To

eyes, to be wise in the opinion of
wise in the

sightof

different

rarelyto

as

Rule

verb

has

by

or

nominatives

connected

them

singularnumber;

in the

three

thingsso

by
own

to

be

very

coincide."

When

12.

our

the world, and

Creator,are

our

them.

connect

or

two

nor,

or

it must

as, "Fear

singular

more!

agree

"7r

with

jealousy^/"

fectshim.
Notes.

When

"

verb

has

connected
persons or numbers
with that which is placed next
to
"

the

rest, in

Neither
But

he

nor

when

the

person
his brothers

the

nominatives

by

^r

to

or

nor,

it,and

and

number

were

there."

nominatives

of

different

it must

agree
be understood

required;as"

require different

forms

of

the verb, it is,in

verb, or
"

as,

Either

Two
or

its

;^^r

should

or

general,more
elegantto express the
in connection
with each of them ;
auxiliary,

thou
more

art

to

distinct

blame,

or

I am^

connected
subject-phrases

by

or

drunkard
a
require a singularverb; as, "That
be poor, or that a fop should
be ignorant, is not

strange."

GRAMMAR.

ECLECTIC

Rule

they

must

connected

are

in

either agree

separate nominatives

have

or

verbs

When

13.

held

the

mood,

by

a.

tion,
conjunc-

tense, and

form"

expressed; as, "He,

self,
him-

attended

the

the

plow, sawed

Qr

grain, and

reapers."
Exception."
sometimes

may

Verbs
agree

in mood,
differing
with

the

tense,

or

nominative,

same

form
cially
espe-

if the

simplest verb be placed first;as, "What

P
nothing earthlygives,or can destroy
Rule
relate to nouns
or
or
Participles
14.
pronouns,
else are governed by prepositions;as, "Elizabeth's tutor^
time paying her a visit,found
her employed in
at one
readingPlato." [There are exceptions to this rule.]
Notes.
Active participles
have the same
government
the verbs from which
as
they are derived ; the preposition
be used after the partiof,therefore,should never
ciple
when
like the
in

seven

When

the verb does

requireit. Thus, in phrases

of is improper :
following,
keeping of one day
;" by preaching of repentance."
is converted
into a noun^
a transitive
participle
"

"

^must be inserted to
A
participleshould
mood,

not

the

verbal

the

govern

noun,

be

not
a

objectfollowing.

used

common

where

the

infinitive

substantive,or

phrase equivalent,will better express the meaning.

In the use of participles
and of verbal nouns, the leading
word in sense
should always be made
the leading or
governingword in the construction.
in general,
however
construed, should have
Participles
a clear reference
to the proper
tion,
subjectof the being,acor
passion.'
Rule
relate to verbs, participles,
jectives
ad15. Adverbs
other adverbs ; as, "Any passion that habituor
ally discomposes our
temper, or unfits us for properly

ECLECTIC

92

GRAMMAR.

has most certainly

gained a
dischargingthe duties of life,
of exceptions.]
z/^rj/ dangerous ascendency." [This rule admits

placed in that positionwhich will

the sentence
render
most
perspicuous and agreeable.
should
Adverbs
should not be used as adjectives
; nor
they be employed when qualityis to be expressed,and
Adverbs

be

must

"

not

manner;

as,

negation
"

word

as,

The

in

time."

wait

not

of

admits

English

could

soonest

any

but

negative

one

longer;

"

not,

"

no

longer."
Rule

"

; as,

and

me

Rule
"

as,

Let

we

17.

He

came

eminent

many

there be

thee,and
for

either words

Conjunctions connect

i6.

are

no

between

my

brethren."

or

tences
sen-

I pray thee, between

strife,

herdsmen

[To

and

thy

this rule there

Prepositionsshow the
to Paris
from Rome
and passed with
men,

relation of
in the

men
herds-

are

ceptions.]
ex-

things;

company

of

them

throughmany
this rule.]
chosen
and employed
of the language,so as

[Exceptionsare noted to
be
Notes.
Prepositionsmust
agreeablyto the usage and idiom
rightlyto express the relations intended.
of prepositionsis inelegant,
An
omission
or
ellipsis
long and general use
except in those phrasesin which
cities."

"

has sanctioned
Rule

18.

; as, "Oh

it.
have no dependent
Interjections
! let not thy heart despiseme."
A

in the
pronoun
of the thing

tion
construc-

case
possessive
is governed by the name
possessed; as,
shine."
Touched
by thy hand, again Rome's glories
Rule
Transitive verbs and their participles
20.
govern
the objectivecase; as, "I found Iterassisting
him!'

Rule

**

19.

noun

or

ECLECTIC

Note.
of

The

their

say

both

the

same

Rule

transitively;
as,
verbs

neuter

after

before

as

thing; as,

same

and

and

good

are

and

them,

"// could

Rule

The

24.

their

thee

depart,how
A

25.

as,

He

failing,who

Rule

verb

past; but

its

is

depends

case

on

contingency

requiresthe
he will cast

conditional
indicative

"

"

"

"If thou went,

COMMON
make
People of intelligence
the use of singlewords or

that is to say, wrong

If

in

other word

no

is best

; as, "If

thee off forever;

told you ;

put absolute

expressed by

mere

the

thou

If it were

sition
suppo-

subjunctive

circumstance, assumed
mood

"

success?"

subjunctive present; and

indefinite time, by a verb in

the

stay?''

pronoun,

shall meet

future

thou

the

in

with

have

26.

darest

or

noun,

the nominative, when

^'

finite verb ; as,

usually take
participles,
them, without the preposition
to; as,

infinitive after

Rule

infinitive

active verbs, bid,dare, feel,hear, let,

make, need, see, and

he bade

the

learn."

to

Rule

in them,

prepositionto governs
it with a
commonly connects

mood, and

as"

beauty dwells
\{^"tparticipation''

The

23.

I desire

objectivecase;

and

one;

in her, with

they

the

Prepositions
govern

22.

"Truth

in

not

raise,or cultivate.

case

refer to the

words

do

be her

not

"

used

be

not

Intransitive,
passive,and

2L

take
participles

when

93

which
participles

and

an

Rule

"

verbs

object should
plantersgrow cotton

admit
**

Those

"

GRAMMAR

as

fact,

forsake him,

not

nothingwould

so, I would

be

gained."

ERRORS.
many

grammatical errors^

forms, and

genders,numbers,

false concords,

cases,

and

tenses.

GRAMMAR.

ECLECTIC

94
and

"A

Professor

THE," says

Nichol,

"

should

be

peated
re-

nouns
or adjectives
they introduce two or more
referringto distinct things; e. g,y She had a black
white dog.' If two
and
dogs are meant, it should be:
She
had a black and a white dog.' The
Queen sent
should
for the secretary and
treasurer
be, The Queen

when

'

The

offices

the two

imply that

to

the

for the secretary and

sent

Possessive

Case

unless it is meant
treasurer,*
combined

are

in

person."

one

is often used

interchangeably
with the genitive[a Latin case
indicatingorigin,possefsthe house
sion,etc] after of,
My father's house,"and
"

of my

father

"

"

identical ; but the

are

latter form

the

when

is

more

Prefer
the roof of
subjectis neuter.
house's roof;" "the historyof Mexthe house"
ico
to "the
Mexico's
two
to
one
history." Where
possessives,
come
genitive,
together,the
personal,the other a mere
result is bad
march's
pected
exEnglish ; as, in Hannibal's
should
line
be
in the expected line of Hannibal's
accurate

"

**

"

"

"

"

march."
Wtiose is

permitted after a neuter; we may say: "The

is great,"but prefer"the country
country whose fertility
the fertility
of which is great." Professor Gould
says :
who
is sensitive on
the subject of correct
Every man
tive
language must have felt the want of an impersonal rela**

the

pronoun

thingsthe

toward
But

there is

can

make
as

no

one.

relation that

such
In

pronoun,
its

of

matter

of which

possessivecase
*

'

whose

and

holds

to

human

no

absence, whose

and
necessity,

should

has

persons.

ingenuity
been

almost

hold

by

tuted
substicoipmon

consent."
Before
church's

in such
cases
participle
being in danger," the noun
a

possessive,but

it

is

like

double

"

as,

the cry

may

be

genitive,and

of the
in

the
it

is,

ECLECTIC

therefore,better

the cry of the church

possessiveform attaches only to

The

form

title ; as,

the awkwardness

of

it should

Mediterranean."

The

each

Richard's

had

"the

"

the

last

decree,"and
Hence

noun.

the difference in the

observe

separate

being in

England's Mediterranean
of England in the
power

"

saying :

But

related

the

to

be:

of France's

King

Richard's

and
"Peter's,Joseph's,

that

"

close

generally comes
power;"

P5

"

to say

danger."
of

GRAMMAR.

estate.

"

estate"

lowing
fol-

means,

Peter, Joseph, and

joint property. The possessive

of one
is often incorrectly
used with another
noun
followed by a relative.
noun
They attacked Legrand's
house, whom
they put to death," means
they put the
house to death ; it should be :
They attacked the house
I await the
f"fLegrand, whom
they put to death." For
estate

their

means

"

"

"

lady'sopinion for whose use it was

the opinion of the lady for
await
"A
a

of his idea who

copy

questionableexpression.
of

idea

Better

intended," read
whose

use

made
read

"

it was

tended."
in-

is,at least,
it,'j
:

"A

of the

copy

the

A
more
originalcontriver,"or "thinker."
the
glaring error is in the employment of both ^and
possessive,as in the phrase : that of other men's'' The
of the possessiveshould
where
be avoided
its active
use
Have
and
are
likelyto be confounded.
passivesenses
heard," asked a friend of an old gentleman, have
you
heard
of your
son's robbery.?" "Not
yet," was
you
"

"

"

the

answer;

have

nominative
"

pronoun

that
have
proper

the

sanctioned

of the
a

^^whom

he

; as,
was

told
noun

or

But

safe;"
him

he

use

of the

the
when
^*

rob.?"

Custom

appears

to

possessivecase in place
to
objectiveas the antecedent
I heard

Smith's

John's voice, I knew

story is all untrue, and

If,in the examples here cited,the

been, by a change of construction,put

so."

had

did

C^

GRAMMAR.

ECLECTIC

in either the nominative

the

or

objectivecase,

there could

of error.
possibility
Somebody, Anybody, Everybody, Nobody, each of
which
is spelledas one
be treated as two
word, may
words : namely, the adjectivessomey any^ every etc.,and
the noun
body; but when body is joined to the adjectives
be

no

any^ every^ etc.,the combination

some,

far

becomes

word,

one

one

grammatical construction is concerned, and the

word
somebody, or its analogues,is frequentlyqualified
by the adjectiveelse,meaning somebody besides the
first mentioned.
should
To
indicate possessionwe

add

an

so
one

as

apostropheand

an

to the

But the

noun.

adjective

is often

erroneouslyput in the possessive;

tom
as, "somebody else*s novel;" anybody ^/^^^ cus;" everybody else'swish ;'* nobody else'sbusiness.'*
The
construction
is: "somebody's else novel;
proper
body's
"anybody's else custom;" "everybody'selse wish;" "no-

and
else,

the noun,

not

**

"

"

else business."
Gender
it may

of

be

common

Nouns.

Relative
that

remarked

or

inclusive

and

be

applied to females; but

between
saying: "Adelaide
of her time," and

actress

the greatest
to

all the
what

actor

actors

and

without

may,

there is

was

saying,"Adelaide

she

was

The

her

forms

nouns

have

impropriety,
the

greatest

Neilson

latter form

the greatest
of

actresses

of

palpabledifference

Neilson

of her time."

assertingthat

gender

masculine

some

sense,

to the

is

was

alent
equiv-

genius among

time, which

is not

is meant

As

rule

adjectivecannot
qualify
A red hot poker ;"
another, but there are exceptions; as,
The pale blue sky." Some
ble
incapalogically
adjectives,
of degree,as, certain,fall,false,true, honest,square^
of comparison
admit
round, even, accurate, occasionally
Adjectives.

one

"

"

GRAMMAR.

ECLECTIC

97

approach to the standard, or the

ever,
degree of the qualitythey display. This license,howbe used with caution.
Such an expression
should
is hardly admissible, while, "more
perfect,"
as, "more
We
redundancies.
preferable,"most entire,"are mere
the comparative of the adjective
should remember
to use
He is the tallerl'
when
only two things are compared.
The
the tallest of the two brothers."
not
superlative
form when
the matter
may, however, go with a singular
has a collective meaning ; as,
He was
the eldest of the
family." "His eyes are the worst of his face,"means
to their

reference

with

"

"

"

"

that

his eyes
Such

face.

the

are

words

fast

as

may
should

Discrimination

adverbs.

of all the

worst

be

features

either

be

his

of

adjectivesor

exercised

in

their

adjectivesshould not be used for

vice versa.
Such
adverbs, nor
phrases as ''excessive
estimate," are incorrect
wrong;" "that being the now
does not necessarilybecome
An
adverb
an
by
adjective
Uneasy lies the head that
accompanying a verb ; as,
is an adjectivequalifying
Here
wears
a crown."
uneasy
use,

and, in prose,

"

"head."

The

of tlien as

use

an

The

"

very

common

Then

dead."
should
*

Sun

for
when
may

; as,

is

is

"

it violates
sometinies

verbal

be

; as,

drink

In

certain

adj"?ctives
; yet

correct,

time, and

was

then

the

Sun

the

is not

economy

plainestrules
properlyused as

although
\ is

now

sentence

editor of the

is the result of

error

the

Adjectives often
"

of

who

This

dead."

now

brevity,but

erect.^^

He

not

tlien editor of the

adverb

an

thus

read

adjectiveis

desire

commendable

of grammar.

Then

conjunction.
stand where
adverbs
pected
might be exdeep^' this looks strange^' standing
a

"

instances

such

"

it is proper

phrases

"

as,

employ
indifferentwell,"
to

98
^^

GRAMMAR.

ECLECTIC

have
"I would
grammatical errors.^
it independentof any consideration,"is an incorrect

bad," are

extreme

done

should

and

sentence,

of any
The
which

"I

would

have

it independently

done

consideration."

Conjunction
is

be

of much

source

to

this

confusion,Webster

says

Relative

Than.

word,
"A

tives
particleexpressingcomparison, used after certain adjecand adverbs which express comparison or diversity,
it [than] is usually followed
by the objectcompared,
in th^ nominative
Sometimes, however, the object
case.
placed in the objectivecase, and than is then
considered
by some
grammarians as a preposition."
Generally,it should be remembered, however, that than
does not
the objectivecase
; as, "Washington,
govern
than
whom
beloved
no
man
was
ever
more
by his
countrymen;" "Beelzebub, than whom^ Satan except,
none
higher sat." While it is claimed that such sentences
are
correct, the weight of authorityappears to be to the
is

compared

contrary.

It is correct

theyT or

esteem

"I

differ in

meaning,
than

more

esteem

It is

Verbs.

the

than

more

first

tlian they

more

you
you

you

"I esteem

to say:

them;'' but the phrases

being equivalentto

do;" the second

be, which

wrongly

woven,

goes

with

used

verbs;
"

The

out

"

for

arose

and

am

The

teem
es-

"I esteem

just arrived

pretenderbeing returned

The

generallygoes
"

confound,

as

auxiliary

verbs, is sometimes

intransitive

have, which

as, "I

"I

borne,stole and

arisen.

at

San

I found

"

of the house."

should

to

and

to:

them."

violation of grammar
is often done, broke and
broken^ bore and

stolen,wove

than

more

you

with

tive
transi-

Francisco;"
she

was

gone

Properlyconstructed,these sentences
I A^z^^ justarrived at San Francisco;'*
read thus:
pretenderhaving returned ;" I found she ^wTgone
"

"

ECLECTIC

out

of the housef."

last

expression,makes

of

the verb

as

the

can

GRAMMAR.

The

introduction

to have

not

Could

not

the

of/* in the

out

The

infinitive

properlyonly substantively,
accordinglysuch a construction as

save

been
the

object of a
objectivecase; as,

The

"

be used

now

followingis inadmissible
For

of

the verb transitive.

nominative, and

**

99

in prose

dipped

son

direct

in Lethe's

of Thetis

from

transitive verb

stream
to die,''*

should

be put in

"The

lightningstruck the tree^

it wither."
and
made
The verbs teachyask, forgive,tell,
of a person, and
the other
one
etc.,take two objectives,
of a thing; as, "He
taught hxs pupils history;""They
asked

him

his

esteem,

etc.,take

thing;

as,

meaning
nominative
you
and

and
me

Have
often

often
case

of

go;"
go."
went, and

make,

to

objectivesof

the

itself;as,

"

He

incorrectlyused
a personal pronoun.
of, ^'Let

instead

similar

us

dreamed
as

name,

same

John a traitor''
objective case, akin

notice from

escape

of the verb

an

the verb

are

verbs

called

take

to

Verbs

two

"They

often

verbs

The

name"

if

person

call,
or

Intransitive
form

in
a

or

dream!*

governing

the

Example : ^^Lefs
go;" or, ''Let you

expressions,though incorrect,

the fact that the different parts

likelyto be separated in a sentence; as,

walked
"I have
a
long distance, and although much
to several places." Corrected, the sentence
went
fatigued,
would
read, I have walked a long distance,and although
much
fatigued,gone to several places." A still better
would
be : "I have walked
construction
a long distance,
and
several
to
fatigued, have gone
although much
places."
I done, I seen, I have saw, are all ungrammatical express
sions,and should be, / did, I saw, I have seen.
are

"

lOO

GRAMMAR.

ECLECTIC

verb

The

See

is often

used in the present

incorrectly
tense; as, "I see him
yesterday;" instead of, "I saw
him yesterday." To see is present,j^j/^r^^ is past, hence
the absurdity of the expression criticised. We
might
say with equal propriety: I see him to-morrow," instead
It is sometimes
of, I shall see him to-morrow."
sible,
permisor
however, where the ideas of frequentrepetition,
"

"

of continued

presence,

are

involved, to

say

see

when

speaking of what is temporarilypast; as, "I see them

I see by the papers that the Legislaturehas
every day ;
adjourned,"etc.
Immutability,actual or supposed, requiresthe present
that virtue is advantageous. The
saw
tense; as, "He
is commonly
verb come
misused
in the present form
for
house
is past ; as,
He come
to my
to-day."
catney which
"

"

"

Corrected, the
house

sentence

would

read,

"

He

came

to

my

to-day."

We

often

hear

Itas

began used instead of has begutiy

and
has began to attend
He
begun instead of began.
should
He begun his allotted task."
We
night school :
He has begun to attend
night school;" He began
say,
his allotted task."
Began is the past tense of the verb
to beginybegun is its perfect
participle.
The
preteritof the verb to drink should not be used
for the perfect participle
drank
Many toasts were
; as,
the sentence
would
at the banquet"
Properly worded
"

"

"

"

"

"

read

"

Many toasts were drunk at the banquet"

Had
oughty had betteryhad rather. Says Professor
Mathews:
"All
these expressionsare
absurdities,not
less gross than hisnytothery
No doubt there
haintytheim.
is plentyof good authorityfor had better and had rather;
but how
future action be expressed by a verb that
can
signifies
past and completed possession?"
:

GRAMMAR.

ECLECTIC

to had

Relative
a

of Addison.

of

sort

languageis generallythe
**The critics Z"/A^contended
over-violent

an

well

as

be

may

^^

to say,
**

We

Which

both

Who.

The

did you

see?"

The

for the

saw

be said.
and

we

"

should

and
you

.?"or,

cannot

"

is

use

It is correct

to-day?"

see

you

the church."
is often

who

incorrectly

objectivewhom;
will

"

as,

of what

reverse

Who

readilybe

form, thus

"

inclosing in
when
whom

she^'etc.

saw

^'Whom

be:
You

Who

"

is meant

to

the

brackets

the

the sentence

the
two

of

meaning

error

whom

rect,
cor-

[she thought] were

sentence.

which

thus

"

native
nomi-

she

be

may

words

reads

the

for w/iOythe

also misused

Here

not

see?" or, "Whom

you
it as we
Turn
?"
please,

the benefit of those

For

it is

But

did

whom

saw

change

his friends."

of those

applies

form, by reversing the last,

whoy' which, if correct, so is

saw

is
objective,

; as,
were

You

now

the

Whom,

is the very

^," "You

saw

in the

it into another

Put

it reads

**You

3aw

which

you

did

it in another

perceived by putting

used

the contrary,

things.

in this sentence

error

longer

relative its

thatyon

brothers

personal pronoun

in the nominative

used

no

now

it was

as

and

persons

of the two

is

least,

say the

is,to

as

pronoun

the firstthat entered

were

in

figurative
gender,

which
interrogative,

an

The

appliedto

which

things,but

to

as

things.

restricted to

of mistakes

personification.It

the pronoun
to use
proper
time of Shakespeare. As
to persons

of

for Homer"

say,
beenV

use

in the

source

I have

can

have

is had

confusion

Concords.

False

Had

We

etc.
it,*

tense

to say,

have known

you

beeUy but what

had

author

same

It is quite common

him,' ^Had

seen

the

"
This is
says,
authorvulgarism,notwithstanding it has the ity

low

very

have

lOI

For

thought
detected
by
are

parenthetical,
the benefit

his friends."

Whom

ECLECTIC

I02

friends!

his

were

GRAMMAR.

The

should

wording

his friends."
Errors
thought, were
frequentlyescape detection,because

be, ^^who

she

this class

of

obscured

by

most

thetical
paren-

words.
Relative

The

That

Pronoun

unnecessarily repeated ;
there

because
that

there

It does

banks

is

of issue

the

the

at

there

are

should

sentence

there

there

that^

**

banks

currency

read

are

thus

It does

of issue

at

national

no

sufficie
in-

necessarilyan

is

;" or,

national

no

follow

not

of issue at the South,

South, there

of currency

awjcwardlyand

of
insufficiency

necessarilyan

follow that,because

not

because

It does

banks

national

no

Reconstructed

there."
"

are

"

as,

is often

not

follow,

the South,

of currency
necessarilyan
insufficiency
the following,
there."
In such expressions as
that is
Such, at least,is the reasoning
improperly omitted :
of the ladies,and we
they are
right." "The
suppose

that

there

is

"

proper
the

is

wording

ladies, and

"

we

Such,
the

is not only correct,

frequent,
The

evident

doubtless

led

that

suppose

conversation, however,
misuse
many

least,is the reasoning of

at

they

of the

In

too

preferable.

relative
to

persons

right."

of that, if not

omission
but

are

omit

have

that has

pronoun

it,where

otherwise

employed it. The

Spectator,"in an
article headed, "The
of Affironted
Just Remonstrance
That," and referringto the use of that as supplying the
who and which, concludes
thus :
placesof the pronouns
I am
not againstreforming the corruptionsof speech

they

would

"

"

you

mention, and

introduction

own

of other

there
words

are

proper

besides

reasons

that ; but I

for the
scorn

as

supply the placeof a who or a which at every

turn, as they are
unequal always to fillmine; and I
expect good language and civil treatment, and hope to
much

to

GRAMMAR.

