THE

JOURNAL

OF THE

ACOUSTICAL

SOCIETY

Transient

OF AMERICA

Performance

VOLUME

of a Piezoelectric
M.

33, NUMBER

APRIL,

1961

Transducer

REDWOOD

ElectricalEngineeringDepartment,QueenMary College,Universityof London,London,England

(ReceivedNovember 18, 1960)

The methodsof transformcalculusare usedto solveseveralproblemsin which the transientresponseof

a piezoelectrictransduceris of interest.The electricalsignalproducedby a stepfunctionof forceis derived,
both for open-circuitand resistiveloadingat the electricalterminals,and the mechanicalsignalproduced
by a voltagestepis alsodiscussed.
The analyses
areperformed
for boththeplatetransducer
in compressional
thicknessvibrationand the bar in compressional
lengthvibration,and the importantdifferences
between
the two transducersare discussed.
The analysescommencewith the fundamentalpiezoelectricequations,
and solutionsare foundwhich representsuccessive
time-delayedreflectionsof the mechanicaltransient
between the end faces of the transducer. The results are also discussed with reference to the exact trans-

mission-line
electricalequivalentcircuitsof the transducers,
whosedevelopment
is outlinedbriefly.Simple
equivalentcircuitswhich do not involve lines are described;thesemake it possibleto determinemany
featuresof the transient without recourseto the full theoreticalanalysis.

1. INTRODUCTION

certainly of no value in the' calculationof transient

performance,and here it is necessaryto use the exact
applicationof a transientelectricalor mechanical equivalent circuit. The form of the exact circuit is
signalto a piezoelectric
transducer.Many devicesand known (Figs.2 and 7), and its derivationcanbe found
or
measuringtechniquesmake use of ultrasonicwaves, in the literature,1.2but it has rarely been discussed
either in the form of pulsesof a few microseconds
duration or of short trains of sinusoidalwavesof high
frequency,and in a considerableproportionof these,
piezoelectrictransducersboth generatethe ultrasonic
wavesand detect them. The transducersmay be made
O[
,,
"y
of a crystallinematerialsuchasquartzor of a polarized
--y
ceramicsuchas barium titanate. In the generationof
ultrasonicwavesa transientelectricalsignalis applied
to the transducerand this producesa transient me(bb)o
) (1
z9 v X
chanicalvibration, while in detection,the application
of a transientmechanicalsignalproducesan electrical
vibration. The productionof an electricalsignalfrom a

A NUMBER
ofpractical
problems
involve
the

mechanical transient is also found in devices such as the

accelerometer
and the vibrationpickup.
The performanceof a piezoelectrictransduceris most
often analyzedusing the simple electricalequivalent
circuit of Fig. 1. In this circuit Co representsthe
electricalcapacitanceof the transducer,whileC, L, and
R are chosento have a resonant frequency and a
Q factor numericallyequal to thoseof the mechanical
resonanceof the transducer.This equivalentcircuit is,
however, an approximation,being valid only at frequenciesnear the mechanicalresonanceof the transducer, and can thereforebe applied only to problems
involvingcontinuouswaves,and even then only over
a very limited band of frequencies.This circuit is

hQ

(b)

<

<

: I/h.

.cov

(c)
/

FIG. 1. Approximateequivalent circuit of a piezoelectric

transducer.

FIo. 2. Exact equivalentcircuit of a piezoelectric

plate for compressional
plane waves.

II

W. P. Mason, ElectromechanicalTransducersand Wave Filters

(D. Van NostrandCompany,Inc., Princeton,New Jersey,1948),

2nd ed., p. 200 ff, 399 ff.
'Solid State Magnetic and Dielectric Devices,edited by H. W.
Katz (JohnWiley & Sons,Inc., New York, 1959), Chap. 3.
527

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528

M.

REDWOOD

made use of?,4 It incorporatesa sectionof a transmissionline, andthe basicpurposeof thisis to represent
the timedelaywhichis necessary
for mechanical
signals

2.1 Plane CompressionalWaves in

Nonpiezoelectric Materials

Later in this analysisthe equationsof wavestraveling

in a nonpiezoelectric
material will be needed,and it is
face. Many electricalengineers
are familiar with the
convenientto start with this simpleproblem.For plane
phenomena
that occurwhentransientsare appliedto
wavestravelingin the positivex direction
electricaltransmission
lines,the mostimportantbeing compressional
in a nonpiezoelectric
solidor fluid,
to travel from one face of the transducer to the other

the delayingof signalsin time, and the presenceof

multiplereflections
due to impedance
mismatching
at

the endsof the line. Other researchworkersmay be less

r:(0/0)

(1)

,(o./or)=or/o,
(2)
familiarwith thesephenomena,
and with the methods
of theoreticalanalysisusingoperationalcalculus.
whereT is the stress(tensionpositive)in newtons/ms,
A directapplicationof the equivalentcircuitof the c is the relevant elastic constant in newtons/m2, is
transducerto transientproblemsispossible,
but because the particle displacementin the x directionin meters,
of the negativecapacitance
whichsometimes
appears p is the densityin kg/m,and t is the time, in seconds.
in the circuit,and becauseof certainunusualsignconEquation (1) is the simpleHooke'slaw relationbeventions,it is necessary
to proceedwith considerable tween stressand strain (0ti/Ox). Equation (2) is obcare if anything other than qualitative results are tained from Newton's secondlaw, equatingforce and
required.

