1.

Spatial intelligence (picture smart) udin

2. Body kinaesthetic intelligence (body smart) udin
3. Musical intelligence (music smart) udin
4. Interpersonal intelligence (people smart) udin
Visual / Spatial ("Picture smart"):

Sifat: Mereka yang mempunyai kecerdasan ini dikatan memerlukan visual bagi membina
kefahaman mereka. Pembelajaran yang paling berkesan ialah dengan menggunakan gambar dan
imej. Mereka akan menukarkan apa yang dibaca dan didengar kepada bentuk gambaran mental.
Kebiasaannya cemerlang dalam pembelajaran bilik darjah.

Aplikasi dalam pengajaran & pembelajaran secara hubungan: Gambar

Kerjaya: Pelukis, Pengukir, Arkitek.

Contoh: Leonardo Da Vinci, Hijjaz Kasturi

Interpersonal ("people smart"):

Sifat: Gemar untuk berinteraksi dengan individu yang lain. Pembelajaran yang paling berkesan
ialah dengan aktivti berkumpulan.

Aplikasi dalam pengajaran & pembelajaran secara hubungan:Pengalaman sosial

Kerjaya: Ahli Politik, Peniaga, Pengacara, Usahawan

Contoh: Aznil Hj. Nawawi

Muzik ("Music smart"):

Sifat: Sensitif terhadap irama dan bunyi. Mereka boleh belajar dengan menggunakan muzik.

Aplikasi dalam pengajaran & pembelajaran secara hubungan: Muzik

Kerjaya: Komposer, Penyanyi

Contoh: Ajai, P. Ramlee, Siti Nurhaliza

Bodily / Kinesthetic ("Body smart"):

Sifat: Gemar pergerakan aktif dalam pembelajaran. Mempunyai kemahiran berkomunikasi melalui
pergerakan badan dan aktiviti fizikal. Cemerlang dalam aktiviti 'hands-on'. Kadang-kadang mereka
didapati sukar untuk memberikan tumpuan dan fokus.

Aplikasi dalam pengajaran & pembelajaran secara hubungan: Pengalaman fizikal

Kerjaya: Atlit sukan, pemain bola sepak, peninju, penari, pelakon, tentera, polis.

Contoh: Nicol David, Jackie Chan, Rosyam Noor.

Spatial individu yang memiliki kepintaran ini berkebolehan melihat persekitaraan dalam tiga dimensi yang
menilairuang daripada perspektif perhubungan elemen-elemen dalam persekitaraan. Kepintaran ini
memberi kelebihan kepada pemiliknya untuk membaca, mentafsir dan menghasil peta,carta, pelan dan
lukisan serta mempunyai daya arah yang baik. Kepintaran ini diwakili oleh pelukis Pablo Picasso.

Kepintaran Kinestitik- kepintaran ini dimiliki oleh individu-individu yang telah menguasai pergerakan motor
badan sehingga mampu membawanya ke satu tahap yang membolehkannya mahir dalam bidang-bisdang
seperti sukan padang, gimnistik, renang dan aktiviti fizikal yang lainnya. Gardner telah memlilh Martha
Graham, seseorang penari untuk mewakili kepintaran ini. Mereka yang mempunyai kepintaran ini biasanya
suka kepada pekerjaaan atau usaha yang melibatakan manipulasi objek dan pergerakan.
Kepintaran interpersonal, kepintaran ini diwakili oleh Mahatma Gandhi, yang dikatakan memiliki kelebihan
dalam berkomunikasi dengan manusia daripada pelbagai etnik dan agama untuk mencapai sesuatu
kebaikan kepada semua, indibvidu seperti ini mempunyai keupayaan memahami dan mampu
membezakan perasaan dan tujuan orang serta boleh berinteraksi dan memberi arah tuju.
Kepintaarn ini memberi kebolehan kepada seseorang untuk memahami mengintepretasikan, melahir serta
membentuk dan memanipulasikan bunti-bunyian secara kreatif. Individu yang mewakili kepintaran ini ialah
Igor Stranvinsky, seseorang pemuzik. Mereka yang mempunyai kepintaran ini sangat sensitif kepada
prinsip-prinsip melodi, rentak dan kualiti tone dalam seni muzik.
Barikut adalah bagaimana teori kecerdasan pelbagai boleh di aplikasikan dalam situasi pengajaran dan
pembelajaran secara hubungan berikut
1.