ECLECTIC

receive it for the

That, that I shall only add

Yours, That"

that I am,

which

from
for

stand

future

or

to either

reference

That

in the

clause

IO3

as

relative is distinguished

followinginstances

It cannot

It may
be
things. It cannot

used

sentence.

or

persons

is,

in

take

This is the assertion

prepositionbefore it. We may say,
I object;" but we
to which
must
say: *'This is the
assertion that I object to'' It is in closer connection
with the immediately preceding noun.
The difference is
clearlyIllustrated by comparing the followingsentences:
"

'

"*

There

was

hotel

next

door

which

was

hotel

next

door

that

that

the

"There

first

The

being

sentence

door

next

sentence

means,

That, when
it should

not

It may

name.

that

simply

means

be

the

constituted

introduced

an

was

itself

of who

the
the
was

hotel

sec9nd
a

sance.
nui-

be omitted

object,may

instead

nuisance."

fact of

immediately

be often used

nuisance."

nuisance;

the hotel

it refers to

was

after
or

proper
whichy for

variety.
should

We
is

me;''

be

me

"It

"

The

mean."

you

the

you and //"

should
read thus:

They

use

you

of //

subject of
The

using such expressions as;

"Between

"Between

you mean."
indefinite

being,or

of

It is him;"

is he;"

whom

beware

verb

must

as

and

me;"

"

"

It

It cannot

"It

"It cannot

is //"
be

expressionfor a state of
jectionable
discourse,is,however, unoban

agree

with

the it; as, "// is

they." The most

frequentabstract use of //
possible
// is imappears in appositionto general phrases; as,
to say," and
as
representingnatural processes ;
as, "//rains;" "//blows."
The
objectiveabsolute, found in Milton, is obsolete.
But an entire clause,thrown
be
into the objective,
may
I;" "//

is

"

GRAMMAR.

ECLECTIC

104

introduced
went

here

by

relative

in

the

speaking to who would

for those who.
elliptical
on

Numbers

Wrong

are

nominative;

with

or
qualifyingclauses,and
intervening,
or

of nouns,

group

is mistaken

Who

listen to kim"

often met

for the

"He

as,

when*

there

the nearest

is

are

noun,

nominative

; as,

of
good;" "A plurality
subjectsrequirea pluralverb;" "The dropping of superfluous
words
an
are
improvement of style;" He was
but he is far from
fonder of nothing than wit and raillery,
"The

taste

of the

were

grapes

"

being happy
as

follows:

in it!'
"The

Corrected, the
taste

of

the

sentences

grapes

was

would

read

good;"
"

"A

The
pluralityof subjects requires a plural verb ;
is an
improvement of
dropping of superfluouswords
style;" He was fonder of nothing than wit and raillery,
but he is far from being happy in them!'
force of
The collective force of and, or the disjunctive
Both
minister
and
following:
or, is ignored in the
magistrateis compelled to choose between his duty and
"A
his profession;"
feeble,harsh, or obscure style are
of childhood
the helplessness
or
always faults ;" "When
make
of woman
an
the fraility
appeal." The sentences,
corrected,read thus : Both minister and magistrateare
his duty and his profession
compelled to choose between
style is always a
;" "A feeble,harsh, or obscure
of childhood
the helplessness
the
or
fault;" "When
makes an appeal." But sometimes
of woman
two
fraility
to make
as
a
single
subjectsare so closelyconnected
"All
idea; as, Hill and didXt,doth boast thy blessing
;
is dead."
and
These
is but toys;" "Renown
grace
expressionsare permissible.
is the kingThine
It is also hypercritical
to objectto
dom,
in
and the power, and the glory since each noun,
"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

ECLECTIC

turn, is regarded
"

Thine

would

be

is the

glory."

when

you

for

used

followed

by

is the

the

is ; "I

The

as

the

agree with the

in the sentence
; as,

when

as

agree

with

predicatewhen
"

The

poetry

"

"

you

is

but it must
be
plural,
vdrb.
Hence, the correct

well

rule,should

may

love and

am

in

in the

as

plural of

construction

vert),as

**

Excepting

well

as

expression

is the power, thine

well as
I am
to say,
as

erroneous

"

full

The

kingdom, thine

here."

thou

10$

the nominative.

It is

was
"

as

GRAMMAR.

reward

here."
were
you
the subject,but it

the latter

comes

of the President

first
is the

respect of his people." The

followingsentences
and show
that when
are
awkwardly constructed
possible
the couplingof a singularand a pluralshould be avoided f
The only remaining circumstance
is the principles!'
"Xhe
only other part of speech which partakesof the weakness
in conjunctionsis prepositions." The wording
remarked
"

of the
**The

sentences

should

be

altered

so

as

to

read

thus:

only remaining circumstance.'*

parts of speech prepositionsalone
the

principlesare

the other
"Among
remarked
in conjunctions."
partake of the weakness
Many collective ftouns, such as people,clique,meeting,
be followed
indifferently
league,etc., may
by either a
singularor a pluralverb, but we should be careful not to
of the verbs or pronouns
agreeingwith
vary the number
No peopleever
the same
in the same
noun
sentence;
as,
was
more
rudely assailed by the sword of conquest than
''

those of this country ;

none

its chains,to appearance,

their necks."
The mob
is

had

"

firmlyriveted around
cruel and they are ignorant." Corrected, these sentences
should
No people ever
read thus :
more
were
rudely
assailed by the sword of conquest than those of this country;
had their chains,to appearance,
more
none
firmly
more

"

riveted

around

their

necks;" "The

mob

is

cruel, and

I06

ECLECTIC

is

ignorant;**
or,
ignorant."

//

The

"The

titles of books

Jience,it is wrong
are

very

Industries

GRAMMAR.

should

to say,

instructive

of San

mob

"

are

always

*The

Francisco

'

be

is very

the

in

Industries

reading."

tAey

cruel,and

singular;

of San

It should
instructive

are

be

cisco'
Fran"

The

reading.'*

Propertyshould be returned to t/ieir

legalowners," since property is a singular,not a plural
is accordingly
The
construction
correct
:
noun.
erty
PropWriters
should
be returned
to its legalowners."
of the verb
often puzzled as to the prbper number
are
which are
followingnouns
reallyor apparentlypluralin
form, but have a singularmeaning. Alms and riches are
but commonly take the plural
not true plurals,
verb; and
does double duty, summonses
summons
having fallen into
licenses, News^
correct
as
as
disrepute,although literally
and gallows are plurals,
but are nearly
measles,small-pox,
always followed by a singularverb.
Wages should be
followed
writes Professor
Nichol; "'the
by the plural,"
distributed
men's
are
wages
every Saturday night' is
right." But we should not be led into the error of saying,
The wages
of sin are death."
The correct
wording
in this case
is, The wages of sin is death."
Concerning
odds, and pains, authorities are divided, and it is
means,
reallyindifferent whether they take a singularor a plural
constructions
mixed.
not
verb, provided the two
are
is singularin form merely^
When, therefore,
a nominative
and has a distinctly
pluralmeaning, it should be followed
The greater number
of such periods
by a pluralverb.
is ungraceful and
be :
The
obscure," should
greater
of such periodsare ungracefuland obscure."
number
A
general term, on the contrary, is erroneouslyseparated
into its component
parts in the following:"It gives
It is erroneous

to say,

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

ECLECTIC

pain

the mind

to

ful hearer, to
into

Here

the pronoun

which

thick

makes

refer to

to

the

particularstogether. It leads
wood, instead of into open
daylight.**
tJum grammaticallyrefers to particulars

and

of into open

verb:

"I

How

it leads

thus

"

into

mingle

to

thick wood

either o{

pluralof

distinguished
Let

every

should

read

;"

case

expressions

that eithef of

"

"

us

the

there;*'

were

us

have

sign of

These

certain

each, every^

the

by

"epicpoets

bear any

themselves!'
not

am

him

the distributives

positivethat

t/temselves ;''''Neither

please

mind

daylight."

far each of the three

one

gives pain to^the

improperly followed

not

am

The

the unskillful hearer

sentences

are
eitlier,
neitJier,

It

"

is meant

is hearer.

antecedent

exposes

In the annexed

"

the

thus

read

Them

construction.

together ;
particulars

instead

the unskilU

exposes

the

hearers, but

memory,

and

memory,

nonsensical

lO/

should

sentence

and

and

mingle

them

GRAMMAR.

"

there ;

was

How

himself;'*
distinguished
^^NeitJier bears any
sign of case;" "Let every one please
As well as, and none
himselfr
always take the singular.
Hence
it is incorrect to say : Homer
as well as
Virgilwere
tvell as Virgil was
be :
Homer
studied."
It should
as
None
studied."
None
[no one] have come," should,be:
and not
After a singular noun
has come."
or
pronoun
takes a singularverb.
sent,''
My poverty, and 7tot my will,conshould be:
My poverty, and not my will,consents.'*
far each of the three

epic poets

has

"

"

'*

"

"

"

Full

and

the

wrongly

flower

should

born

are

read

"

Full

to

blush
a

many

correct
unseen," is inflower

unseen;" the rule being \h^X, many

to blush

takes

many

singular.

followed
**

And

That

the

In

by

the

many

plural:
around

teach the rustic moralist

properly

couplet,fnany

annexed

holy text

is born

she
to

strews

dig

is

lOS

In

ECLECTIC

the

GRAMMAR.

line of the

second

considered,should

be

couplet teac/i grammatically

teaches,although it would ruin the

rhythm.
The
preposition with may
properly be followed by
either the singular or the plural;as, "Prosperitywith
"with
amiable."
Here
humility renders its possessor
humility is regarded as a modification of prosperity."
The
But when
two
or
more
things act together; as,
a good
President,with the Cabinet and the Congress,yZ?^/^
governrnent,"the pluralis correct.
Mood
Tense.
The most
Wrong
and
frequenterrors
of wrong
in the use
of English resultingfrom
the use
and
be avoided
moods
tenses
by attention to the
may
following rules:
the indefinite
between
Be careful to discriminate
1.
that the latter brings
pasty and the perfect. Remember
the close of the action down
to the time of speaking; as,
breakfast at ten o'clock A. M. to-day and now
I ate my
The
I have
perfectcannot
just finished my dinner."
accordinglybe properly applied to an event which is
You
referred to as complete at a past date ; as,
may
this
what
have done a year
do
ago." Corrected
you
did ^ year ago."
should
do what
read: "You
you
may
Our club
Our club has begun last Monday," should be:
marks
The past perfecttense
an
began last Monday."
He had lost his wife
event
occurringat a definite time.
"

"

"

^*

"

"

*'

"

while

he

Governor

was

his wife while

he

2.

the

Observe

generally goes
present

or

he

past

future tense.
"

of

sequence

with

illustrate the rule

of

No

The

"

Nevada;"

or,

/i^i"/
had

He

of Nevada."

Governor

was

be: "He

Nevada," should

Governor

was

lost his wife when

of

tenses

tense

:
a

past

present

tense

with

followingexamples

writer would

write

book

will

unless

GRAMMAR.

ECLECTIC

he thinks it will be read."

would

be

thought it would
a

book

months

the

at

The

morning."

every

six months

while

circulated

"

the

But

American
which

under

be

before

the

is

that

We
events

carrier

that

before

mail

steamer

may

in vivid

world

new

savannahs
The

use

attention.

its institutions

be

week

// will

describe

nears

from

shore

the
the

past

; as, "When

us

of

and

scenes

America,

livingpicture:
with her palm

can

cbes not
groves

the
we

the
and

V
of the infinitive after
When

it expresses
at

the

time

verb

be

verb requires
principal

that which
indicated

is either future
the

by

tense, it should

be in the present ; as, "I intend

intended
"He

parted,"
de-

week

"A

actuallybefore

clothe his form

contemporary

;"

elapses

shall have

Europe

no

frequently

that

man

will

formed

"A

be

clusively
ex-

the influences

verb, whether
"He

is

longer be

"But

so

should

narrative

were

man

was

elapses
returns, and so it frequently
happens
for Europe has departed."

carrier

if they

it

country

no

to

are

for

steamer

incorrect,and

separate the

or

mail

of Columbus

bark

read

and

returns,

the

as

will

formed

its institutions

in almost

which

under

;"and should

Before

"

followingsentence

exclusivelyAmerican."

longer
happen

influences

liave been

to

were

The

every

known

of the

six

it circulates
be

would
was

limits

morning."

every

incorrect

the

at

in almost

country

form

correct

he

write

Before

"

read."

the

past the paper

were

town,

every

limits of

unless

-wntQYwill

known

ze^rw

construction

book

No

"

it zt'///be

past the paper

were

; while

town

thinks

he

write

read," or else

be

unless

the proper

Here
would

writer

No

**

IO9

to

in the

write;" "He

appears

to

have

present

seems

studied

to

;"

"

principal
the

or

be
He

to
a

past

write;"
literary

appeared

ECLECTIC

no

GRAMMAR.

These
appeared to have studied."
all correct expressions. But, I found
him
belter
I expected to have found him," is not correct.
similar to saying :
It is long since I commanded
"He

Study;"

to

are

than

"

It is
him

**

to

have

him

The

it."

done

better than

expected

I commanded

since

further

him

illustrated

should

sentences
to

find him
do

to

read
"

"

and

The

it."

"

I found

It is

error

long
be

may

in the

"

I expected
followingexamples :
from the promises of the Governor
to Iiave seen
the bank paying in gold ;" They, supposing him to have
been in the company,
this
went
a day'sjourney;" "Had
"

been

the fate of

celebrated^

Tasso, he would

Corrected, these

have

been

able

would

sentences

expected from the promises of the Governor

bank
They, supposing him
paying in gold ;
the company,
went
a
day's journey;" "Had
"

the fate of
The
I

have

that letter I hadx\o\, the

wrote

been

rule is applicable
to the

same

"

When

having

heard

his

Where

other, we
the
time

there

are

should

"

not

two

carry

clauses,one
our

thoughts back
what

of the subordinate

verb

bears to it

I wrote

that

to

the

make; but poetry

the license of introducingit; as,
Bid

Thy

me

to

live,and

Protestant

to

I will live

be."
I5y
Digitized

of

time

relation

after bid,dare,feel,
fiear,
let,and

the

to

in prose
usuallyprecedesthe infinitive,
after the auxiliaryverbs, and
omitted

**

read

pleasureof

subordinate

consider

assumes

"When

pleasureoi hearinghissentiments."

then

is

this been

should

the

When

verb, and
principal

To, which

be in

to

celebrated

to

the sentence

sentinients,"or,

letter I kadnothadXhc

the

to see

participle
; as,

that letter I had

wrote

able

"I

timents."
ofhearinghxssenpleasure

Properlyconstructed
thus

be

"

Tasso, he would

have

to,

the

position
com-

also
times
some-

GRAMMAR.

ECLECTIC

HI

is often a
elliptical
expression after an auxiliary,
of error
The
followingfacts mayy or have
; as,

An

"

source

been adduced

as

concord

have

with

In

reasons."

should

we

will

published." The
only power that ^v^r

be

is the

seductions,"is
is the

book

has, is,or

has

that
power
these seductions.''
be

of the

vice

"

"

The

reasons."

as

will

be

lished,"
pub-

been,is being,or

will combat

read

"

has

ever

thus

no

Religiousprinciple

ever

or

should

only

will combat

has

sentence,

and

wrong,

read

been adduced

book

has

may

have

The

"

say

sentence

it should

been,and

followingfacts may be,or

of saying, "The
Instead

this

these

ciple
Religiousprin-

combated, or

ever

Polygamy never has and

great body of the people,"
**

never

can

should

can
be,
Polygamy never has been,and never
of the great body of the people."
is seldom
used
Subjunctive Mood
by some

vice
The

read

a
"

"If it is," If it be,"

writers.

"

"

If it

"

rains," If it rain,"

almost

But the following

indifferently.
general
rules may
be given :
Use the indicative where
there is
real uncertaintyabout
the condition
no
being fulfilled ;
the subjunctivewhere you
as, "//"virtue is good." Use
disbelieve
in the condition
being realized,or protest
against its acceptance ; as, "7/"virtue feeble were ;'* ^'If
she be a traitor,
why, so am I ;" "7/"he desert his friends
The
to save
himself,he is a coward."
subjunctivemay
be used with proprietyin reference to future events about
are

used

which
O
*^

there

Caesar!

Though

would,

be

must

thou

mayst

the world

could,

his prose we
rather: "Of
favorable."

or

doubt;

should.

might
his prose

say
we

Also

live."

frown,

care

We
much

might

"7/" thou

as.

after

not;" also
should

that

was

say much

read

this,

though; as,
after might,

not

say,

"Of

favorable,"but
that

would

be

ECLECTIC

112

of much

confusion, Goold

Grammars,"

the indicative

form

Brown, in his
idea of

The

"

says

which

subjunctivemood,

the

Concerning

GRAMMAR.

is

"

source

Grammar

of

subjunctivemood

in

utterlyinconsistent with any just

notion of what
mood
a
is,and the suggestionwhich we
with, that the regular indicative,or
frequentlymeet
into the subjunctiveby
be thrown
.potentialmood, may
is something worse, than
a conjunction,
merely prefixing
is

Indeed,

nonsense.

without

mood

another

mood

no

the

Yet, strange
misled

by

producingsuch
been
The

surdity.
ab-

authors,

of them

together,

yet

never

have

can

being thoroughly ridiculous.

in English is virtuallyretrue
jected
subjunctivemood
later grammarians, who, nevertheless,
by some

other

All

tongue.

all that should

as

the

name

has

is

claimed

peculiarto

it a distinct

obsolete

the

for it in any

subjunctive,

mood, they represent

antiquated mode
they willingly
give to it every
and

of

or

the
follow

sometimes

and

greater number

been

ever

constitute

indicative

which

that

that

archaism, an
while

moods

as

and

celebrated

three

tenses

part of

without

understood

acknowledge under
varietyof forms than

both

is,some

tangled

snarl of

be made

ever

grossest confusion

it

as

ifyhave

an

can

the
potential,
an

pression,
ex-

form

of

other

two

if^'etc.

tive,
singularand a pluralnominaconnected
by a disjunctiveparticle,
require a verb
and the pluralnominative
in the plural,
should be placed
Neither
the verb ; as,
the captainnor
the sailors
next
Miscellaneous.

"

were

saved."
It is sometimes

difficult

to

determine

plurality.It is
the pluralwhere
manifestlyrequired.

unity or
expresses
better to use

now

the

whether

noun

sidered
generally conlingularis not

ECLECTIC

When

and

men

GRAMMAR.

women

II3

included

are

in

reference,

the pronoun,
being in the singular,should be masculine.
because
This usage
is allowed
the English language is
of

destitute
which

of

pronoun

apply to
is presumed to

either sex,

may

be the

third

the

and

better

singular

person

because

the

line
mascu-

of bofh
representative

sexes.

for^when
preposition

The
or
"

should

purpose,
He

went^r

to

her."

motive

to express

the infinitive; as,

It should

"

read

He

went

to

her."

'

see

is transitive,
is often

Leave, which

verb ; as,
"

before

be used

not

see

employed

I shall leave the

Subject
that which
the

about
A

spoken of is the
subjectis called the

cither

Phrase
a

rather
"She

its

to-day," instead

of

Verbs,

for
grammatical term
is said
subject
; that which
predicate.
a

well

which

sentence

predicate,but
as

which

sentence

contains

predicate.

part of

subjector

Neuter
manner

section of

is that

is

transit
in-

an

The

is

subjectand

leave

as

cityto-day."

Predicate.

"

Clause

both

I shall

"

misused

as

nouns,

cannot

contain

may
contain

both.

if quantity and

not

expressed, should be qualified

by adjectives
than by adverbs; as, "It sounds loudl'not
loudly'*
of
looks beautiful,''
The
not
error
beautifully^'
is

^^

*'

employing

the adverb

instead

of the

adjective in

such

misapprehension of the meaning of

the verb to look in this phraseology. It here has its
neuter
meaning of seeming. It does not mean
strictly
the act of looking, but the fact of appearing; and
of the phrases cited
all question about
the accuracy
the proper
will disappearwhen
meaning is made plain
For
example, no one would
by a substituted word.
cases

arises from

ECLECTIC

114
think

of

saying:

"

GRAMMAR.

He

beautifully."Adverbs
what is or seems
to be.
qualifywhat is done ; adjectives,
Is BEING.
Relative to the grammaticalaccuracy
of the
of the verbal form is beingsthe authorities are divided.
use
The

Reverend

Peter

seems

Bullions,in his "Grammar

of the

is properly no
English Language," says: "There
sive
pasform, in English,corresponding to the progressive
.

form

in the active

voice,except where

it is made

by

the

ing in a passive tense; thus, *The house is

participle
is selling,*
building* The garments are making* Wheat
An attempt has been made
etc.
by some
grammarians, of
late,to banish such expressionsfrom the language,though
they have been used in all time past, by the best writers,
and
defend a clumsy solecism,which
has
and to justify
been
recentlyintroduced, chieflythrough the newspaper
press, but which has gained such currency, and is becoming
familiar to the ear, that it seems
so
likelyto prevail,
and deformity. I refer to such
with all its uncouthness
expressionsas, The house is ieinghuilt;* The letter is
deing written ;* The mine is beingworked;* The news
of expression
This
mode
is being telegraphed,'etc.
had no existence in the language tillwithin the last fifty
Grammar
was
publishedin 1867.] This,
years. [Bullions'
would
make
it
the expression wrong
not
indeed
were
otherwise
unexceptional; but its recent origin shows
form."
The
that it is not, as is pretended,a necessary
fessor
Reverend
Mr. Bullions is supported in his views by ProGrant White, George P.
L. T Townsend, Richard
Hall. The weightof authority
Marsh, and Dr. Fitzedward
is undoubtedly against the use of is being,but it appears
to be sanctioned
by custom.
Double
Negatives
are
equivalent to an affirmative.
The Greek and the Latin idiom by which they strengthen
*

ECLECTIC

IIJ

GRAMMAR.

negation is not applicableto the English language.

The
Shakespearean license, Be not too tame neither/!
is obsolete.
Such expressionsas :
Neither William
nor
Alfred never
gave John permission ;" Do not loan him
of your books ;" It will not rain I do not think,"
none
are
ungrammatical, and should be : Neither William
Alfred ever
not loan
nor
gave John permission;" "Do

"

"

"

"

"

him

of your

any

books;" "I do
adverbs

Ever, Never, etc., are

**

; as,

is

seen

The

We

to have
cannot

it will rain."
often

are

placed
mis-

it"

seen

remember

The
to

ever

it."
Them

Pronoun

those;

**

think

which

remember

7iever

constructon

correct

have

We

not

"

as,

Them

is

frequentlymisused
large." Here
boys are
llwse boys are large,"
or,

for these
the

or

correct

would

usage

be:

"

"

These

boys

large."

are

Me, Him, and

pronouns

Them,
/, he, and

the

of the perobjective cases

sonal
they,are often incorrectlyused

forms, my, his,and their; as, I do not

possessive
like him
staying out so late at night." The sentence
should be: "I do not like his staying out so late at night."
These
We infer
sentences
convey entirelydifferent ideas.
for the

from

the

"

former, that the person

referred to is not

liked

night,but that he is liked when

not
stayingout late at night. This, however, is not the
the speaker disidea intended
likes
to be expressed. What
is not the person when
staying out late at night,
late at night. The use
but the person'sstayingout
of
him
their depends upon
and
them
his and
the
or
him
idea
I saw
sought to be conveyed.
dancing,"
that I saw
I saw
his
means
him, and he was
dancing.
that I saw
and noted the qualityof his
dancing," means,
that
I did not notice them
dancing.
passing,"means
when

staying out

late at

"

"

"

Il6

as

ECLECTIC

they passed,I

did not

notice

escaped my

did not

their

GRAMiMAR.

take

any

notice of them.
that

passing,"mqans,

their

"

passing

observation.

though often heard, is incorrect,because

requires the
you^ being the plural form of the pronoun,
You
is the correct
were
pression.
expluralform of the verb.
You

Was,

"

"

PHILOSOPHY

OF

117

RHETORIC.