the productof massand acceleration,for an infinitesimal

In the followinganalysis,therefore,the piezoelectric volume element.

equationsare usedas a startingpoint, rather than the
On combiningEqs. (1) and (2),
equivalentcircuit, the solutionsare developedusing
(02/Ot2)= v2(O2i/Ox2)
(3)
operationalcalculus,and the physicalsignificance
of
the results is discussed in terms of reflections and time
v'=c/p,
(4)
delayswhereverpossible.
No particularpracticalproblemsare treated,the work beingmoreconcerned
with wherev is the velocityof propagationin m/sec. If the
materialis a fluid, v= (k/p)-l;if it is an isotropicsolid
methodsand generalphysicalresults.
The characteristicsof a transducerdepend on the

extendingover largedistancesin the y and z directions,

v= { (k-+-2/)fp};if it is a solidbar of relativelysmall

type of mechanicalvibrationin whichit operates,and crosssection,v=(E/p). Here 2, and tz are Lame's
the equivalentcircuitsshowslightdifferences
according constants,and E is Young'smodulus.
to whetherthe vibrationis mainlycompressional,
shear,
All possiblewaves must be solutionsof the wave
flexural, or torsional.Two transducersare discussed equation,Eq. (3). Solutionsfor displacement
are obhere' the "plate" vibratingin a compressional
thickness tained directly; solutionsfor stress,pressure,or force
mode(alongthex axisin Fig. 2) andthe "bar" vibrating are proportionalto the differentialof the displacement
in a compressional
length mode (along the x axis in with respectto x, from Eq. (1), whileparticlevelocity
Fig. 7). These are chosenbecausetheir equivalent is proportionalto the differentialof the displacement
circuitsshowan important difference(the presenceor with respectto time.
absenceof the negativecapacitance);other types of
2.2 Plane Compressional Waves in
transducer generally have equivalent circuitsvery
Piezoelectric
Materials
similar to one of thesetwo.1.'The plate is treated in
more detail here, sinceit has very important practical
The equationsrepresenting
planecompressional
wave
applicationsin the generationand detectionof com- propagationin the x directionin a piezoelectric
material
pressionalwavesin solids,fluids,and gases.
are
r=c(Oti/Ox)--hD
(5)
2. DEVELOPMENT
THE

PLATE

OF EQUATIONS

OF

TRANSDUCER

The analysisof this sectionfollows the method of

Mason,1 exceptthat operationalcalculusis used.However, the symbolsconformmainly to the I.R.E. standards on piezoelectriccrystals5 and are in rationalized
mks units.

3 M. Redwoodand J. Lamb, ?roc. Inst. Elec. Engrs. (London)

Pt. B, 103, 773 (1956).
4j. Williams and J. Lamb, J. Acoust.Soc.Am. 30, 308 (1958).
5 Proc. I.R.E. 37, 1378 (1949).

E= -- h(Otl/Ox)+D/e,

(6)

whereD is the electricflux densityin the x directionin

coul/m, e is the permittivity in farads/m (the product
of the relative permittivity of the material and the
permittivity of a vacuum), measuredunder constant
strain, and h is a piezoelectricconstantof the material,
measuredwith D constant.These equationsmay be
usedboth for piezoelectric
crystalsandfor piezoelectric
polarizedceramics.
In addition,from Newton'ssecondlaw,

p(O2/Ot2)=(OT/Ox),

(7)

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PERFORMANCE

OF

PIEZOELECTRIC

andfrom Gauss'law, sincethereis no freechargeinside

(8)

=A exp(--px/v)+B exp(+px/v).

(9)

The firsttermrepresents
a wavetravelingin thepositive
x direction,the secondterm a wave traveling in the
negativex direction.A and B are amplitudefactorsto

On combiningEqs. (5) and (7),

(02ti/Ot2)
= (c/tO(O2ti/Ox)
- (h/tO(OD/Ox).
2.3

Piezoelectric

The characteristics

(12)

be determinedfrom the boundary conditions.

It is useful to developthe equation describingthe

Plate

of the mechanical

529

The solution of interest is

the transducer,

divD=0.

TRANSDUCER

resonance of a

total force exerted over an area S normal to x in a non-

solid plate with all dimensionsof the same order of piezoelectricmedium. On writing the force F-TS,
magnitudeare knownto be complex.
6 For the purpose Eqs. (1) and (12) give
of developingan equivalentcircuit somesimplifying
F=pgc{-A exp(--px/v)+B exp(+px/v)}. (13)
idealizationsare desirable,and thesewill be usedin the
presentanalysisalso.The basicassumptions
are that Zc, the "characteristicimpedance"of the material, is
to the
the mechanical
resonantfrequencyof the plate is deter- orS,andis the ratio of the pressure(compression)
mined entirely by its thicknessdimension(X), and velocity (p times the displacement)of the forwardthat plane wavespropagateundistortedin the x direc- traveling wave. The ratio for the backward-traveling
tion and are reflectedat the y-z surfaceswithout losing wave is -Zc.
their plane nature. In practice this meansthat the y
2.5 Relation between Electrical
and Mechanical
and z dimensionsmust be much greater than the
thickness dimension.
Quantities in the Plate
Sinceplanewavepropagationisassumed,
differentials To find the relation describingthe interaction of
with respectto y and z are zero,and in particular,
electricaland mechanicalwavesin a piezoelectric
plate,

(aD/ay) = (aDz/a0 = 0.