Perktaan (Linguistic Intelligence)

2.

Nombor atau Logik (logical-mathematical intelligence)

3.

Gambar (Spatial Intelligence)

4.

Muzik (Musical Intelligence)

5.

Refleksi Kendiri (Intrapersonal Intelligence)

6.

Pengalaman Fizikal (Bodily-Kinesthetic intelligence)

7.

Pengalaman Sosial (Interpersonal intelligence)

8.

Pengalaman dengan semulajadi (Naturalist intelligent)

Kecerdasan fizikal kinestatik

Berkaitan dengan pergerakan dan kemahiran fizikal seperti kordinasi, keseimbangan dan kelenturan
badan, mengunakkan anggota badan untuk merluahkan idea dan perasaan. Contoh aktivit: Tarian kreatif,
drama, main peranan, aktiviti jasmine, latihan fizikal, pemain sukan dan seni pertahanan diri.
Kerjaya: Atlit sukan, pemain bola sepak, peninju, penari, pelakon, tentera, polis.

Contoh: Nicole David, Michael Jordan, David Beckham, Shazlin Zulkifli, Muhammad Ali,ShahRukh Khan,
Rosyam Noor, Jackie Chan
Kecerdasan Visual Spatial
Kebolehan mencipta gambaran mental dan mengamati dunia visual. Berkepekaan terhadap warna, garis,
rentuk dan ruang. Berkobelehan menvisual secara spatial dan mengorientasi diri dalam matriks ruang.
Contoh aktiviti: melukis, mengecat skema warna, garis rentuk dan ruang, mencipta gambaran mental,
imaginasi aktif, peta minda, menvisual secara spatial dan mengorientasi diri dalam matriks ruang.
Kerjaya: pel;ukis, pengukir arkitek
Contoh : Hijjaz Kasturi, Minoru Yamasaki, Alexander Thompson Alexander, Pblo Picasso, Leonardo da
Vincci
Kecerdasan muzikal ritma
Kemampuan untuk menggemari, mendiskriminasi dan meluahkan perasaan melalui muzik, kecederungan
ini termasuk kepekan terhadap ritma, melodi atau kelangsingansuatu hasil muzik.
Contoh aktiviti: penyanyi, penggubah lagu, pemain muzik
Contoh : adnan abu Hassan , Ajai, M Nasir, Yasin, Kitaro, Beethoven, Mozart, P Ramlee, Siti Nurhaliza,
Misha Omar
Kecerdasan interpersonal
Kemampuan untuk mendiskriminasi antara pelbagai petanda, interpersonal dan kebolehan untuk
berkomunikasi dengan berkesan secara pragmatic terhadap petanda tersebut.
Contoh aktiviti: komunikasi antara individu, latihan empati, latihan kolaboratif, memberi mklum balas,
strategi pembelajaraan kooperatif dan sedia bekerja sama
Kerjaya: ahli politik, peniaga, pengacara ushawan
Contoh: Donald Trump, David Letterman, Aznil Hj Nawawi
Kecerdasan musical memuat kemampuan seseorang untuk peka terhadap suara-suara non verbal yang
berada sekelilingnya. Termasuk dalam hal ini adalah nada dan irama, anak-anak jenis ini cenderung
senang sekali mendengarkan nada dan irama yang indah, apakah itu melalui senandung yang
dilagukannya sendiri, mendengarkan kaset/radio, pertunjukan orchestra atau alat muzik yang
dimainkannya sendiri. Mereka juga lebih mudah mengigat sesuatu dan mengekspresikan gagagsan
apabila dikaitkan dengan music.
Kecerdesan visual spasial. Memuat kemampuan seseorang untuk memhami secara lebih mendalam
hubungan anatara objek dan ruang. Anak-anak ini memilki kemampuan seseorang untuk memhami secara
lebih mendalam hubungan anatara objek dan ruang. Anak-anak ini memiliki kemampuan seseorang untuk