PHILOSOPHY

OF

familiarity

meaning

in the

the

section

essential

and

unable

rhetoric

style, that

in

this

of rhetoric

in

with

and
to

prose

to

the

the

it has

had
a

whether

please,
We
with

reference

spoken

may
a

and

all

to

to

of

written,

the

to

The
to

are

comprehended

of

be

ince
prov-

of
be

may

We

strength.
the

treat
a

subject
spirit,

pedantic

will

be

also

given
and

versification, punctuation,

appropriately begin
definition

yet

principles applicable

the

attention

significance.

are

to

to

purity, propriety, harmony,

solely

or

and

able

is the

ideas

our

than

rhetoric^ which

word

far wider

rather

Due

laws

style, the

Primarily
Greek,

relative

book,

our

reference

composition.

of

of

be

attributes

higher

brevity,

philosophical

particular

rules

unity

section

It

the
may

and

accuracy,

writing

or

We

language,

the

us

all of

not

intelligibly.

clearness,

by

in

purpose,

of

teach

to

explained

as

are

edge
knowl-

composition.

grammatical

conversation

characterized

of

art

ourselves

express

Syntax,

Grammar,"

command

with

write

to

of

in the

excellent

an

and

Etymology

their

in

and

Vocabulary,"

"

Eclectic

"

on

elements

possess

speak

of

laws

the

difference

the

and

words

in

taught

as

of

with

RHETORIC.

terms.
119

our

is
art

in the
treatment

of

ends

inform,

the

from

derived

of oratory,

chief

etc.

but

now

language,

persuade,

to

study
of

of
the

to

rhetoric.

subject

Style
is

OF

PHILOSOPHY

I20

relates

thought as
by Professor

to

lucidlydefined

choice

and

author's

and
of

meaning

Mathews

be

to

shall

as

secondly,such
of sentence

structural grace

language,and

to

as

such
beauty; and, lastly,

such

the

balance

the

logical

of clause

shall

the
satisfy
propriety,economy,
as

"

convey

clearlyand exactlyin

most

ideas ;

well

of words

arrangement

of the

order

RHETORIC.

sense

and

business-like
elegance of expression as shall combine
brevitywith artistic beauty." "Style," says Professor
Nichol, is the art of choosing words, settingthem in
in paragraphs. It is
sentences, and arranging sentences
*
*
*
the architecture of thought. *
Style varies
"

suit the

to

and

the temper

subjects. *
different

of various

circumstances
and

conduct,

"

various

occasions

call for

demand

ent
differ-

themes

hand."

glove fitsthe

is similar to

Diction

men,

Styleshould be as natural
place,and the person, as a

dress,and fitthe time, the

as

and

handle

we

different

As

different

so

treatment.

in which

manner

nations

Style,but

relates

language
to
a single

to

alike
applicable
composition. In a rhetorical
sentence, or to a connected
to
the selection and
particularly
sense, it applies more
It is

only.

general term

of words.

use

The

Barbarism.

of

use

an

impure

word

is termed

barbarism.
An

Solecism.

impure

construction

is called

sole^

cism.
Properties

The

Precision,Clearness
and

of
or

Style

Purity,Propriety,
Perspicuity,
Strength,Harmony,
are

Unity.

Purity
as

consists in the

properlybelong

use

to

of such words

and

tions,
construc-

the

the

language.

genius of

"
.

Digitized
by

PHILOSOPHY

It may

violated

be

OF

by

the

use

RHETORIC.

of the

121

barbarism

or

the

solecism.
Propriety

is the

avoiding of vulgarisms,or undignified

and low expressions,
and the employing of words
only in such acceptationsas are authorized by good usaga
Precision

meaning, and

exact

by

lies in the

use

of such words

in the

convey

the

It is often violated

nothing more.

lack of discrimination

as

use

of words

seemingly

synonymous.
rangement
impliesthe use and arof such words and clauses,as distinctly
indicate
ness
the meaning of the writer.
The faults opposed to clearare
obscurity,equivocation,and ambiguity.
of all superfluous
Strength
lies in the rejection
words,
the judiciousarrangement of important words, the logical

Clearness

construction

or

Perspicuity

of ideas, etc.
is the smooth

Harmony
the ear, and

consists

words, and

in the

the

and
use

easy

and

flow which

arrangement

adaptation of

sound

to

pleases
of

phonious
eu-

sense

to one
requiresthe restriction of a sentence
modified by only such accessories as
leadingproposition,
are
materiallyand closelyconnected with it.

Unity

rhetorical figures,
principal
sixteen in number, are
Simile,Metaphor, Apostrophe,
Hyperbole,Metonymy, Synecdoche, Personification,
agery,
Interrogation,Exclamation, Antithesis,Vision or ImOmission, Onomatopoeia,.
Irony, Paralipsisor
Rhetorical

Allegory,and

Figures.

The

Climax.

comparison of one object to another,

and is generallydenoted
Example:
by like,as, or so.
He shall be like a tree planted by the water."
of two
Metaphor
indicates the resemblance
objects
Simile

is the

**

by

the

of
application

the

name,

or
attribute,

act

of

c"ie

OF

RHETORIC.

He

shall be

PHILOSOPHY

122

the other; as,

to
directly

**

planted by

tree

the water."
Apostrophe

is the

turning

from

the

regular source

subjectinto an invocation or address ; as, O deaths

where
is thy sting? O grave, where is thy victory?"
Hyperbole
or
impliesthe exaggeration of attributes,
the assigning
of a wonderful
act
to a subject
or impossible
the result of ardent
as
emotion; as, "And
trembling
of

"

Tiber

divqd beneath

Metonymy

is the

related ; as,

"

exchange of names
Gray hairs (oldage) should

Synecdoche
for that
that of

consists in the

of the

Example

whole,

part, or of

his bed."

"

of the

or

use

name

definite for

of the

an

things

between

be

respected."
of

name

of the

part

whole

for

indefinite number.

sail

(ship)approaches."
Personification
is the attributingof sex, life,or
action to an inanimate
gence
object,or the ascribingof intellior
personalityto an inferior creature; as, **The
of his intent,harangued him thus,"etc.
aware
worm,
Interrogation
indicates the asking of questions,
not
for the purpose
mation,
of expressing doubt or obtaining inforbut to assert
of what
is
strongly the reverse
asked ; as, "Does
God
pervert judgment?"
Exclamation
lies in the expression of some
strong
:

of the mind

emotion

"

; as,

Oh

! the wisdom

and

mercy

of God!"
.

Antithesis

is the

placingof oppositesin juxtaposition

for the purpose
of heighteningtheir effect by contrast
;
Though g-ravey yet trifling
as,
yet untrue^
; zealous
Vision
Imagery
of past
or
impliesthe representation
and objects,
events, or imaginary scenes
as
actuallypresent
**

to

the

Rubicon,

senses

and

"

; as,

enters

Caesar

Italy."

leaves

Gaul,

crosses

the

OF

PHILOSOPHY

RHETORIC.

I23

of
expression af the reverse
what
is intended ; as,
etc*
Cry aloud, for he is a g^od,"
is the pretended suppression
Paralipsis, or Omission
of what is actuallymentioned
I say nothing of the
; as,
notorious profligacyof his character."
Onomatopceia
indicates the use of a word
or
phrase
Irony

the

in

consists

"

"

formed
"

The

buzz

of the bees ;"

Allegory

lies in the

for the

"

is

serpents."

of fictitious events

narration

of

is the arrangement

clauses,members,
weakest

shall

the

of the

thus make

hiss of the

conveying or illustrating
important
ample,
Pilgrim'sProgress,"by John Bunyan, for exan
allegory.

Climax

end

The

"

thing signified
; as

of

purpose

truths.

of the

the sound

imitate

to

in

sentences

or

stand

succession

such

that

first,and

the

that

each, in turn,

shall rise in

sentence,

way

of words^

to

importance, and

deeper impression on the mind than that

which preceded it ; as,
Shall tribulation,
or
persecution,
or
famine, or the sword ?" etc.
a

"

The

Climax

series of words
that

Sound

of

lies in the arrangement

clauses

or

the shortest

shall

according

first; as,

come

their

to
"

He

was

of

length,so
a

good^

noble,disinterested man."
Epigram
truth
as, "You
statues

may
under
are

not

of Brutus

be defined

as

short

sentence

ing
express-

of incongruity;
amusing appearance
only vicious,you are virtuous ;'* "The
and
Cassius were
conspicuousby their

an

absence,'*

PURITY.

Every
may
I.

violation of

be attributed
The

use

to

purity is

termed

of obsolete

words.

barbarism^ and

PHILOSOPHY

124

2*

The

3.

The

4.

The

5.

The

generaluse of technical terms.

of foreignwords, and phrases.
use
of newly coined words.
use

6.

The

use

when

provincial,or

It is sometimes

has become

or

sions.
expres-

of banishment.

in

occasionallyused
of ancient

difficult to

obsolete,for words

the verge

on

the characters

slangwords

of solecisms.
Words.

word
when

of

use

Obsolete

are

RHETORIC.

OF

may

Obsolete

poetry, in burlesque,and

times, where,

as

they

harmonize

say

be

called
re-

words
in

ratives
nar-

with

peculiarly
appropriate. In all other composition, however, they
\i peradventurehe should deny my
should be shunned.
request." Here the word peradventure is obsolete,and
should give place to a current
English word such as perchance.
and

objectsdelineated,they are

"

The

Use

of

Provincial

phrases,although sometimes

or

Slang

tolerated

Words,
in

and

conversation,

in written
composition.
generally avoided
But it is permissible
to employ them
grammatically,as in
of Shakespeare,the Scotch of Scott,
the Irish and Welsh
In the sentence
and the Cockney dialect of Dickens.
I calculate I shall go,"calculate is a provincialism.When
/ should smile','
we
althoughthe words are correct
say,
in themselves, we
are
pression.
guilty,in their use, of a slang exshould

be

**

"

Technical

Terms,

however

appropriatelyapplied in
thought and to specialthings,

specialdepartments of
are
likelyto appear vulgaror pedanticwhen employed in
connotation,preevery*day life. Such words as quadrate,
and
reniemchiaroscuro,dynamic, apperception,
cognition,
brancer

come

under

this head.

OF

PHILOSOPHY

Words

Foreign

RHETORIC.

12$

Phrases, although allowable

and

they filla void in our language,should

place of equallyexpressiveEnglish terms.

when
in

be

may

mentioned

of

words

use

of these terms.

be used

not

The

lowing
fol-

illustrative of this class

as

and

caf^,sortie^fracaSy
phrases: politesse,
^meute, volupt^^confrlres,vraisemblance, tout ensemble,
dernier ressort,
fair accompli,
amour-propre, noblesse oblige,
of foreigntravel
Writers
etc.
coup d^tat, raison d'etre,
license in the
be granted considerable
and novelists may
The
"/

of

use

etc., also
repent,**
Newly

word

Words

New

thoughts

should
will

should

the
be

words

Criticism
*'

coined

violation of

invented

cautiously

very

when

Under

by

young
happily stated

been

be

purity.
forms, but

require new

may

purpose.

repents me','for

"//

as,

should

be

never

serve

has
principle
on

constitutes

Coined

employed.
a

foreignidioms,

others

now

isting
ex-

circumstances

no

writers.

by Pope

The
in his

correct
"

Essay

"

In words,

the
fashions,
if too new
fantastic,

Alike
Be not
Nor

as

the firstby whom

yet

the last to

or

the

old ;
new

are

tried,

lay the old aside."

of the
representatives
class
words :
catenate,
conObversely,scientist,
glarize,
burdisemasculate,
skeletonize,
conserve,
fictional,
martyrize,
apotheosed,
peripatetician,
undevelopment,
incumberment, protended,unsuccessfulness,
suicided,adoreand disgustful.
unanalogical,
ment, difficultly,

The

followingmay
of newly coined

Solecisms

be

rule will hold

same

cited

appear ih many
He sings a
expressionsas

as

different

forms,and in such
good song,^'for He sings
well.'' A
good song may be badly sung ; hence, the
meaning is different from that expressed.
"

"

126

nilLOSOPHV

of

Solecisms

similar nature

tells

"He

RHETORIC.

OF

story;"

good

in the

involved

are

"He

plays

tences:
sen-

good

fiddle."

gives law to language is thus stated by

Dr. Campbell, in his
Philosophy of Rhetoric :"
that of educated
be reputable,
It must
1.
or
people,
The

which

use

"

"

as

opposed

local

be

is either

what

is obsolete."

technical.

or

It

"

3.

ignorant and vulgar.

national,as opposed to what

that of the

It must

"

2.

to

be

must

present,

as

opposed

to

making of new
compounds, as architect-capacity
age-distant,
etc.,
self-practice,
mirror-writing,
world-system^
The

is also

purity.
using adjectivesor

affectation of

The
is also

these

of

violation

opposed
influences

language ;

"

"

purity;

to

the

in

not

knew

We

"

as,

adverbs
have

We

actual,but

tlie zvhen, but

as
we

nouns

as

to

with

do

expressed
knew

not

in
the

where''
The

use

of such

words

as

name-word, for

noun

; link-

penetrab
for imword, for conjunction; un-go-through-some-ness,
and
the words
usable,doable,
regretable,

etc., all of which

barbarisms, is also in violation of the

are

of purity.
principles

PROPRIETY.
In the
convey

use

the

of

language every word

idea which
etymology or

has prescribed.When
an

impropriety.
1.

Neglectof

2.

Carelessness

The

the
main

the proper
as

to the

rule is

and

phrase

established

should
usage

violated,the result is
of

sequence

improprietyare
of particles.

meaning

of sentence^.

sources

PHILOSOPHY

OF

RHETORIC.

12/

The

followingexamples illustrate how proprietymay

be violated
of
by a neglect of the proper sequence
timonial
particles: It was charactized with eloquence," "A tesof the merits of the book," It was an example
of the love to form comparisons," He
effort
made
an
for meeting them," They have no other object but to
have never
Some
anomalies
been exceptedagainst
come,"
by any writer,""Repetition is always to be preferred
beforeobscurity."
read: "It was
Corrected, these expressionsshould
characterized
by eloquence," A testimonial to the merits
of the book,"
It was
an
example of the love of forming
comparisons," He made an effort /^ meet them," "They
have
anomalies
have
Some
no
object hit to come,"
been taken exception
to by any
never
writer," Repetition
is always to be preferredto obscurity."
Two
verbs are often followed
by a single preposition
which
accords with only one
of them ; as,
This duty is
It is absurd to
repeated2Xidiinculcated upon the reader."
the correct
struction
consay that the duty is repeatedupon, and
is :
inculcated
This duty is repeated to and
"

"

"

**

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

upon the reader."

Proprietyrequiresthe
suited

to the idea to

of words

"

respect :

While

reig^ of
or

These
were

nineteen

Gallienus
a

natural

sentences

of such

language

expressed

proper

"

is best

as

arrangement

etc.

few

of its violation

examples

these disturbances

arrived;" "Of

mayor

peace

be

in sentences,

Followingare

use

the

there

was

zi"ere

carryingon^

tyrants under

nineteen
not

in this

who

one

enjoyeda

the
the

lifeof

deaths
should

beingcarried
tyrants under

read

"

While

on^ the mayor

the

reign

these

ances
disturb-

arrived ;" "Of

of Gallienus

there

the
was

128

not
"

life of peace

had^L

who

one

there

not

was

natural

the

reign

death;"
of

constructed
followingcarelessly

The

violations of
of ideas

or

and
propriety,

died

or

his death

sentences

either

show

"

man
"

archy
Mon-

Father

"

Ireland,effected the reform of Temperance;

in

have

One

"

stood prostrate at the foot of the church

Mathew

confusion

despaired of;"

was

also

are

gross

of attention

lack

lamentable

injuredthat

so

"I

Gallienus

life of peace

enjoyed a

or,

death."

natural

was

who

one

or

tyrants under

the nineteen

Of

RHETORIC.

OF

PHILOSOPHY

the

willfullycommitted

not

least

"

mistake;"

Sweyn, King of Denmark, and Olave, King of Norway,

invaded
England, and spreadingthemselves in bodies over
"

the
^

kingdom,

Richelieu's

raySy

committed

encircled

was
portrait

in each

of which

cruel

and

many

tlie

was

by

depredations;"
a own
of forty

of the celebrated

name

If we
would
see
forty academicians;''
riginesof this country originally
were, what
intermixture
theywould still have been,we
"

look
"

the inhabitants

to

and

the

but for
have

abo^

foreign
only

to

of Ireland ;**

west

Lost, a large Spanish blue gentleman'scloak."

The

man

reading of

correct
was

so

Monarchy was
"Monarchy^//
"

mistake
of

prostrate

;"

"

Norway,

in bodies

over

his

not

Sweyn, King

depredations;"
crown

of

^the

celebrated

"

at

the

"

One

despaired of;"
Church;"

foot of the
the

Church;"

reform

knowingly committed
of Denmark,

or,

of intempera

the least

and

Olave, King
England, and, spreadingtheir armies

invaded
the

lifewas

in Ireland,effected

I have

is thus

sentences

at the foot of the

prostrate

Mathew,

Father

these

injured that

**

"

of the south

what

kingdom, committed
Richelieu's

fortyrays,

in each

portraitwas
of which

fortyacademicians
"

and
many
encircled
the

was

;"

"

If

we

name

cruel

by

of onfi

would

Digitized
by VjOOQ

see

IC

PHILOSOPHY

OF

RHETORIC*

I29

aboriginesof this country originally

were, what
their descendants
would
but for foreignintermixture
still
of the south
be, we have only to look to the inhabitants
and west of*Ireland;" Lost, a large blue Spanish cloak,

M^hat the

"

belongingto

gentleman."

PRECISION.
Precision
in the

use

contains

is often violated

of synonymous
but a limited

by

lack of discrimination

The

words.
number

of

Englishlanguage

real synonyms,

words, so called,generally
merely resembling one
without

the

another

having usuallywelldefined
of difference. The
shades
principlehas been
treated in detail in the "Vocabulary." Its observance
of style.
is essential to exactitude
Precision
is also violated by the substitution
of the
terms
ordinarilyappliedto abstract ideas for the names
of persons.
for example, writing of Aristotle,
Shaftesbury,
him only as "the master
"the mighty
names
critic,"
genius and judge of art," the prince of critics,"the
the consummate
philologist,"
grand master of art,"and
thus confusingthe reader and leaving him in doubt as to
who is meant
by these high-soundingtitles.
The
all unnecessary
words ; he
precisewriter rejects
does not say that such a thing cannot
possiblybe, or
and necessarily
must
be, because /^jj/^/;/
necessarily
im^Xy
He
than can
and
does not, after
must.
nothing more
making a statement, repeat it without any modifications
in

meaning

and
coinciding,

"

"

"

of the

idea,in several

different clauses.

Such

called redundancies, which

are
repetitions
styleand violate precision.
The
followinginconsistent expression may

ing
unmean-

enfeeble

be

cited

PHILOSOPHY

IJO

this head

under

as

case,

It will

"

rule,that when

his pen

it is not

Here

either

rule should

RHETORIC.

OF

invariablybe
a

found

fine sentiment

be th^

to

from

comes

his own."
the

word

the

invariablyor

phrase as

be omitted.

CLEARNESS

OR

PERSPICUITY.

In general,
the absence
perspicuity
implies,
of any obscurityor ambiguity.
A
from
which
it is difficult to gather any
sentence
meaning is said to be obscure.
that leaves a doubt between
A sentence
two
meanings,
is
of more
than
is susceptible
one
or
interpretation,
ambiguous.
All of the parts of speech,if carelessly
used, are likely
to be
misconstrued, and thus cause
ambiguity. His
It is impossibletp determine,
presence was againsthim."
Clearness

or

"

from

the construction

presence is used

opposite of
"

is

in

the

whether

the word

of appearance,

sense

or

as

the

absence.

I will have

which

of this sentence,

used

verb, in which

mercy,
as
case

and

not

noun,

it would

Here
sacrifice^
scLcrifice^
for a
might be mistaken
"

mean

I will have

mercy,

"Our
sacrifice''
sympathies are divided
Arabs."
left in doubt whether
We
to the revolting
as
are
disgusting
revolting,as used in this sentence, means
has a certain property in the city."
or
rebelling."He
and

We

will not

infer from

may

either

expression,that
of specific
sure,
or
sense
what
to like nothing but

in the

since learned
this mean,
but

what

"

I have

you

this

long

since

like;''or, "I

learned
have

is used

certain
I

"

you
to

long

have
do!*

like
since

long
Does

nothing
learned

PHILOSOPHY

RHETORIC.

OF

13I

nothing except what is done by you?" "I did

The
not
speak yesterday, as I wished to have doner
either that he did
not
mean
speak as
speaker may

to

like

he

wished

not

speak,

to

have

Two

"

that

the

that

they

"

sisters desire

two

Both

wished
the

is

double

the

but

to

be

teach,but

to

to, but did

In the

language
ambiguity,both
It reallymeans
it might mean

taught.

ecclesiastical and

in the measures."
power,

there

being ambiguous.
participle

and

verb

teaching!'

sisters want

of this advertisement

he wished

that

spoken,or,

Reference

secular
is here

rule which, when

powers

made

two

to

things

concurred
of

two

sets

are

meant,

prescribesthe repetitionof the article before the second

of two
We
coupled adjectivesis broken.
say, "the pious
"the pious and profane." The rule
and the profane,"
not
is also applicableto coupled nouns.
of the disjunctive
In disjunctiveclauses the repetition
but
be employed
for
it may
particleis not requisite,
tom
emphasis ; as, Neither by law, nor by right,nor by cus"

this be maintained."

can

The

is
prepositionof has a double meaning, which
illustrated in the expressions:
Reformation
The
of
The love of God."
Luther ;
He aimed
the Presidency,"may
at nothingless than
that he aimed at 7tothing
lower than the Presidency,
mean
that he aimed
at nothing else than the Presidency.
or
"

"

"

"

All not
claim

to

is often misused
these virtues
should

sentence

virtues

are

to

rfead

be

not

are
:

for not

''Not

depended

to

all ; as, '^All who

be

all who

depended on."
lay claim to

slovenlyuse of relatives in Englishresults

ambiguity. They,their,them, his,that,which, and
of wide

confusion.

The
these

on."

The

source

lay

Following are

few

in much
it

are

examples

a
:

PHILOSOPHY

132
"The

priests transmitted
which

instruction

the

acquire;"

to

RHETORIC.