Eqs. (5) and (12) are combined'

T+hD = (cp/v){ - A exp(-- px/v)

+B exp(+px/v)}.

Therefore,from Eq. (8),

(14)

Gauss'law, applied at the surfaceof the transducer,

Dx,thecomponent
ofD in thex direction,
isthequantity shows
that
referredto in Eqs. (5), (6), and (9) as D, the suffix
B=O/I/Z,
being omitted there for convenience.
Hence Eq. (9)
reduces to
at x=0 and x=X. Since (ODx/Ox)=O,this equation
must also be true throughout the transducer.This is
incorporated
in Eq. (14), togetherwith the relations
7)
2= 6/p.
F = T YZ and Z c = pvYZ ;
The wave equationfor a piezoelectric
plate, Eq. (10),
is identicalwith Eq. (3) for a nonpiezoelectric
material. F+hQ=pZc{-A
exp(-px/v)
+B exp(+px/v)}.

2.4 Solutions of the Wave Equation

(15)

The original analysis

leading to the equivalent This equationshouldbe comparedwith Eq. (13).
To find the voltageacrossthe transducer,Eq. (6) is
circuitusesthe time variableexp(jcot),but as transient
integratedfrom x=0 to x-X'
performanceis of interest here, Laplace transform
x
methods
TMare more suitablewhen findingsolutionsof
the wave equation.The transformto be usedis

odX=
--{(F)x-(F)o}
=, say,
-h{
f(t)=(p)=f0
exp(--pt)f(t)dt,== --h{
()x-- ()o}+Q/Co
i.e.,

and it will be assumedthroughoutthe presentwork

(16)

Co= eYZ/X,
The wave equation for piezoelectricor nonpiezowhere Co is the static capacitanceof the transducer.
electricmaterialsmay now be written'
Termssuchas ()x signifythe valueof whenthis is
that all variables are zero at t=0.

=
E. A. G. Shaw,J. Acoust.Soc.Am. 28, 38 (1956).
7 B. Van der Pol and H. Bremmer, OperationalClculux (Cambridge University Press,New York, 1950).
s S. Goldman,TransformationCalculusand ElectricalTransients

(Prentice-HallInc., EnglewoodCliffs,New Jersey,1949).

evaluated

at x= X.

2.6 Electrical Equivalent Circuit of the Plate

It is convenientto point out that the equations

developedso far enable the equivalent circuit to be

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530

M.

REDWOOD

drawn. If p is replacedby jw (co=2rf, wheref is frequency)and if the equationsare written for x-0 and
x= X, the followingset of equationsresults'

(F)x+hQ= jwZc{ -A exp(- jwX/v)

+B exp(+jwX/v) }

(17)

(F)o-t-hQ- jwZc{ - A -t-B}

(8)

(O/Ot)x- jw{A exp(- jwX/v)

+ B exp(+ jwX/v) }

(19)

Fro. 3. Waves in
transducer
and
in
materials in contact
with transducer.

Clearly, with so many variables, a large number of

problemsare possible.Those treated here are among
(21) the simplest,and are chosenbecauseof certainfeatures
joCoV= -hc0{ (oUot):- (oUOt)o}+L
of their behavior which also may reasonablybe exOn eliminatingA and B by usingEqs. (18) and (20), pected to occur in more complicatedproblems.The
and then usingEq. (17),
appliedwaveformwill in all casesbe a step function;
the next sectiondealswith the applicationof a forcestep
(F)x+hQ= { (F)o-t-hQ}cos(wX/v)
function,
the sectionthat followsthat with the applicaq-j (O/Ot)oZcsin(wX/v) (22)
tion of a voltagestepfunction.
(oUOt)ocos(X/v)
For convenience,the necessaryequationsare sum+ (j/zc){ (F)o+hQ} sin(wX/v). (23) marizedbelowfor the mostgeneralproblemof a transducerof impedanceZc situatedbetweentwo materials
Equations(21)-(23) are the equationsof the network of impedanceZ and Z. (Fig. 3). Waves traveling in
of Fig. 2(b), whichis thereforethe electricalequivalent both directions are shown in all materials'
circuit of the plate. A transmissionline representsthe
()0= (?)0; (?.)= (?); ()0 = ()0;
mechanicalproperties of the transducerand is an
essentialpart of the circuit since mechanicalwaves
(.)x= ()x (24)
propagatein solidsat about 5000 m/sec, and time
=A exp(--px/v)q-Bexp(q-px/v)
(25)
delaysof severalt secare foundfrequentlyin practice.
An ideal transformer representsthe conversionof F+hQ=pZc{-A exp(-px/v)+B exp(+px/v)}
electricalquantitiesto mechanicalquantities,and vice
[-cf.Eq. (15) (26)
versa[-Fig.2(b), but thismay be removedif V, I, and
ff=-h{()x-- ()0}+0/C0 [cf. Eq. (16) (27)
the electricalimpedanceattachedto the transducerare
transformedas shownin Fig. 2(c).
=A exp(--px/v)+B exp(-t-px/v)
(28)
One capacitorhas a negativevalue and is unlike any
F= pZ{ - A exp(- px/v)
real electricalelement.Its magnitudeis equal to the
transformedstaticcapacity,and thereforewhenthereis
+B exp(q-px/v)} (29)
no electrical connectionto the transducer,the trans.=A. exp(--px/v2)+B.exp(-t-px/v)
(30)
ducer behavestowardsmechanicalwavessimply as a
length of mechanicaltransmissionline. Current flows
F.=pZ.{--A. exp(-px/v)
through the static capacitanceof the transducerand
q-B.exp(q-px/v.)}. (31)
producesa voltage,nevertheless.
An importantfeatureof Eq. (21) is that the current
3. ELECTRICAL
RESPONSE
OF A
flowingthroughthe ideal transformeris proportional
PIEZOELECTRIC
PLATE

(o/Ot)o= jw{A +B}

(20)

to the difference in the velocities at the two faces of the

transducer.