memahami secara lebih mendalam hubungan anatara objek dan ruang. Anak-anak ini memiliki
kemampuan misalnya untuk menciptakan imi9ginasi bentuk dalam pikirannya, atau kemampuan untuk
menciptakan bentuk-bentuk tiga dimensi seperti dijumpai pada orang dewasa yang menjadi pemahat
patung atau artistek suatu bangunan. Kemampuan membayangkan suatu bentuk nyata dan kemudian
memecahkan berbagai masalah sehubungan dengan kemampuan ini adalah hal yang menonjol pada jenis
kecerdasan/visual-spasial ini. Anak-anak demikian akan unggul dalam permaianan mencari jejak pada
suatu kegiaatan di kepramukan misalnya.
Kecerdesan kinestetik memuat kemampuan seseorang untuk secara aktif menggunakan bagian-bagian
atau seluruh tubuhnya untuk berkomunikasi dan memecahkan berbagai masalah. Hal ini dapat di jumpai
pada anak-anak yang unggul pada salah satu cabang olahraga seprti misalnya bulu tangkis, sepak bola,
tenis, berenang, dan sebagainya atau bias pula tampil pada anak-anak yang pandai menari, trampil
bermain acrobat atau unggul dalam bermain sualap.
Kecerdaasan interpersonal menunjukkan kemampuan seseorang untuk peka terhadap perasaan orang
lain, mereka cederung untuk memahami dan berinteraksi dengan orang lain, sehingga mudah dalam
bersosialisasi dengan lingkungan disekelilingnya. Kecerdasan semacam ini juga sering disebut sebagai
kecerdasan sosial, di mana se3lainseorang anak mampu menjallin persahabatan akhrab dengan temantemannya juga tyermasuk kemamapuan seperti memimpin, mengorganisasi, menangani perselisihan
anatara teman, memperoleh simpati dari anak-anak yang lain dan sebagainya.
Howard gardner (1983) frame of mind
Howard Gardner, a Harvard University professor and author of Frames of Mind
Article Source: http://EzineArticles.com/2049859

References
(back to outline)

Gardner, H. (1999a). Intelligence reframed: Multiple intelligences for the 21st

century. New York: Basic Books.
Gardner, H. (1999b, February). Who owns intelligence? Atlantic Monthly, 67-76.
Gardner, H. (1998). Are there additional intelligences? The case for naturalist,
spiritual, and existential intelligences. In J. Kane (Ed.), Education, information,
and transformation (pp. 111-131). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Merrill-Prentice Hall.
Gardner, H. (1995). Reflections on multiple intelligences. Phi Delta Kappan, 77(3),
200-208.
Gardner, H. (1993). Multiple intelligences: The theory in practice. New York:
Basic Books.
Gardner, H. (1983). Frames of mind: The theory of multiple intelligences. New
York: Basic Books.

Morgan, H. (1996). An analysis of Gardner's theory of multiple intelligence.

Roeper Review 18, 263-270.
Plucker, J., Callahan, C. M., & Tomchin, E. M. (1996). Wherefore art thou,
multiple intelligences? Alternative assessments for identifying talent in ethnically
diverse and economically disadvantaged students. Gifted Child Quarterly, 40, 8192.
Sternberg, R. J. (1991). Death, taxes and bad intelligence tests. Intelligence, 15,
257-269.
http://www.pz.harvard.edu/PIs/HG.htm (2000). Biographical data on Howard
Gardner, Principle Investigators, Project Zero Website.
http://www.nea.org/neatoday/9903/meet.html (1999). NEA Today Online, Meet
Howard Gardner: All kinds of smarts.
Prepared and submitted for the intelligence website by Lynn Gilman, M.S.