OF

the

to

ignorant population

they themselves

"Beaumont

was

accurate

so

unable

were

of

judge

all
plays, that Ben Jonson, while he lived, submitted
his writings to his censure,
his
and *tis thought used
all his plots."
if not contriving,
judgment in correcting,
the inadvertencyof young
The sharks who
prey upon
heirs are more
pardonable than those who trespass upon
ing
the good opinion of those who treat them
upon the footof choice
and
summoned
respect." "They were
compelled by their
occasionallyby their kings, when
"

wants

their

or

cannot

say

which
spirit
which

and

which

much

which

is

//

in

meets

of the
were

manner

humanity;
upon

this country,

as

strike

the

which

so

attracts

the admiration

you."

"

If

great skill in the actor, the

sentence

any

quite

great Parliament,

efficiently
among

but

people elegant

could

have

people
and

of

nothing
the

in

greatest

skillful in observations

//."

Corrected, these

priestswere

"

alluded^and

of this country, and

London, and

nay,

well

so

characteristic

world, is worked

could

has

Carnarvon

spoken with ever

of utteringthat

// which

their aid."

Lord

quite as
important to

as

to

recourse

delightto witness that enexgetic

the local authorities in this town,
distinguishes
shows that that happy system of local government
how

which

to

fears,to have

the

population too

would

sentences
means

ignorant

of
to

read

conveying
acquire it

thus:

instruction

"The
to

for themselves."

judge of plays,that so
submitted
were
long as he lived all Ben Jonson'swritings
used
his censure.
It is thought that Jonson even
to
sharks
Beaumont's
who
judgment." "The
prey
upon
the inadvertency of young
heirs are
more
pardonable
"

Beaumont

was

so

accurate

PHILOSOPHY

than

OF

the fellows who

who

RHETORIC.

the

trespass upon
with

them

graciouslytreat

I33
of

good opinion

favor

and

respect"
summoned,
by their kings,
occasionally,
"They were
when
the fears of the sovereigncompelled
the wants
or
him
have
the aid of his people."
I
to
to
recourse
how
the enermuch
I delightto witness
cannot
getic
say
spiritthat distinguishesthe local authorities in
this town.
that the happy system of local
It shows
has so well referred^
government to which Lord Carnarvon
a system
quite as characteristic of this country, and quite
as
important to this country, as the great Parliament,
men

"

which, in London,
is

worked
efficiently

with

ever

nothing

in the

elegantand
The

of

attention

3.

actor,

utteringthat

spoken

were

there

could

be

sentence

resultingfrom a confusion
in the examples cited, may
to the following precepts:

Repetitionof
equivalentnoun.

and

If it

world,

designed
but people of the greatest humanity, people
skillful in observing such delicacies of expression."
manner

1.

what

"

errors

indicated

2.

you."

among

of the

admiration

great skill in the

so

to strike any

the

attracts

of

Substitution
for that

the

antecedent

for

whereby

which, or

noun,

of

as
relatives,

be

avoided

or

by whichy if

for
participle

of the

use

by

of

for

an

that,

the relative

verb.
The

judicious use

of

ellipsesin omitting

relatives.
redundancies.

4.

Removing

5.

Altering the

6.

Separating a long sentence

7.

Turning

construction.

indirect into direct

into short sentences.

quotations.

the

The
of

the

ambiguity, in

loose arrangement

self-made

"A

The

followingsentences,

in California with

arrived

man

is the result

back, and since,he has contrived

shirt to his

to

only

one

late
accumu-

millions.

ten

over

RHETORIC.

OF

PHILOSOPHY

134

here

meaning

accumulate

is that

millions of

ten

over

intended

is that he contrived

contrived

he

dollars,but the idea

accumulate

to

over

to
pressed
ex-

ions
mill-

ten

of shirts.
"

of

The

night was

some

broom,

the hand

saw

we

that he

say

saw

came

groaning

woman

of

the hand

will be

of the construction

to the aid

and, splashingwith

he held

groaning, etc., the meaning

awkwardness

man

cry,

of

side of the water, and

other
If

he

heard

who

women

dark, and

v^ry

woman,

who

that it looks

in

both

was

clear,although the

will stillremain.

Squinting construction,as it is called,that is to

word
or
an
expression so placed in the middle,
sentence

the

the broom."

out
a

on

and

ways,

say,

of

be connected

may

lows,
precedes or with what folof ambiguity.
is a common
source
of the European
Following are examples : Though some
rulers may
be females, when spoken of altogether^
they may be correctlyclassified under the denomination
either

meaning

with

what

"

"kings.'"
The

sentence

rulers may
or,

be

that
of the European
some
mea;i
may
females when
spoken of altogether,"
etc."
'*

of the European rulers may

males,
be fe"Though some
be correctly
they may, when spoken of altogether,

classified under
"Are

these

the denomination

designs,which

any

"

kings.'

American,

in any

avow?"

and
equallyobjectionable,

is

who

man,

circumstances,ought

to

may

is bom

an

be ashamed
mean

"

to
man

PHILOSOPHY

who

RHETORIC.

OF

is born

circumstances

I35

American," etc.,or
thathe **oughtnot
inany circumstances to be ashamed," etc:
m

any

The
which

who

man

any

is this :

construction

proper

is bom

of

followingsentence

"

to

be the death of him

Ae

about

was
was

here

*'Ae would
who

and

told

He

would

rash

Are

avow

these

designs,
ought, in any

"

ambiguity arisingfrom the careless or ignorant

allustrated in the
is forcibly
personal pronouns

The

It

"

American

an

circumstances, to be ashamed

use

an

if Ae did

what

mind

the intention

be the
would

driving,but

the coachman

that Ae

take

not

care

what

Ae said."
of the writer
refer

death," should

that the Ae in
to

the

man,
coach-

his

employer to lose his life by

reference might be construed
to

cause

the

the employer.
^mean
Obscurity
Style
of

is the result of

struction,
complicatedconexcessive
verbosity,
etc.,and generally
brevity,
originatesfrom an indistinctness of conception in the

writer

or

speaker.

tilian,not

that the

but that he

must

"

Simplicity is
We

should

to

express

shun
our

Care

"

should

reader

be

taken,"says Quinunderstand, if he will,

may
understand
whether

he will

or

not."

of clearness.
important element
the use of big words when
it is possible
ideas equally well in plain idiomatic
an

English. Such attempts at f\nelanguageas the following cannot be commended, and often result in confusion :
far advanced, was
The
night,now
brilliantly
bright
with the radiance of astral and lunar effulgence."
It is far better to say,
The
night was far advanced,
and the moon
and stars were
shiningbrightly."
The
letter is the fulmination of a man
of profound
"

"

"

convictions.

It may
of events, but it is the

not

be

in its collocation

accurate

outpouring of

an

earnest

soul."

136

PHILOSOPHY

The
"It

here, stated

sense

is the

RHETORIC.

OF

letter of

is;
simplicity,
strong convictions;and

of

man

unaffected

with

mands
though perhaps inaccurate in most of its details,it comof its purpose."
respect by the evident sincerity
It is better to say love than to use
such periphrases
as,
the tender chords,or the amorous
affection.The succulent

bivalve is
be

bad

for oyster,and

substitute

preferredto exacerbate;

he died poor, to

indigentcircumstances.
Persons and things,in ordinary prose,
their plainnames.
should not
Hence
we
**

the occupant
"

as

the

of the

blind

old

bard,"

Florentine," nor

or

Gentle

When

the

attribute
the

not

to

action

referred to is

Judge

of all the earth

nothing

saw

is not

do

given

the

guished
distin-

great Epic
of

Swan
"the

and

as

Homer

Avon*\

icographe
great lex-

closelyrelated
applicable
; as,
right.^" "The

them

between

**

the

"

as

be

to

as

to

named, the rule

of Sedan

Dante

Milton

expiredin

refer to God

hffaven,"nor

to

nor

he

should

Shakespeare as "the
Will," nor to Dr. Johnson as

Iconoclast,"nor
"

of

throne

should

enrage

the

to
"

Shall

victors

the capture of

Paris."
Remote

frequent quotations are also a

of obscurity;as, "They
source
partook of the cup that
cheers,but not inebriates,"
for,"They took tea together;"
"

He

allusions

failed in

trade

one

few

were

and

and

tried

another

far between, and

and

first"for, He failed
another, and failed again."
Following is a- salient example of
worse

"

titan his

There

torches

are

academic
remembrance

or

"

of Miltiades

national

ought

his
in

one

which

his

last state

ceipts
re-

was

trade, tried

allusive

in every

struggles,of

; but

pedantry:

battle-field of
the

forever to prevent the young

sight
Themis-

or

PHILOSOPHY

"

In every

academic

or

I37

of this sentence

sleeping."The meaning

tocles from

probably:

RHETORIC.

OF

national

is

competition
which
ought

examples of well-earned success

with a desire to emulate them."
to inspire
us
Simple thingsand incidents should alwaysbe described
in simple language. Following is an example, to the
to puzzlethe reader :
contrary, likely
I found, on
examination, a contusion of the integuments
there

are

"

orbit,with extravasation of blood

which
ecchymosis of the surrounding cellular tissue,
the

under

in

state, with abrasion

tumefied

of the cuticle."

The

sort

same

was

lated
Trans-

of this sentence

plainEnglish,the meaning
doctor found a patientwith a

into

that the

and

black eye.
of stilted language is often found

metaphysicaltreatises and

art criticisms.

is

in

Lord

Macaulay
has directed attention to the strong Saxon
of Dr. Johnson's
unpremeditatedremarks, such, for example, as
**The rehearsal had not wit enough to keep it sweet
;"
but really
that is,"he continued, by way of correcting,
spoilingthe sentence, it has not vitality
enough to preserve
it from
taken
we
were
putrefaction.""When
he says in a letter from
the Hebrides, **a
up-stairs,"
dirtyfellow bounced out of the bed on which one of us
incident reappeared at a later date in
to lie." The
was
the Journalin the followingpompous
and inverted form :
"

"

"

Out

there

of

one

of the couches

started

Cyclopsfrom

on

which

entrance,
up, at our
the forge."

we
a

but

use

it,too, is a

of Latin

as

minds, and

our

in

repose,

black

man,

most
to
Simple words come
naturally
attempts to displaylearningoften result
of ignorance. The almost exclusive use

not, like the extreme

to

were

an

exposure
of Saxon
does

of absurdity:
words, savor
fault of style. Plain words are

f^

138

PHILOSOPHY

the best for

plainthings,but
be discussed

daisyor

conversation, would
We

should

call

kleptomaniac;but

affectation of
With

are

be used

time

is not
greatness; fluidity

be, by

an

make
A

be.

the expression

superfluous

rule,productive of harm,
in composition.
Clearness
is often violated
by
a

repetitionof

words

or

ideas.

and

tology,
tau-

lowing
Fol-

illustrations of

there

expressions:"On
tautological
no
together^I found there was

works

comparisonbetween
I found

ordinary
obscure.

meaning

our

the distinction would

drop

needless

in

name

of

a fall into obscurity.

simplicity,

comparing these

Less

make

exceptions,the briefer we
thought, the clearer will it

not

or

"

its botanical

talk

To

terms.

propriat
ap-

spade ; a thief a thief,not a

geography is better than tion.
earth-descripspade

to

Tautology.

"

to

phrase is, as

or

should

be

subjectsmay

some

of
word

by

is different hom

Magnitude
wateriness; and

technical

in technical

wall-flower

RHETORIC.

OF

was

capacity is

them."

It would

be far better to say

comparison between these works."

required for this business, but more
no

is necessary I' should

be:

capacity,but

"Less

more

time, is requiredfor this business."

The
and

especiallythe prepositions
superfluousparticles,
conjunctions italicized in the followingexamples, if

improve the sense : He would have recoiled

aghast from beforethe idea;" ''Down until this time;"
"They may be divided up into their component parts;"
Persons who
settle upon what shall be the topicsof their
omitted

will

"

"

speeches;""As they must pass

therefore
thought;""Of the tree
and

evil, thou

butler to his

shalt not

eat

their lives
of the
"

of it;''

butlershipagain;''"The

I have,
together,

knowledge

He

of

good

restored the chief

law, and the equity^

PHILOSOPHY

the merits

and

OF

of the

;"

case

RHETORIC.

It was

"

13^

either white, or blue^

green."

or

Adverbs, adjectives,
or
qualifyingphrases the
of which

are

tautological and
examples: "The
sum

involved

should

be

most

entire

unanimous

cry;"

reflect lighton

offered

sentence

are

Following

are

whole

of the whole

trade;'*

"These

each bther ;
universal

departments mutually
They returned back again to
opinion of all men;" "Many^
the number;" "The
among
"

voluntarilyto be
of stylearise
ornaments

proper

in the

omitted.

monopoly
"

city;""The

in the

entire satisfaction;""The

total;" "The

^'One

the

already

ings
mean-

from

flow

sentiment, and
"

The
thought ;
is by studying the literature of a language
second mode
in order of time, or chronologically
beginning with the very
and
oldest written books, and coming down
to the Jatest
with

stream

same

the

current

of

"

newest!'

meaning nearly the

and
same
investigation
thing; as, currency and circulation^
inquiry institutions and governmenty welfare and prosperity
and limits pleasure and
intents and purposes^ bounds
enjoyment, courage and fortitudfyshould generallybe
The

use

of

two

or

more

nouns

Such

avoided.

collocations

are

for the purpose

between
of discriminating
allowable

unfoldingwhat is involved,or
two
possiblemeanings of a word;
of

"sense

and

and

we

construction,"in contradistinction

words

run

linked like Siamese

say:
"sense

to

and
couples,hunt in pairs,
twins,by established usage.
in

substance," head
"

this class,but it is not

none

"

and

seem

Means

examples of
multiplythese practical

front,"etc., are

desirable

to

d^

difference

exists,and thus confuse the reader.

But the

as
they
duplicates,

where

when

sensibility."

Some

and

as

are

likelyto suggest

repetitionof

of
repetition

the

clearness,and

effect in oratory ; as,

to
mean

what

is

Pleonasm

not, like

does

Pleonasm
of

the

writer; but

tautology,exactly repeat the

it adds to it nothing except

really involved in that which

is a more
deceptive fault of

tautology.
The

you

at

followingare

"

He

home

full of

come

to

see

on

7ny

went

reflections; "I shall

is the

if I have

glory of

of the chief eminences

one

any

nature, and

human

whereby

leisure

This

all other clubs with

club treats

an

eye

is

raised above

are

we

fellow-creatures,the brutes, in this lower

our

than

clearness

"

to-morrow,

hands,'' "Reason

"

pleonasms

serious

house

your

said.

been

has

great many

and

low

is littleand

that

us."

among

sense

idea is often conducive

an

All

"

sake of

for the

advisable

is often

word

RHETORIC.

OF

PHILOSOPHY

I40

world;''

^/contempt

"'

managed the affairs of the country with prudent

wealth,
policyand /r^z//^"/wisdom : "In the Attic commonof every citizen
the privilege
and birth-right
it was

'^^

He

"

and poet to rail aloud

The

words

italicized in the

be omitted.

The

above,the earth

the earth; "

our

for

"

have

We

the

beneath, and
with

our

under

waters

eyes, and

heard

with

ears!'
is also

receivingthis

information

horse, and
to

similar

expressions are
rhetorical emphasis; as, "The

seen

Verbosity

one

should

foregoingsentences

followingand

times

at
justifiable

heavens

in public!'

and

went

to town."

another, but
reconstruct

contrary

are

the

to

he arose,
The

clearness;
went

his

out, saddled

details here do not repeat

It
insignificant.
sentence

"On

as,

so

as

to

would

be

better

read

thus:

"On

he rode to town."
receivingthis information
instances of verbosityusuallyillustrate other

Extended
errors

; but

PHILOSOPHY

to

of

uncouthness

the

OF

well

remember

it introduces:

others,of which

Mr.

bulky catalogue

of

which, I

Ruskin
150

has

pages,

that half of it is spent upon

interestingreading at

very

"Besides

magnificentdrawing, of the
Italy,'
belonging to Mr. Jones, and
of the
Falls of the Clyde,'with

seeing

largestsize,called
another
grand one

I4I

followingis due, principally^

the

trivial details

the

RHETORIC;

his
any

not

word

in his

to say

which, notwithstanding

drawings,is really

own

other

time, and

at

any

other

place."
when
not
are
Very long sentences, even
tautological,
often difficult to comprehend.
The awkwardness
of the
is owing chieflyto a redundancy of
followingsentences
the intrusion of sentiment, the accumulation
adjectives,
of particles,
etc.
"Finally,Mill, the youngest of the
three
he was
but twenty-nine when
he wrote
the passage
which
I have quoted had
for several years been
and other Reviews
articles
writing in the Westminster
"

"

from

which
and

it

to

was

be

inferred

father,and
truth-loving

that
that

when

his

ageous
cour-

father's friend,

Bentham, should be gone from the earth,they would leave

fit to be an
behind them, in this heir of their hopes,one

expositorof their ideas through another

who was
likelyrather to look rightand
for himself,and

honor

generation,but

left in that generation

his descent,not

by mere
but by an open-mind.
adhesion
he had inherited,
to what
solicit contrary impressions,
and
edness that should even
break of day, in the quest
at every
push on passionately
to

of richer truth."
The

improved by thus rewritingit:

Mill,the youngest of the group, though but twenty-nine
when
he wrote
the passage quoted above, had for several
as a leading writer in the Westminster
years been known
"

sentence

may

be

PHILOSOPHY

142

other

and

Reviews.

articles it

From

the

of

father,and

tone

have

might already

of his

ideas

RHETORIC.

OF

been

his

and

qualityof
predicted that
his father's

Bentham,

the

friend,

likelyto be expounded to the next generationitr9,

manner
worthy of the bold thinkers who had originated
them.
His readers felt that John Stuart Mill was
to
sure
honor his descent
by no blind adhesion to inherited belief,
but by a keen regard to the circumstances
of his time, a
mind
various impressions,
and a zeal
to receive
ever
open
the alert for the pursuitof truth."
The
ever
on
original
were

is thus

sentence

divided

have
Long sentences
variety in an extended

skillful treatment,

three sentences.

into

their proper

place as elements of
composition; but they require
should
be avoided
by inexperienced

and

writers.

be

Circumlocutory expressionslike the following are to

avoided :
gating
Having bestowed
great pains in investithe subject,I am
firmlypersuaded that," I am
"

"

convinced

The

that," As

it is true

of

frequentuse

far

"

know,"

etc.

neverthe^
dut,though,however, stilly

less,if

I mny

follows

to muddle
another, is likely

say so,

as

to

so

speak,etc.,especiallywhen

one

the sentence

and

is

opposed

zle
puz-

the reader.
The
to

Double

clearness,is properly used

would
was

the

overstate

not

dad hit"

effectively
by
with
his

which

Negative,

some

blindness

that it would

eminent

double
writers

Lord

"meditated
not

have

etc.
virtues,'*

double

truth ; as,

The

reserve.

negative is

when

He

"

affirmative

direct
is not

unjust','It
"

negativeis also employed

to

make

Macaulay
a

commonly

song

so

strong assertion

says

that Milton

sublime

the

and

in

holy

real
lipsof those ethein the following instances
But
the
Henceforth
all
badly employed :
misbecome

"

PHILOSOPHY

orders

OF

from

emanating

not

obeyed;" "It is
beauty does not
expressionsseem

not

to

lie in
not

to

Brevity

Excessive

RHETORIC.

I43

the

be
not
ministry must
be denied
that a high degree of
simple forms;" "The
following
have the merit of not being synonymous."

also lead

may

to

violation

of

of great
the error
commonly
authors, who are likelyto forget that the reader cannot
tences.
supply the latent trcrinsof thought which link their senThe obscurityof excessive
brevity is generally
is inspired with
of ellipses
due
abuse
He
to
an
; as,
of that function,"instead of
He is inspired
a true
sense
of the importance of that function."
with a true
sense
I look upon
as
a
Arbitrary power
greater evil than
is a happier state of
much
as
a savage
as
anarchy itself,
life than
cannot
a
galley-slave."We
properly call a
of life,
or
a state
a
though we may
galley-slave
savage
The obscurityof the sentence
their conditions.
compare
is removed
by supplying the omitted words so as to make
I look upon
it read thus: "Arbitrary power
as
a greater
clearness.

It

is

more

"

"

**

the state of a savage

much
as
as
anarchy itself,
is happier than that of a galley-slave."
the contrary, may
on
or
Connecting particles
pronouns,
often be omitted with advantage to clearness; as, "Man
God disposes;" "I told you I would
go myself;"
proposes;
I known
have
"Had
the danger, I would
not

evil than

"

gone

served
after

"

my

Had

I but served

king." Here,

zeal,and

there is

not

God

my
"with
any

with half the zeal I

which"

ambiguity.
the remedy

is understood

for obscurity;
commonly
thus, Pope professedto have learned his poetry from
an
Dryden, whom, whenever
opportunity presented,he
with
praised through the whole period of his existence
Condensation
"

is

PHILOSOPHY

144

unvaried

RHETORIC.

OF

and
liberality;

perhaps

his character

ceive
re-

may

comparison be instituted
between
him and
the man
whose
tence
pupil he was;" a senand improved :
which may
be thus condensed
Pope
he lost no
professedhimself the pupil of Dryden, whom
opportunity of praising;and his character is illustrated
by comparison with his master."
Obscurity may be remedied, sometimes, by paraphrase*
The
the
word
be used. Consistentlywith
cannot
same
in the same
principlesof clearness,in different senses
and
more
convincing
sentence; as, "He
presents more
than his adversary." Here
the word
more
arguments
first occurs
as
an
adjective,then as an adverb, to the
illustration if

some

"

great confusion
"

He

presents
than

the

of the reader.
more

his

same

refer

to

and

numerous

are
relatives,

arise from

Inversions

most

**

are

"When
To

in this way.

firstof women,

Turned

and

made

to

omissions.

poetry;

as,

first of men,

Adam,

him

in

common

particularly

pronouns,
often misused

inversions

read

convincingarguments

more

a
as
rule, should not be
pronoun,
different objectsin the same
sentence.

Obscurity may

The

should

sentence

adversary." The

personalsand

The

The

all

Eve,
tar

thus

moving speech,

to hear new

flow."

non-repetitionof the subject,

scurity.
often strains the attention and causes
a
degree of obAdverbs
when
inverted
for
misplaced,or even
emphasis, may
obscurity;as, "He left the
easilycause
not
to
room
slowly repeating his determination
very
obey." Care should be taken to place the adverb as
and in
near
as
possibleto the word which it qualifies,
such a position,
either before or after,that it cannot
Be
taken

omission, or

to

qualifyany

rather

utterance

other

word.

RHETORIC.

OF

PHILOSOPHY

I45

often causes
ambiguity; as, "I
participles
in New
I was
old school-fellow
saw
an
yesterday when
York
Broadway, valise in hand."
walking down
when
Infinitives,
carelesslyused, are ambiguous and
The

of

use

detrimental

help me

to work

Does

this

help

me,

to

sort

to

clearness ; as,

to

to send

work,

or

help

play?" or,

me,

that

to send

play?" or,
help me,

to

or

"

Do

I may

your

"

intend

you

that he may

son

that he may
to

Do

work,

to

or

your

son

your

"

mean

to send

intend

yo

play?

to

or

Do

"

"

son,

your

Do

intend

you

that

or

he

work,

or

may

to send

intend

you

or

that

I ,may

play?"