3.1 Open-Circuit Response

The problem is simplifiedif the transduceris not

connectedto any electricalimpedance.Frequentlyin
The constantsA and B of Eqs. (12)-(15) must be practicalproblemsa transduceris usedin conjunction
found by using the known conditionsof a particular with an amplifierwith a highinput impedance,and the
problem.Thesewill generallybe (a) voltage,current,or electricalresponse
of the transduceris very similarto
electricalimpedanceacrossthe transduceror (b) force, that which would occurif the input impedancewere
velocity, displacement,or mechanicalimpedanceat infinite; this is discussed
further in Sec.3.2.
It is also assumed that materials 1 and 2 extend
each surface of the transducer.Frequently another
mechanicalsystem will be attached to one or both indefinitelyaway from the transducer.If the applied
facesof a transducer,whenthe boundaryconditionsat force comesfrom material 1, it is possibleto put B.
the interfacerequirethat the stresses
anddisplacementsequal to zero. The term in Eqs. (28) and (29) which
on both sidesof the interfaceshallbe equal.
includesA representsthe appliedmechanicalsignal;
2.7 Boundary Conditions for Transient Problems

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PERFORMANCE

OF

PIEZOELECTRIC

TRANSDUCER

531

the term with B representsthe reflectedmechanical

signal.A 1 is determinedby the natureof the applied
signal(hereassumed
to be a stepfunctionof force),so
A may be carried throughthe analysisto the final
result.A, B, B1, and A 2 must be eliminatedfrom Eqs.
(25)-(31).
Open-circuitconditionsgive

I=pQ=O.

(32)

Boundaryconditions,
Eq. (24), give,at x--O,
Aq-B=Aq-B

(33)

lo

pZi(--Aq-B1)-pZ(--Aq-B), sinceO=0, (34)

and, at x- X,

(a)

A2 exp(-- pX/v2)= A exp(- pX/v)

+B exp(+pX/v)
pZ{-A2 exp(-pX/v)}=pZc{-A
exp(-pX/v)
q-B exp(q-pX/v)}.

(35)

(36)

The open-circuitvoltageis

V= - h[A {exp(-- pX/v) - l }

+B{exp(+pX/v)-

l}-].

(37)

Xlv

From Eqs. (33)and (34),

A (1-r0)- A --roB,

(38)

r0= (Zc-Z)/(Zcq-Z).

(39)

where

3Xlv
(b)

Fro. 4. Multiple reflectionsin transducer.

From Eqs. (38)and (40),

From Eqs. (35) and (36),

rx exp(--2pX/v)A--B=O,

A(1-r0)

(40)

A=

1-rorx exp(- 2pX/v)

where

rx= (Ze-Z2)/ (Ze+Z2).

(41)
B=

We may call r0 and rx "reflectioncoefficients"

for the
displacement(at x=O and x= X, respectively).

A ,(1-ro)rx exp(-2pX/v)

From Eq. (37)

Ah(1-ro){ 1- (l+rx) exp(--pX/v)+rx exp(--2pX/v)}

1-rorx exp(- 2pX/v)
This equationis bestinterpretedafter expandingthe
denominatorby the binomialtheorem'

V=A lh(1-r0){ 1- (l+rx) exp(-pX/v)

+rx exp(- 2pX/v) } { 1+rorx exp(- 2pX/v)
q-ro2rx
exp(- 4pX/v)-+-. . . }.
On collectingterms,

V=A lh(1-r0){ 1- (lq-rx) exp(-pX/v)q-rx(1-+-ro)

X exp(- 2pX/v)-rorx(1 +rx) exp(- 3pX/v)
-q-rcrx2(1-+-ro)
exp(-4pX/v) .... }. (44)

(42)

1-rorx exp(- 2pX/v)

(43)

tromechanicalconversioncoefficientmultipliedby the
initial amplitudeof the forcewave at the surfaceof the
the transducer,which is a combinationof the applied
force wave and reflected force wave. The terms inside
the bracket are understood when it is remembered that

f (t- T) = exp( - pT) { f (t)} .

Eachexponentialterm in Eq. (44) represents
a function
whosestart is delayeduntil time T, which is somein-

tegralmultipleof X/v. The amplitudesof the delayed

functionsare givenby the terms containingthe reflection coefficients,and as theseare generallylessthan
Equation(44) hasan importantphysicalinterpreta- unity, the amplitudesof successive
delayedfunctions

tion. The term outside the brackets consists of the dec-

diminish.Figure4 illustratesthesefeatures.The signal

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532

M.