Development of MI Theory
(back to outline)

After years of research, Howard Gardner proposed a new theory and definition
of intelligence in his 1983 book entitled Frames of Mind: The Theory of Multiple
Intelligences. The basic question he sought to answer was: Is intelligence a single
thing or various independent intellectual faculties? Gardner is Professor of
Cognition and Education at the Harvard Graduate School of Education. He also
holds an adjunct faculty post in psychology at Harvard and in neurology at Boston
University School of Medicine. He is best known for his work in the area of
Multiple Intelligences, which has been a career-long pursuit to understand and
describe the construct of intelligence (Gardner, 1999a; Project Zero Website,
2000).
Gardner describes his work with two distinct populations as the inspiration for his
theory of Multiple Intelligences. Early in his career, he began studying stroke
victims suffering from aphasia at the Boston University Aphasia Research Center
and working with children at Harvard's Project Zero, a laboratory designed to study
the cognitive development of children and its associated educational implications
(Gardner, 1999a). In Intelligence Reframed, Gardner states,
Both of the populations I was working with were clueing me into the same
message: that the human mind is better thought of as a series of relatively separate
faculties, with only loose and nonpredictable relations with one another, than as a

single, all-purpose machine that performs steadily at a certain horsepower,

independent of content and context. (p.32)
Gardner concluded from his work with these two populations that strength in one
area of performance did not reliably predict comparable strength in another area.
With this intuitive conclusion in mind, Gardner set about studying intelligence in a
systematic, multi-disciplinary, and scientific manner, drawing from psychology,
biology, neurology, sociology, anthropology, and the arts and humanities. This
resulted in the emergence of his Theory of Multiple Intelligences (MI Theory) as
presented in Frames of Mind (1983). Since the publication of that work, Gardner
and others have continued to research the theory and its implications for education
in general, curriculum development, teaching, and assessment. For the purposes of
this Hot Topic, the focus will be on a description of the theory, major criticisms,
and the implications for assessment.

Definition of MI Theory
(back to outline)

According to Gardner (1999a), intelligence is much more than IQ because a

high IQ in the absence of productivity does not equate to intelligence. In his
definition, "Intelligence is a biopsychological potential to process information that
can be activated in a cultural setting to solve problems or create products that are
of value in a culture" (p.34). Consequently, instead of intelligence being a single
entity described psychometrically with an IQ score, Gardner's definition views it as
many things. He endeavored to define intelligence in a much broader way than
psychometricians. To achieve this goal Gardner (1983; 1999a) established several
criteria for defining intelligence. In identifying capabilities to be considered for one
of the "multiple intelligences" the construct under consideration had to meet
several criteria rather than resting on the results of a narrow psychometric
approach.
To qualify as an "intelligence" the particular capacity under study was considered
from multiple perspectives consisting of eight specific criteria drawn from the
biological sciences, logical analysis, developmental psychology, experimental
psychology, and psychometrics. The criteria to consider "candidate intelligences"
(Gardner, 1999a, p. 36) are:
1) the potential for brain isolation by brain damage,
2) its place in evolutionary history,
3) the presence of core operations,
4) susceptibility to encoding,
5) a distinct developmental progression,
6) the existence of idiot-savants, prodigies and other exceptional people,
7) support from experimental psychology, and
8) support from psychometric findings (Gardner, 1999a).