STRENGTH.

Strength,in
We

its technical
add

may

originalityand

that the

fined.
already been deof strength lies in

has

sense,
essence

the

vividness, and

all of the elements

substantially
and Perspicuity. The
Precision,

comprehends
of Purity,Propriety,
rejectionof supei*fluous

words, which,

is

of

precision,is

have

we

as

seen,

essential

to

nothing to the meaning

its strength,and whether

of

or

The
no
"

term

of the

one

strength.
a

elements
adds

Whatever
detracts

sentence

from

it be

simply a word, a phrase,

clause, should be rejected.
italicized words
in the followingexamples convey

additional

Being

meaning, and

satisfied with
"

nothing further;
here, it would

''

not

should

what

If I

had

have

accordinglybe

omitted:

he has
not

achieved, he attempts
been absent,if I had been

happened

"

"

The

with inward
discovery of it strikes the mind
spreadsdelightthrough all its faculties^

first
joy, and

very

146
Relatives
to

not

the

guilty in
useful

of the reach

out

more

the

should

which

words

is

are

understood

of sentences

Parts

that

of

puts

so

men

qualitygenerally

people,and

is,in
and

the word

Here

be noticed

that

after talent^
near

the

also

is

conjunctionor
first clause

the

connect

talent

no

which

or

that the

and

is

with

follows.

that which

conjunction or
a

world,

of fortune,than

beginning of the sentence,

to
accordinglyintroduced

was

There

"

possessedby the dullest sort

language,called discretion."
It will
give place to which.

common

junction
con-

latter fault Swift is

relattve;of which

risingin

the

conjunction,or

followingsentence

toward

be taken

should

Care

for the

relative

the

use

RHETORIC.

Conjuctions.

and

for the

the

OF

PHILOSOPHY

should

be

relative pronoun,

of fine abilities,
and

man

of

improving
since
rejected,

connected

them

but not
who

by study."

the connection

lost
Here

by

either

He

by

both.

no

opportunity

who

"

be

should

Between
by and.
relative clauses,however, i,conjunction is generally
two
the profligatefeared, but
employed; as, "Cicero, whom
honored
who was
by the upright,"etc.
The
Not

Too

only

also when

is made

Use

Frequent

of

And

employed to introduce a sentence,

often repeated during its progress,
this
greatlyweakens
style. It is used no less

the

amuse

them

from

this into

wits

of that

raking into
; and

vogue

age, been

ayid

be avoided.'

when

eight times in the followingsentence

Temple: "The Academy set up by
to

should

his
the

age

and

from

French

divert

ministry,brought
have, for this last

wholly turned to the refinement

language ; and, indeed, with such success

than

Richelieu,

country, and

wits

junction
con-

Sir William

Cardinal

and
politics

but

of their

Digitizedby

style

that it

VjOOQ

can

IC

PHILOSOPHY

be

hardly

equaled,and

RHETORIC.

I47
their

equally through

runs

verse

their

and

prose."
conjunction is
the object is

The
when

object to

one

that each

should

am

nor

to

it is

another

be

shall

creature

not

from

distinct

be

making

the
too

the

of
an

transition

rapid, but

rest, the

junction
con-

with

peculiaradvantage; as,
death, nor life,nor angels,

neither

nor

powers,

height, nor
able

succession

that

important
should

repeated

nor

come,

quick

fine effect,

with

the contrary, *when

on

persuaded that
nor
principalities,

things

present

appear

be

may
I

to

in which

enumeration

from

often opiitted,and

But,

spiritedimages.

**

OF

to

things present, nor

depth, nor any other

separate

from

us

love

the

of God."
The

Splitting

that

Particles,

of

is, the

tion
separa-

which
it governs,
prepositionfrom the noun
is illustrated in
The
should
error
always be avoided.
the following sentence:
virtue borrows
no
"Though
of

/r^w, yet it may often be accompanied by the

It should read
thus :
Though
advantages of fortune."
the advantages of
assistance
from
borrows
virtue
no
fortune,yet it may often be accompanied by them."
used
in the. following
Expletive
The
There,
as
There is nothing which
be avoided :
should
sentence,
assistance

"

"

disgustsus

sooner

briefer and

be

of

empty

of

pomp

language."

stronger expressionpf the sentiment

would

than the empty

Nothing disgustsus sooner
pomp
of
is
this
expletive
permissible
language." The use
"

only

when

it is used

Arrangement

of

of

to

introduce

Emphatic

emphatic
strength. They may

arrangement
to

the

than

words

an

important
The

Words.
in

sometimes

sition.
propo-

proper

sentence

is essential

be

at

placed

the

148

beginning of

ation, taken

in

At
a

the

sentence; as,

of sense,

those

for

OF

PHILOSOPHY

refined

as

"On

as,

what

whatever

words

the

sense

of

close

the

at

contemplate
wonderful in^

we

is his

us

as

gross

suspend

to

side

principallystrikes

so

ing."
of the understand-

those

bring the emphatic

sentence;

not

are

times, it is advisable

other

time, and

Homer,

so

pleasuresof the imagin-

The

full extent,

their
nor

"

RHETORIC.

vention.
Precedence
the

shorter

of

members

of the

placed before

Strength requiresthat

Clauses.

of

sentence

gloorny, and

should

the

the stronger.

Both

of these

this state

"In

weaker

that

followingexample :
every employment of life becomes
and every objectappears
gloomy."
say:

have

longer,and

violated in the

to

should

mind,

oppressiveburden,

It is far

of mind,

forcible

more

object

every

appears

of life becomes

employment

every

an

be

principlesare

In this state of

"

cedence
pre-

an

pressive
op-

burden.'
Weak

Endings.

with

an

word

; as,

adverb,
He

"

is

to be

is

acquainted."

of the second
Intensive

with

one

The

sentence

in

ending

any

small

men

are

whovn

sentence

unaccented

glad
good

of
superiority

to be
men

quainted
acare

the construction

is obvious.

Another

Expressions.

strength lies

avoid

or
preposition,
whom
one
good

with;'' "He

glad

should

We

violation

of

the

injudicioususe of very^ and other

intensive or superlativeexpressions. All exaggerated
pendous^
stuas
language,as in the frequentuse of such adjectives
boundless,tremendous
prodigious rapturous, infinite,
be avoided.
incalculable,
awful, majestic,
etc., should
,

Bathos.

the

When

the

strengthis

thought descends
impaired. This

instead
descent

is

of
some-

cending,
as-

OF

PHILOSOPHY

RHETORIC.

I49

confusing,and is called bathos.

Example: "She
was
a true
wife,a loving mother, and a good cook.^'
The phrasesand clauses of a sentence
Climax.
should,
be arranged in an
in accordance
with the laws of strength,
A figureof arrangement
ascending scale,called climax.
times

for its force

depending

on

the

fact

that

the

vividness

images has
much
to do with the order in which
they are presented.
We
should always write naturally
Plain
Language.
of affectation
if we
wish to write strongly. Every form
is an offense againstperspicuityand proprietyas well as
strength. The plainestlanguage is not always the most
with

which

the

forcible;it
familiar.

mind

cannot

realizes

be

natural, but

too

great orator, after

of

succession

great

it may
war,

be

too

produced

of Commons
profound impression by saying in the House
has been abroad
The Angel of Death
:
through
the land ; we
almost hear the beatingof his wings.**
may
said a critic after the debate, if you had said flapIf,*'
ping, we would have laughed.'*
should
We
not use
adjectives. It is better
unnecessary
The
than a planned homicide.
to say murder
preference
should be given to suggestiveadjectives,
leavingas much
with
we
as
safety,to the imagination of the
may,
"

"

*'

reader.
of expression should
be
prefaced modes
// was
I
shuned, except where they are emphatic ; as,
There appeared to them
who
did it;
a strange vision.**

Indirect

or

"

**

accumulation

An

since it is
we

would

Him,

an

love

may

may

"

know

impediment

be better
to

know

to

it is necessary
to

Him

"

say
we

As

must

be

avoided,

strength; as, ''Now,

God, it is necessary

God,

should

of little words

to
to

know

Him

study

His

to love God

study

His

we

so

that

as

that

we

works."
must

works."

know

It

PHILOSOPHY

I50

RHETORIC.

OF

HARMONY.

Harmony, while comparativelyof less importance than

Purity,Propriety,Precision,Perspicuity,or Strength, is
still an
essential element
of style. Sound, although
secondary to sense, should not be disregarded. Harmonyconsists
of the use
of pleasing words, their euphonious
arrangement in sentences, and the adaptation of sound
Words
to sense.
belonging to the following classes are
detrimental
1.

Derivatives

2.

Words

should

and

harmony,

to

be avoided

from

long compound words;

facednesSywrongkeadedness,unsuccessfulness,
containinga

of

sounds;

consonant

form'dst,strik'st,
flinclted,

as,

having a succession of unaccented

mercenariness,
meteorological
derogatorilyy
Words

3.
as,

syllables;

in which

Words

4.

short

repeated,or followed by
farriering.
as, holily,
It must

Harsh

euphonious.

better

and
word

same

the

use

words,

terms

than

are

to the

once

sometimes

subject.

in the

of words

words

of the

course

more

The
of

are

words
more

sive
expresuse

of. the

sentence,

or

of letters in

to harmony.
prejudicial

succession

syllableis
closelyresembling it"

but

of similar combinations
is

unaccented

only when other

and
equally significant

are

adapted

more

another

all cases,

which

used

be

may

or

inferred,however, that such

be

not

rejectedin

be

to

succession

bare-

as,

same

Sentences
number

contiguous
containing
of syllables,

joy can long pleaseus," are also defective

No
of joy can
in harmony.
species
long delightus," is
harmonious
form
of expression. But however
a
more
well chosen
be in themor
euphonious the words
may
"

as,

No

kind

of
"

RHETORIC.

OF

PHILOSOPHY

ISI

arranged,the music of the

selves,unless skillfully

sentence

will be lost.
of soft and

alternation

An

harsh

in

sounds

sentence,

to harmony.
periods,etc.,are conducive
Following is an example from Baker, in which every
vowel
regularlyalternates with a consonant, and nearly
is a liquid
:
every consonant

the

of

cadence

* *

Lay

low, lay him low,

him

the

In the clover, or

What

Lay

in the

followinglines
**

Nor

the demons

Can

ever

down

is also noticeable

heaven

under

long

Washington
in

sentence

twined

the soul

Lee."

illustration of the cadence

has

above.

the sea.

soul from

my

from

musical

angelsin

dissever

extract

yet clear and

at

the

Irving is an
close of a long
**As

prose:

its gracefulfoliageabout

lifted

been

hours, should

bind

up

its shattered

by Providence, that
and

of

ornament

be his stay and

the oak,

hardy

it with

boughs
in his

when

its
;

so

who

woman,

man

solace

the vine

the

by it into sunshine,will,when
by the thunderbolt,clinground

plant is rifted
and
caressing tendrils,
is it beautifully
ordered
is the mere
dependent
with

Poe

the beautiful Annabel

annexed

excellent

and

from

neither the

And

Of

which

low.

know

"

of liquidsounds
multiplication

The

The

he ? he cannbt

cares

him

snow

pier
hap-

smitten

calamity;winding herself into the rugged

of his nature, tenderlysupporting the drooping
recesses
head, and binding up the broken heart."
The
labor of Sisyphus is imitated
in the following
lines from Pope, which
clearlyillustrate the adaptation
sudden

of the sound
'*

With

Up

to the
many
the

high

sense:

weary

step, and many

hill he heaves

huge

groan,

round

stone."

PHILOSOPHY

152

RHETORIC.

OF

UNITY,

primary requirement of which is that a

be restricted to one
is violated
sentence
leadingproposition,
in such sentences
the following: "My
friends
as
board of which
turned back after we reached the vessel,
on
I was
received with kindness by the passengers, who vied
attention.*'
with one
another in showing me
less than four subjects,namely:
Here
there are
no
friends,we, /, wJio [thatis passengers].The unity of the
be attained by thus reconstructing
it ;
sentence
My
may
back
friends having turned
after we
reached
the vessel,
Unity,

the

"

the
vied
We

passengers

with

one

should

received

another
crowd

me

on

board

in showing,

into

me

with

kindness,and

attention."

thingshaving no
connection
Their march
vated
was
through an unculti; as,
fared hardly,
inhabitants
country, whose
savage
having no other riches than a breed of lean sheep,whose
of their continual
flesh was
rank and unsavory,
by reason
is here
sea-fish."
The
scene
feeding upon
changed
and forms a distasteful and confusingmedley.
repeatedly,
sages
Parentheses
to unity. PasLong
are
antagonistic
should
in which
be divided
into
they occur
shorter sentences;
quicksilvermines of Idria,
as, "The
in Austria (which were
discovered in 1797, by a peasant,
from a spring,found
the tub
water
who, catchingsome
it, and the bottom
so
heavy that he could not move
covered
turned
with a shiningsubstance which
out to be
three hundred
thousand
mercury),yieldevery year over
pounds of that valuable metal."
silver
Following is the correct construction : The quickof Idria, in Austria, were
mines
discovered
by a
from a spring.
water
Catching some
peasant in 1797.
not

sentence

"

"

PHILOSOPHY

he

found

the

tub

the bottom

and

to be

proved
mentioned

OF

that

heavy

so

with

covered

RHETORIC

he

153

could

yieldevery

three

over

year

it,

move

which

shining substance

Of this valuable

mercury.

not

metal,the mines
thousand

hundred

pounds."
LOGIC

THE
Next

to

the

choice

than

their

OF

of words

nothing

it takes

receive

and

attention

can

to

and

time

sensibilities.

contained

"Force

of

economy

The

time

more

in

Spencer,

the

and

mental

attention
the

sentence,

portance
im-

more

thinker, Herbert

understand

given by the reader

less vividly will that

less

to

the

idea

be

be

the

idea, and

is of

arrangement.

proper

language,"says that advanced

**is mainly dependent upon
energies and

STYLE.

conceived."
After
Saxon

callingattention
Romanic

over

the

of which

the

mental

thoughts,he
'*

adds

In every

more

which

effort

required

sentence

there is
any

translate

to

which

some

one

other, and

presents the elements

in

to

words

into

effective than

succession

superiorityof
there is a saving

and

use

of

the

words,

specific
by
expressions,
of

greater forcibleness

the

to

they

of

order

this order

of words
is the

the

propositionin

be

most

one

the

readily put
lated
expressions most
nearly replaced closest together. The
may

and
words
together. The
in thought should be
is that the simile come
best arrangement
theoretically
stantives
before the qualified
image, the adjectivesbefore the subthe predicate and copula before the subject,
and their respective
But only
complements before them.
in very
then only to produce a climax,
rare
cases, and
should all these conditions of effective expression be ful-

PHILOSOPHY

154
filled.

select

To

OF

from

the

RHETORIC.

sentiment, scene,

event

or

which
typical elements
carry
many
and so, by saying a few things,
others along with them
but suggesting many,
to abridge the description is the
of producing a vivid impression."
secret
Thus
mental
are
terselyand strongly presented the fundaterms
principlesof style. Concrete
produce

described, those

"

"

impressions than abstract terms, and should,

be used.
when
possible,
Says Dr. Campbell: "The more
the picture is the fainter; the
general the terms
are,
should
more
we
specialthey are, the brighter." Hence
vivid

more

such

avoid

and

customs

the

In

"

sentence

as,

of

amusements

regulationsof

the manners,

proportionas
a

nation

cruel

are

barous,
bar-

and

their

penal code will be severe,'*

and
In proportion as
write instead :
men
delight in
of gladiators,
and
combats
will they
battles,bull-fights,
punish by hanging,burning,and the rack."
has been said respectingthe succession
What
of the
adjectiveand substantive is also applicable,
by a change
"

of terms, to

the adverb

the verb.

and

In

the

ment
arrange-

of

shown
at once
are
that"
we
predicateand subject,
the predicatedetermines
which
the aspect under
the
as
and
subjectis to be conceived, it should be placed first;
the strikingeffect produced by so placing it becomes
comprehensible. Take, for example, the often-quoted
contrast

between

"Diana

of

arrangement
the

word

the
is

great

"Great

is Diana

of the

Ephesians is great."
used,"
arouses

Ephesians,"and
"When

Spencer,'the
"

says

those

vague

the

utterance

of

associations

first
of
an

nected
impressivenature with which it has been habituallycon; the imagination is prepared to clothe with high

attributes whatever
of the

follows ; and

Ephesians,'are

when

the

words, Diana
'

heard, all the appropriateimagery

PHILOSOPHY

which

the instant be

on

can,

of the

formation

OF

I5S

summoned, is used

the

in

and

without error, to the intended

being thus led directly^

expression. When, on

the

contrary, the

is

of the

Diana

reference

to

the
picture:

RHETORIC.

mind

order

reverse

Ephesians,'is

arises

loss of

mental

with

conceived

greatness; and when

added, the conception has

followed,the idea,

special

no

the words, is greats are

remodeled:

be

to

and

energy,

whence

corresponding

of effect."

diminution
The

principlecited above equallyapplieswhen the

predicateis a verb or a participle.
is placedat the beginningof the
When
a circumstance
the transition from it to the
period,or near the beginning,
it may
be
subjectis agreeable;as, "Whatever
principal
in theory,it is clear that in practicethe French
idea of
of the
to be master
libertyis, the rightof every man
rest."

the word
be

placed at

the

first two

clauses,in this sentence, to

which qualifythe subject,
to
inclusive,
practice

Were

the

the end

force would

be lost ; as,

beginning,much of
French idea of liberty

of the

instead
"

The

of the rest ; in

to be master
rightof every man
if not in theory.*'
practiceat least,

is the

So it is with respect to the conditions

under

which

any

fact is

predicated. The effect of placing them last

immense
illustrated in the followingexample: "How
would

be the

given

to

stimulus

wealth

achievements
may

be

given

to

and

progress,

the honor

were

now

title,given exclusivelyto high

intrinsic

The

worth."

construction

the honor now

visiblyimproved: "Were
and
wealth
title,given exclusivelyto high

thus

achievements

and

be the stimulus
The

and

to

is

effect of

intiinsic

worth, how

progress."
to
givingpriority

would

immense

to

the

'^^

/r

complement of
0?

THS

'-

the

156

PHILOSOPHY

RHETORIC.

OF

is thus
well as the predicateitself,
as
predicate,
in the opening of
Hyperion :
"

"

''^

Far
Sat

it may

in the

shady sadness of a vale

mnken^ from the healthybreath of mom.
from the fierynoon and eve's one star.
gray-hairedSaturn, quietas a stone."

Deep

Far

Here

be noted, not

only

that

the

before

of

order

same

is followed:

the
of

it ; but that in the structure

also,the

predicatesat

the three lines in

precedes the subject Saturn, and that

italics,
constitutingthe complement
come

illustrated

each

predicate,
that complement
line

being

so

arranged that the qualifyingwords are placed before the

words suggestingconcrete
images.
of the reader's attention,which,
Regard for economy
the best order
for the subject,
as
we
find,determines
copula,predicate,and their complements, dictates that
the subordinate
propositionshall precede the principal
includes
when
the sentence
ing,
Containtwo.
proposition,
the subordinate
as
ing
qualifypropositiondoes, some
ception
or
explanatory idea, its priorityprevents misconof the principalproposition,and
accordingly
the

saves

The
"

The

and
any
a

war

mental

effort needed

to

correct

such

ception.
miscon-

example:
maintained
in respect to the parliamentary
secrecy once
debates, is still thought needful in diplomacy;
in virtue of this secret
diplomacy, England may
betrayed by its ministers into
day be unawares
principleis

illustrated in the

costing a hundred

thousand

annexed

lives,and hundreds

of

English pique themselves

on
being a self-governedpeople." The two subordinate
colon
and
spectively
repropositionsending with the semicolon
the meaning of the
almost wholly determine
millions

of

treasure:

yet the

with
principalproposition,
be

lost

Principle

of

effect would

RHETORIC.

OF

PHILOSOPHY

which

it

I57

concludes;

last instead

they placed

were

the

and

of

first.
The
the

leading

the minor

The

divisions.

the abstract

less

is also

applicableto

succession,in each

to
specific

to the

illustrated in

as

of sentences

divisions

the

from

be

Arrangement

the

more

should

case,

from

and
specific,

concrete.

illustrates the
following defective combination
and expressions most
that the words
nearlyprinciple,
related in thought should be placed the closest together:
"A modern
statement, though probably true,
newspaper
mony;
testibe laughed at, if quoted in a book
would
as
but the letter of a court gossip is thought good
centuries
historical evidence, if written
some
ago.'*
would read thus : "Though
Properlyarranged the sentence
statement, quoted in
probably true, a modern
newspaper
as
a book
testimony,would be laughed at ; but the letter
centuries
of a court
is
gossip, if written some
ago,
thought good historical evidence."
The

There

are

cases

many

the indirect structure

is
Indirect

"

small

no

and

roads

bad

weather, we

The

neither
an

the direct

intermediate

nor

ure
struct-

both.

examples:
Following are
We
to our
came
journey's end, at last,with
after much
difficulty,
fatigue,through deep
weather."

after
difficulty,
bad

is better,but

preferableto
"

in which

sentence

much
came

Direct

"

"At

last,with

through deep
fatigue,
to our
journey'send."

first cited

is thus

corrected

no

small

roads

by

and

Dr.

rhetorician: "At
last,after
Whately, the logician and
much
fatigue,
through deep roads and bad weather, we
with no small difficulty,
to our
journey'send."
came,
"But," says Spencer,correctingin his turn Dr. Whately,

158

PHILOSOPHY

**the

abstract

more

before

the

however, and
autumn*s

one

dark
each

when

does

"

here

may

other

"

"

"

pour

dark

The

is

; such

is noise

position of

before

as

of the

noise

the

the

on

Lochlin

last

peal

and
ocean

of

the

of the battle."

the

verb

in

the

best
theoretically
in

As

dark

two

roar

in battle meet

high;

in the

As

mix, and

on

waves

"

echoing hills,so

two

the troubled

occur,

Ossian

the heroes.
and

the

permit

instances

from

As

Spencer, "the
fully carried out

simile

few

cited

from

meet

similes,"says
is

be

approached

"

of heaven

Except

inent

arrangement

commonly

not

dictates.

storms

roll the

thunder

best

come

"

high rocks
plain; loud, rough, and
Inisfail.

the

and

should

thought

small

no

from

streams

of

and
after much
difficulty,
through deep roads and bad weather,

last,with

fatigue,we came,
to our
journey*send.*
The
English idiom
order
which
theory

toward

RHETORIC.

elements

concrete,

more

*At

thus:

OF

each

of these

first two
arrange-

sentences.

qualifiedimage, the adjectives

before the substantives,the predicate and copula
before
the subject,and
their respectivecomplements
before them.
That the passage
is open
to the charge of
being bombastic
nothing; or rather, proves our
proves
For what is bombast
but a force of expressiontoo
case.
All
great for the magnitude of the ideas embodied.^
that may
rightlybe inferred is,that only in very rare
then only to produce a climax, should
a// the
cases, and
conditions
of effective expression be fulfilled."
Brevity.
of a writer's thoughts that
It is the cream
remarks
Professor
the
men
want," truthfully
Mathews,
comes

the

"

"

wheat
the

and

not

the

strong, pungent

mixture."

chaff,the kernel
essence

and

not

and
the

not

the

shell,

thin, diluted

PHILOSOPHY

To

attain

RHETORIC.