REDWOOD

that starts at t-0 (unity term insidethe bracket) is

producedimmediatelyas the mechanicalsignal commences.After a time X/v the mechanicalsignalhas
reachedthe oppositefaceof the transducerand a second
electricalsignalcommences,
sincethe voltageis proportional to ()0-()x. The relative amplitude of the
secondsignal at time X/v is l+rx, sincewhen the
wave falls on the interfacea wave of relative amplitude
rx is producedby reflectionand the total displacement
amplitude is l+rx. In addition, a negative sign is
presentsincethe voltageis proportionalto ()0-()x.
The reflectedsignalreturnsto x=0, whereit is reflected with relative amplituder0. The total displacement commencing
at time 2X/v is thusrx(l+ro), and
a third electricalsignalcommences.
Further signalsare
producedby later reflections,as illustratedin Fig. 4.
Complications
are introducedif the appliedpulseis
longerthan X/v, sinceoverlapping
thenoccurs,but the
summationof the seriesis not usuallydifficult.Sincer0
and rx may have any values between +1 and -1,
many combinations
of polaritiesandrelativeamplitudes
are found in reflections.If r0 and/or rx is zero, one or
both reflections are eliminated

and the transducer

is

mechanically"matched." The amplitude of the first

term reachesa maximumas ro-->- I(Zc<<Z1); it is a
minimumwhenr0= + 1(Zc>>Z1).
Many of thesefeaturesareillustratedin Fig. 5, which
showsthe nature of the electricalsignalif the applied
signalis a step functionof force.For this,

F=0,

t<0;

F=F,,

t>0;

F(t)=F,/p.

Onequatingthisto thefirsttermof Eq. (29) at x=0,

short-durationpulsessincemultiple reflectionsare
elLminated,
the electricalresponse
beingproportional
to

the integralof the appliedforcewhilet <X/v. A high

electricalimpedance
acrossthe transducer
is essential,
however,for the total eliminationof reflections;see
Sec.3.2. (b) The eliminationof any reflectedsignalat
time X/v if onefaceof the transducer
is rigidlyfixed
(Z=>>Zc);thishappens
since()x is thenzero.It isnot
easyto achieverigid backingin practice,however.
3.2 Responsewith ResistiveLoading

In any practicalproblem,the transducer

must be
connected
to an amplifieror electricaldetectorof finite
input impedance.
It is importantto determinehow
largethisimpedance
mustbeif it is to havelittle effect
ontheresponse
of thetransducer
ascalculated
foropencircuit conditions.

To simplifythe algebraconsiderably,
a transducer
withrigidbacking
isassumed,
whenZ== oo()x= 0, and
A =andB=arezero.The electricalimpedance
is assumed
to be a resistanceof R ohms,and the ratio of V to I
is thenR. The signof VII mustbeexamined
carefully,
however.The potentialof the transducer
is greaterat

thesurface
carrying
charge+Q, andthecurrentdefined
hereasI=dQ/dt is positivefor -+-Qincreasing.
Thereforethe currentI ispositivewhenflowingto thesurface
carryingcharge+Q, that is, to the surfaceof higher
potential.
Thecurrentthrough
a resistor
ispositive
when
flowingto a point of lowerpotential,hencethe current
throughtheresistor
loadingthetransducer
mustbe -I
and V/I=-R. This resultmay be madeclearerif the

equivalent
circuitof Fig.2(b) is alsoexamined.
The
equations
of the transducer
maybe written
(45)

--pZ1A=F/p, i.e., Ai= --F,/p2Z1.

The inverse transform of the term outside the bracket

V= -IR=

(46)

-pQR

()x=0=A exp(-pX/v) +B exp(+pX/v) (47)

in Eq. (44) is then

(48)

-hV,(1-ro)t/Z.
This meansthat a step function of force producesa
"ramp"functionof displacement,
andhenceof voltage.
Featuresworthy of note in Fig. 4 includethe follow-

ing' (a) The eliminationof reflections

if Z2=Zc; this

(/)0--pZc(--Aq-B)--hO--pZ1(--A
? = h + O/Co
= h(A+ --

(49)
(s0)

On eliminatingA, B, B1,and Q and inserting

A 1= -- 2Fi/p2Z1,

allows the transducer to be used for the detection of

-- {2F,h/(Zc+Z0 } { 1- exp(-- 2pX/v)}

{p2-+-p/CoR}
{ 1-+-ro
exp(--2pX/v)} - {h2/R(Zcnt-ZO
}{1--exp(- 2pX/v)}
[-Thisequationreduces
to Eq. (43) (with rx=-1)

if

R- oo. The seriesexpansion

is achievedby writing
V=

- {2Fih/(Ze+ZO } { 1-- exp(-- 2pX/v)}

-- 2F,h/ (Zc+ZO

-2Fh/(Ze+ZO

p-kp/CoR- h2/R(Z c-+-Z1)

p+p/CoR- h2/R(Ze+ZO
pro+ pro/CoR+ h/R(Zc+ Z1)

The first term of this function is

The inverse transform of this is

{-- 2F,h/ (Zc-+-Z1)

}
X {exp(-at)-exp(-fit) }/(fi-a),

In t

p2+p/CoR- h'/R(Zc+ZO

(52)

where a and fi are

Xexp(-2pX/v)

(51)

- [-1/2COR-]4-[{
1/2CoR} {hVR(Zc+ZO}-]. (53)