To illustrate the specifics of these criteria, a brief description and example of each
is provided.
The potential for brain isolation by brain damage means that one "candidate
intelligence" (Gardner 1999a, p.36) can be dissociated from others. This criterion
came from Gardner's work in neuropsychology. For example, stroke patients who
are left with some forms of "intelligence" intact despite damage to other cognitive
abilities such as speech. From an evolutionary perspective, the candidate
intelligence has to have played a role in the development of our species and its
ability to cope with the environment. In this case, Gardner (1999a) uses inference
to conclude that spatial abilities were critical to the survival of our species. Early
hominids had to be able to navigate diverse terrains using spatial abilities. The
pressure of the environment then resulted in selection for this ability. Both of these
criteria emerged from the biological sciences.
From the perspective of logical analysis, an intelligence must have an identifiable
core set of operations. Acknowledging the fact that specific intelligences operate in
the context of the environment, Gardner (1999a) argues that it is crucial to specify
the capacities that are central to the intelligence under consideration. For example,
linguistic intelligence consists of core operations such as recognition and
discrimination of phonemes, command of syntax and acquisition of word
meanings. In the area of musical intelligence, the core operations are pitch, rhythm,
timbre, and harmony. Another criteria related to logical analysis states that an
intelligence must be susceptible to encoding in a symbol system. According to
Gardner, (1999a) symbol systems are developed versus occurring naturally, and
their purpose is to accurately and systematically convey information that is
culturally meaningful. Some examples of encoding include written and spoken
language, mathematical systems, logical equations, maps, charts and drawings.
Gardner (1999a) established two criteria from developmental psychology. The first
is the presence of a developmental trajectory for the particular ability toward an
expert end-state. In other words, individuals do not necessarily exhibit their
"intelligence" in its raw state. Rather, they prepare to use their intelligence by
passing through a developmental process. Thus, people who want to be
mathematicians or physicists, spend years studying and honing their
logical/mathematical abilities in a distinctive and socially relevant way. The second
criteria borrowed from the discipline of developmental psychology, is the existence
of idiot-savants, prodigies and exceptional people. Gardner (1999a) refers to these
as accidents of nature that allow researchers to observe the nature of a particular
intelligence in great contrast to other average or impaired abilities. One example of
this type of highlighted intelligence is the autistic person who excels at numerical
calculations or musical performance.
Finally, Gardner (1999a) draws his last two criteria from traditional psychology
and psychometrics to determine if a candidate intelligence makes it onto the list of

specific abilities he calls Multiple Intelligences. There must be support from

experimental psychology that indicates the extent to which two operations are
related or different. Observing subjects who are asked to carry out two activities
simultaneously can help determine if those activities rely on the same mental
capacities or different ones. For example, a person engaged in working a crossword
puzzle is unlikely to be able to carry on a conversation effectively, because both
tasks demand the attention of linguistic intelligence, which creates interference.
Whereas, the absence of this sort of competition allows a person to be able to walk
and converse at the same time suggesting that two different intelligences are
engaged. In spite of the fact that Gardner proposed his theory in opposition to
psychometrics, he recognizes the importance of acknowledging psychometric data
(1999a).
From the preceding eight criteria, Gardner (1983; 1999a) proposed and defined
seven intelligences. Logical-mathematical intelligence is the ability to detect
patterns, think logically, reason deductively and carry out mathematical operations.
Linguistic intelligence involves the mastery of spoken and written language to
express oneself or remember things. These first two forms of intelligence are
typically the abilities that contribute to strong performance in traditional school
environments and to producing high scores on most IQ measures or tests of
achievement. Spatial intelligence involves the potential for recognizing and
manipulating the patterns of both wide spaces such as those negotiated by pilots or
navigators, and confined spaces such as those encountered by sculptors, architects
or championship chess players. Musical intelligence consists of the capacity to
recognize and compose musical pitches, tones, rhythms, and patterns and to use
them for performance or composition. Bodily-Kinesthetic intelligence involves the
use of parts of the body or the whole body to solve problems or create products.
Athletes, dancers, surgeons and craftspeople are likely to have highly developed
capacity in this area. The last two intelligences are the personal intelligences:
interpersonal and intrapersonal. Interpersonal intelligence indicates a person's
ability to recognize the intentions, feelings and motivations of others. People who
possess and develop this quality are likely to work well with others and may
choose fields like sales, teaching, counseling or politics in order to use them.
Intrapersonal intelligence is described as the ability to understand oneself and use
that information to regulate one's own life. According to Gardner each of these
seven "intelligences" has a specific set of abilities that can be observed and
measured (1999a, 1983). More recently, Gardner (1998) has nominated three
additional candidate intelligences: Naturalist, Spiritual and Existential intelligence
and evaluated them in the context of the eight criteria he established in his research
and outlined earlier in this paper. He defines a naturalist as a person "who
demonstrates expertise in recognition and classification of the numerous species the flora and fauna - of her or his environment." (1998, p. 115). Gardner is
comfortable with declaring that a Naturalist intelligence meets the criteria he set
forth, however he is less sure about how to define and incorporate Spiritual and
Existential intelligences.