OF

much

too
strong style,

given to its cardinal

and strength. The

elements

additional

I59

attention

namely, clearness,purity,
of grace,

attributes

vividness,while desirable also,still are

and

absolute

be

cannot

color,

such

not

an

necessity.
historyof

The

Construction.

Defective

literature

repletewith instances of defective construction, and

of styleare not altogether
the acknowledged masters
even
The two followingpassages; said to be
above criticism.
in
Macaulay*s
so
happy as to defy improvement, occur
Essays :
is to Mr. Southey one
of the fine arts.
Government
He judges of a theory,or public measure,
of a religion,
a
judge of a
political
party, a peace or a war, as men
ination.
picture or a statue, by the effect produced on his imagis

"

"

"

chain

of

what

him

is to

associations

he calls his
reasoning is to other men
; and what
opinions are, in fact,merely his tastes.'*
In the rank of Lord Byron, in his Understanding,in
of

chain

"

his

character,in his
of

union

He

opposite extremes.
and

But

admire.

there

person,

very

was

in every

was

'a

strange

born

to

all that

men

covet

was

advantages which he possessed over

a
mingled something of misery and

He

was

sprung

from

house, ancient

nent
of those emi-

one

others,there
debasement.

indeed, and

noble,

degraded and impoverished by a series of crimes and

which had attained a scandalous
follies,
publicity. The

but

kinsman

whom

for merciful
The

young

was

an

and

succeeded

judges,would
peer

unsound

generous

he

and

had

had

have

died

died

tender

irritable.

the

upon

great intellectual powers,

part in his mind.

He

heart ; but
had

He
his

head

and, but

poor,

had

temper
which

gallows.

yet there

naturally
was

ward
way-

statuaries

l6o

OF

PHILOSOPHY

loved

to

copy,

and

RHETORIC.

foot,the deformity of which, the

beggars in the streets mimicked."

Poe, critically
reviewing these passages, suggests that
they be thus reconstructed :
Of a theory or
With Southey, governing is a fine art.
of a creed, a political
a public measure
party, a peace
he judges by the imaginative effect,as onlya war
or
such things as picturesor statues
are
judged of by other
"

"

"

What

men.

Whatever

men

"

find

we

covet

birth,yet debasement
of his eminent

as

of

strange union
became

and

admire

and

misery were

advantages.

ancient, it is true, and

was

reasoning is,to him is a

to his opinions,they are

Byron's rank, understanding,character

Lord

his person

would

of

chain

but his tastes."

nothing
in

of association; and

chain

"In

to them

He

"

even

extremes*

his

by right of
mingled with each

sprang

from

noble, but degraded and

house

ished
impover-

But
for merciful
by a series of notorious crimes.
whom
he succeeded,
judges,the pauper kinsman
been
tellect,
have
hanged. The young
peer had an inHis
heart
great, perhaps,yet partiallyunsound.

generous,

but

copied his

his

wayward ;
head, beggars mimicked
temper

and

the

while

uaries
stat-

deformity

of his foot."
Poe's

undoubtedly the preferableconstruction, but

be improved, thus :
it also may
With
Southey, governing is a fine art. Of a theory,
of a creed, a political
or a publicmeasure
party, a peace,
he judges by the imaginativeeffect;as only
or
a war
such things as picturesor statues
are
judged by other
What
of reasoning is,to him is
to them
men.
a chain
of association;and
his opinions are nothing but
a chain
The
his tastes."
word
^ in the phrase, "judged ^ by
is

"

"

"

PHILOSOPHY

other

men,"

the

omitted, while
the

and
superfluous,

is

clause

sacrifice to the

sense

which

been

sound.

or

be made

can

be

may

relative to

has

closing sentence,

l6l

RHETORIC.

OF

advantageously

"his

opinions,"in

shortened
The
in

without

any

only apparent
Poe*s

provemen
im-

construction

of

paragraph relative to Lord Byron, is the substitution

of partly for partially in the last sentence
but one.
derived from partial,
Partially,
impliesa bias or prejudice,
while /^r//^,
from part, means
simply in part. Its use is,
accordingly,a violation of precision. The
paragraph
the

corrected

even

in his person

Whatever

men

birth; yet
each

Byron's rank, understanding,

Lord

"In

of

thus:

read

should

^we

"

covet

and

debasement

his

eminent

house, ancient, it

find

strange union

admire, became
and

misery
advantages.

is true, and

were

He

character

"

of extremes.

his

by rightof
mingled with

sprang

from

noble, but degraded and

But for
impoverished by a series of notorious crimes.
he succeeded,
merciful judges,the pauper kinsman, whom
would
have been hanged. The
tellect
inan
young
peer had
His heart was
great, perhaps,y^t partlyunsound.
generous, but his temper wayward ; and while statuaries
the deformity of his
copied his head, beggars mimicked
foot."
The

"The Engsentence:
followingis a very awkward
lish
love frogs,and
kate frogs,but the French
hate the
English,and cut off their hind legs and consider them a
have
an
we
example of the
great delicacy." Here
violation of unity,as well as of precision. Four distinct
propositionsare contained in the sentence; namely:
The English hate frogs.
1.
2.

The

French

love

3.

The

French

hate

frogs.
the English.

l62

PHILOSOPHY

The

4-

consider

French

them

There

OF

is

cut

ample

love^where

and

the

off the

hind

legs of frogs,and

great delicacy.

and

RHETORIC.

material

Hate

for several sentences.

are
.italicized,

used

not

with

exactness,

tJieir is

ambiguous, not referringto

frogs,as is intended, but to the English. Besides there
is a clumsy repetition
of English,hate,and frogs. Without
be reconstructed
so
as
dividingit,the sentence
may
The English,
to read thus :
hated by the French, dislike
frogs,but the latter people like them, and cut off their
hind legs,which they consider a great delicacy."
Figurative
Languagk
Mixed
metaphors should
be avoided, since they directlydefeat the purpose
which
the judicioususe
of figurativelanguage is designed to
and instead of making the idea more
fulfill,
vivid,blur it
with incongruities.Following are examples :
pronoun

"

"

Comets

impartingchange

Brandish
And

Tresses

hence
"

for

your

with

them

be

cannot

of time

crystaltresses
scourge

made

states,

in the

the bad

of

and

sky,
stars."
revolting

glass,or

used

as

whips^

the mixed

metaphor.
in the morning of life,
and that
You
are
enjoyment." We may compare
youth to
but that is not

is

the

season
ing,
morn-

season.

should
be
never
figurativestatements
fense
jumbled together; as, "The heroic gunners had no debut bags of cotton joinedto their own
unconquerable
the
be glued to bags, hence
courager Courage cannot
absurdityof the expression.
The
possessed by metaphor
advantages sometimes
in the annexed
simile are
over
clearly demonstrated
in passing through the crystal,
As
sentences
: Simile
beams
of white lightare
decomposed into the colors of
Literal

and

"

"

PHILOSOPHY

the rainbow,
colorless
tinted

in

so

of

rays

traversingthe
truth

163

RHETORIC.

OF

soul

of the

transformed

are

"The

poetry." Metaphor

"

poet, the

into

brightlylight of truth,

white

traversing the

in

many-sided transparent soul of the

poet, is refracted into iris-hued poetry."
Antithesis is a figure founded
on
contrast, and when
an
sharp,becomes
epigram. Antithesis adds
sufficiently
force and

often clearness.

one
Interrogation sometimes
gives emphasis. "No
doubt that the prisoner,had he been
can
reallyguilty,
shown
would
have
some
signs of remorse," is not so
"

emphatic as,

Who

can

doubt

really guilty,would

been

that the

have

he

had
prisoner,

shown

some

signs

of

remorse?"

VERSIFICATION

AND

Versification

is the art of

metrical

Verse

termined

is

by

Couplet consists

Tripletconsists

Stanza
more

verses.

lengthand rhythm

de-.

fixed rules.

or

making

line,of

of
Rhyme is a similarity
but end alike.
differently^

two

POETRY.

is

sound

of two
of three

verses
verses

regulardivision

verses.

in

of

which begin
syllables,

rhyming together.
rhyming together.

poem, conistingof
called a verse.
It is often incorrectly
a

A long
are
Syllablesoccurring in verse
long or short
ed
syllableis equivalentto two short syllables. The accentsyllablesof words are always long; the unaccented
syllablesare always short. Monosyllables are either long
or
short,according to their positionand emphasis; their
by the ear.
quantity can be determined
is a division of a verse,
A Foot
consistingof two or
three

syllables.

o,i,.ea.vGoog

l64

PHILOSOPHY

feet

The

OF

in

used

most

RHETORIC.

English poetry

Iambic,

are

Trochaic, Spondaic, Anapaesticand

Iambus

The
which

Dactylic.
the
syllables,

of two

consists

second

of

firstof which

is

is accented.

The

has

Trochee

syllables,the

two

accented.
The

Ls

Spondee

foot of

both
syllables,

two

of which

accented.

are

The
which

three

contains

Anapaest

syllables,the

last

of

is accented.

The

has

Dactyl

three

first of which

the
syllables,

is

accented.
Beware

a
Trochee; outsidey a
Iambus; mercy
a Dactyl.
an
Anapaest ; beautiful^
Spondee ; referee^
of syllables
is the harmonious
Rhythm
arrangement

is

an

sound.

according to
is

Meter

the

according

system

which

to

verses

are

formed.
The

Monometer

is

line of

foot; the Dimeter,

one

of two

feet ; the Trimeter, of three feet ; the Tetrameter,

of four

feet;the Pentameter, of
six feet;the Heptameter,

of
A

Blank

Verse

Mixed

is

of feet in the

of which

"/n

is

in two

now

/taly

is
or

to

plete
com-

used

not

rhyme.

when

there

are

different

of

line into the feet

dividinga

composed.

Alliteration
of sound

feet.

seven

line.

same

is the process

it is

ter,
Hexame-

is wanting
syllable

that does

is the term

Verse

Scanning

"And

verse

of

feet; the.

catqtectic.

is called

the meter

kinds

of which

line at the end

five

term

or

more

used

to denote

initial consonants

^ligion a nder, a roamer

/ndia, in .Austria or

correspondence
or
vowels; as,
by the streets,"

.Albany,"

While

PHILOSOPHY

OF

rhymes generallyoccur
within
not infrequent
are
the measure,
"I

165

RHETORIC.

at the ends

of

lines,consonances

and usuallyquicken
singleline,

as:

bringfresh

showers

for the

"''''
thirsting
flowers

tical,
rhymes the last vowel sounds must be idenand the preceding consonants
be different.
must
where followingthe last vowels, should
consonants,

In correct

But

be identical in sound.
In

Double

Rhyme the first only

be accented, and
syllablesmust
should

ing
chim-

the unaccented

lables
syl-

be identical in sound.

Triple Rhyme
between

pair of

in each

the

denotes

resemblance

syllables.The

feet of three

last

of

sound

syllables

two

unaccented.

are

rules,relative

Many
be

cited,but

or

analyzing verse.
Lines

musical

be

may

combined

the great

body

into

of which

being

measures,

of

our

all emotions.

harmony

is the best

ear

stanzas, the enumeration

Iambic

the

to

easiest

poetry.

of verse,

guide

in

might
writing

variety of
superfluous.

infinite

an

would
of

They

be

construction,form
are

adapted

to

press
ex-

peculiarly
appropriate to gay and tender sentiments ; Anapaestic,
is animated, forcible,
to what
or
Dactylic
soul-stirring.
It is
difficult to write, is rare.
verse, being the most
and
has
effective when
is desirable,
a
rapid movement
been

used

with

Epic poem
enterprises.

is

Dramatic

poems

The

poem,
be sung

intended

to

poetry.

poeticalrecital

rank

with

its

as

to

Epics

of great and

in

heroic

dignity and

implies,was
accompaniment

name

the

are

measures

in humorous

success

An

Lyric

Trochaic

cellence.
ex-

originally
of the lyre.

l66

PHILOSOPHY

Pastoral

shepherd

of

of the

portrayalof

for the

or

Didactic

Satire

intended

PUNCTUATION
The

the

[ ; ],the
The

colon

composition to
[ ],the semicolon

comma

interrogation

the

marks

It groups

sentence.
or

grammar

sense,

the

words

where

in

pause

related

immediately

indicates

and

natural

shortest

the

follies

CAPITALS.

[ : ],the period [ ],and

Comma

the

up

in written

the

clear,are

sense

hold

to

AND

principalpoints,used

make

celebrates

which

chieflyto give instruction.

aims

poem

mainly

emotion.

properly that

poem
to ridicule.

men

and

of the

some

It is used

poeticart

sentiment

is
poem
rural life.

is

contains

of poetry, and

It is the oldest form

highest specimens

RHETORIC.

pF

in

their connection

and
is used after
interrupted.It separates adjectives,
It
verbs, and adjectiveswhere and is omitted.
nouns,
inative,
nomseparates a series of assertions relatingto the same
and not connected
by a conjunction. It is used
and
before a qualifying clause introduced
by a relative,
is

off

marks

When
often

relative clause
the

placed after

not

necessary

nominative

it.

is

It is put

clause,without

clause, a

both

on

the

which

the antecedent.

to

is

comma

of

sides

an

would

sentence

planatory
ex-

be

lows
verballycomplete. It is used after an address, and folIt is employed
at leastsetc.
finally^
nay^ koztfevery
after

The

nominative

where

Semicolon

is used

indicates
Reasons

a
are

remoter

the verb

similarlyto

connection

preceded by

is understood.

in the

semicolons.

the

comma,

but

clause that follows.

When

clauses

are

OF

PHILOSOPHY

placed in opposition,they
Several

members

separated by

are

dependent

167

RHETORIC.

on

semicolon,

follow

clause

common

semicolons.
The

Colon

generallyindicates that the

grammatically be regarded as closed,but
follows without

point is

which

after

used

is

or

by

The

the close of

marks

that the construction

mark

to

in proper

It is also

for similar purposes.

The
Exclamation
[ ! ], the Dash
[

'

the

The

the

writer,
the

when

others

common

are

are

The

[ ( ) ],
], Parentheses
],the Apostrophe
[ [] ],Quotation-marks [
Hyphen [ ].
"

"

"

Exclamation, used
of

most

employed

etc.
titles,

names,

used

shows

sentence, and

Interrogationfollows questionsput by
or
directlyreported. It should not be used
question is indirectlyreported.
Besides the points already named, several

[ I

by the
quotation

direct

The

Brackets

This

lost.

colon.

js complete.

abbreviations

something

followed

heads.

more

usuallyintroduced
Period

be

general statement,

of two
specification

that

its full force would

might

sentence

violent

after

apostrophesor

emotion, should

seldom

sions
expresin ordinary

appear

prose.

The

Dash

thrust
than

is

when

into the sentence, and

would

be indicated

Parentheses
which

employed

have

by

has

obviously

is

clause

with

less connection

it

commas.

used, like the dash, to inclose words

are

little or

no

connection

with

the

rest

of the

sentence.

Brackets
words

The

not

are

used

forming

marks

of

to
a

inclose in

part pf

Quotation

are

the

two

sentence

word

or

original composition.
inverted

commas

l68

PHILOSOPHY

placedat
of what
The
It is

beginning,and
quoted.

Apostrophe is
used chieflyto
or

The

the

is

letters.
noun

OF

two

apostrophesat
placed

comma

mark

It is also used

the

before

after

or

the

above
of

omission
s

the end

suffixed

of

verse;

or

to

to

parts, or

for the purpose

Capitalsmark

line.

letter

case.
place it in the possessive
Hyphen is employed to separate a compound

pronoun

into its component

line

RHETORIC.

of

showing

first word

the
the

to divide

first word

personal pronoun /
and
high titles,
names,

names

words, and

of

the

names

and

the
of

of

word

word

into its

lables
syl-

pronunciation.
sentence,
direct

or

of

quotation;
the interjection
O; proper
of the Deity; very emphatic
personifiedobjects.
a

WORDS

AND

PHRASES.

169

AND

WORDS

The
'*

English,"

Pure

here

errors

of

The

both.

and

we

all in all, the

Taken
well

Few
O

Oh,

and

only

been

plained,
ex-

by

iliar
fam-

of

ways

the

and
be

to

prove

expression

of

exclamatory
introduction

affecting
words

OBSOLETE

clear

any

be

It may

writing.

amusing

as

for

is used
wish

WORDS.

thus

explained

or

the

sign

of

invocation

an

the

sentence

when

might

Oh

of

is properly

pain,

woe,

; for

the

introduce

; to

be

correct

an

an

unmeaning

omitted

out
with-

sense.

herCy there^ and

hitheTy thither^and

it

the

address

phrase; and, colloquially,as

to

of

conception

interjection expressive

an

as

surprise.

The

may

lations
vio-

show

variety

often

have

conversation

AND
have

persons

used
or

what

the

under

are

style

the

instructive.

as

of

but

brief

of

Many

propriety

in

section

OBJECTIONABLE

use

in

and
is abused

language

English

of

with

now

may

how

examples

laws

to

classified

rhetoric,

or

grammar

of

section

devoted

language.

strictly be

cannot

closing

be

appropriately

may

cited

either

of

head

this, the

peculiarities of

the

of

review

for

reserved

space

PHRASES.

whither,

where

should

Converser

be
is also

preferred

to

preferable

WORDS

172

or
conversationist,

to

which
agriculturalist,

AND

PHRASES.

to
conversationalist;agriculturist

is condemned

Webster

by

proper
im-

as

unusual.

and

aphim
for preventive. Sermisused
similarly
is often
is the pluraloi seraph,
a distinction which
Here
ignored. "How
high did the tide na:^^ to-day ?
raise is improperlyused for rise.
formed
The pluralof spoonfulis often incorrectly
by
thus
adding s to the firstinstead of the second syllable,
where it should be spoonfuls.
making it spoonsful,
for tastefuland
It is inelegantto say tasty and tastily
tastefully.According to Professor Mathews, the letter s
since plurality
is implied
in the vford folks is superfluous,
to be sanctioned
instances,seems
by folk,but folks,in many
by usage.
Gotten, while it is still English, is nearly obsolete,
have a strange preference
for its
although many
persons
is

Preventative

"

Got is

use.

shorter and

often hear

We

language
It is

illyused

contains
to

common

see

no

better word.
in the

such

of ill. The

sense

word

advertised

as

illy.

sett of

"

always the proper word.

Biddable, a spurious word, is often

lish
Eng-

furniture for

Set is

sale."

Unbeknown

obsolete,and

is

should

used

not

be

for obedient.
used

for

proper

word

un-

known.
is

Banister

common

barbarism.

The

is

baluster,or balustrade.

vulgar to use overlyfor over

He is not overlyparticular."

It is very
"

as,

in such

sions
expres-

of do
Disremember, often employed in the sense
remember, although given in Webster, is condemned
^^

the critics
be

used

as

for

low

should
vulgarism. Despisable
despicable.
a

not

by

never

WORDS

It is
such
No

to

common

AND

PHRASES.

I73

used
step affectedly

hear

for

phrases as, ''stepin;" "he has just steppedout"

there
walk without stepping; so, in itself,
one
can

with

the

phrase ''stepin."

the

objection to

of

meaning

it is

But

invitation

an

following expressions:"step aside;" "step

shelter."
of

space

all

In
time

In

to the mode

result,which

the

It is

wliat;
The

"You

as,

word

and

preteritand
in

has

sweat

here

of
not

refer

merely

for

The

casket.

jewels does

not

burial.
fiow

use

well

interrogativelyfor
to-day."

"How?"

is not

pure

exceptionalcases,
to

person

that of familiar

baby

term

of
perfectparticiple

thy

is

not

is

be
versation.
con-

ordinarily preferable,
uncommon

an

pression
ex-

English,burst being
the verb

is better

the horse

"

say,

to

the

burst.

than

perspiration.
perspires!' We may,

of

to a patient,or
giving a sweat
In the
subject to night sweats,
"

face shalt

only solemn,
the

than

burstedl' is

propriety,speak
that

in the

consumed
We

draw

to

pretentious.

bursted

It is ridiculous

say

to

household

far less

; but

with

than

more

wish

we

a
coffin

case

language higher

boiler

Sweat,

call

to

looking

are

The

"The

this

babe, although perfectlycorrect, should

for

reserved

the time

to

and

provincialism

in the

walking.

of death

the dread

enter,

of its performance.
is

be

under

is little

act

to

applicable to

pleasing name
lessen

neither

questionable taste

It is

the

invitingone

particularattention

no

step is correctlyused, the

occupied by

momentary.

act, nor

where

cases

is

not

used

properly

etc.

which,

one

enter, should

to

It is

by intelligentpeople.

used

to

walk, in

thou

but

idea of hard

the

eat

bread."

language

labor,

and

The
is

the

subject is

veying
configurative,

use

of

sweat

is,

treataccordingly,unobjectionable. Except io^JflfifiUcal

however, sweaty

ment,

is often

Buried
my

refined

manner

If
no

of

would

one

street, or

in

used

in

am

violent sweats

announcing

This
sad

so

I lost my

"

that she had

suppose

that he had

run

been

for lost ; as,

slovenlyway

last week."

to say,

were

woman

"

; as,

husband

buried

applied to mankind, is oflfendirect personalapplication

on

as

it has

when
sive,specially

ordinary occasions

PHRASES.

AND

WORDS

174

the

is not

an

event

as

husband

"

most

death.

last week,"
him

dropped

in

the

away.
to several

ending
in ward, such
as
towardy backward, forward, upward^
onwardy downward, hitherward, thitherward, afterward,
The

letter

heavenward,

has

etc.

The

added

s, in all such

words

is
cases',

as

improper

it is

superfluous.
Controvertist is a legitimately
formed
word, and should
which, although it
always be preferredto controversialist,
has the sanction
of Webster, is classed as a spurious

as

S. Gould.
Edward
philologist,
is an illegitimate
Underhanded
word.
It is formed
by
tion
terminaa
adding to the adjectiveunderhand
participle
an
adjective
; but the addition still leaves the word
of the true word.
There
is
without
modifying the sense

word

no

by

verb

that learned

to

underhand, and

no

noun

compound as underhanded
addition of ed, accordingly,makes

such

the

same

as

it would

make

the word, base

Still,
current

The

irova which

underhand
could

be

the word

made.
a

mere

The
garism,
vul-

of

hindhan
beforehand and becoinage as it is,passes

in the dictionaries.
entire number

of

English words denoting persons,

which
properlytake the ess to designatethe female sex,
The
is very
small.
where
majority of these are titles,
the discrimination
is a necessity,as
abbess, baroness,
duchess, countess, empress, princess,etc., or else words
Digitizedby

VjOOQ

IC
.

WORDS

AND

PHRASES.