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PERFORMANCE

OF

PIEZOELECTRIC

TRANSDUCER

5,33

--1/CoR and +hCo/(Zc+Z1); the secondis constant

at about -+-2X104sec-1, while the first is about -10
sec-1 at R= 10 ohms, --10 sec-1 at R= 10 ohms,and
--107 sec-1 at R= 104 ohms. In this latter range of
values the time constant exp(--t/CoR) has a very
important effect on the linearity of response.For
barium titanate h--101 (coul/newton)
, Zc is of the

IVl

IVI

sameorderasfor quartz,but Cowill be severalhundred

timeslargerfor the samegeometry,sincethe relative
permittivity is about 1000, comparedwith 4.58 for
quartz. The time constantsare of approximatelythe
same order as those for a similar quartz transducer,
but it is essentialto study eachproblemindividually
sincegeneralization
isimpossible.
Valuesof h for various
piezoelectricmaterials may be calculatedfrom the
constantsgiven in the literature;the work cited in
footnote9 givesthe constantd whichin simplesystems
is relatedto h by h=dc/.

IVl

4. MECHANICAL
RESPONSE
PIEZOELECTRIC
PLATE

OF

(d)

To illustratethe main physicalfeaturesof the mechanicalresponseto an electricaltransient,the performanceof a plate with rigidbackingwill be analyzed,
asthis simplifiesthe algebraicmanipulations.A voltage
step function is assumed' V=Vo for t>0, so the
transformis Vo/p. From Eqs. (24)-(31), with AI=A

IVI

=B.=O,

B=A +B

(54)

pZ1BI=pZc(--A+B)-hO
2Xlv

3 Iv

4Xlv

Fro. 5. Voltage producedacrossan open-circuitedplate transducerby a step functionof force. Solidlines,Zc=2Z1, r0=-+-;
brokenlines,Zc=Z/2; r0=-. (a) Z2<<Zc,rx'q-1 (one face
free); (b) Z.=Zc/3, rx TM--+--;
(c) Z2=Zc, rx=0; (matched
backing); (d) Z.=3Zc, rx=-;
(e) Z.>>Zc, rx"'"-i (rigid
backing).Voltage amplitudesare not to the samescalein any of
the 10 curves,the amplitudebeingproportionalto 2Fih(1--ro)/Z1
of the value shown.

(55)

()x=0=A exp(--pX/v)+B exp(+pX/v)

(56)

=h()o+(/Co=h(A +B)+O/Co= Vo/p. (57)

We eliminateB1and(, thenA andB-

- {hCoVo/(Zc+Z)}{ 1- exp(- 2pX/v)}

?-pCol(Ze+Z)

One exponentialfactorhas a positivesign,onea negative sign.This is connectedwith the appearanceof both

negativeand positive capacitances
in the equivalent
circuit.The functionEq. (52) is zeroat t-0 and hasan
initial rate of riseidenticalwith that of Eq. (44). If at
and/Stare smalland termsin (at)2 and (/St)
2 and higher
powersare neglected,the expansion
of the exponential
terms gives {-2Fih/(Zc+Z1)}t exactly as doesEq.
(44). To examinethe validity of the assumptions
concerningat andt, numericalvaluesmust be insertedin
Eq. (53). By taking figuresfor a certainquartz transducer:S= 10-4 ms, Co= 10-nF, h2101(coul/newton)
2,
Zc2X103kg/sec, and assumingZI=Zc, the roots
dependon the value of R. When R- 107ohms,they are
approximately- 2X 104and -3-104sec-1, andfor periods
up to about t-10 -5 sec.,the functionis nearly linear.
As R is decreasedthe roots become approximately

{ pro+hCo/
(Zc+Z) }-.

X lq

exp(- 2pX/v)

(58)

p-ho/(Ze+Z)

The binomialexpansion
may beusedagain.By omitting
the amplitudefactor --hCoVo/(Zc+Z1), the first term
is 1/p(p+a), wherea= - hCo/(Zeq-Z1).The inverse
transformis { 1--exp(--at)}/a. This is zeroat t=0 and
if at is small,thefunctionis approximately
{ 1- (1--at)}
/a= t. From previous calculations,hCo/(Zc+Zx)
___2X104
sec-1, so the function increasesvery nearly
linearly up to t=2X/v if 2X/v< (2X 104)-1. The rate
of riseis -- hCoVo/(Zc+Z1).
The secondterm in the expansionis -(1-Pr0)
/(p+a) , for whichthe inversetransformis -(l+r0)t
American Institute of PhysicsHandbook (McGraw-Hill Book
Company, Inc., New York, 1957).

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20:49:14

534

M.

REDWOOD

Xexp(--at). This is approximately

-- (l+r0)t, whileat

the y axisin Fig. 7 liesparallelto the crystallographic

"X axis."All dimensions
arenowfinite,but an approxiSometypicalrespons
functions
are illustratedin mate plane wave is still possiblein the "Young's

is small.

Fig. 6, in which it is assumedthat the time constants

may be neglected.As it has been assumedthat the

modulus"

mode.