"the monopoly of those who believe in a single general intelligence has come to
an end." (Gardner, 1999a, p.203)

Criticism of MI Theory
(back to outline)

When reviewing criticism of Multiple Intelligences theory, addressing the

historically ever-present question of whether intelligence is one thing or many
things is unavoidable. The fundamental criticism of MI theory is the belief by
scholars that each of the seven multiple intelligences is in fact a cognitive style
rather than a stand-alone construct (Morgan, 1996). Morgan, (1996) refers to
Gardner's approach of describing the nature of each intelligence with terms such as
abilities, sensitivities, skills and abilities as evidence of the fact that the "theory" is
really a matter of semantics rather than new thinking on multiple constructs of
intelligence and resembles earlier work by factor theorists of intelligence like L.L.
Thurstone who argued that a single factor (g) cannot explain the complexity of
human intellectual activity. According to Morgan (1996), identifying these various
abilities and developing a theory that supports the many factors of intelligence has
been a significant contribution to the field. Furthermore, he believes that MI theory
has proven beneficial to schools and teachers and it may help explain why students
do not perform well on standardized tests but it in Morgan's opinion it does not
warrant the complete rejection of g.
Gardner (1995) admittedly avoided addressing criticism of his theory for nearly a
decade after the publication of Frames of Mind. However, in a 1995 article that
appeared in Phi Delta Kappan he responds to several "myths" about the Theory of
Multiple Intelligences. These myths provide a summary of the major commentary
on and criticism of Gardner's theory. The first myth is that if there are seven
intelligences we must be able to measure them with seven specific tests. Gardner is
vocal about his disdain for a singularly psychometric approach to measuring
intelligence based on paper and pencil tests. Secondly, he responds to the belief
that an intelligence is the same as a domain or a discipline. Gardner reiterates his
definition of an intelligence and distinguishes it from a domain which he describes
as a culturally relevant, organized set of activities characterized by a symbol
system and a set of operations. For example, dance performance is a domain that
relies on the use of bodily-kinesthetic and musical intelligence (Gardner, 1995).
Other criticisms include the notion that MI theory is not empirical, is incompatible
with g, heritability, and environmental influences, and broadens the construct of
intelligence so widely as to render it meaningless. Gardner (1995) staunchly

defends the empiricism of the theory by referring to the numerous laboratory and
field data that contributed to its development and the ongoing re-conceptualization
of the theory based on new scientific data. Regarding the claim that Multiple
Intelligences theory cannot accommodate g, Gardner argues that g has a scientific
place in intelligence theory but that he is interested in understanding intellectual
processes that are not explained by g. In response to the criticism that MI theory is
incompatible with genetic or environmental accounts of the nature of intelligence,
Gardner states that his theory is most concerned with the interaction between
genetics and the environment in understanding intelligence. Finally, the notion that
MI theory has expanded the definition of intelligence beyond utility produces a
strong reaction from Gardner. He argues passionately that the narrow definition of
intelligence as equal to scholastic performance is simply too constrictive. In his
view, MI theory is about the intellectual and cognitive aspects of the human mind.
Gardner is careful to point out that MI theory is not a theory of personality,
morality, motivation, or any other psychological construct (1995, 1999a, 1999b).

Implications for Assessment

(back to outline)

The two most widely used standardized tests of intelligence are the Wechsler scales
and the Stanford-Binet. Both instruments are psychometrically sound, but Gardner
believes that these tests measure only linguistic and logical/mathematical
intelligences, with a narrow focus within content in those domains. According to
Gardner, the current psychometric approach for measuring intelligence is not
sufficient. In his view, assessment must cast a wider net to measure human
cognitive abilities more accurately. Gardner (1993) proposes several improvements
for the development of intelligence measures. Before enumerating those
improvements, it is important to understand how Gardner defines assessment. In
his view, the purpose of assessment should be to obtain information about the skills
and potentials of individuals, and provide useful feedback to the individuals and
the community at large. Furthermore, Gardner (1993) draws a distinction between
testing and assessment. Assessment elicits information about an individual's
abilities in the context of actual performance rather than by proxy using formal
instruments in a de-contextualized setting.
Gardner argues for making assessment a natural part of the learning environment.
Assessment is then built into the learning situation much like the constant
assessment of skills that occurs in apprenticeship or the self-assessment that occurs
in experts who have internalized a standard of performance based on the earlier
guidance of teachers. The ecological validity of assessment is also at issue
according to Gardner (1993). Predictive validity of traditional intelligence tests
may be psychometrically sound, but its usefulness beyond predicting school
performance is questionable. Therefore, prediction could be improved if