I/S

primarilysuggesting men, and accordinglyrequiringthe

change when appliedto women
; as, ambassador^ governor^
words
such
But
hunter, priest,prophet,etc.
as
actor,
tioned
benefactress,
4ictress,benefactor,
patron, patroness are sancPoetess and authoress,although
by long usage.
in defiance of all principles
of philolare
ogy.
very common,
Poet means
simply a person who writes poetry;
author
but

who

person

writes poetry

Hence, authoress

person.

such

So, also,are

words

or

and

of such

addition

as

poetess

are

man,

fluous.
super-

have

recentlycome

edition of

tionaries
dic-

our

continue, be enriched

custom

words

not

"

conductress,
directress,

as

waitress,etc.,all of which
inspectress,
into current
use.
Perhaps the next
will,if the

prose

by

the

writeress,
officeress,
carpenteress,

walkeress,
treasureress, singeress,
secretaryess,

manageress,

etc.
ialkeress,

It is

yet awkward

common

such

expressions as: "I

groceriesyou require." A
such

in

the

best

of

the correct
We

my
use

should

than

Bulldoze
but it is

none

is
be
The

of

all the
word

exact

more

in

serve

is

serve.

speciality.Amid

amidst

of competent

use

with

you

better and

also be careful to write

not
specialty,

words

serve

to

to
supply, "I will serve
you
service,and illustrates
ability,"
implies,

construction

will

custom

and

not casuality;
casualty,

and

amongst, and

entitled
critics,

are

among
are,

in the

shorter

opinion

to the

preference.
has recently been
recognized by Webster,
timidate
Inthe less objectionableto refined ears.

an

older

and

purer

word, and

should

ingly
accord-

preferred.

abbreviation

of sewerage

into sewage,

and
is also objectionable,
geticinto strategic
of the principles
of etymology. We
could,

and

of strate-

in violation
on

the

same

176

WORDS

PHRASES.

AND

change anchorage
principle,
Both

etc.
theorical,

to

anchage;

theoretical

to

given in the
is hardlysufficient authorityto make

of the words

criticised are

but that
dictionaries,
them
legitimate. "Dictionaries,"says

be,in

Richard

Grant

the

pernicious
record of unreasonable,unwarranted, and fleeting
usage.**
of the verb to flow; flown,of
is the participle
Flowed
is accordinglyerroThe
river has overflown''
to fly,
being overflowed.
neous, the proper word
Myself is properlyused either as a reflective pronoun,
for the sake of distinction and emphasis; as when
or
Julietsays : Romeo, doff* thy name, and for that name,
is no part of thee,take all myself
which
It is frequently
for I; as, "The
Governor
and myself will be
misused
etc.
pleased to accept your invitation,"
is a pet word
of the pulpitand the press, but
Enthuse

White,

have

"

to

come

too

many

cases,

"

"

it has not
The
of

one

yet been

former, latter,either,and
two, and accordingly should not

of three

one

The

the last,any
first,
or

neither

one,

or

no

be

signify

used

in the

one, which

mean

more.

relatives

reference
and

into the dictionaries.

terms

of the

sense

admitted

to that

which

these should

be

used

is near, in fact

or

thought;

only

in

that

hateful.
or
objectsremote
is vulgarlyused for those in such expressionsas,
Them
them boys," them books," etc.
Farther and farthest(positive
tance;
far)denote place or disFurther
^xiA
as, "thej^r/^r he advanced," etc.
dition;
furthest (positivefore or forth)denote quantity or adnothingy^r/^r to do."
as, "IVe
Stand-point,
although it is given in our dictionaries,is
should use in its place the words
very objectionable. We
pointof view.
"

those to

this and

**

AND

WORDS

Nice,
"

of this

use

kind
nice

Professor

of
can

sense;

Mathews

as

pet

and
approbation,'
be used only in
though both of

word

177

concerning this

offensive barbarisms

of the most

One

the

Says

PHRASES.

to

almost

prevalent,is

now

almost

express

every

expressionsas, a nice bit of

vulgarityof such expressionsas, a nice
a good or
pleasingman), a nice day,'

cheese.'

'

be

etc.,there cannot

shadow

every

quality. Strictly,
in an objective
not
a subjective,
our
leading lexicographersapprove

of such

the

word:

man

nice

Of

(meaning
party,'

of doubt."

or
tendency to use small or littleinstead of trifling
*" a little
is very
general as, A small alteration,"
slight,
for great; as,
absurdity." Large is similarly misused
A largedegree of happiness,"
etc.
relative to the
Following is the rule given by Webster
in the
use
oian^which has been mentioned
Vocabulary ":

The

"

**

"

"It

is used

word

falls on

The

before

be

may

which

the

accent

of the

the first."

syllable
except

any

following

obsolete

// sounded, when

mentioned

among

the

many

still used

occasionally:Hight^
whilom, inly,behest,erst, circumstantiate,belikely,
whenas,
erewhile,bewray, irks, quoth^
intendment, yclept,
oratorial,
sith,stream, wist, wot.
words

are

PHRASES.

FAULTY
At

all is

needless

"I cannot
be

at

all!'

In

illustrated in the
all such

cases

tence:
sen-

it can

advantageously omitted.
In

to

write

expletive,as

in

The

our

midst

our
masses

is

middle.
is

faultyphrase,which is equivalent
should
We
us.
properly say, among
popularyet very absurd phrase. Mass
a

17^

WORDS

denotes
for

and
collection,

its

PHRASES.

plural should

be

not

used

people.

Crushed

in and

should

Why
out''

we

crus/ied out

when
in,'*

Rebellion

Higher up and
propriety. Instead
lower

"The

say:

''crushed

or

that "The

or

AND

down

all that

lower

the

on

Rebellion

has been

of

the silliestof solecisms.

are

been

is necessary

crushed
is to say

crushed"?

down

saying

has

"

the

Hang
should

rack," we

violations

similar

are

hat
"

say

of

higher upy
Hang the

higher or. lower on the rack." It is impossiblefor

anything to be lower up, or higher down, hence the use of
in such phrases is as absurd
it is superas
Mp and down
fluous.
hat

I
the

differwith

is

you

yet

common

remark,

erroneous

of with

of what
implying exactly the reverse
I differ
views
intended.
from you," meaning
my
from yours,"is the proper expression.
differe7it
use

"

The
soon

is

"

use

of wearies

wearies

of such

for is wearied;
is
stories,"

in bad

"The

as,

is
arc

reader

taste.

Anyhow, while permissible,

perhaps,as a colloquialism,
in written
a
vulgar phrase, and should be avoided

composition.
It is very silly
to speak of the final completionof any
jective
task, since every completionis necessarily
final;the adis superfluous.
Since
He
possessed wonderful equanimity of mindr
of mind, why should of mind
evenness
equanimity means
is less objectionable,
be repeated}
Anxiety of mind
"

"

"

equanimity is

but
We

when
deceive
From

often hear
the

in itself sufficient.

expression, You
meant
; namely,
"

the

opposite is

are
"

You

deceivingme^
are
tryingt0

me."
thence

and

from

whence

are

stupid

solecisms.

WORDS

PHRASES

AND
"

The

thence, and

adverbs

of

be

used

whence

and
preposition,

and

noun

I79

"

literally
supply the place
should
not
a preposition

with them.

Weakness

be strong, hence

cannot

the idleness

of the

is it possiblefor one
How
confirmedinvalid^
or
tQ be a confirmed^
strengthened invalid?
Equallyweir' is the proper phrase not equallyas well.
In the phrase all of them^' ^ means
out
^ and is
We
used.
Take
one
accordingly incorrectly
may
say :
of them," or, Take them all,"but the phrase criticised
is wholly unjustifiable.
Persons
who are
sick are
frequently and erroneously
said to be dangerous^when
the meaning is simply that
they are in danger.
We
often hear of
and
setting-rooms^'
settinghens;
and
should
be ''sitting-rooms',
both phrases are
wrong,
and
sittinghens''
should never
be separated
To^ the sign of the infinitive,
the inaccuracy of the phrase:
the verb.
Hence
from
To extremely maltreat!'
It should
To maltreat
be,
extremely," or,
Extremely to maltreat,"
catch the car," is a blunderingexpression. It is
I can
possiblefor any one to overtake^or reacJi a car, but not to

phrase

"

"

'^

"

"

"

"

"

''

"

"

"

"

catch it.
The
also

often

comparative adjectiveswiser, better,larger,etc.,

the contractingadjectivesother, different,
etc., are
better
awkwardly misplaced;" as, "That is a much

statement

of the

than

case

"

yours

"

Yours

is

larger^^Xot

course
ground than John's;" This is a different
from what I expected;" "I could take
of silencinghim
method
than the one
I took."

of

"

sentences

should

the

is

case

much

be

thus

altered:

better than

"That

yours;"

of proceeding
other

no

These

statement

"Your

plot

of
of

l80

AND

WORDS

PHRASES.
"

is

of proceeding
largerthan John's;" That course
is different
from what I expected;" I could take no
method
of silencinghim other than the one
I took."
do you
in popular
What
know
of his antecedents ?
usage, is a faultyexpression. The idea here intended
be
of his past
know
do you
to
conveyed is, "What
in certain cases,
be logically
life?'' Antecedent
may,

ground

"

"

"

"

used

as

substantive

in the

United

General

States

Scott, and

sillyexpression

the

office."

and

cannot

oiffice.

also

is,

pell-mellinto

rushed

He

*'

Pell-mell

of the

one

Washington,
is to say, they

implies confusion, and a crowds

vidual.
accordingly be properly applied to an indicrowd
but how
enter
a
place pell-mell^
may

A
any

General

Grant," that

General

antecedents

Sherman's

were

army

\\\spredecessors
in

were

General

"

; as,

crowd

do

can

so,

impossibleto

it is

conceive.

The
"

phrase

I heard

him

"

from

my

fully; "I

I heard

from

at

"

friend

heard
him

is often

length

at

friend

my

the

phrase "/" so far as'' is

principaldifference between

one

has

strange that
''

**A

Of

the
word
the

from

lasty'means,

at

of ''in that,'*

variation

being

them

that while
It

seems

clumsy a phrase
being superfluous.

could

all otliers" is

blundering phrase;

stain

Corrected
most

I heard

few words, the other has too many.

too

of at last.

long delay.

The

the in

instead

length^'means,

from

after

used

of

so

all others

it would

difficult to

others into the

class the very

the

read:

difficult to expunge;
most

and

current

most

"A
"

or

expunge."
first cited

thing named.

become

difficult

stain above

else,"A
The

to

current,

expunge."

all others

stain

^^//

introduction

sentence,

as,

excludes

the

stains
of the

from

WORDS

It is better to say
be

only one

with

is different

speak
We

because

half
of

here

not
superfluous,

words

The

"drawyr^;"

to

If the

since

make

we

"I

can

whole.

It

with

priety,
pro-

may,

been

daily press of some

up!' The up
^'opened
the

is

nonsensical.

say

from

sometimes

are

example

an

ludicrously

from

Scott:

"?"/ the castle drew,

y9-"7/"
Marmion
stopped to bid adieu."

out

castle

the

italicized

"

would

words

be to draw

live in

street,"than

Pine

into the

transposed

were

be overcome.
would
quoted, the difficulty
is considered, by many
to be in
critics,

say:

there

train

But

It

to

and

out

**

lines

has

Following is

reversed.

half

quarter, three eighths,etc.

one

enterprise which

castle.

halves

two

quarters, etc., and

new

To

one

continuallyreading in

are

The

than

half

l8l

PHRASES.

AND

to

in the

better

say,

taste

"I live

on

street."

Pine

but contradictory
^'Agreeably disappointed" is a common
is meant
is, agreeablysurprised!*
phrase. What
A disappointmentcannot
very well be agreeable,
New
beginner''is a phrase as tautologicalas it is
silly. A common
expression, The greatest ^/pleasure"
The
is also incorrect.
of should be omitted.
The phrase "ya:r^thee well^'although coined
by Byron,
"

'^

"

used
incorrectly

is

in the

of farewell,which

sense

is

not

its literal meaning.

know!'

You

"

allowable
Time

past

cannot

not

^^

says

the

among

sometimes,

the present.
are

says

phrases

common

/,"

'^

but

There

applicableto

illiterate.

the

be described

^^

he," and
others

with

the

says

she,' are

You

know

seldom

if

is
ever.

language denoting

exceptions to this rule,but they

in point.
the case

are

l82

WORDS

makes

One

AND

PHRASES.

Jirs/two lines
"the two firstlines."
a better phrase generallythan
The reciprocaleach other applies to two
objects;one

is
"

another

or pays
call^

than

to more

The

"

two,

limit

pluraladjectivecannot

inaccuracy of those sort of

people is the proper phrase.
the

"

visit

"

hence

singularnoun,
This
people."
a

"

sort

of

be

"^ir

"

''A

house

house

and

member

orchard,"

and

of

compound

article from

; as,

not,

not

"

him

saw

if the second
different

be omitted.
be

similar

and

the gate and

enter

entering the gate

him

saw

that

requires a

should

constructions
"

being

sentence

it must
first,

the

Co-ordinate

bell;"

rule

orchard," the

an

It should

is wrong.

portionate
pro-

ring the
ring the

and

bell."
The

verb
be

may

often

its

be^with

to

subject,in dependent clauses^

after the

advantageouslyomitted

tives
connec-

if,though,yet, when, etc.; as, "Study, if [itis]neglected,

becomes

irksome."

Tlie

good ones,'' the

phrases, but of doubtful
"

them

lies in the strange

form.

How

"/

have

I have
"

in

in

"

is

an

of the

use

is

word

correct

one

objection to
in the plural

popular yet clearlyerroneous

being superfluous.

expression.

great pleasure in accepting your

a
expression illustrating

future tense.

The

common

are

ones

oi got in this connection

is the

/ shall have
"

the

it

use

propriety.

there be two

can

got it"

phrase,the
"

little ones,''
etc.,

"

We

should

"

say,

common

tion
invitaof

misuse

I hai"e great

pleasure

acceptingyour invitation."
which
make
the
to
are
Prepositions,
necessary
complete, are often improperly omitted.
the following expression the error
lies in the

struction
con-

But
non-

WORDS

183

PHRASES.

AND

preposition: "Ignorant miners were

terrorized into votingunder
penalty of excommunication
in this world, and
from
church privileges
[of]damnation

repetitionof

the

in the next"
be likewise perverted
meaning of a sentence
may
of conjunctions.
non-repetition

The

by

the

OF. DUAL

WORDS
The

that there

it is true

it is

there

is

of words

world

repletewith wonders,

few

are

equallytrue,

MEANING.

literal synonyms

and

even

words

possessing
meaning, according to the

are

many

in

guage,
lan-

our

that
surprising,

more
a

while

and

dual

and

dictory
contra-

in which

sense

they

used.

are

To

The

illustrate:

word

nervous

mean

may

either

A Hervous
writer is one
who
having or wanting nerve.
is one
has a vigorous style;a nervous
is weak,
who
man
sensitive to trifles,
easilyexcited.
A clock is called fast when
it goes too quickly; but a
is told to stand fast when
it is desired that he shall
man
stand

still.

The

adjectivemortal

death.
it was
not

Thus

"

say

deadly; "Man
everlasting.

Cleave

split,or
The

may
rent

word
we

have

Post^ from
as,

we

is

The

wound

deadly
was

liable

and

to

adhere

to

mortal^' meaning
his life is

mortar^'indicatingthat

either

mean

both

means

closely,or

to

to

asunder.
dear

has

the

two

it,and expensive because

the Latin

of

meanings

placed^is used in
etc.
/^i'Z-office,
/^.f/-haste,
^^i-Z-horses,

we

cause
prized be-

want

various

The

it.
senses

contradic-

l84

AVORDS

AND

PHRASES.

tion in these

The
meanings is more
apparent than real
all.
idea of placing is common
to them
To let generallymeans
to permit ; but in the Bible,in
Shakespeare, and in legal parlance it often has the
Hamlet
"I'll make
a
opposite meaning. Thus
says:
with
or
ghost of him that lets me," that is, interferes
obstructs
is

and

"

let or hindrance

without

phrase.

common

The

*'

in law-books

; and

me

lee has

word

/"?^-shore. The
from

sheltered

acceptationsin /?^-side
of a ship is the side that is
Z^^-shore is a shore exposed

different

very

/?^-side

the wind

the wind.

to

The

prefixes //// and in are equivocal. Commonly

they have a negativeforce,as in unnecessary^ incomplete.
But sometimes, both in verbs and adjectives,
they have a
positiveor intensive meaning, as in the words intensCy
To invigorate
ifivaluable.
impliesan increase
infatuated,
The verb unloose should, by analogy,
of vigoror energy.
tintie

signifyto tie,just as
should

mean

of in.

To

the

as

same

7iot

CHANGES

these

IN

THE

of

in

same

and

MEANING

to

as

sanctions

words, but

two

Richardson

the

ravel;
use

to

unrip,

of the negative

it is condemned

as

Webster.

OF

WORDS,

ETC.

surprisingto note the changes which time makes

the meaning of many
words, and how strangelysome
them originate.
current
English,was firstheard in 1844
Outsider, now
nominated
where
the convention
James K. Polk was
It is

in

the

means

rip, Johnson

prefix in
by
superfluous

Inliabttable

habitable,
according to the general sense

tinravel
to

loose,

to

means

for the

Presidency.

18$

PHRASES.

AND

WORDS

coined by Coleridgeless than

Intensifywas deliberately
sixty yeirsago, because there was then no other word in
would
the particularshade of
which
existence
express
that is thus

meaning

Starvation

conveyed.
first used by Henry Dundas, in 1775, ^"
for him
its hybrid formation
obtained

was

Parliament, and
of

the nick-name

"

Dundas."

Starvation

and peninsula are

sculptor,
Opera, umbrella^ suicide,
older

of the seventeenth

the middle

than

Only in the last centur"' Bentley

words
apologize for using such new

obsolete

in

words,

1776, marked

found

it necessary

to

concede,
repudiate,

as

adroitness

ignore and

hesitated about

and

century.

idiom,

vernacular,timid, and

Campbell,

no

as

tal,
sentimencontinental,

and originateon
criminality,capability,
originality,
of their novelty.
account
Reckless was
commonly used until the beginning of
the sixteenth century, and then became
so nearly obsolete
that Hooker, who used it in 1650, explained it in a marginal
It has

note.

current

been

revived, and

is

in

now

use.

Abate

and

abandon,

centuries,also
but

since

are

now

Prevent

after

which

to

once

existence

in the seventeenth

fell into disuse

familiar

active

an

every
meant

of

some

century,

English-speaking person.
to
to go before,
now
means

hinder.
Resent

or
formerly signifiedto reciprocate,
respond to
Three
centuries ago
a
man
feeling,good or bad.
any
could speak of resenting
well as an injury.
dk favor,as
Censure meant
the expression of an opinion,
originally,

either

favorable

the latter

or

unfavorable.

It is

restricted

now

to

sense.

Liquidate first meant

to

melt.
^

Next

it

acquired

Digitized
by VjOOQ

the
IC

l86

WORDS

meaning
to

of

clear

making

Now

transparent.

or

it

means

off debts.

pay

in Milton's

Admire^
to

PHRASES.

AND

wonder

time,meant,

like its Latin

original*

at.

to
Edify originallysignified

instruct and

build.

It

now

to

means

entertain.
centuries

Insolence^some

unusual, unaccustomed.

since, bore

It

is

the

used

now

meaning of
only in the

of rude, or

impertinent.
Clerk was
dent,
a clergyman, next
a
collegestuoriginally
and is now
who sells goods, keeps accounts, etc.
one
Station is used by Shakespearefor posture; it now
means
place.
titles of tyrant^ sophist,
and parasite were
The
once

sense

honorable

and
distinctions,

meaning would
Apology, in
it is

now

an

its

mislead

attach

to

in

us

primitivesense,

their modern

reading ancient
meant

history.

vindication;

excuse.

pertinent,but

formerlysignifiednot
Impertinent
now

them

to

used

solelyas
was
Indifferent

of rude

synonym

once

used

in the

or

sense

it is

insolent.
of

impartially,

obsolete.
meaning which has long since become
Bishop meant
originallyoverseer;
priestor presbyter
meant
administrator;and sacramenty
elder;deacon meant
of allegiance.
a vow
is used
Horrid
of bristlingin
by Milton in the sense
the line,"With
danglingice all horrid.^^ He also speaks
fruit.
and of amiable
of a savage (woody) hill,
(lovely)
Tale primarily meant
to count
or
number, and it is
who were
thus used in the Bible relative to the Israelites,

compelled

speak
**

the

of

sum

to

deliver

their

I'
"keeping tally
twice

told!'

^^tale of bricks."
of

''untold

We

wealth," and

still
of

WORDS

Secret,which

AND

to-day

hidden

means

used

by Milton in the sense

Mystery is derived from
lips.
Anecdote

or

at

time

one

published
; it now
Allowance

was

or

concealed,

is

lonely.
imitation of closingthe

of remote,
in

mu,

meant

means
once

iSj

PHRASES.

fact not

a
a

used

made

known,

short,pleasingstory.
of praise or
in the sense

approval.
Girl

the

was

either sex,
as

name

widow

and

formerlyapplied to
was

used

the

designatemen

to

young
as

of
well

women.

Astonished, the literal meaning of which

is

now

used

in the

Sagacious formerly meant

a lean and
signified
common
people,and now

sense

of

surprised.
of scent; rascal

keen

worthless
means

is thunderstruck,

deer, afterward
knavish

or

marily
prithe

worthless

person.

Naturalist

originally
applied to one who
revealed
believed
truth, and
only in natural
The naturalist
learned in nature
is,to-day,one
laws, and

may

was

be orthodox

rejected
religion.
and

her

in his belief.

cency,
Blackguard,which to-day implies vulgarityor indeonce
was
employed to denote the menials in a
etc.
turnspits,
great household,such as scullions,
now
Artillery,
signified
meaning heavy ordnance, once
as
any implement for dischargingmissiles as light even
the

bow

and

Bombast

arrow.

originallyimplied cotton
padding; it now
diction.
means
exaggerated and pompous
Polite once
meant
polishedor brightened,and was
plied
apit appliesto mankind
to mirrors:
now
only.
which now
means
a dastard,originally
signified
Ciz///^
a

captive.

l88

Punctual,
time,

and

restricted

relation

formerly used in
meaning accurate

to

is

simply

now

of

term

to

well

as

space

is
circumstantial,

or

of time

exactness

Miscreant
meant

PHRASES.

AND

WORDS

only.
reproach, although

it

as

now

once

misbeliever.

Thought in early times implied solicitude;as, "Take

no
thoughtfor your life."
erly
now
Incomprehensible
means
inconceivable,but it formbore the meaning of immense.
Wit primarilysignified
the mental
collectively
;
powers
next
quickness,of apprehension or elegance in composition.
It is
Relevant
but

it

used

now

in

bore

once

the

impliesa

now

akin

sense

meaning
relation

thoughts or circumstances.
Exorbitant^which is now
excessive,at

of

that of humor.
ing,
assist-

relievingor

between

connection

only in the
deviatingfrom a
signified

time

one

or

to

used

of

sense

track

or

orbit.

an

Coincide

term
a mathematical
originally
only,and
to be applied to identityof opinion,
subsequently came
of fact,but was
until
not
or
fullypopularizedin America
was

1826.