If the materialis nonpiezoelectric,

Eq. (3) still holds,
transducer
is rigidlybacked,no changes
take placeat but with v-(E/p), as pointedout in Sec.2.1. For a
t-X/v, thoughfor anythingotherthanrigidbacking piezoelectric
materialthe conditions
usedfor the plate,
somechangemustbe expectedthere (cf. Fig. 5). The OD/Oy=OD/Oz--O,
nolongerholdsincey andz dimenresponsemay once again be interpreted in terms of sions are finite. An alternative relation is found from
the fact that since the x-z surfaces are covered with
reflections;
if a is ignoredaltogether,the seriesis
conducting
electrodes,
OE/Ox=O.Equation(6) isdiffer{-hCoVo/?(Zc+Z)}{ 1- (l+r0) exp(-2pX/v)
entiatedwith respectto x, andD eliminated
fromEq.
+r0(l+r0) exp(-4pX/v)...}.
(59) (9), givingthe waveequation(021l/Ot2)=v2(Oll/Ox)
as
beforebut with v2= (c--M)/p.
With a materialmatchedto the transducer
(r0-0),
The relation between electrical and mechanical
this seriesimpliesthat no reflectionsoccurat the interquantitiesis developed
by writingZc=pvYZ, F= TYZ,
facebetweentransducer
andmaterial.In fact, the exact
and V=E, eliminatingD from Eqs. (5) and (6), and
solution,Eq. (58), predictsreflections,thoughthese usingthe equationfor v above.This gives (O/Ox)
are small for the numerical

values used here. Each

problemrequiresseparateexamination,however.
5. PIEZOELECTRIC

=(F+rkV)/vZc,

where rk=hZ=hCoY/X, since Co

= XZ/Y.

Use of Eq. (12) as a solutionto the waveequation

BAR

produces

It is necessary
to studythe piezoelectric
bar separately sinceits equationsare not the sameas thoseof
the plate.
5.1 Equations of the Piezoelectric Bar

The bar is illustratedin Fig. 7. It may be usedto

detector generatewavestravelingin the x directionif

F+rhV=pZc{-A

exp(--px/v)
+B exp(+px/v)},

(60)

whichshouldbe compared
with Eq. (15).
Integrationof Eq. (6) from x=0 to x=X gives

=-(rk/Co){ ()x-()o}+O/Co,

(61)

whichshouldbe compared
with Eq. (16).
The procedure followed in Sec. 2.6 leads to the

(o

equivalentcircuitof the bar shownin Fig. 7. The very

importantdifference
liesin the absence
of the negative
capacitorwhichis so essentiala featureof the plate.
This meansthat, whenon opencircuit,the transducer
appearsto an appliedmechanicalsignalnot solelyas a
length of transmission
line, as in the plate, but as a
lengthof line in serieswith a capacitor.This causesa
phasechangeon reflectionof other than 0 or 180,

whichcomplicates
problems.
The exactanalysesfollow the methodsoutlinedin the
next two sections.

5.2 Electric Response of the Piezoelectric Bar

(d)

X/v

2X/v

3X/v

Assumea rigidly backedbar on opencircuitwith an

appliedstep functionof force. Equations(24), (25),
and (28)-(31) stillhold,but Eq. (26) mustbe replaced
by Eq. (60) andEq. (27) by Eq. (61).
This givesthe followingequations'

4X/v

Fro. 6. Displacement
of onesurfaceof a rigidlybackedplate
transducercausedby a voltage step function (time constants
neglected).(a) Zz= Zc, r0=0 (matched);(b) Zz>>Zc,ro'- q-1;

(c)Zz= Zc/2, r0= q-; (d) Zz= 2Zc,ro= -. Displacement

ampli-

tudesare not to the samescalein (a)-(d), the amplitudebeing

proportionalto 1/(Zcq-ZO of the valueshown[i.e., (b) is very

pZc(--A +B)--rkV=pZ(--A

+B)

()x=A exp(--pX/v)+B exp(+pX/v)=O

A+B=A+B

A x= -- Fi/?Z

small comparedwith (a).

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PERFORMANCE

OF

A PIEZOELECTRIC

TRANSDUCER

535

from which

{- 2F,k/Co(Zc+Z1)
} { 1-- exp(- 2pX/v)}

(62)

{pq-Pck/Co(Zcq-Z1)
} q-{pro-pek"/Co(Zcq-Z1)
} exp(- 2pX/v)
Equation (62) may be expandedin the mannerof Eq. These give
(51); the term applicablefor t<2X/v is of the type
1/p(p-+-a), with inversetransform{1--exp(-at)}/a,
X { 1- exp(- 2pX/v)} { 1+r0 exp(- 2pX/v) }-1
wherea=ck/Co(Zcq-Z1)=hCoY/X(Zc-I-Z1)(cf. Sees.
= - {rkVo/p(Zc+Z1)}{ 1- (1+r0) exp(- 2pX/v)
3.2 and 4). If at is small,the response
is linear as has
beendiscussed
previously.
q-r0(lq-r0)exp(-4pX/v)...}.
(63)
The interestingdifferencebetweenthe transientresponses
of the open-circuitbar and plate is that no time No time constantsare involved, unlike the analogous
constantappearsin the resultsfor the plate, whilea time problemin the plate. Apart from the differencein the
functionstake the forms
constantdoesappearin the responseof the bar. If the amplitudeconstant,response
illustrated
in
Fig.
6.
time constantmay be neglected,the electricalresponses
of both systemsare very similar.
6. DISCUSSION