assessments more closely approximated real working conditions. Instruments for

measuring intelligence should also be "intelligence-fair" (1993, p.176).
Consequently, we need to reduce the bias toward measuring intelligence through
logical/mathematical and linguistic abilities and move toward looking more
directly at a specific intelligence in operation (e.g., assessing for spatial
intelligence by having an individual navigate his or her way around unfamiliar
territory). Gardner acknowledges that this approach to assessment may be difficult
to implement.
Gardner (1993) emphasizes two additional points about assessment that are critical.
The first is that the assessment of intelligence should encompass multiple
measures. Relying on a single IQ score from a WISC-III (Wechsler Intelligence
Scale for Children) without substantiating the findings through other data sources
does the individual examinee a disservice and produces insufficient information for
those who provide interventions. Secondly, all assessments and resulting
interventions must be sensitive to individual differences and developmental levels.
Finally, Gardner is in favor of assessment for the primary purpose of helping
students rather than classifying or ranking them.
While these views about assessment are intuitively sensible, Sternberg (1991)
argues that the naturalistic approach is a "psychometric nightmare" (p. 266).
Quantifying performance on these sorts of assessments is difficult, objectivity is
questionable, and cultural bias is still a problem. Hard data is the scientific "gold
standard" and psychometric soundness is a prerequisite. Therefore, Sternberg
(1991) hesitates endorsing this approach to assessment on the basis that we would
simply be replacing one flawed system of measurement with an approach that is
equally problematic. Recent research on MI Theory-based assessments provides
evidence in support of Sternberg's concern about psychometric quality (e.g.,
Plucker, Callahan, & Tomchin, 1996).

Future Research Directions

(back to outline)

The future research agenda for MI Theory and intelligence is likely to encompass a
multidisciplinary approach. While intelligence is usually researched through the
lens of psychology, future discoveries are likely to come from the cross-pollination
of ideas in neuroscience, cellular biology, genetics, and anthropology to name a
few (1999a). Gardner (1999a) also favors gathering ethnographic data and crosscultural information to see intelligence in action and in context. The use of
information processing techniques and computer simulations is another relevant
approach for gaining new insight into human intellectual capacities. At this point in

history, the study of intelligence has moved well beyond the realm of
psychometrics. As Gardner (1999a) writes, "The theory of multiple intelligences
has helped break the psychometricians century long stranglehold on the subject of
intelligence." (p. 203)

Contoh Nota kaki Yang betul

George Mc T. Kahin, Nationalism and Revolution in Indonesia, New York: Cornell University Press, 1952,
m.s. 100-103.

John Bastin dan Robin W. Winkins (penyusun), Malaysia: Selected Historical Readings, Kuala Lumpur:
Oxford University Press, 1966, m.s. 121.

Ibid, m.s 125. (Ibid ialah kependekan daripada ibidem bererti pada tempat yang sama dengan catatan
yang mendahulinya langsung tanpa diseling oleh sumber lain)

Op. cit, George Mc T. Kahnin, m.s. 108. (Keterangan Op. cit adalah singkatan daripada opera citaro
bererti dalam karangan yang telah dicatat sebelumnya dengan lengkap pada muka surat lain, dan sudah
diselangi oleh sumber lain tetapi jika anda membuat nota kaki dengan merujuk kepada beberapa karya
oleh pengarang yang sama maka perlu juga ditulis tajuk karangan.)

Zainal Abidin Wahid, Malaysia, South-east Asia and World Politics, dalam wang Gangwu (ed.) Malaysia: A
Survey, New York, Frederick A. Prager, 1969, m.s. 298.