Paradise, now
them

that

of

bearing a
heaven,

royal park.
Thing has gone
It originallymeant
council,court

of

multitude

in

through

once

many

justice,
cause,
to

meanings,

tongues

solemn

subjectof

tobacco.

once

meaning.

discussion,
Its

all.

now

a
signified

of

discourse.

appliesexclusively to
equallyapplicableto men.

Tobacconist

among

only

meant

changes

discourse, then,

present meaning is familiar

which
Coquette,

olden

of

consumer,

not

women,

was

of
seller,

WORDS

AND

189

PHRASES.

a-dead body, once

the body
meant
Corpse^now meaning
of the livingalso.
Regeneration^with the Greeks, referred only to the
and
earth in the spring-time,
gotten
to the recollection of forknowledge.
of the servile classes,
and villain
meant
one
Thief once
serf who

these words

tilled the
is of

far

The

soil.
more

modern

degrading

meaning

of

character.

Insolvent

unusual ; and sillyblessed ;

formerly meant
while officious
denoted
the willingness
to do kind acts.
the priIdiotytaken from the Greek, primarily meant
vate
in contradistinction
and
to the office-holder;
citizen,
used in the sense
of jocular,
urbane.
meant
now
facetious^
the ordinary
Brat, now
once
a contemptuous
term, was
^

name

for child.

Boor

onc^
a

camp

implied merely

farmer; while .y"r^/"/

nified
sig-

deserter.

Speculationhas
of sight,and
sense

the
history. It firstmeant
next
acquired the meaning of mental
vision ; then was
applied to the theories of philosophers,
assumed
and has finally
a commercial
significance.
skill,
or
Craftywhich originally
signified
dexterity,has
to mean
come
cunning; while cunning,in its turn, once
crooked
or
conveyed no idea of sinister,
ways.
It has
only a wanderer.
Vagabond denoted originally
of reproach.
to be a term
come
now
Paramour
first meant
a
lover, merely; while minion
low and
was
a
a
temptuous
confavorite;and knave, now
very
had the harmless
once
appellation,
meaning
of

an

eventful

boy, and afterward of servant.

Animosity, the modern
acceptationof which
implies
enmity and hatred, formerly meant
spiritedness.
in baptism. Simple and
meant
a sponsor
Gossiponce

WORDS

190
have
simplicity
fellow

AND

also degenerated

indicated

once

adjectiveis

PHRASES.

without

man

applied

now

in meaning.

to

lacks

the

shrewdness,

is

easily deceived.
to talk
Chaffer^now
signifying
primarilyto buy, to bargain,etc.
Fellow
was
originallya term

and

much

of

and

DuncBy

applied to

used

now

as

the followers

Scotus, a teacher of
in the middle

the

was

of

learned

Franciscan

positive

stupidity,was
named

man

once

Duns

flourished

order, who

formerly given

name

to

pilgrims

Land.

Holy

Bankrupt

the

of

synonym

of

not

it is

now

ages.

Saunterers
the

idly,meant

respect;

generallysuggestiveof worthlessness, if
immorality.

to

simple

but
duplicity,

who

orle

broken
literally

means

Stipulationis
the Romans

derived

broke

from

when

bench.

stipulum, a

they

made

straw,

mutual

;Which

ment.
engage-

Dexterity is simply right-handedness; mountebank, a

quack-medicine vendor.
Faint is derived
from the French
to pretend ;
sec feindre,
hencQ originally
faintnesswas a pretended weakness, or
.

inability.
a
Blue-stocking,

term

now

applied to literary
women,

used in reference to both

origin. It was
in England in 1760. The literary
sexes
societyby whom
it was
from the blue worsted
originated took its name
tinguish
disa
stockings,always worn
by Benjamin Stillingfleet,
has

curious

writer.
on

at

and

literarywomen,
socials

and

Subsequently
because

the term

of the

literaryentertainments

accomplished

Mrs.

Jerningham.

blue

by

was

bestowed

stockingsworn
the

charming

AND

WORDS

Person

gaped

primarilymeant

PHRASES.

an

IQI

actor; and

stared about, at all that he

and

Sarcasm, from

the

Greek,

booby
^

one

who

saw.

a tearingof
literally,

means

the flesh.
formed
Sycophant meant
primarilya fig-shower; one who inthe public officers of Attica that the law against
the exportation of figshad been
violated.
the
Hence
word
to mean
came
a common
informer,a mean
finally
parasite.
which in the reign
Salary is from the Latin, sal [salt],
of the

as
Emperior Agustus, comprised the provisions,
He
is
well as the pay, of the Roman
militaryofficers.
its
worth
his salt^'is a phrase that probably owes
not
used
origin to the etymology of this word, which is now
"

in the

of pay

sense

or

wages.

meant
Plagiarism originally
man-stealing. It has now
less restricted significance,
and
a much
appliesto books^
writings,etc.
Scrupulous,from the Latin, formerly signifieda small
afterward
of weight,
a measure
sharp stone ; and scruple,
the twenty-fourthpart of an
Hence
to be scru-ounce.
to pay
minute, nice,and exact attention.
pulous is now
Quiz, if we are to believe some
etymologists,had its
origjnin a wager by the patentee of a Dublin theater,
that within twenty-four hours
he would
have
spdken,
through all the principal streets of the city,a word
without
meaning, and derived from no known
language.
He had his supernilmeraries
chalk quiz on every door and
in town.
The next
shop window
day being Sunday, the
attention of everybody was
attracted
to the curious combination

of
new

word

Miser

and
letters,

the

result

the addition

of

the

language.
miserable
primarilymeant
to

was

clown, a tillerof the

ground

scoundrel^a soldier who

roll ;

rivals^dwellers

the

on

absconded
banks

at

of the

the

ter
mus-

rivulet

same

stream.

or

Tribulation^from
or

PHRASES.

AND

WORDS

192

the

Latin, signifies
a kind

of

sledge

used as a flail.
heavy roller,
whom
Auspicious formerly signifieda bird-inspector,

the

nations

of the

oracle ; while

an

basket, which, in

old

world

were

wont

consult

to

or
fiscalis derived from fiscus,
primitivetimes, contained the

as

wicker
revenue

of the state.
is

Frugal
and

is

candor
strictlyfruit-bearing;

whiteness;

serious is the

to create
a laugh.
inability
who was
Fanatic^from the Roman
one
fanaticuSymeant
ardentlyattached to th(^fanayor temples. Vixen is from
fox-en^meaning a she-fox.
Tabernacle
hut ; furmeant
tent
or
primarilya mere
longs
the length of a furrow; and acre
the
once
was
was

of

name

field of any

size.

Calculate derives its meaning from

which

the ancients

pamper,
bread
flesh

and
or

used

from

the

the

or
calculi,

in their arithmetical

bles,
pebputations;
com-

Italian,primitivelymeant

drink; and viands, from

the

French, signified

meat.

Emolument

meant,

with

the

Romans,

the

tithe of the

gristwhich went to the miller for grinding grain.

and peculate,
all derive their origin
Pecuniary,peculiar,
frompecus,appertainingto flocks or herds.
Sardonic
gets its meaning from a poisonous herb in
those who ate it
Sardinia, which was supposed to cause
to die laughing.
is derived
Mob
from mobile, meaning fickle,variable,
changeable. It was formerly written mobile.
from
Slave^ strangelyenough, derives its signification

AND

PHRASES.

"The

national

WORDS

Sclav,

Gibbon

says:

193

appellationof
or
malice,from

the

the
degraded by chance
of glory to that of servitude."
signification
Hypocrite^taken from the Greek, originally
implieda
Slaves

has been

actor.
an
stage-player,
Mausoleum
acquiresits meaning from the fact that the
of Mausolus, a king of Caria,erected a cent
widow
magnifi-

tomb

to his memory.

discourse

vective
inabounding in acrimonious
in a series of orations
finds its significance
called Philippics^
delivered by Demosthenes, in which
he
attacked
Philip,king of Macedon.
now
MaiifUe^ the name
afternoon
applied to an
theatrical performance,
is derived from the French matin^
tainment
morning; and is the literal term for a morning entera
Philippic^

11

INDEX.

tK

INDEX.

PACK

A"

An

PACK

7, 177

Abash
Abandon
Abate

Allegory

123

Alliteration

164

Alone

185
185

Almost

49

Abbreviate

Also

Abhor

Alternative

Amateur

69

Amiable

Ability
Able

6
186

Abominable

Among

Above

And

Abridge

Anecdote

Absolve
Accent

69

Accident

Accord

Accurate

Acknowledge
Acquaintance

Adapt
Address

Adjacent
Adjective
Adjoining
Admire

Adopt
Advise

Antithesis

122

Apology
Apostrophe
Appear
Appreciate
Apprehend
Applause
Approach
Approve
Apt
Arrangement,
Artillery

31
2

192

3
8
3
4

3
186

186
122

8
8
8

57
8
39
8
The

Principle

of.

187
187

Artisan

4
61

Artist

As

Affable

Assure.,

After

Astonished

Aggravate
Ago.

Anticipate

10

Acquit
Acre

Answer

Accept

187
189

Animosity

187

At

4
66

Atone

9
16

57

Air

Attitude

Alacrity

Attribute

59

46

Authentic

33

Avocation

Alighted
All

Allowance
Allude
Allowed

Avow

187
6

63

10

Awful

10

Awkward

i4

...",.""

197

.""".

j"w

"

198

INDEX.

PACK

Balance

PACK

lo

Carry...
Cash

Bankrupt

190

Barbarism
Base
Bashfulness
Bathos

120

Casualty
Catalogue

57

Cause

49

Celebrated
Censure
Chaffer
Character
Chastise

148
61

Beam

Become

11,

33

Begin.

38

Behavior
Behind
Beside
Besides
Bestow

16
4

II

172
186

187
12

Clumsy

190

Coincide

Bombast

187

Booby

191

Commerce
Common

Boor

189

Booty
:

Brace
Brat

Bravery
Brevity,Excessive
Bring
Brown

12

Compensate
Comprehend
Complete

12

Conclusive

12

Condign

12

Bountiful

Bullions,Rev.

189

Condemn

12

Condone

175
174
173

Confute
Conscientious

13

Peter

112
1

Bulldoze

Buried
Bursted

Bury

14

13
13

But
t

187

Calculate

192

Can
Candor

186
16
123, 149
191
16
188
70
49,

14

126, 154

16, 74
30
16
2a

16
16

10,'54
i

11
r

62

17
17

Consequence
Consider

17
17
18
18

14
192

Contemptuous
Contemptible
Contiguous
Continence

Continually
Convene
Convenient
Convoke

53
16
8

Constantly

Caitiflf

Caligraphy
Campbell, Dr

15

183

Conduct
Confess
Confound
Confer
Confuse

143

88,

Goold

14

67

Cleave
Clerk
Clever
Climax
Clown

Bound

15
59
15

Circulate

Blue-stocking

190

10

Blanch

185

22

Beyond
Biddable

61
28

25
15

Civil

Bishop
Blackguard

46

Chastity
Chirography

Between
Bias

49
3

Choose
Circumstance

10

II,

172

Banister

.'

15
17,

56
18
18
18

Capacious
Capacity
Caption

14
14

Copy

Carnival

14

^^^^"^"DigitizVdby

37
'^

INDEX.

199

PAGE

Corpse

PAGB

189

Dramatic

Corporal
Corporeal

18

Counterfeit

37

Dramatize
Drive
Drunk

Couple
Courage

12

Due

12

18

Course
Courteous

Dumb

23
190

Duty

23

Craft

Each

19

Earth

189

Cunning.

3
23
23
23

Dunce

Crime

15, 46,

165

d^j
189

Crabb, George

Poems

24

Eat

21

55

Curious

19

Edify

186

Custom
Customer

19

55

Either
Elder
Elect

24

Deacon

186

Elicit

Dear

183

Eliminate

24

25
25

Debase

20

Emergency

Decimate

20

Emolument

Defalcate
Default

20

Demean

20

Emphasis
Emphatic
Employ
Empty
Enough

20

Denomination

56

Deprecate
Despisable

20

172

Description

20

Detest
Detestable
Detract

21

Deteriorate

21

Determined

12

2
2

25
27
192

3
147
25

Words

25,

34
26

Enthuse
Entire

176
74

Envy
Epic Poems
Epigram
Epithet
Equity

41

165
123
4
42

Dexterity

190

Essential

50

Diction

120

Establish

166

Ever

40
26

Didactic

Poems

Difference
Direct

21

Structure

157

Dirt

Every

26

Evidence

26

21

Exact

20

Example

26

40

Excellent

69

42

Exceedingly
Excessively
Except

,.

Disapprove
Discover
Discretion
Discriminate
Disremember
Dissembler
Distinction

21

172

"

27
27
27

21

Exclamation
Execrable

Distinguish

21

Execute

27

Divide

22

Exigency

27

Dock
Doesn't

22

Exorbitant

188

22

Expect
Expectation

Donate
Don't
Double

36

22
22

Negative

142

122
2

7, 27

35
28

Extend
Extenuate

28
^

INDEX.

200

TAGB

Face
Facetious
Fact
Faint
Famous

PACK

28

189
15
190
28

Fanatic

192

Fancy
Farther
Fast
Fellow
Female
Fetch
Fewer

Fiscal
Flee

Fly
Folk
Folks

Foreign Words
Freedom

and

Phrases.

Front

Frugal
Furlong

Haste

13
30

Head, SirE.

30
16

Heat
Him

30
31
31

His

115
115
34

Home

35
35

Hope

31
31
172
172
125

Horrid

186

How

Humanitarian
Humble
.

Humor

Hung
Hurry
Hyperbole
Hypocrite

22

Gain
General

75

If

32

Ignorant

Generous

16

111

Genteel.,

32
32
33
70
33

Illiterate

Give

2, 22,

Glance

33
33
74
172
172

Glimpse
Good

Got
Gotten

Gossip

189

Gould, Edward

2, 17, 22,

Graham,

28

G.

Ill-tempered
Illy
Imagery
Imagination
Imaginary
Imbroglio

72

35, 173
35
,

35,

20

75
34
34
122

36, '93
36
36

36
13
37
37" 172
37
71
172
122

29

36
37

Immense

38

Imitate

37

Immodest

38

Importance
Impertinent
In

Inaugurate
45, 57, 94, 174

64

Hollow

192

187

14

14
34
30

Ice
Iced
Ideal

Genuine
Genius
Get
Girl

Heading
Healthy

Future

Gentleness

27
34
34
34

29

192
192
29

Further

19

Hang
Hanged
Hardly

31
31
28

Friend

Habit

29

162

Firstly

39

Hall, Dr. Fitzedward

190

Final
Finish
Fire
First

33
26

29

183

FigurativeLanguage

Grant
Gratuitous
Great
Grow

Incident

Incomprehensible

17
186

9,

38
38

ij
i8tt

INDEX.

20I

PACK

PACK

Inconceivable

38

Increase

39,

60

38
38

Incredible
Indecent
Indexes
Indices
Indifferent
Indirect Structure
Individual
Indorse
Infamous
Inside
Insolence

.*

Leave
Lee
Lend

45
45
45
45

39
39
186

Lenience

157

Less

30

39

Let

184

Leniency
Lenity

39

Liable

40

Liberty

40

Lie

186

Lighted

189

Like

Intensify

185
148

Expressions

40

Lengthy

Insolvent
Instance
Institute
Intensive
Inter
Interior

45

184

26

Likewise

40

Likely
Liquidate

8
31

46, 72
46
9,

47
6
8

185

List

13

Lit

40

Loan

46
46
46

Locate

47

38

Long

45

23

47

40

Love
Ludicrous

123

Luxuriant

Luxurious

47
47

^
*

Interrogation

122

Into
Intoxicated
Invent

Irony
Irritate

Irving,Washington
being

151

Is

114

Issue
It

103

41

Jealousy
Jeopard
Jeopardize
Johnson, Dr.
Judgment
Justice
Juvenile

Samuel

Keep
Kill

Kind
Knave

165

Macaulay, Lord,

49,

137, 142,

159

Make

48

Male

47
47

Man

41

Manner

41
42

Marsh, Geo. P
Mathews, Prof.
18, 42, 100,

42

Matinee

76

Mausoleum

5
1 1a

William
loi,

120,

158, 172
193
193

May

14

42
43

Maze

43
115

20

Meager

44

Mechanic
Mentioned

50

189

Lyric Poems

41

66, 137

63

Me

Knowledge

43

Labyrinth
Lady
Large

43

Method

44

Metonymy

122

44

Minion

189

46

Miscreant

188
191

Metaphor

Lay
Lean
Learn

L"amlng

14,

121

69

44

Miser,

45

Mistake

48

43

Mistaken

48

INDEX.

202

PAGE

Mob

fAOB

192

Modesty
Money

49
49

Mood

35

183

Mortal
Most

49

Mountebank

190

Murder

43
23
49

Mute
Mutual

My
Myself

..,

Name
Named

Onomatopoeia

123

Only
Opera..
Opportunity

18$

Or
Oral

7,

52
51
73

Ordinary

53

Ossian

158

Ought

53

Outsider
^

184

115

Over

53

176

Owing

23

Own

54

50

Pair

12

187

Pale

54
28

51

Naturalist

Near

18

Palliate

Necessary
Neglect
Negligence
Neighborhood

50

Pallid

50

Pamper

92

50

Paradise

188

50

Paramour

24

Paralipsis

Neither
Nervous

183

"

54

123
186

Parasite

Never

26

Parenthesis,Lx)ng

New

51

Paraphernalia

New

181

Partake
Part

Nice

125
177

Nichol, Professor John,94, 106,

120

Beginner
Newly Coined Words

No
Nominate

51

Nor
Not

Noted
Notorious
Novel
Novice
Number
O"

41,

Oh!

Officious
Older
Omission
On

Partially
Partly
Party

.".

55
55
55

Pass

51

Peculate

192

51
51

Peculiar

192

Pecuniary

192

Pell-mell

180

60

People

55

Perfect

26

Perpetually

56
56

4
Poems

Patron

Persuasion
Person
Persons

166

55

39, 55" 19'

55

Personification

122

193

52

Philippic
Philanthropist

52

Pier

22

Piety

62

52

53

189
"...

56

Pastoral

23

Of

55
".

51
51

135
52
52

Observance
Observation
Observe
Occasion
Occur

152
54

51

171

Obligation
Obscurity

189

24
123

72

Plain

Language
Plagiarism
Plead

Pleaded.

35

149

191

56
56

INDEX.

203

PAGE

Plentiful
Pleonasm

PACK

12

Poe, Edgar

140
151, 160

Polite

15, 32
125, 151, 187

Pope, Alexander
Portion
Possessive
Post...:

Case

Recollect

49
61

94

Recommend

6i

Reduce

20

57

Refute

Predicate

57

Regalia
Regeneration
Rejoinder
Religion

58
148

Preserve

42

Prejudice

1 1

Precise
...

Prevail

Previous

Prey
Previously
Prevent
Preventative
Preventive
Priest
Promise

;'

Relevant

6
62
'.

54

189
8
62

188

Remarkable

19

Remainder

lO

5^

Remember

61

12

Rendering

62

58

Rendition

62

Repartee
Reply
Reputation

63

185
172
172
186
9

"

Response

15
8

Reserve

62

Promptness
Property
Propose

5
59

Residence

3$

Restive

62

58

Restless

62

Proved
Proven

59
59

Reticence

62

Retort

63

Provoke

Proud

59

Puerile
Punctual

76
188

Rhyme
Rhythm
Ride
Ridiculous

Punish

59

Rise

Pupil
Purpose

64

Rivals

58

Robust

Quality
Quantity

59
60'

Quarrel

37

Query

60

Row

Question

Quiz
^
"

185

Reciprocal

57

of Clauses

69

Reckless

Praise

Precedence

61

Receive

Refer

Present

6a

56
57, 183

Posture

Reared
Reason

Quit
Quite

60
191

45
44

Sacrament
Said

Sagacious
Salary
Sarcasm.
Sardonic

37
186

63
187
191
191

190

Raised

60

Rascal

187

Say
Scamp

61

8
192
68

Satire
Save

161

23

63

Saunterers

60

Ray

164

192
166

Raise

Real

163

42

52

189

Scandalous

4^

Scarcely

34

INDEX.

204

PAGS

PACK

64

Scholar
Scoundrel

192
17, 191

Scrupulous
Sculptor

185
56

Sect
Secret
Seen

187
8

Separate
Seraph
Seraphim

22

172
172

Set
Settle
Severe

64
47
16

Sewage

175

Shall
Should
Sick

64
53,

Stopping

67

.,

Strange
Strategic
Strong

175

Style

120

19
68
68

Suavity
Subsequent
SubjunctiveMood

32
m

68
26

Such
Sufficient
Suicide

.185
69

Superior
Suppose

17,

Sweat

27
173

Synecdoche
System

122

66

Tabernacle

66

Taciturn

192
66

189

Tale

186

66

Take

65

69

37

Signal
Signalize
Silly

..."

Silent

33,

Simile

121

Talent

Simple

189

Tameness

66

Tasteful

19

Tastefully
Tastily

Since
Sin
Sit

Slang
Slay

64
Words

124

43

Slave
So
Social
Sociable

192
9, 68

Soil

Solecism
Some
Somewhat

138

Teach
Technical

45
Terms

21

20

Spencer, Herbert

Tautology

That
Their

186

Sort

Tasty

32
172
172
172
172

Testimony

("^
67

Sophist

70

67
67
120

69

124
26

98

Than

13, 35, loi,

102

115
115

Them
Then

97
147

There
These
Thief

115

189
188

153, 154, 155. 157, 158

Thing

Particles

147

Think

189

Those

172
172

Thought

188

To

no

of
Splitting

Si)eculation
Spoonfuls

Spoonsful
Spread
SquintingConstruction

67

8, 27
115
7,

188

Tobacconist

134

Total

185

Townsend,

Stand-point

176

Station

186

Transpire
Trappings

5^
54

Trench, Dean

29

Starvation

Staying
Step
Stipulation

67
173

Tribulation

190

Truth

74
Professor L. T.

...

114

192
71

.^

"

INDEX.

205
Pagb

Try....
Tyrant

48
186

Vixen
Vocation

Ugly

71

Wan

Unbelief
Under
Underhanded
Unless
Universe
Universal
Untruth
Unwarranted

71

Whately, Dr
Weak
Endings

Upon
Urbanity

53
174
27,

Vacant
Vain
Value
Venal
Verbal

Verbosity
VeryViands

Vice

74

Wharf
Which

22
loi

White, Richard

Grant, 17, 28, 1I4

33
72
68

Whiten
Who
Who'e

25

Whose

94

Whom

95

12
loi

S. 74

Wholesome

189

Widow

187

51

Will
Win
Wit

64
75

73
10, 49,

98

29,

72

73
73
71

Veracity

f 48

Well

?5

Vagabond

Noah

54
157

75
32
72

Use

Webster,

192
9

"

75, 188
13, io8

With

Without

75

140

Woman

61

World
Worth
Would

65

Youthful

76

192
19

29,

44

72
71

Vicinity
Villain

Vision

122

^^^

OF

TH"^^

[IJiri7BRSIT7]