5.3 Mechanical Response of the

Piezoelectric

It is possibleto obtaina considerable

amount of informationaboutthe transientresponse
of a piezoelectric

Bar

A rigidly backedtransduceris assumed,to which a

voltagestepis applied.The equationsare
Bi=A+B

pZ1Bi=pZc(--A +B)--ckV

A exp(--pX/v)+B exp(+pX/v)=O

?=

transducer

without

recourse to the strict theoretical

formulationsdevelopedhere.The procedurein a general

problemmight be (i) calculationof the time constants
involvedto find out if their effectsmay be neglected,
and if they may be neglected,(ii) calculationof reflection coefficientsat both interfaces,(iii) calculationof
time delays, (iv) constructionof a seriessuchas that
of Eq. (44) by usingthe known physicalfacts about
individual reflections,and (v) constructionof the responsefunctionusingthe series.This proceduremay
be usedfor problemsboth of mechanicaland electrical
response.

(,t) o

C)

The estimationof time constantsmay be simplified

if it is realizedthat up to a time, t= X/v, they are the
time constantsof certainequivalentelectricalnetworks.
Thesenetworksare shownin Fig. 8, and their useis not
limited solely to the calculation of time constants,
sincethey also give the completeand exact response
functionup to t=X/v. For example,Fig. 8(c) shows
the networkfor the bar with appliedmechanicalsignal;
the time constantis ck/Co(Zc-I-Z1)if R is infinite, while

the transform
of the voltag_e
V is -2Fck/Co(Zc+ZO

(b)

<

C)

zv x

I/qt

(c)

Fro. 7. Exact equivalentcircuitof a piezoelectric

bar for compressional
plane waves.

X{p+ck/Co(Zc+Z1)}. If F=Fi/p (step function of

force),this is identicalwith Eq. (62), for t<X/v. The
appliedforce is written 2F in the networkssinceif Z c
wereinfinite,the wavetravelingfrom material 1 would
be reflectedat the interfacewith no changeof phaseor
amplitude,i.e., the total force at the interfacewould
be 2F.

Networks (a), (b), and (d) alsoproducevery simply

the first terms of Eqs. (51), (58), and (63), and the
correcttime constantsfor thoseequations.
Apart from their applicationto the estimationof time
constants,therefore, an important use of these networksmight be the calculationof the initial responseof
transducersloadedwith a generalelectricalimpedance
(i.e., one with reactive and resistivecomponents)or
with a generalmechanicalimpedance;also of trans-

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536

M.

REDWOOD

()

hCoV
ZI
(c)

Zc

F'

problemsinvolvingramp functions,rectangularpulses,
or pulse-modulated
sinusoidalwaves,sincethe transform of the appliedfunction appearsas a factor by
whichthe expandedtime seriesis multiplied.
Absorption of mechanical waves due to internal
friction in the transducerhas beenneglected,and will
have a negligibleeffect in a low-lossmaterial such as
quartz; in polarizedceramics,however,it might have
a substantialeffecton responsefunctions.It couldbe
includedin the equationsby assuminga line with loss,
but p would then be complexand the inversetransformsdifficult to manipulate.It might alsobe treated
by allowingZc to be complexin Fig. 8.
Two assumptions
made here are of practical importanceandmustbe examinedcarefullyfor any particular
problem. The first is the assumptionof plane waves.
Propagationin any mechanicalsystemwith boundaries
is a complexphenomenon,
1and if the dimensions
of the
plate transducerin a directionperpendicularto the
directionof propagationare comparablewith the distanceof propagation(includingsuccessive
reflections),
the plane wave assumptionmay break down, particularly if pulse-modulatedsinusoidalwaves are being
dealt with.

(d)

Fro. 8. Equivalent circuits for calculation of transient response

at timeslessthan X/v. (a) Plate, appliedmechanicalsignal; (b)

plate, appliedelectricalsignal; (c) bar, appliedmechanicalsignal;
(d) bar, appliedelectricalsignal.

ducersfed with a voltagefrom an electricalgeneratorof

finite impedance.They obviouslyprovidemuchsimpler
equationsthan the exactmethodsinvolvinga complete
time seriesexpansion,though for times greater than
X/v, when reflection coefficientsmust be introduced,
they are not as valuableas the seriesexpansion,except
in relativelysimplesystemssuchas the rigidlybacked
transducer.

This analysishas beenperformedfor the step function, but it may be extendedwithout difficulty to

The Young'smodulusmode in the bar permits the

propagationof a wavewhichis nearlyplanar,but even
this suffersdistortion as it progresses.
Again, if the
functionappliedconsistsof pulse-modulated
sinusoidal
waves of wavelength comparablewith the dimensions
of the bar perpendicular
to the directionof propagation,
someother mode may be excited.Each problem requirescarefulexamination.
The second assumptionconcernsthe equivalent
circuits.It is not yet known over what rangeof transducerdimensions
the equivalentcircuitsof Figs.2 and 7
are valid. Clearly sometransducerswill behaveneither
like a bar nor a plate, but like some intermediate
system,and it is difficult to say what happensto the
importantnegativecapacitanceof the plate underthese
circumstances.
There is clearly scopefor experimental
research here.

L. Filipczynski, Proc. II Conf. Ultrasonics, 1956, Polish

Academyof Sciences,pp. 29-35.
n M. Redwood,MechanicalWaveguides(PergamonPress,New
York, 1960).

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